2 0 - A - K - R A M A M U J A M A S T R A N S L A T O R

T r a n s l a t i o n is one of t h e most e s s e n t i a l l a b o u r s i n

any l i t e r a t u r e a s it paves t h e way f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l

i n f l u e n c e s , i n t r o d u c e s new genres found i n o t h e r languages,

widens t h e c a p a c i t y f o r meaning and e x p r e s s i o n of t h e

t a r g e t language, p rov ides a c u r r e n t of new i d e a s , and

promotes a p roper unders tand ing among v a r i o u s p e o p l e s of

the world by t h e e s s e n t i a l oneness of mankind. I n t h e

Indian c o n t e x t , i ts s e r v i c e s become a l l t h e more v a l u a b l e

because we have g o t a t l e a s t t e n o r f i f t e e n major

l i t e r a t u r e s whose g r e a t works w i l l be confined t o narrow

l i n g u i s t i c a r e a s u n l e s s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h .

A s e a r l y a s 1964, Prof .V.K.Gokak under l ined t h e need

f o r t h e c r e a t i o n of a body of what he c a l l s Indo-English

w r i t i n g c o n s i s t i n g of s c h o l a r l y t r a n s l a t i o n s i n t o E n g l i s h

of c l a s s i c a l Ind ian l i t e r a r y works i n S a n s k r i t and o t h e r

r e g i o n a l languages. ' Using t h i s s u g g e s t i o n , S u j i t nukher jee

de f ined Indo-English l i t e r a t u r e a s . t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o E n g l i s h

from l i t e r a t u r e i n Ind ian languages, t h u s r e s e r v i n g t h e

o t h e r term Ind ian Wri t ing i n Engl i sh f o r t h e o r i g i n a l works

of Ind ian w r i t e r s i n ~ n g l i s h . ' Whatever may be t h e v a l i d i t y

of t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n and however u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t h e two

t e rms may b e , e v e r y I n d i a n would be t empted t o t h i n k t h a t

t h e g rowth of Indo-Eng l i sh l i t e r a t u r e is p o l i t i c a l l y ,

c u l t u r a l l y and l i n g u i s t i c a l l y more i m p o r t a n t t h a n even t h a t

of I n d i a n W r i t i n g i n E n g l i s h s i n c e o u r r e g i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e s

i n t h e i r a n c i e n t a s w e l l a s modern works can o f f e r t h e

c o u n t r y and t h e world muoh more t h a n o u r con tempora ry

I n d i a n w r i t e r s i n E n g l i s h can hope t o d o . Such a

r e a l i z a t i o n migh t have been one o f t h e main r e a s o n s f o r

Ramanujan 's i n t e r e s t i n t r a n s l a t i n g Tami l and Kannada works

i n t o E n g l i s h .

Another r e a s o n f o r h i s c h o i c e o f t h e t r a n s l a t o r ' s

m i s s i o n i s n o t ha rd t o f i n d . I n h i s own p o e t r y , a

p e r s i s t e n t conce rn w i t h h i s I n d i a n p a s t i n t h e form o f

e v o c a t i o n s of f a m i l i a l memories and t r i b u t e s t o t h e

a b s o r b i n g power of h i s t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e l a c e d w i t h

s a t i r e c o n s t i t u t e s a ma jo r theme. He is aware o f t h i s h o l d

h i s Hindu h e r i t a g e has o v e r h i s mind and h e a r t :

I must s e e k and w i l l f i n d HY p a r t i c u l a r h e l l i n my Hindu mind .3

H i s own I n d i a n l i t e r a t u r e s have s e r v e d a s a s o u r c e of

i n s p i r a t i o n and a r e p e r t o i r e o f t hemes and images : " E n g l i s h

and my d i s c i p l i n e s ( l i n g u i s t i c s , a n t h r o p o l o g y ) g i v e me my

" o u t e r " fo rms - l i n g u i s t i c , m e t r i c a l , l o g i c a l and o t h e r

such ways of s h a p i n g e x p e r i e n c e , and my f i r s t t h i r t y y e a r s

i n I n d i a , my f r e q u e n t v i s i t s and f i e l d t r i p s , my p e r s o n a l

and p r o f e s s i o n a l ~ r e o c c u ~ a t i o n s w i t h Kannada, Tamil and t h e

c l a s s i c s and F o l k l o r e g i v e me my s u b s t a n c e , my " i n n e r "

forms, images , symbo l s . M~

I t is h i s l ong s t a y ab road t h a t must have c r e a t e d

t h e u r g e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e v a l u e of h i s own t r a d i t i o n . A

f e l l o w Tami l , who is a l s o p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h h i s n a t i v e

c u l t u r e , R . P a r t h a s a r a t h y , spoke f o r b o t h of t h e n when he

s a i d , "The re is someth ing t o b e s a i d f o r e x i l e ; you l e a r n

r o o t s a r e deep" . ' I n P a r t h a s a r a t h y ' s c a s e , t h e e n c o u n t e r

w i t h t h e West is one of d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . As r e p o r t e d i n h i s

e s s a y "Whoring a f t e r E n g l i s h Gods" , he began h i s p o e t i c

c a r e e r w i t h u t t e r contempt f o r e v e r y t h i n g I n d i a n and l o v e

of England and E n g l i s h hoping t o make them h i s own, b u t a s

a r e s u l t of h i s s o j o u r n i n England a new awareness of

h imse l f and I n d i a dawned on him f o r c i n g him t o conc lude

t h a t h i s p ro longed and t empes tuous a f f a i r w i t h E n g l i s h was

o v e r . He even went t o t h e e x t e n t o f d e c l a r i n g : "I now

f i r m l y b e l i e v e t h a t I s h o u l d n o t w r i t e poems i n any o t h e r

l anguage b u t ~ a m i l " . ' Ramanujan, i n s t e a d of making s u c h

h e r o i c d e c l a r a t i o n s , q u i e t l y t o o k t o t h e t a s k of

t r a n s l a t i n g works of h i s own l a n g u a g e s i n t o E n g l i s h , which

i s , of c o u r s e , t h e n e x t b e s t t h i n g t o w r i t i n g poems i n o n e ' s

own mother t o n g u e .

I t is h e a r t e n i n g t o n o t e t h a t an i n n e r compul s ion

r a t h e r t h a n p e c u n i a r y o r c h a u v i n i s t i c o r academic

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r c e d him t o u n d e r t a k e t h i s t a s k :

I n 1978, i n t h e s u b z e r o sun of a Minneso ta w i n t e r , I r e a d and r e r e a d t h e TiruvZymoli w i t h c a r e , and t h e s e a n c i e n t poems came a l ive - fo r me.

His "Af te rword" t o Hymns f o r t h e Drowning, a s u c c i n c t

a n a l y s i s of t h e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s o f Bkakti p o e t r y i n Tami l

a s ev idenced i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f 'jiiv%-s and N ~ y a ~ m ~ r s w i t h

p r o f u s e q u o t a t i o n s from t h e Tami l and Western a u t h o r i t i e s

on t h i s p e r i o d b e a r s ample t e s t i m o n y t o h i s h a v i n g been

immersed i n t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l hymns he h a s t r a n s l a t e d . Bu t

f o r a g e n u i n e i n t e r e s t i n t h e s e s o n g s , he would n o t have

gone f o r e l u c i d a t i o n t o works l i k e Acaryahrdayam, a

commentary i n S a n s k r i t i z e d Tamil o/a?ipravF!a), t h e t e n

volumes of A n n a n k a r a c a r i a r and t h e t e n o f P u r u s h o t t a m a

Naidu. Ramanujan a s a t r a n s l a t o r h a s c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e s

o v e r many o t h e r I n d i a n t r a n s l a t o r s . He c a n h a n d l e t h e

E n g l i s h l anguage w i t h n e a r l y t h e same competence as t h e

n a t i v e s p e a k e r . H i s e x p e r i e n c e a s a c r e a t i v e w r i t e r i n

E n g l i s h h a s endowed him w i t h an u n f a i l i n g s e n s e of rhythm

and a t e c h n i c a l accomplishment t h a t is i n d i s p u t a b l e . Uany

E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s done by t h e I n d i a n s a r e condemned on

t h e ground t h a t t h e y a r e n o t f r e e f rom e r r o r s o f id iom and

s y n t a x . A Saturday Review commentator , f o r example , p a s s e s

t h e f o l l o w i n g v e r d i c t on some I n d i a n s t o r i e s i n

t r a n s l a t i o n :

The p r e s e n t v e r s i o n s have exceeded t h e most l i b e r a l a l l o w a n c e of s p e l l i n g m i s t a k e s , con fused d i c t i o n , wrong k e n s e s , muddled p u n c t u a t i o n , f r a c t u r e d s y n t a x .

When t h e I n d i a n t r a n s l a t o r s a r e s u r e o f t h e i r E n g l i s h , t h e y

commit t h e o t h e r s e r i o u s b l u n d e r o f r e s o r t i n g t o c o n s c i o u s

o r unconsc ious u s e of t h e s p e e c h of t h e p a s t a g e o r of t h e

awkward m i x t u r e of s e v e r a l s p e e c h e s . Ramanujan 's l anguage

is c o m p l e t e l y f r e e f rom s u c h d e f e c t s b u t t h e r e a d a b i l i t y he

a c h i e v e s a s a r e s u l t o f h i s m a s t e r l y c o n t r o l o v e r t h e

l anguage h a s b l i n d e d h i s Western c r i t i c s t o a n o t h e r e q u a l l y

s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n f rom which h i s t r a n s l a t i o n s s u f f e r , one

caused by t h e unwar ran ted l i b e r t i e s he t a k e s w i t h t h e

o r i g i n a l .

As one n i g h t e x p e c t , Ramanujan h a s s t a t e d h i s

t r a n s l a t i o n p o l i c y i n unambiguous t e r m s . S u p p o r t i n g

Dryden ' s recommendation of t h e middle-way between l i b e r a l

t r a n s l a t i o n and i m i t a t i o n , Ramanujan o b s e r v e s t h a t " i t e m s

a r e more d i f f i c u l t t o t r a n s l a t e t h a n r e l a t i o n s , t e x t u r e s

more d i f f i c u l t t h a n s t r u c t u r e , word more d i f f i c u l t t h a n

phras ing , l i n e a r o rder more d i f f i c u l t than s y n t a x , l i n e

more d i f f i c u l t than p a t t e r n . " ' And t h e problem i n c r e a s e s

when t h e two languages happen t o be a s s t a r t l i n g l y

d i f f e r e n t from eaoh o t h e r a s modern E n g l i s h and medieval

Tamil. I f V o l t a i r e had s a i d t h a t " t h e l e t t e r , k i l l e t h , b u t

t h e s p i r i t g i v e t h l i f e " , Ramanujan a s s e r t s t h a t " i n t h e a c t

of t r a n s l a t i n g t h e s p i r i t k i l l e t h , and t h e l e t t e r g i v e t h

l i f e ; any d i r e c t a t t a c k on t h e s p i r i t of t h e work is

foredoomed t o f u z z i n e s s . " 1 ° He c l a i m s t o have t r a n s l a t e d

u n i t by s y n t a c u n i t and r e c r e a t e d t h e way t h e p a r t s

a r t i c u l a t e t h e poem i n t h e o r i g i n a l . "The 'soundlook. , t h e

s y n t a x , t h e p resence and absence of p u n c t u a t i o n , and t h e

s e q u e n t i a l d e s i g n a r e p a r t of t h e e f f o r t t o b r i n g t h e Tamil

poems f a ~ t h f u l l y t o an Engl i sh r e a d e r . " l l He b e l i e v e s t h a t

t h e cop ious e x p l a n a t o r y n o t e s and t h e s o h o l a r l y Afterword

t o t h e book Hymns for the Drowning would t r a n s l a t e t h e

reader toward t h e poems.

Ramanujan's t h e o r y is sound b u t then every

t r a n s l a t o r contends t h a t h i s method t a k e s t h e r e a d e r c l o s e

t o t h e o r i g i n a l . Even P . L a l advoea t ing h i s f a v o u r i t e node

of t r a n s l a t i o n o a l l e d ' t r a n s c r e a t i o n ' , which a c t u a l l y

p e r m i t s exoess ive d ivergence from t h e o r i g i n a l a v e r s : " I

would l i k e , ve ry b r i e f l y , t o c o r r e c t t h e impress ion i n some

c i r c l e s t h a t t r a n s c r e a t i o n i n v o l v e s wide d e p a r t u r e s from

t h e o r i g i n a l ; i t , i n f a c t , i s t h e c l o s e s t t o t h e o r i g i n a l . " 1 2

Almost a l l t h e t r a n s l a t o r s m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e y have a d h e r e d

t o f a i t h f u l n e s s , b u t t h e y do n o t a lways mean t h e same t h i n g

by f a i t h f u l n e s s . They a g r e e t h a t f a i t h f u l n e s s d o e s n o t

imply word-by-word t r a n s l a t i o n and u s e t h e argument t o

j u s t i f y a l l k i n d s of l i b e r t i e s t h e y t a k e w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l .

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of f a i t h f u l n e s s r a n g e from f i d e l i t y t o

e x t e r n a l form t o r e f l e c t i n g t h e s p i r i t of t h e o r i g i n a l . 1 3

I n Ramanujan 's c a s e , t h e two books , The I n t e r i o r Landscape

and Hymns fo r the Drowning have t o be examined i n d e t a i l

t o s e e how f a r away f rom l i t e r a l n e s s he has gone i n o r d e r

t o a c h i e v e t h e avowed aim of b r i n g i n g t h e Tamil poems

f a i t h f u l l y t o an E n g l i s h r e a d e r .

The In t e r io r Landscape ( 1 9 6 7 ) c o n t a i n s t r a n s l a t i o n s

of l o v e poems f rom t h e c l a s s i c a l Tami l a n t h o l o g y ,

Kuruntokai, which is supposed t o b e a t l e a s t 16 c e n t u r i e s

o l d . Each d r a m a t i c monologue i n t h e Tami l a n t h o l o g y is a

we l l -wrough t u r n w i t n e s s i n g t o t h e powers o f o b s e r v a t i o n

and m e d i t a t i o n a s w e l l a s t o t h e c r a f t s m a n s h i p of t h e

~ a n k a l a p o e t s . Fo r a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n a t u r e of

Ramanujan's r e n d e r i n g , it may b e compared w i t h a n o t h e r

modern t r a n s l a t i o n done by H.Shanmugam P i l l a i and David

E.Ludden. T h e i r r e n d e r i n g s of one o f t h e b e s t p i e c e s a r e

g i v e n below:

What k i n was your mother t o mine? What was my f a t h e r t o y o u r s anyway? and how d i d you and I meet e v e r ? But o u r h e a r t s a r e a s r e d r, e a r t h and p o u r i n g r a i n : mingled beyond p a r t i n g .

Your mother and my mothe r , how a r e t h e y r e l a t e d ? Your f a t h e r and my f a t h e r , what a r e t h e y t o one a n o t h e r ? You and I , how do we know each o t h e r ? L i k e t h e r a i n and r e d e a r t h , Our l o v i n g h e a r t s a r e mingled a s o n e .

- P i l l a i and Ludden

The second v e r s i o n is t h e p r o d u c t of a j o i n t e f f o r t by a

Sou th I n d i a n l i n g u i s t and an American s t u d e n t o f Tami l ,

whose i n t e n t is " b o t h t o t r a n s l a t e w i t h s c h o l a r l y a c c u r a c y

and f i d e l i t y t o t h e o r i g i n a l , and t o r e n d e r t h e

t r a n s l a t i o n s i n a p l e a s i n g and r e a d a b l e E n g l i s h f o r m a t . "I4

I d e a l l y , t h e t r a n s l a t o r s h o u l d b e t h e n a t i v e s p e a k e r of t h e

t a r g e t l a n g u a g e , o r it may b e c o l l a b o r a t i o n be tween two

p e r s o n s compensa t ing f o r t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s of e a c h o t h e r , a s

i n t h e c a s e of N i s s i m E z e k i e l and V r i n d a N a b e r , t h e a u t h o r s

of t h e E n g l i s h r e n d e r i n g s of t h e H a r a t h i poems o f I n d i r a

S a n t . P i l l a i and Ludden had t h e a d v a n t a g e o f i n t e r n a l

checks and b a l a n c e s p rov ided by t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n . But

Ramanujan happens t o be a c r e a t i v e w r i t e r i n h i s own r i g h t ,

whereas n e i t h e r of t h e o t h e r two i s . And t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e

r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i r c r e a t i o n s . Ramanujan 's r e n d e r i n g is f r e e

and i m a g i n a t i v e ; t h e o t h e r is more f a i t h f u l t o t h e

o r i g i n a l . "Our l o v i n g h e a r t s " and "know each o t h e r " i n

P i l l a i and Ludden ' s v e r s i o n a r e more f a i t h f u l e c h o e s of t h e

o r i g i n a l t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a s s a g e s i n Ramanujan 's .

The modern p o e t ' s u s e of "Anyway" i n t h e t h i r d l i n e , n o t

found i n t h e o r i g i n a l , adds a c o l l o q u i a l t o u c h t o t h e

monologue.

K . R . S r i n i v a s a I y e n g a r ' s p r a i s e o f Ramanujan 's p i e c e

t h a t " i t is no s m a l l ach ievemen t t o have matched t h e o l d

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of r o m a n t i c l o v e t o t h e c u r r e n t

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c f i n i s h " 1 5 is a l i t t l e

m i s l e a d i n g b e c a u s e t h e r e is more of l i n g u i s t i c

s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i n t h e o r i g i n a l s i n c e it manages t o convey

i ts s e n s e i n twenty-one s h o r t words w h i l e t h e modern p o e t

r e q u i r e s t h i r t y - f i v e . And what t h e two words , "beyond

p a r t i n g ' ' convey is e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h a s i n g l e l e t t e r 'V'

coming a t t h e end of t h e Tamil s t a n z a .

I n some p i e c e s , Ramanujan f a i l s t o i m p a r t t h e

n a t u r a l v i g o u r of t h e o r i g i n a l and seems t o b e s a t i s f i e d

w i t h p l a t i t u d e s . The a n x i o u s b e l o v e d who is s l o w l y g e t t i n g

d i s i l l u s i o n e d b e c a u s e h e r l o v e r h a s n o t k e p t h i s p r o m i s e t o

r e t u r n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e r a i n y s e a s o n is c o n s o l e d i n

a t o u c h i n g manner by h e r g i r l - f r i e n d who c l e v e r l y d e n i e s

t h e a r r i v a l of t h e monsoon:

The f a t Konra i t r e e s a r e g u l l i b l e : The s e a s o n of r a i n s t h a t he spoke of when he went t h r o u g h t h e s t o n e s of t h e d e s e r t is n o t y e t h e r e t hough t h e s e t r e e s m i s t a k i n g t h e u n t i m e l y r a i n s have p u t o u t t h e i r l o n g a r r a n g e m e n t s of f l o w e r s on t h e t w i g s , a s i f f o r a p r o p e r monsoon. - A . K . Ramanu j an

I n P i l l a i and Ludden ' s v e r s i o n , we cone a c r o s s " c e r t a i n l y

f o o l i s h " i n t h e p l a c e of " g u l l i b l e " , and t h a t p h r a s e is

c l o s e r t o t h e o r i g i n a l . ' ' Whi le t h e r e is n o t h i n g p o e t i c

abou t " f a t Konra i t r e e s " and " t h e i r l o n g a r r a n g e m e n t s o f

f l o w e r s " ( " w i d e s p r e a d i n g Konra i t r e e " and " i t s f l o w e r s i n

crowded, b u t o r d e r l y bunches" found i n t h e o t h e r

t r a n s l a t i o n a r e b e t t e r s u b s t i t u t e s ) , t h e l a s t l i n e wh ich is

m i s l e a d i n g l y ambiguous cou ld have been d ropped s i n c e i ts

meaning has been conveyed

I t is i n t h e o t h e r c o l l e c t i o n , Hymns for the

Drowning, t h a t Ramanujan, i n h i s o v e r - e n t h u s i a s m t o c a t c h

t h e a t t e n t i o n of Western r e a d e r s , i g n o r e s t o d o j u s t i c e t o

t h e o r i g i n a l . U n f o r t u n a t e l y he f o r g e t s t h e wi se p o l i c y t h a t

" A good t r a n s l a t i o n . . . ough t , f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e

con tempora ry r e a d e r t o sound, on t h e who le , more f a m i l i a r

t han s t r a n g e " . 1 7 The t i t l e of t h e volume i t s e l f is

u n f o r t u n a t e , t hough he c l a i m s t h a t it p l a y s on t h e

d i f f e r e n t meanings of "drowning" f o r p o e t a n d ' r e a d e r . I t is

t r u e t h a t an z ~ v a r is "one immersed i n God" and t h a t t h e

r o o t v e r b a l means " t o immerse, t o d i v e , t o s i n k , t o be

d e e p " . But t o a Western r e a d e r who has n o t h e a r d a b o u t

ZLvTrs, t h e c h i e f d i s c i p l e s of V i shnu , t h e word -drowning"

may have o n l y comic o r t r a g i o a s s o c i a t i o n s and when t h e

"hymn" i s added t o i t s a t i r i c o v e r t o n e s w i l l b e

i n e s c a p a b l e . And i t is a f a r c r y f rom t h e t i t l e of t h e

o r i g i n a l Tamil poem, "TiruvFymoAi" , meaning "holy-mouth-

word" o r " d i v i n e u t t e r a n c e " . The t r a n s m u t a t i o n o f t h e t i t l e

may awake i n t h e Western r e a d e r s p l e a s i n g r e m i n i s c e n c e s

abou t Ramanujan 's mi ld a t t a c k s on t h e Hindu gods i n h i s own

p o e t r y . And some of t h e s u b t i t l e s i n t h i s c o l l e c t i o n a r e

a t r o c i o u s . "Love Poems: The P l a y b o y " , "Hy Lord , Hy

C a n n i b a l " and "The Lord a t P l a y " may summon up

i n a p p r o p r i a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s .

Hymns for the Drowning c o n t a i n s e i g h t y - t h r e e poems - s e v e n t y - s i x f rom t h e Tiruviiymoli and s e v e n f rom t h e

Tiruviruttam, b o t h of which a r e by NammqvZr, who is

c o n s i d e r e d t h e g r e a t e s t of t h e t w e l v e s a i n t - p o e t s d e v o t e d

t o V i shnu . The re i s o n l y a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n of t h e e n t i r e

c o r p u s of t h e s a i n t ' s w r i t i n g s c o n s i s t i n g of 1102 s t a n z a s

of T i ruvGmo>i and 100 s t a n z a s of T i r u v i r u t t a r . The

o r i g i n a l v e r s e s a r e a r r a n g e d i n t e n s , each g roup o f which

is u n i f i e d by m e t e r , theme and d i c t i o n , a n d ' commenta to r s

g i v e v a r i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o n o n e

g roup t o t h e n e x t . We do n o t know i f e a c h TiruvFymoli was

composed a t one s i t t i n g . The moods i n t h e s e hymns r a n g e

from d e s p a i r caused by t h e d a r k n e s s of t h e s p i r i t t o t h e

e c s t a s y of r e a l i z a t i o n and t h e y f o l l o w one a n o t h e r w i t h a

s t a r t l i n g and seeming ly i l l o g i c a l s u d d e n n e s s . Some of t h e

poems s p e a k o f t h e evanescence of e a r t h l y l i f e , t h e

i r r e s i s t i b l e charm of t h e phenomenal w o r l d , and t h e d i r e

need t o s e e k t h e g r a c e of God. I n a d d i t i o n t o s p e a k i n g t o

God d i r e c t l y i n h i s own p e r s o n , t h e x f i r imag ines h i m s e l f

t o be a woman i n l o v e , o r h e r mother o r he r f r i e n d . He

s e n d s h i s message t o God t h r o u g h b i r d s and b e e s i n f o u r

TiruvZymol-is. The impac t of t h e Vedas, t h e Upanishads , t h e

I t i h a s e s , t h e P u r a n a s and ~ a 4 k a . n l y r i c s is e v i d e n t i n a l l

t h e s e poems, which a r e a t once p h i l o s o p h i c a l , p o e t i c and

m u s i c a l . H i s v e r s e is a t t i m e s smooth b u t o f t e n r o u g h .

T h e r e is no e v i d e n c e of c o n s c i o u s c r a f t s m a n s h i p anywhere ,

b u t many o f h i s poems have t h e c o m p e l l i n g f o r c e o f a

h u r r i c a n e .

Ramanujan's is a l audab le a t t empt because even S r i

Aurobindo f e l t t h a t t o t r a n s l a t e Nammzlv~r is almost

imposs ib le .18 Though t h e t r a n s l a t o r l eaves no s t o n e

unturned t o t r a n s f u s e t h e s p i r i t of t h e o r i g i n a l , t h e t y p e

of c r e a t i v e w r i t i n g s he has au thored , h i s own a t t i t u d e t o

Hinduism, h i s Chicago mi l i eu and h i s background a s a

l i n g u i s t seem t o p u l l him i n a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n . The

very f i r s t poem i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , in tended a s a show-

p i e c e , ( i t is no t N a m u ~ ~ ~ v ~ r ' s opening s t a n z a ) r e v e a l s t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h s and weaknesses of t h e e n t i r e

volume :

Nammzl-vrr's 1 . 1 . 4 r e a d s a s f o l l o w s :

Ni im a v a a i v a c uvay? a v a l i v a l u v a l eva; thm' avar ' i v a r 'uvar a t u i t u u t u e t u vTm a v a i i v a i u v a i a v a i nalam t r h k u a v a i - am a v a i Zy a v a i - ay n i n r a a v a r z .

The l i n g u i s t i n Ramanujan must have been f a s c i n a t e d b y t h e

b r e a t h l e s s r e c i t a l of Tamil pronouns h e r e . I t is t o be

noted t h a t A . S r i n i v a s a Raghavan, a d e d i c a t e d Nammalvar

s c h o l a r , i n h i s book on t h e s a i n t which i n c l u d e s h i s

t r a n s l a t i o n s and a n a l y s e s of a number of poems, does n o t

nen t ion t h e s t a n z a . Ramanujan's r e n d e r i n g is t o o s k i l f u l l y

managed t o r e c a p t u r e t h e s p i r i t of! t h e o r i u i n a l :

We h e r e and t h a t man, t h i s man, and t h a t o t h e r i n -be tween ,

and t h a t woman, t h i s woman and t h a t o t h e r , whoever ,

t h o s e p e o p l e , and t h e s e , and t h e s e o t h e r s i n -be tween ,

t h i s t h i n g , t h a t t h i n g , and t h i s o t h e r i n -be tween , w h i o h e v e r ,

and t h i n g s d y i n g , t h e s e t h i n g s , t h o s e t h i n g s , t h o s e o t h e r s i n -be tween ,

good t h i n g s , bad t h i n g s , t h i n g s t h a t we re , t h a t w i l l b e ,

b e i n g a l l of them, he s t a n d s t h e r e .

Tha t it o c c u p i e s more s p a c e t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l d o e s n o t

m a t t e r . NammZlvhr l i s t i n g a l l c r e a t e d b e i n g s d r i v e s hone

t h e i d e a t h a t God who i s o n e , becomes many and y e t s t a n d s

a p a r t . But i n t h e modern p o e t ' s v e r s i o n , God seems t o have

d i s a p p e a r e d s i n c e t h e p ronouns s t a n d o u t . I t even becomes a

l i t t l e c o m i c a l b e c a u s e of t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e r i e s ,

'Whoever ' , ' W h i c h e v e r ' , and ' t h a t o t h e r b e t w e e n ' , ' t h e s e

o t h e r s i n - b e t w e e n ' , ' t h i s o t h e r i n - b e t w e e n ' and ' t h o s e

o t h e r s i n - b e t w e e n ' . P a r t of t h e m i s c h i e f is c a u s e d by t h e

t i t l e 'The P a r a d i g m ' , s h i f t i n g t h e emphas i s f rom t h e o l o g y

t o l i n g u i s t i c s .

Examining Ramanujan 's Selected Poems p u b l i s h e d i n

1976, K . R . S r i n i v a s I y e n g a r o b s e r v e d t h a t " i t is r a t h e r s a d

t h a t t h e s p i r i t of c o n s e c r a t i o n c o u l d by s low stages

d e c l i n e t o a l m o s t c y n i c a l d e s e c r a t i o n i n a f o r e i g n

c l i m a t e . " 1 9 M.K.Naik a l s o s e e s i n a poem l i k e " P r a y e r t o

Lord HuruBar~' ' a c u r i o u s u n c e r t a i n t y i n h i s r e a c t i o n t o

Hinduism. He d raws o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s t r a t e g y o f t h e

i r o n i c a n t i - c l i m a x i n l i n e s l i k e -

Lord of h e a d l i n e s h e l p u s r e a d

t h e s m a l l p r i n t . Lord o f t h e s i x t h s e n s e

g i v e u s back o u r f i v e s e n s e s . . . Lord of t h e l a s t - b o r n

g i v e u s b i r t h . . .

Lord of answers c u r e u ~ ~ a t once

o f p r a y e r .

Ramanujan w i t h h i s i r o n i c f l o u r i s h e s seems t o have a l o t of

f u n a t t h e expense of Lord Hurugan and h i s bhak tas and

t h e r e is no e v i d e n c e of any s p i r i t u a l q u e s t o r a s s e r t i o n o f

f a i t h . One s u s p e c t s t h a t t h i s c y n i c i s m r e a r s i ts u g l y head

o c c a s i o n a l l y i n h i s t r a n s l a t i o n a l s o

I n a p a r t i c u l a r decade o f poems NammTLviii. c e l e b r a t e s

e p i s o d e s i n Vishnu mythology - how a s Vamana he measured

t h e w o r l d s , a s a b o a r k i l l e d Hi ranyaksha and a s K r i s h n a

l i f t i n g a mountain gave s h e l t e r t o cows and cowherds f o r

s even d a y s . C e r t a i n words thrown by Ramanujan h e r e and

t h e r e i n t h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s make u s wonder i f t h e r e is t h e

i n t r u s i o n of any u n c o n s c i o u s u n d e r c u t t i n g i r o n y . Vamana

growing i n t o T r i v i k r a m a is d e s c r i b e d a s -

g i a n t head and g i a n t f e e t growing away from e a c h o t h e r . 2 1

During a d e l u g e , t h e c r e a t o r swal lowed t h e w o r l d s t o s a v e

them. Ramanujan 's t r a n s l a t i o n r e a d s :

0 what a r o a r i n g meal of c h a o s

Our l o r d made o f t h e seven w o r l d s . 2 2

The g r e a t K u r u k s h e t r a war s t a g e d by K r i s h n a i s w i t n e s s e d by

a l l t h e gods of heaven e x p r e s s i n g f e e l i n g s of awe, wonder

and r e s p e c t . Ramanujan 's a c c o u n t ends w i t h -

and t h e n o i s e s of gods j o s t l i n g i n h

t o watch t h e f u n . %ven

When K r i s h n a p e r s u a d e s t h e cowherds t o make t h e i r o f f e r i n g s

t o a mountain i n s t e a d of t o I n d r a , t h e l a t t e r becomes

f u r i o u s and p e l t s t h e cows and cowherds w i t h t h u n d e r and

r a i n . The r e a l r a i n is r e p l a c e d by a m e t a p h o r i c one of e v i l

i n Ramanujan 's d e s c r i p t i o n :

A s ou r l o r d and f a t h e r , l i f t s up t h e mountain

s o h i s r i c h c i t y , h i s c i t y of Gateways,

might t a k e s h e l t e r a g a i n s t t h e d npour

of h e a v e n ' s e v i l . 91

The poem a b o u t t h e t r u e d e v o t e e s of V i s h n u , who god-c razy

a s t h e y a r e , a r e a l l t h e t i m e s e e n mumbling and p r a t t l i n g

t h e names of t h e Lord of t h e h i l l , is c a l l e d "God's

i d i o t s " !

Ramanujan h imse l f p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e p e r s o n a l , t h e

l a n d s c a p e , and t h e s i t u a t i o n s of c l a s s i c a l . Tamil l o v e

p o e t r y a r e e n l i s t e d a s s i g n i f i e r s f o r a new s i g n i f i c a t i o n

in many of NamrriZA-v&'s poems.25 C e r t a i n s u b t l e changes a r e

i n t r o d u c e d and a s i n g l e e p i t h e t o r a name s u c h a s t h e "Dark

One" o r a c o n t e x t can change an o r d i n a r y l o v e poem i n t o a

s a c r e d o n e . Any t r a n s l a t o r of s u c h poems s h o u l d keep i n

mind t h a t a c a r e l e s s omis s ion of s u c h v i t a l c l u e s o r an

i n a d v e r t e n t u s e of an e p i t h e t o r a name o r a word n o t found

i n t h e o r i g i n a l may e a s i l y c o v e r t a r e l i g i o u s poem i n t o a

p r o f a n e o n e .

A l l t h i s i s n o t t o d e t r a c t f rom Ramanujan 's

c o n t r i b u t i o n a s a t r a n s l a t o r . I t is t r u e t h a t t r a n s l a t i o n s

of a n c i e n t t e x t s s h o u l d b e a l lowed more f reedom t h a n t h o s e

of modern t e x t s . I t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t no t r a n s l a t i o n c a n b e

s a t i s f a c t o r y t o s o m e z o n e who h a s r e a d and e n j o y e d t h e

o r i g i n a l . But t h e p o i n t s t r e s s e d h e r e is t h a t Rananujan who

has won t h e a p p r o v a l of Western and non-Tamil r e a d e r s o f

h i s t r a n s l a t i o n s c o u l d have s a t i s f i e d even t h o s e who a r e

f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l i f he had c a r e d a l i t t l e more

f o r t h e i r r e s p o n s e .

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. S u j i t M u k h e r j e e , Translation as Discovery (New D e l h i : A l l i e d P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 8 1 ) , p . 4 .

2 . Ibid., p . 6 .

3. M.K.Naik, A History of Indian English Literature (New D e l h i : S a h i t y a Akademi, 1 9 8 2 ) . p . 2 0 0 .

4 . I b i d . , p . 200

5 . Q u o t e d i n M.K.Naik, Dimensions of Indian English Literature (New D e l h i : S t e r l i n g P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 2 0 2 .

Q u o t e d i n M.K.Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, p.202.

A.K. Ramanujan, Hymns for the Drowning ( P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 8 1 ) , p . XVII .

S u j i t M u k h e r j e e , p. 134

A.K. Ramanujan, Hymns for the Drowning, p.XV1. S u j i t M u k h e r j e e , p . 2 4 .

Q u o t e d i n S u j i t H u k h e r j e e , p . 8 3 .

S e e H . F r e n z , "The Art o f T r a n s l a t i o n " i n Cornpara tive Literature: Method and Perspective ( C a r b o n d a l e : S o u t h I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s a , 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 9 8 - 1 2 1 .

M . Shanmugam P i l l a i & D . E . L u d d e n , Kuruntokai ( M a d u r a i : Kuda l P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 7 6 ) , p.VJ.1.

K. R. S r i n i v a s a I y e n g a r , Indian Writing in English (New D e l h i : S t e r l i n g P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 8 3 ) , p . 6 7 1 .

M.Shanmugam P i l l a i & D.E .Ludden , p . 1 2 1 .

S . S . P r a w e r , Comparative Literary Studies (London : Duchworth , 1 9 7 3 ) , p . 8 1 .

A.Srinivasa Raghavan, Nammalvar (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1974), p . 73.

Quoted in M.K.Naik, Dimensions of Indian English Literature, pp.22-23 .

A.K.Ramanujan, p . 4 .

Ibid, p.7.

I b i d , y . 8 .

Ibid, p .13.

Ibid, p p . 157-158.

21. C A S T E P O L I T I C S I N T A N I L F I C T I O N

K a t e M i l l e t t i n h e r book Sexual Pol i t i c s , j u s t i f y i n g

t h e t i t l e , o b s e r v e s :

The t e r m " p o l i t i c s " s h a l l r e f e r t o p o w e r - s t r u c t u r e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a r r a n g e m e n t s whereby one g roup o f p e r s o n s i s c o n t r o l l e d by a n o t h e r . . . . The word " p o l i t i c s " i s e n l i s t e d h e r e when s p e a k i n g of t h e s e x e s p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e s u c h a word is e m i n e n t l y u s e f u l i n o u t l i n i n g t h e r e a l n a t u r e of t h e i r r e l a t i v e s t a t u s , h i s t o r i c a l l y and a t t h e p r e s e n t . I t is o p p o r t u n e , p e r h a p s t o d a y even manda to ry , t h a t we d e v e l o p a more r e l e v a n t p sycho logy and p h i l o s o p h y of power r e l a t i o n s h i p s beyond t h e s i m p l e c o n c e p t u a l f ramework p r o v i d e d by o u r t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m a l p o l i t i c s . . . . t h e s i t u a t i o n between t h e s e x e s now, and t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y , is a c a s e of t h a t phenomenon Max Weber d e f i n e d a s herrs h a f t , a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f dominance and s u b o r d i n a n c e . f

The same e x p l a n a t i o n may be g i v e n , p e r h a p s more a c c e p t a b l y ,

t o j u s t i f y t h e u s e of t h e t e r m " C a s t e P o l i t i c s " i n t h e

I n d i a n c o n t e x t , t h e k e y - p h r a s e s b e i n g " p o w e r - s t r u c t u r e d

a r r angemen t " and " r e l a t i o n s h i p o f dominance and

s u b o r d i n a n c e . " I f a p o l i t i c a l n o v e l is " a work of p r o s e

f i c t i o n which l e a n s r a t h e r t o i d e a s t h a n t o e m o t i o n s . . . where t h e main p u r p o s e of t h e w r i t e r i s p a r t l y p r o p a g a n d a ,

p u b l i c r e f o r m , o r e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e l i v e s o f p e r s o n a g e s who

m a i n t a i n gove rnmen t , o r of t h e f o r c e s which c o n s t i t u t e

gove rnmen t , " ' a s d e f i n e d by S p e a r e i n The P o l i t i c a l Novel: