issue vi n0 2 december 2015
TRANSCRIPT
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An of ficial publ ication ofMANU – International Council for Man and Nature
ESSENCEInternational Journal for
Environmental
Rehabilitation and
Conservation
An Open Access Peer
Reviewed Journal
ISSN: 0975 – 6272
VOLUME: VI
Number: 2
June 2015
Publication: Half Yearly
Proceeding of National Conference on Science & Technology
for Indigenous Development in India
(September 28-30, 2015)
Organised by
The Indian Science Congress Association: Haridwar Chapter
&
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
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Content / Vol. VI [2] 2015
`
Content
1.
Page No.
Biodiversity and distribution of Bacillariophyceae flora of the Vindhyan River of
Indian Subcontinent
Verma, Jyoti; Gopesh, Anita and Nautiyal, Prakash
1 - 8
2. Use of biodegradable alkaline salt in exhaust dyeing process of cotton fabric with
direct dye
Rastogi, Shivi and Jain, Bhavya
9 - 13
3. Ayurvedic drugs production in indigenous system in modern days - Review for
GMP perspective
Kumar, Amit and Singh, Arjun
14 - 27
4.
Cyclic voltammetric and antimicrobial studies of Co(II) and Fe(III)
dibenzotetrazaanulene [12] complexes
Tevatia, Prashant; Kumar, Anuj; Sweety and Singh, Randhir
28 - 34
5. Human Rights to Consumed Water, Environmental Protection: Present and
Future
Agarwal, Sangeeta; Pal, Sohan and Tyagi, Rashmi
35 - 42
6. Study of Zoning: An Operational Research Approach
Rudraman
43 - 49
7.
Effect of Pinus Roxburghii Bark Extract on Alternaria species
Srivastava, Archana
50 - 53
8. Effect of drying on the quality of essential oil of Ocimum ameri canum L.
Bhatt, Sunita; Kunwar, Gitu; Tewari, Geeta; Rani, Akanksha and Bisht, Mamta
54 - 62
9. Threat to Food Security: Himalayas grappling in present scenario of unavoidable
Climate Change
Rawat, Jaiyati and Rawat, Laxmi
63 - 70
10. Wireless real time heart monitoring system synced with android application
Som, Pritha; Bhowmick, Sutanni and Ray, Oindri
71 - 78
11. Science and Technology for indigenous development in India
Sharma, Aditi
79 - 85
12. Tree Borne Oilseed (TBOs): Competitive Source for Biodiesel in Rural India
Arora, Gurveen and Kumar, Dinesh
86 - 93
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
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Content / Vol. VI [2] 2015
13. A comparative study on gain enhancement techniques of leaky wave antenna
Pandey, Namita; Chauhan, Anjali and Agrawal, Rahul
94 - 100
14. Use of marginal materials in road works
Swami, R. K. and Arun, Uma
101 - 104
15. Funari a Hygrometri ca extracts with activity against plant pathogenic fungi
Al ternari a species
Srivastava, Naina
105 - 112
16. Exploring potentials of science & technology for research in swaryogic science
Giri, Rakesh
113 - 115
17. Metamaterial based antenna for 10.0 GHZ Frequency
Ghosh, Devankar; Kher, Sakshi and Kumar, Nitin
116 121
18. Gesture Controlled Quadcopter
Vishwas, Shivam; Arora, Rishabh; Bhaskar, Nikhil; Lal, Suraj Kr; Bhandwal, Mohit
122 - 125
19.
Gesture Controlled Gimble for Quadcopter
Gaur, Vivek; Mishra Abhishek; Aquil, Manal; Thapa, Himanshi and Verma,
Rahul Kumar
126 - 129
20. A study of Role Conflict and Occupational Stress in Relation to Quality of Life of
Married Working Women
Kumar, Arun
130 - 140
21. Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of the leaves of plant Casearia
tomentosa
Shukla, Abha; Tyagi, Ritu
141 - 147
and Shukla, Rishi Kumar
22.
Metamaterials: Characteristics, Structures And Applications
Badoni, Anumeha; Belwal, Pravesh and Kumar, Nitin
148 - 154
23. Optimal Design of UWB Antenna Using Differential Evolution
Agarwal, Ankit, Srinivas, K. and Gupta, M. S.
155 - 160
24.
Genotoxicity due to Chromium -Mitotic effects in Vigna angulari s (L.) Gaertn.
(Adzuki Bean)
Kumar, Anil; Dhingra, G. K. and
161 - 168
Gupta, Shalabh
25.
Environmental conditions for the conservation of wildlife and its anthropogenic
responses in Himachal Pradesh
Pal, Anil; Goswami, D.C. and Pal, Brijesh
169 - 179
26. Sex and altitude based study on leaf related parameters in Zanthoxylum Armatum
Roxb.
Gupta, Shalabh; Kumar, Anil and
180 - 183
Paliwal, Ajai Kumar
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Content / Vol. VI [2] 2015
27. Synthesis and Characterization of ZnO Thin Films Fabricated by Sol-Gel
Method
Pathak, Trilok Kumar; Pal, Pankaj K.; Gupta, Himanshu; Matta, Gagan; Kumar,
Ajendra; Kumar, R. and Purohit, L. P.
184 - 188
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Meshram et al. /Vol. VI [2] 2015/67 – 70
2
region for the first time. The present study also
assumes significance in light of the river
linking programmes like the Ken - Betwa link,
especially in view of the climate change threat.
The knowledge on their floristic composition
and distribution will help to understand their
use as environmental indicators.
Study area
The rivers selected in Vindhya were located
between 23o30’ to 26
o N, 78
o30’ to 82
o30’E
(Table 1). The Vindhya rivers Ken, Paisuni and
Tons flow north from low (north of Narmada,
around Tropic of Cancer) to high latitude along
southern fringe of the Indo-Gangetic Plains.The Ken and Paisuni are right-bank tributaries
of the Yamuna River, while Tons that of the
Ganga. Ken (340 km) and Tons (305 km) were
relatively larger drainage compared to the
Paisuni (100 km) having an average gradient of
0.91 m km-1
, 2.0 m km-1
and 1.02 m km-1
,
respectively. The land is primarily used for
agriculture along the banks of the Ken and the
Tons River. Patches of forest (Shorea robusta)
occur in case of the Ken River. In case of the
Paisuni river the headwaters is covered by
forest and only lower stretch of the river is
used for agriculture. Cement and stone
quarrying industry exist in the Vindhya region
though none were located in the immediate
vicinity of the sampling stations. Except for the
mouth zone these rivers vary topographically.The Physico-chemical characteristics were also
studied from these rivers (Table1 &2).
Materials and method
One time intensive sampling during stable flow
(November to May) was deemed suitable for
present study as the rivers are in floods during
monsoon; mid June to mid September. Benthic
diatoms were obtained from 11 stations on 3
rivers (from source to mouth) in the Central
highland region. Diatom samples were
collected by scraping the cobble surface with a
brush from an area of 3 x 3 cm2 and preserved
in 4% formaldehyde. Samples were treated
with Hydrochloric acid-peroxide, washed
repeatedly and mounted in Naphrax. Each slide
was examined under bright field by
PLANAPO x100 oil immersion objective to
record the flora. Identifications were made
according to standard literature (Schmidt 1874-
1959, Hustedt 1931-1959, Krammer & Lange-Bertalot 1991, 1999, 2004, Lange-Bertalot
2001, Metzeltin & Lange-Bertalot 2002,
Krammer 2003, Lange-Bertalot et al. 2003,
Werum & Lange-Bertalot 2004, Metzeltin et
al. 2005). The permanent mounts have been
adequately stored at the Aquatic Biodiversity
Unit, Department of Zoology, H. N. B.
Garhwal University, Srinagar where
preparation of the slides and their microscopic
examination was undertaken.
Results
The diatom flora of Vindhya rivers consisted
of 293 species and 49 genera. The Vindhyan
rivers examined during present study consisted
largely of Pennale elements. Centrale species
were few and belonged to the suborder
Coscinodiscineae, Family Thalassiosiraceae( Aulacoseira 1 species; Cyclotella 2 species)
and Melosiraceae ( Melosira 1 species). Rest 46
genera and 289 taxa were Pennales.
Numerically, suborder Araphidineae
comprising family Fragilariaceae (6 genera, 38
taxa) and Raphidineae consisting family
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3
Achnanthaceae (4 genera, taxa), Naviculaceae
(30 genera, 183 taxa) and Bacillariaceae (4
genera, 35 taxa) accounted for a large
proportion (Table 3). The remaining few taxa
belonged to Eunotiaceae, Epithemiaceae and
Surirellaceae. The study on floral composition
has thrown up some broad regional and local
patterns of distribution.
River systemRivers/ Stations
with acronymLatitude (N) Longitude (E)
Altitude
(m asl)
Distance from
source (Km.)
Yamuna Ken River
(lower Shahnagar K1 23°59´ 80° 15’ 45” 400 ca.10
stretch) Panna K2 24°43´18" 80° 11’ 25” 200 142.5
Banda K3 25°29´24" 80° 19’ 16” 140 267.5
Chilla K4 25° 46´ 54 80° 32’ 08” 100 340
Paisuni River
Anusuya P1 25° 08´ 14 80° 51’ 01” 160 10
Chitrakut P2 25° 13´ 54 80° 54’ 36” 140 26
Purwa P3 25° 16´ 17 80° 52’ 28” 100 42
Ganga Tons River
(middle Amdara T1 24° 00’ 80° 26’ 21” 400 20
stretch) Maihar T2 24° 16´ 35 80° 48’ 53” 400 56
Satna T3 24° 34´ 07 80° 54’ 36” 323 98
Chakghat T4 25° 03´ 28 81° 42 ‘21” 100 232.5
Table 1: Geographical co-ordinates of the sampling stations in
different rivers of the Central Highland Rivers
Stream/ River AT (oC) WT (oC) C V (cm s-1) pH C (µmho cm-1) DO (mg l-1)
Ken 11 - 32 15 – 31 0-42 7.0-7.5 165-420 8.6-10.7
Paisuni 10 - 40 16 – 30 2.8-40 7.0-7.7 170-440 8-11.5
Tons 17 - 33 18-33 1.5-35 7.0-7.8 160-420 8.2-10.5
Table 2: Physical and chemical characteristics (minimum
and maximum) at different stations of the Central
Highlands region (AT, Air temperature; WT Water
temperature; CV, Current velocity; C, Conductivity;
DO, Dissolved oxygen).
GENERA K P T
THALASSIOSIRACEAE
1. Aulacoseira 1 1
2.Cyclotella 1 1 2
Genera/Species 2/2 2/2 1/2
FRAGILARIACEAE
3. Diatoma 2 1 4
4.Fragilaria 1 1 2
5.Staurosira 1 2 1
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4
6.Synedra 13 14 15
7.Tabellaria 1 1
Genera/Species 5/28 4/18 5/23
EUNOTIACEAE
8. Eunotia 3 4 4
Genera/Species 1/3 1/4 1/4
ACHNANTHACEAE
9. Achnanthes 1 1
10. Achnanthidium 8 11 10
11.Planothidium 3 5 3
12. Cocconeis 6 3 3
Genera/Species 4/18 4/20 4/16
NAVICULACEAE
13. Amphipleura 1
14. Amphora 10 8 8
15. Anomoeoneis 1 1
16. Brachysira 1 2 2
17.Caloneis 5 3 5
18.Cymbella 21 22 20
19.Cymbopleura 12 6 10
20. Encyonema 4 4 4
21. Diploneis 5 5 4
22.Frustulia 1
23.Gomphocymbelopsis 1 1
24.Gyrosigma 2 2 3
25.Gomphonema 11 10 1226. Mastogloia 1
27. Navicula 27 28 29
28. Navicula sensu lato 3 4 3
29. Adlafia 1 1 2
30. Aneumastus 2
31.Craticula 4 3 3
32. Diadesmis 1 2 1
33.Fallacia 1 1 2
34.Geissleria 1 1 1
35. Hippodonta 1 2
36. Luticola 6 3 7
37.Placoneis 2 1 2
38.Sellaphora 5 5 5
39. Neidium 2 4 2
40.Pinnularia 3 7 3
41.Scoliopleura 1
42.Stauroneis 2
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Genera/Species 26/133 26/128 23/131
EPITHEMIACEAE
43. Epithemia 1
44. Rhopalodia 1 2
Genera/Species 0/0 1/1 2/3
BACILLARIACEAE
45. Bacillaria 1
46. Denticula 1 1 1
47. Hantzschia 1 1
48. Nitzschia 21 20 25
Genera/Species 3/23 3/22 3/26
SURIRELLACEAE
49.Surirella 8 7 5
Genera/Species 1/8 1/7 1/5
TOTAL Genera/Species 42/205 42/202 39/211
Table 3: The number of species occurring in various genera
recorded from the Vindhyan Rivers
Discussion
The centric diatoms comprise just 1% of the
total flora (3 taxa). The araphids accounted for
10.5% (38 spp.) and the raphids (mono and
biraphids) accounted for fourty two genera
with two hundred fifty eight taxa (80%)
however monoraphids accounted for 8% (26spp.). The major share in floristic composition
was family Naviculaceae (62%), Bacillariaceae
(12%) and Fragilariaceae (9.5%) from Central
Highland. Navicula (32), Cymbella (31) ,
Gomphonema (15) and Cymbopleura (14) were
species rich genera in family Naviculaceae,
Synedra (19) in family Fragilariaceae and
Nitzschia (32) in family Bacillariaceae. The
Vindhya was richer in Navicula sensu stricto,
Nitzschia and Cymbella sensu stricto. Navicula
sensu lato had highest number of species in the
flora reported from Bombay and Salsette (24
spp. Gonzalves and Gandhi 1952-1954),
Mysore State (11 spp. Gandhi 1958) and south
India (20 spp. Krishnamurthy 1953) compared
to only few (9 spp.) from U. P. in the Gangetic
Plains (Singh 1961-62). However, flora was
quite different in these regions as Bombay and
Salsette in the west had more species of
Neidium and Stauroneis in case of
Naviculaceae, while Achnanthes in case ofAchnanthaceae and Eunotia in case of
Eunotiaceae, the dominant families. In south
India including the Mysore State and U. P.
most of the flora belonged to Naviculaceae.
Nitzschiaceae was conspicuously absent from
Bombay and Salsette Islands. Investigations in
the Central Highland revealed 293 diatom taxa
and 49 genera from 11 sites. Naviculaceae
(62%), Bacillariaceae (12%) and Fragilariaceae
(9.5%) dominate the flora, respective genera
being Navicula sensu stricto, Nitzschia and
Synedra. This flora was quite different from
the flora from other parts of the India.
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6
Acknowledgement
The academic support by the Head,
Department of Zoology, H.N.B. Garhwal
University and University of Allahabad,
Allahabad is acknowledged.
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Schmidt, A. (1874-1959): Atlas der
Diatomaceen-Kunde. Heft 1-120,
Tafeln 1-480 Tafeln 1-216 A Schmidt,
213-216 M, Schmidt, 217-240 F.
Fricke, 241-244 H. Heiden, 245-246 O
Muller, 247-256 F. Fricke , 257-264 H
Heiden, 265-268 F. Fricke, 269-472 F
Hustedt. Aschersleben & Leipzig.
Singh, C.S. (1961): A systematic account of
the fresh water diatoms of Uttar
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8
Pradesh-II. In: Proc. Nat Inst of Sci
31(B):203-223.
Singh, C.S. (1962): A systematic account of
the fresh water diatoms of Uttar
Pradesh-I. In: Proc. Nat Inst of Sci
32(B):233-241.
Werum, M. and Lange-Bertalot, H. (2004):
Diatoms in springs from Central
Europe and elsewhere under the
influence of hydrogeology and
anthropogenic impacts. Ecology-
Hydrogeology- Taxonomy
Iconographia Diatomologica. 480.
Ruggell: A. R. G. Gantner Verlag K. G.
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Rastogi,
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10
finishing. In fact, in practical estimate it is
found that about 33% industries are involved in
dyeing.
Direct dyes are normally applied from a neutral
or slightly alkaline bath containing an
electrolyte (dye bath assistant e.g., sodium
chloride or sodium sulfate). The inorganic salt,
such as sodium chloride or sodium sulphate,
for dye transfer and penetration into the fibre,
and inorganic alkali, such as sodium
bicarbonate, sodium carbonate or sodium
hydroxide, for dye-fibre reaction, are required
in substantial quantities to accomplish the
dyeing process. The use of these salts,electrolytes and alkali is drained which
contributes to environmental pollution. The
effluent treatment is expensive and produce
highly concentrated solid wastes. Therefore,
the better approach would be to improve the
textile processing chemistry for reducing the
discharge pollution.
Now at the use of inorganic salts in dyeing are
replaced by using biodegradable alkaline salts
which are commonly used in the detergent and
the cosmetic industries as chelating agents.
“Biodegradable means capable of being
decomposed back into elemental components
by biological agents, especially bacteria.
Biodegradability is associated with the use of
an item as a nutrient source by some organism
within the environment”. Tetrasodium ethylenediamine tetraacetate (sodium edate) is a
biodegradable alkaline polycarboxylic salt and
has been studied as an alternative to inorganic
salt and alkali in dyeing of cotton by exhaust
method.
This present study showed the result where
Magnesium acetate tetra hydratehave been
used in the exhaust dyeing of cotton with direct
dye to improve effluent quality by replacing
the traditional inorganic salt and alkali.
Materials and Method:
Material: A commercially available cotton
fabric of fabric count 85.6 X 48.4 and direct
dye were used in this study. Magnesium
acetate tetrahydrate [(CH3COO2)2.Mg.4H2O],
Sodium chloride (NaCl) and Sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3) were used as analytical grade.
Method: The fabric was first scoured then
used for dyeing. First sample was dyed with
the commercially used inorganic salts viz.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) and Sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3). Second and third sample were dyed
with Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate
[(CH3COO2)2.Mg.4H2O] with varying
concentration of 30g/l and 40 g/l respectively.
The dyed fabrics were rinsed with cold water
then with hot water, then soaped at 50˚C (15min), and then rinse with hot water until dye
desorption stopped. Finally, the fabrics were
washed with cold water and oven dried.
Testing: The dye effluent of all three samples
were first cooled at room temperature and then
PH, Total solid (TS), Total dissolved solids
(TDS), Total suspended solids (TSS) and color
unit were determined as per American Public
Health Association, Washington, 1998. And
the dyed samples were determined for K/S
value by the use of CCM (Computer Color
Matching System), Colorfastness to washing
(ISO-105-C10-A1), to rubbing (IS-766), to
ironing (IS-689-1988) and to light (IS- 2454).
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Result and Discussion
Effect of dyeing using biodegradable salts versus conventional salts on effluent
Comparative effect on pH
This table shows the effect of biodegradable
salt on pH in of conventional used salts and
biodegradable salts in direct dyeing, and the
results shows that when magnesium acetate
tetrahydrate alkaline salt used in dyeing at
30g/l it increases the pH of effluent slightly
but it decrease the pH of dyeing effluent or it
is moves towards neutrality of water if we
use magnesium acetate tetrahydrate at 40g/l
concentration.
Dye Chemical concentration TS (mg/l) TSS (mg/l) TDS (mg/l)
Direct dye
Sodium chloride 20g/l
Sodium carbonate 10g/l
37600 6900 30700
Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 30g/l 46000 100 45900
Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 40g/l 51600 2600 49000
Table 2: Comparison table of effect of magnesium acetate
tetrahydrate and conventional salts on TS, TSS and
TDS
This comparative analysis shows a higher
change in the TS, TSS, and TDS of effluent
assessed after dyeing. The sample using
biodegradable salt in dyeing showed drastically
decreases in the TSS present in effluent but it
increases the value of TDS and TS.
Dye Chemical concentration Color unit (Hzn)
Direct dye
Sodium chloride 20g/l
Sodium carbonate 10g/l
250
Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 30g/l 80
Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 40g/l 99
Table 3: Comparison table of effect of magnesium acetate
tetrahydrate and conventional salts on color unit.
This table depicted that the use of magnesium
acetate tetrahydrate highly decreases the
presence of color unit in the effluent in
comparison to the conventional dyed sample
effluent. Thus we can say that the dye was
absorbed by the fabric better due to the use of
the magnesium acetate tetrahydrate during
dyeing procedure.
Dye Chemical concentration pH
Direct dye
Sodium chloride 20g/l
Sodium carbonate 10g/l
9.83
Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 30g/l 10.00
Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 40g/l 8.48
Table 1: Comparison table of effect of magnesium acetate
tetrahydrate and conventional salts on pH
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Effect of dyeing using biodegradable salts versus conventional salts on dyed samples
Comparative effect on k/s value
Dye Chemical concentration K/S
Direct dye Sodium chloride 20g/l
Sodium carbonate 10g/l
12.05
Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 30g/l 17.59
Magnesium acetate tetrahydrate 40g/l 17.67
Table 4: Comparison table of effect of magnesium acetate
tetrahydrate and conventional salts on K/S
It is clear from the table that the color yields of
the dyed fabrics from biodegradable salts and
conventional salt. Comparable change in the
color yield was observed in dyed samples
treated with biodegradable salt. However, the
magnesium acetate tetrahydrate gives the
higher color yield at both the concentration i.e.
30g/l and 40g/l with direct dye.
Comparative effect on colorfastness
Dye Chemical concentration Ironing Fastness Rubbing Fastness Light
FastnessDry Wet Dry Wet
CC SC CC SC CC SC CC SC
Direct dye
Sodium chloride 20g/l
Sodium carbonate 10g/l
5 4-5 4 1 5 5 5 3-4 3-4
Magnesium acetate
tetrahydrate 30g/l
5 4-5 4 1 5 4-5 5 3-4 4
Magnesium acetate
tetrahydrate 40g/l
5 5 4-5 1 5 4-5 5 3-4 4
Table 5: Comparison table of effect of magnesium acetate
tetrahydrate and conventional salts on ironing,
rubbing and light colorfastness.
DYE Chemical concentration WASH FASTNESS
CC SC
W ACR P N C ACE
Direct dye Sodium chloride 20g/l
Sodium carbonate 10g/l
3 3 5 5 4 2 4
Magnesium acetate
tetrahydrate 30g/l
3 3 3-4 5 4 1 4
Magnesium acetatetetrahydrate 40g/l
3 3 4-5 5 3 1 4-5
Table 6: Comparison table of effect of magnesium acetate
tetrahydrate and conventional salts on washing
colorfastness.
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Table no 5 and 6 shows the comparative
analysis of colorfastness of fabrics dyed with
conventionally used salts and biodegradable
salt. Results showed that there is no effect or
slight effect on the colorfastness properties of
the treated samples. Only in case of washing
colorfastness noticeable staining was found
when samples dyed with magnesium acetate
tetrahydrate.
Conclusion
This research has revealed that the
biodegradable alkaline salt i.e. magnesium
acetate tetrahydrate can effectively use for
direct dyeing of cotton fabric by exhaust process of dyeing to reduce the dyeing effluent
pollution. There was also the higher increase in
color yield without any change in colorfastness
properties of the dyed samples in comparison
to conventional direct dyeing methods.
References
Braimah J. A., “The Effect of Electrolytes on
Direct Dyes for Cotton”, Department ofTextile Science & Technology,
Department of Chemistry, Ahmadu
Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
Christie, R.M. (2007): Environmental aspects
of textile dyeing, Woodhead publishing
limited and CRC press LLC.
Khatri, A. and Mazhar Hussain Peerzada
(2011): “Improved Reactive Dye-
fixation in Pad-Steam Process of
Dyeing Cotton Fabric Using
Tetrasodium N, NBis
carboxylatomethyl L-Glutamate”.
Khatri, A. “Use of Biodegradable Organic
Salts for Pad-Steam Dyeing of Cotton
Textiles with Reactive Dyes to Improve
Process Sustainability”, IPEDR vol.18
(2011) © (2011) IACSIT Press,
Singapore.
Moore, S. B.: “Low toxicity, biodegradable
salt substitute for dyeing textiles:
magnesium acetate in direct or reactive
dyeing of cotton”, Burlington ChemicalCo., Inc., Burlington, NC.
Thetas, P. (2013): “A Comparison of
Conventional and Biodegradable
Chelating Agent in Different Type of
Surfactant Solutions for Soap Scum
Removal”, World Academy of Science,
Engineering and Technology 76.
Trotman, E.R. (1970): Dyeing and chemical
Technology of textile fiber, Charles
Gribbin and Co. Ltd. London, 4th
edition, 1-5.
Vatsala, (2007): Text book of textile and
clothing ICAR.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Units_of_textile_
measurement
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`
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15
a view to maintain the uniform standards in
preparation of drugs and to prescribe the
working standards for compound
formulations including tests for identifying
purity and quality of the drugs.
Phytochemical research work has been
encouraged by establishment of Central
Drug Research Institute (CDRI), Lucknow
and Central Institute of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow.
National Chemical Laboratory Pune,
Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu,
Hyderabad and Johrat are working in this
field. Pharmacopoeial Laboratory forIndian Medicines established at Ghaziabad
is serving as a center for standard setting
cum drug testing laboratory for Indian
medicine including the Ayurveda.
Similarly, the Central Council of Indian
Medicine was established for working on
Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani system of
medicines. Besides, National Institute of
Ayurveda was established in 1976 at Jaipur
(Rajasthan) in collaboration with
Government of Rajasthan which is working
as a national centre for promoting the
Ayurveda.
Traditional systems of medicine have become
a topic of global importance. Current estimates
suggest that, in many developing countries, a
large proportion of the population reliesheavily on traditional practitioners and
medicinal plants to meet primary health care
needs. Although modern medicine may be
available in many countries, herbal medicines
or phyto-medicines have often maintained
popularity for historical and cultural reasons,
concurrently, many people in developed
countries have begun to turn to alternative or
complementary therapies, including medicinal
herbs.
The medicinal properties of plant species have
made an outstanding contribution in the origin
and evolution of many traditional herbal
therapies. These traditional knowledge systems
have started to disappear with the passage of
time due to scarcity of written documents and
relatively low income in these traditions. Over
the past few years, however, the medicinal
plants have regained a wide recognition due to
an escalating faith in herbal medicine in viewof its lesser side effects compared to allopathic
medicine in addition the necessity of meeting
the requirements of medicine for an increasing
human population. Through the realization of
the continuous erosion of traditional
knowledge of plants used for medicine in the
past and the renewed interest at the present
time, a need existed to review this valuable
knowledge of medicinal plants with the
purpose of developing medicinal plants sectors
across the different states in India. Our major
objectives therefore were to explore the
potential in medicinal plants resources, to
understand the challenges and opportunities
with the medicinal plants sector, and also to
suggest recommendations based upon the
present state of knowledge for theestablishment and smooth functioning of the
medicinal plants sector along with improving
the living standards of the underprivileged
communities. The review reveals that northern
India harbors a rich diversity of valuable
medicinal plants, and attempts are being made
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16
at different levels for sustainable utilization of
this resource in order to develop the medicinal
plants sector.
Commenced with a small and traditional
production of ayurvedic drugs, now vaidyas
are stepping towards social and rural
development by adopting scientific
methodology. Now vaidyas has had the exalted
vision to bring Ayurveda to society in a
contemporary form and to unravel the mystery
behind haloed and revered Indian Indigenous
system of medicine by exploring selecting
indigenous herbs. The ancient ayurvedic
literatures are scientifically validating bysubjecting the formulations to modern
pharmacological/ toxicological safety test and
clinical trials to create new drugs and
therapies. Healthy life relies on the proper
union of body, senses (sensory & motor), mind
and soul.
Objective of Review
1.
To study the fundamental concepts ofAyurvedic drugs preparation in modern
era.
2. To spread awareness among
practiceners and drugs manufacturer
and Quality chemist, Scientists.
3. To support for the Ayurvedic drug
preparation in India in modern era.
Materials and method
For this study ayurveda text has been used to
evaluate the concepts. The text from
brihattrayee i.e. Charaka Samhita, Sushruta
Samhita and Ashtanga Sangraha, Ashtanga
hridaya and their respective commentaries in
Sanskrit as well as Hindi which were easily
available. Also text from laghutrayee i.e.
Madhava Nidana, Bhav Prakash, Vriksha
Ayurveda have been used. Various related
websites have been searched. Also collected
from some Ayurvedic manufacturing units. As
Ayurvedic approach to therapeutics includes
quartet-viz.
1- Physician
2- Drugs
3- Medical attendant
4- Patient itself
Ayurvedic System in Ancient Day’s
Also according to Righved drugs has the same
importance for physician as a king has for his
state. The physician who knows about these
combinations and can provide to the patients
by considering there needs of that era will be
considered best physician as –
;=ks"k/kh% leXer jktku% lferkfooA
foiz% l mP;rs fHk"kx~
j{ksgk·ehopkru%AA
As according to CHARAK SAMHITA
SUTRA STHAN, the emphasize may be given
mainly to drug which has its own importance
in various forms.
i×pfo/ka d"kk;dYiufefr A
r|Fkk&Lojlk%] dYd%] J`r%] 'khr%]
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In the Charak era only five preparations were
predominately in use concerning to patient and
its disease.
A. Location and surroundings- According to
our Ayurvedic text the site should be-
1) Holy place
2) At east or north direction of city
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3) Away from all types of fear and evils
B. Buildings- during ancient days the
considerable points were-
(1) Proper ventilation
(2) Strong and lengthy walls(3) Having images of Shiva & Parvati
(4) The working directions were determined as
follows:-
What was the wisdom behind selecting specificdirection for specific work is to researched out.
Ayurvedic System Modern Day’s
But as the demand of Ayurvedic preparation
increased with the change of time, the drug
formulation viz. vati, churna, sneh kalpna,
sandhan kalpna, panchkarma kalpna also were
took place. Further modification in these
kalpnas were also done as preservatives are
used in kwath kalpna, also fat are converted
further into asavas and aristas to fulfill the
needs of large population. To sale in large
quantity these drugs can be stored for long
time under controlled condition through
collection, selection, dispensing etc. by
different unit. Today it is not possible to bring
the whole ayurvedic approach under full
control of physician as it was in ancient time.
So to improve quality, quantity etc. of the
drugs, pharmacies and other units are
developed. For compliance of good
manufacturing practices in Ayurveda, the
manufacturing plant should have adequate
space for-
1-Receiving and storing raw materials
2-Manufacturing process area
3-Quality control section
4- Finished goods, packing & storage.
5-Office
6-Rejected goods and drug store and general
requirements
But now some other criteria are also followed
which are as under-
Location and surrounding are so situated and
have such construction as to avoid
contamination from open sewage, drain, public
lavatory or any factory which produces
disagreeable or obnoxious odour or fumes or
excessive soot, dust or smoke etc.
But now days the buildings used for factory are
such as to permit production of drugs under
hygienic conditions and must be free from
cobwebs and insects, rodents. They have
adequate provision of light and ventilation. The
floor and walls should not damp or moist. The
premises used for manufacturing, processing,
packaging and labeling must be in conformity
with the provision of Factory Act.
The location choose so as to be-
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A. Compatible with other manufacturing
operations that may be carried out in the
same or adjacent premises.
B. Working space must be provided
adequately with to allow orderly and
logical placement of equipment and
materials to avoid the risk of mix up
between different drugs.
C. The flooring shall be smooth & even and
shall be such that as not to permit retention
or accumulation of dust or waste products.
D. The fire safety measures and proper exits
must be there.
Water supply- pure and potable quality ofwater must be used. Adequate provision of
water for washing the premises are also be
made. Disposal of water-From the
manufacturing sections and labs the waste
water and the residues which might be
prejudicial to the workers or public health
must be disposed of after suitable treatment as
per guidelines of pollution control authorities
to render them harmless.
Stores-proper ventilated free from dampness
and independent adequate space for storage of
different types of material and finished
products is essential with a view to stability of
the drugs.
General perspectives of Modern Pharmacy
Now a day’s pharmacy has utilized modern
empirical and scientific system under
traditional norms to rediscover comprehend
and validate ayurved’s miracle secrets. Cutting
edge technology is employed to create
pharmaceutical grade of ayurvedic products.
Now the pharmacies are producing quality
phyto - pharmaceutical drugs .To monitor
quality the principals of good manufacturing
practices (GMP), good packaging practices
(GPP), good laboratory practices (GLP),good
agricultural practices (GAP), good harvesting
practices (GHP), are rigorously and
meticulously followed in the manufacturing of
efficient and pristine quality ayurvedic
medicines. Now a day’s PLC controlled herbal
extraction plant commissioned in the pharmacy
is used for extracting from the various parts of
the medicinal plant like leaves, flower, seeds,
barks, roots and rhizomes.
SCADA technology is being used under
controlled environmental condition oftemperature and pressure. The extract
concentration is achieved under vacuum drying
preserving the maximum valued contents of
the herbs. To put it succinctly, this unit extracts
the product with maximum recovery of the
active ingredients in the extract since thermal
degradation is totally avoided.
Ayurvedic medicines with several quality
circles and special project terms working on
total quality management (TQM) projects
make quality a mission and a byword at
modern pharmacy. The manufacturing
facilities of today’s pharmacy include to high
light the prominent, automatic, high speed
spray drug, pilot extraction plant and main
extraction plant. The fluid bed processor for
rapid fluidization and tablet compressionmachines having an hourly capacity of lacks
tablet further expedite the production process.
The high speed mixture, grinder and fluid bed
techniques tends for uniform homogenization
of the product and the cleaning ,crushing and
pulverizing equipments make raw material
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19
available in adequate and superior quality
dimensions. The most automated and
sophisticated packing section at today’s
Ayurvedic pharmacy includes automatic PLC
managed packing machine (approx 300 bottles
/minute) and blister pack facilities. Today the
ayurvedic pharmacy has well established utility
center having generator, boiler having
composite capacity, steam generation with
softener and cooling towers and a reciprocal air
compression.
Some important manufacturing processes and
equipments used in Ayurvedic pharmacy in
modern days – Swaras formation – Juice isextracted
Kalk – i.e. paste formation by different matters
Decocation / Shrat – mixture of raw material
and water is boiled till it remains one fourth of
the initial state and shodhan , marasna, jarana,
morchana, sanskar, formation of koopy pakva
rasayna, parpati kalpana, choorna kalpana,
sneha kalpana, sandhan kalpana etc. otherimportant preparation.
Anjana/ Pisti: Kharel/ ball mill, sieves/ shifter
Churna: Grinder/ disintegrator/ pulverizer,
powder mixer, sieves/ shifter.
Ark: Maceration tank, distillation plant, liquid
filling tank with filter/ filter press, visual
inspection box.
Manufacturing Areas
Now a day’s manufacture of sterile Ayurvedic
drugs, separate enclosed areas specifically
designed for the purpose are in use. These
areas are provided with air locks for entry and
are essentially dust free and ventilated with an
air supply. For all areas where aseptic
manufacture are carried out, air is filtered
through bacteria retaining filters (HEPA
Filters) the pressure higher than in the adjacent
areas are provided. The filters are checked for
performance on installation and periodically
thereafter the record of checks is also
maintained. All the surfaces in sterile
manufacturing areas are designed to facilitate
cleaning and disinfection. For sterile
manufacturing routine microbial counts of all
Ayurvedic, drug manufacturing areas are
carried out during operations. Results of such
count against established in-house standards
and record are also maintained. Raw Materials
All raw materials procured for manufacturing
are stored in the raw materials store. The
manufacture based on the experience and the
characteristics of particular raw material used
in ayurveda, decide the use of appropriate
containers which would protect quality of raw
material as well as prevent it from damage due
to dampness, microbiological contamination or
rodent and insect infestation, etc. If certain raw
materials require such controlled
environmental conditions, the raw materials
stores may be sub-divided with proper
enclosures to provide such conditions by
suitable carbonization. While designing such
containers, cabins or areas in the raw materials
store, care may be taken to handle thefollowing different categories of raw material:-
1. Raw material of metal/mineral origin.
2. Fresh Herbs.
3. Plant extracts and exudates/resins.
4. Dry Herbs or plant parts.
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5. Raw material from animal source.
6. Excipients etc.
7. Volatile oils/perfumes & flavours.
Each container used for raw material storage
shall be properly identified with the labelwhich indicates name of the raw material,
source of supply and will also clearly state the
status of raw material such as `UNDER TEST’
or `APPROVED’ or `REJECTED’. The labels
shall further indicate the identity of the
particular supply in the form of batch No. or
lot No. and the date of receipt of the
consignment.
All the raw materials shall be sampled and got
tested either by the in house Ayurvedic,
experts (Quality control technical person) or by
the laboratories approved by the Government
and shall be used only on approval after
verifying. The rejected raw material should be
removed from other raw material store and
should be kept in separate room. Procedure of
`First in first out should be adopted for rawmaterials wherever necessary. Records of the
receipt, testing and approval or rejection and
use of raw material shall be maintained.
The following test are performed in this stage-
S.
No.Tests
1.
Description
Colour
Odour
Taste (if necessary)
Identification
Macroscopic
Microscopic
Powder analysis
2.
Foreign matter
Loss on drying at 1050 C
Total - ash
Acid - insoluble ash
Water soluble ash
Sulphated ash
pH value
Volatile Oil(if any)
3.
Particle size Bulk density
Tap density
4. Water -soluble extractives
5. Alcohol -soluble extractives
6.TLC/HPLC/HPTLC-Profile with marker
(where ever possible)
7.
Assay-for Constituents (Marker, Major
compounds like Alkaloids,
flavonoids/saponins compounds
8.
Test for heavy/toxic metals Lead
Cadmium
Mercury
Arsenic
9.
Microbial contamination Total viable aerobic count
Enterobacteriaceae
Total fungal count
10.
Test for specific Pathogen E coli
Salmonella spp.
S.aureus
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
11.
Pesticide residue Organochlorine pesticides
Organophosphorus pesticides
Pyrethroids
12. Test for Aflatoxine (B1,B2,G1,G2)
For extraction and mid products-during
extraction the extract is collected at various
time interval and the same test as mentioned
above along with shelf life study are performed
with the extract.
For final product –final analysis is carried out
for different products like powders, Bhasmas,
tablets etc. in different steps-
S.
No.
Tests
1. Description
2. Colour
Odour
Taste
3. Loss on drying at 105 oC
Total- ash
Acid insoluble ash
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Total solid
pH
Volatile oil
Water -soluble extractives
Alcohol -soluble extractives
4.. Weight/ml.
Refractive index at 250C
Viscosity
Iodine value (where ever applicable)
Saponification value
Acid value
Total fatty matter
5. Test for heavy/toxic metals Lead
Cadmium
Mercury
Arsenic
6. Microbial contamination Total viable aerobic count
Total enterobacteriaceae
Total fungal count
7. Test for specific pathogen E. coli
Salmonella spp.
S. aureus
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
8. Pesticide residue
Organochlorine pesticides
Organophosphorus pesticides
Pyrethroids
9. Test for aflatoxine (B1,B2,G1,G2)
10. TLC/HPLC/HPTLC-Profile with marker
(where ever possible)
Assay-for Constituents (Marker, Major
compounds like Alkaloids,
flavonoids/saponins compounds
11. Tablets/Capsules: Uniformity of weight
Disintegration time
Friability(if tablet)
Hardness if tablet)
Preservative(if any)
Binders(if any)
Diluents(if any)
12. Shelf life.
Batch Manufacturing Records
The license maintain batch manufacturing
record of each batch of Ayurvedic drugs
manufactured irrespective of the type of
product manufactured (classical preparation or
patent and proprietary medicines).
Manufacturing records are available to provide
an account of the list of raw materials and their
quantities obtained from the store, tests
conducted during the various stages of
manufacture like taste, colour, physical
characteristics and chemical tests as necessary
or indicated in the approved books of
Ayurveda mentioned in the First Schedule of
the Drugs and Cosmetic Act, 1940 (23 of
1940). These tests include any pharmacopoeial
test adopted by the manufacturer in the raw
material or in the process material and in the
finished product. These records are signed by
Production and Quality Control Personnelrespectively. Details of transfer of
manufactured drug to the finished products
store including dates and quantity of drugs
transferred along with record of testing of the
finished product, if any, and packaging,
records are maintained. Only after the
manufactured drugs have been verified and
accepted quality are allowed to be cleared for
sale. The record of date, manpower, machine
and equipments used are maintained.
Precautions against microbial
contamination and mix
Manufacturing operations are carrying out in a
separate block of adequately isolated building.
Pressure differential in the process area are
used. a suitable exhaust system is provided.
Laminar flow sterile air systems for sterile products are designed. The germicidal
efficiency of UV lamps is checked and
recorded indicating the burning hours or
checked using intensity. Expert technical staff
approved by the Licensing Authority checks
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and compare actual yield against theoretical
yield before final distribution of the batch.
Packaging Material
All packaging material such as bottle jars etc
are stored properly and tested for its bursting
strength and for its weight by using following
machines:-
1. Electronic GSM test/weighing balance
2. Intelligent bursting strength tester
3. And the extracts are converted into granules
by electro lab peristaltic pump.
Quality Control
License is given to provide facility for qualitycontrol section in his own premises or through
Government approved testing laboratory. The
test is done as per the Ayurvedic
pharmacopoeial standard. Where the tests are
not available, the test is performed according
to the manufacturer’s specification or other
information available. The quality control
section verify all the raw materials, monitor in
process, quality checks and control the quality
of finished product being released to finished
goods store/ware house. Preferably for such
Quality control there is a separate expert. The
quality control section has the following
facilities:
1. More than 150 sq. feet area for quality
control section is provided
2. For identification of raw drugs, reference
books and reference samples
manufacturing record are maintained for
the various processes.
3. To verify the finished products, controlled
samples of finished products of each batch
are kept for 3 years.
4. To supervise and monitor adequacy of
conditions under which raw materials,
semi-finished products and finished
products are stored.
5. Manufacturers who are manufacturing
patent proprietary Ayurvedic medicines
provide their own specification and control
references in respect of such formulated
drugs.
6. The record of specific method and
procedure of preparation, that is,
"Bhavana", "Mardana" and "Puta" and the
record of every process carried out by the
manufacturer is maintained.
7. The standards for identity, purity and
strength as given in respective
pharmacopoeias of Ayurvedic medicines
published by Government of India are
complied with.
8. All raw materials are monitored for fungal,
bacterial contamination with a view to
minimize such contamination.9. Quality control section have a minimum of
1. One person with Degree qualification
in Ayurveda as per Schedule II of
Indian Medicine Central Council Act,
1970 (84 of 1970) of a recognized
university or Board.
2. Also Bachelor of Pharmacy,
Pharmacognosy and Chemistryassociated with the quality control
section.
Mainly Drugs are checked for its quality by
three departments
1. Department of Botany
2. Department of chemistry
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3. Department of microbiology
Some instrument used by today’s pharmacy to
control of the modern Ayurvedic pharmacy are
as follows
1. Disintegration test machine
2.
Friable test apparatus – to find how much it
breaks in the transport which should not be
more than 1%.
3. I R moisture balance (infrared) – with in 15
min. it tells moisture content
DIGITAL AUTOMATIC TAP/BULK
DENSITY TEST APPARATUS
4. Bulky density apparatus – in this it is seen
that how much the drug becomes dense
when the specific quantity of the drug is
pulled within given time limits
5. Muffle furnace – to find out total ash
after ignition
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6. Vaccume Drying Oven/ LOD (Loss in
drying)
7. Sieve shaker – to find in how much mess
churna sieves
8. Vaccum Dessicator – silica is kept to
absorb moisture
9. Ultra-Violet-flourescent-analysis-cabinet
10. U.V. Lamp (U.V. fluorescence analysis) –
measurement of hydrogen ions to find RF
11. Double distillation unit for water (KMNO4
used as germicide)
12. Water bath to concentrate
13. Ethanol recovery (residue settle down)
14. Oxalate assembly (ten times more
distillation than ethanol recovery takes
place)
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15. Rotatory vaccume evaporator
16. Polarimeter to find out optical rotation
17. Clevenger for essential oil extraction
18. HP-TLC for Separation, Identification and
assay
Some Instruments are used against
microbial contamination are as follows
1. Laminar air flow (LF) – inoculation poring,
sampling, sticking, spreading are done hyper
filter is used
2. Autoclave – to sterile the media steam is
used here, plate growth is discarded and fungus
etc., are removed
3. Water bath – 1. to melt media , 2. for growth
of bacteria
4. U.V. - VIS spectrometer for concentration of
solvent
5. Hot air oven pipettes etc. are sterile kept at
150-1800C for three hours
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6. Incubator – to grow bacteria, pathogens are
mainly tested for TAMC (total aerobic
microbial content)
7. Refrigerator –
8. BOD incubator- to test growth of mould andyeast etc. kept at 25
0C for 7 days
9. Fumigator (fumes are checked and
formaldehyde is used)
10. Anaerobic jar – anaerobic bacteria are
grown as clostridium
11. Digital colony counters
12. Antibiotic zone reader
13. Strainer
14. Mixture
15. Magnetic stirrer - to melt media with hot
plate
16. Centrifugal
17. Electric balance for weighing
All process controls as required under master
formula including room temperature relative
humidity, volume filled, leakage and clarity are
checked and recorded.
Conclusion
Yes it is well and good that by using all this
modern methodology we can save time that is
large preparation in less time and the needs of
large population are fulfilled, also preparation
becomes more hygienic than used in ancient
days, preparation can be kept for larger
duration and can be made more useful having
some other advantage which suits modern
day’s life. Vaidhyas can make stronger
preparation and have greater variability in their
treatment approach because here they have to
make their effective combination and not just
proceed symptomatically. Also modern
techniques are some but dehumanizing today’s
practice of medicine breaking the relationship
between human and nature. Different methods
of Aushadhi preparation are adopted thenreturn in our text just to increase popularity etc.
which deteriorates the quality of medicine.
Medicinal of properties of instruments metal
are also not considered mainly stainless steel
instruments are used. So today there is need to
adopt modern methodology with considering
more and more minute, comprehensive
analysis and explanation with proper
reasoning, without ignoring the holistic
approaches of Ayurveda.
References
Dhiman, A.K. (2005): Wild Medicinal
Plants of India. Bishen Singh
Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.
WHO (1999): Monographs on selected
medicinal plants, Vol. I, 1-3, WHO,
Geneva.Ch.Su.1/15 Charaka Samhita English
translation by R.K. Sharma & R.K.
Bhagwan Dash by publisher
Choukhambha Sanskrit Series office,
Vol. I.
Chandra, P. Kala, Pitamber, P. Dhyani and
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27
Bikram, S. Sajwan (2006): Developing
the medicinal plants sector in northern
India: challenges and opportunities,
Journal of Ethnobiology and
ethnomedicine, 2:32.
Patwardhan, B., Mashelkar, R.A. Traditional
medicine-inspired approaches to drug
discovery: can Ayurveda show the way
forward. Drug Discov. Today; p. 1-8.
Dhalwal, K., Birada, Y.S., Shinde, V.M.,
Mahadik, K.R., Rajani, M. (2008):
Phytochemical evaluation and
validation of a polyherbal formulation
using HPTLC. Phcog Mag: 4 Suppl 14;89-95.
Mukherjee, P.K., Wahile, A. (2005): Integrated
approaches towards drug development
from Ayurveda and other Indian system
of medicines. J Ethnopharm; 103: 25-
35.
Therapeutics Letter 25 (2009): Herbal
medicines An Evidence Based Look
Available.
1998:http://interchange.ubc.ca/jauca.
Mohapathra, P, Shirwaikar A. Aswatha Ram
HN. Standardization of a Polyherbal
Formulation. Phcog Mag. (1998); 4
suppl 13: 65-69.
Nesari, T., Bhagwat, B.K., Johnson, J., Bhatt,
N.S., Chitre, D. (2002): Clinical
Validation of Efficacy and Safety of
Herbal Formula. J Herb
Pharmacotherapy; 4 suppl 4:1-12.
Chaudhri, R.D. (2004): Editor in Herbal Drug
Industry. Eastern Publishers. New
Delhi. p. 513.
Patwardhan, B., Warude, D., Pushpangadan,
P., Bhatt, N. (2005): Evid Based
Complement. Alternate Med. 4: 881.Chaudhri, R.D. (2003): editors in Herbal Drug
Industry. 1st ED. Eastern Publishers.
New Delhi. p. 513.
WHO (2001): general guidelines for
methodologies on research and
evaluation of Traditional Medicine
World Health Organisation. Geveva; p.
4-9.
Indian Pharmacopoeia (1996): 3rd ed. Vol. 2
Controller of Publications. Government
of India. New Delhi.
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`
Cyclic v
complex
Tevatia,
Received
Abstrac
In t
characte
Dimethy
tetraazac
macrocy
complex
studies
octahedr
complexcarried o
DMSO.
shown o
for these
of their
The he
constant
help of
found i
macrocy
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aerugino
ESSEN
Volume V
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E-mail: pr
ltammetri
es
Prashant;
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is com
ization a
l-dibenzo[b,
yclododeca
clic comple
es have bee
are in go
al geometr
es. Cyclicut on Pt dis
Cyclic vo
e electron
macrocycl
eak seperat
erogeneous
(K 0) was
Nicholson
the orde
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bial activi
sa, B. cereu
E - Intern
I: No. 2 2015
pondence:
t of Chemistr
yalaya, Harid
ashant_tevati
c and anti
umar, An
0, 2015 A
unication,
d electro
h]tetraphen
- 1, 3, 7,
xes of Fe(I
carried o
od agreem
y of thes
oltammetrih (0.031 c
ltammetric
riversible r
c complexe
ion and pea
electron
also deter
and Kochi’
K 0Co(II) >
plexes a
ties agains
s, S. aureus
tional Jou
28 – 34]
, Gurukula K
ar, India
icrobial st
uj; Sweety
ccepted: No
synthe
chemistry
l - 2, 3, 8,
9 - tetra
II) and Co
t. The spec
ent with
macrocy
studies w2) electrode
studies h
dox proces
s on the b
current ra
transfer r
ined with
s method
K 0Fe(III).
lso sho
E. coli,
and antifun
nal for En
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dies of Co(
and Singh,
ember 28, 2
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ne
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words:
tronic spec
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Recent a
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ict their
ounted
ugh the d
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rest in t
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earance of t
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tronic conf
ensional ar
[Fe(CN)6]4
ent in ink
colour wh
l Rehabilit
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: December
C. albican
mpared wi
Macrocycli
ral studies |
ctivity.
dvances i
bility to de
ral macroc
properties.
elicate m
velopment
s, 1987; B
l., 2012). T
he field
compounds
he classifica
nd theoreti
guration. P
ay of Fe (I
units, ha
and dyes b
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[ISS
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1, 2015
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Tevatia et al. /Vol. VI [2] 2015/28 – 34
29
charge transfer (MMCT) transition (Malik et
al., 1983; Ma et al., 2006 and Verani et al.,
2000) whereby an electron is transferred from
an Fe (II) to Fe(III) center. The MMCT
transition is not possible in the oxidized Fe (II)
- Fe (III) or reduced Fe (II) - Fe (I) states
resulting in loss of the blue coloration making
this compound brown and white respectively.
The significant roles played in living systems
by metal ions depend on their confinement
within approximately planar tetradentate
totally enclosed macrocyclic systems which are
themselves, highly conjugated species. Much
of the mystique associated with the binding ofmolecular oxygen by naturally occurring heme,
has been removed by successful challenge to
this field (Lonibala et al., 2006; Soderberg,
2008; Nunez et al., 2010 and Chen et al.,
2012). The ability of synthetic macrocyclic
complexes to mimic the properties of naturally
occurring macrocyclic systems is now well
recognized. Keeping all views, in this
communication, synthesis, characterization and
electrochemistry of Dimethyl-dibenzo [b,h]
tetraphenyl-2,3,8,9-tetraazacyclo dodeca -1, 3,
7, 9 - tetraene macrocyclic complexes of
Fe(III) and Co(II) complexes have been carried
out.
Materials and methods
The elemental (C, H, N) and mass spectral
studies of these macrocycles were carried outat Central Instrumental Laboratory (CIL)
Panjab University, Chandigarh (Eager
Xperience and TOF MS ES+6018e3). The
molar conductance of these macrocycles
complexes was recorded on Auto ranging
Conductivity/TDS Meter (TCM 15+). The
electronic and IR spectra of these macrocyclic
complexes were recorded on Double Beam
Spectrophotometer (Shimadzu 2450
spectrophotometer) in methanol and
Schimadzu-8400S double beam
spectrophotometer by KBr DRS method
respectively. The electrochemical studies of
these macrocyclic complexes were carried on
the Platinum electrode (0.031 cm2) using Auto
lab Metrohm 663 VA Stand Instrument. Tetra
ethyl ammoniumperchlorate (TEAP) used as
supporting electrolytes. The pre-treatment of Pt
electrode was carried out before every
experiment.Preparation of the Macrocyclic complexes
The macrocyclic complexes have been
synthesized according to the literature method
using 2 moles of 3,4 - diaminotoluene (0.244
g), 2 moles of benzyl (0.420 g) and 1 mole of
iron (III) chloride (0.162 g) (Tevatia et al.,
2014 and Singh et al., 2002).
O
O
NH2
NH2
Ph
Ph
N
N N
N
Ph Ph
Ph Ph
Me
M22
MCl2.xH2O
M = Fe(III) and Co(II)
Cl
Cl
Me Me
Fig. 1: The synthesis scheme of these tetra-
azamacrocyclic complexes
Macrocyclic
complexes
>C=N
str.
C=C str.
(Aromatic)
C―H
str.
(Methyl)
M―N
str.[FeC42H32 N4Cl2]Cl 1645 1235,
1125, 7802935 495
[CoC42H32 N4Cl2] 1630 1355,1230,865
2985 515
Table 1: Physical properties of tetra-
azamacrocyclic complexes ofFe(III) and Co(II).
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30
Results and discussion
IR spectra
The IR spectra of these macrocyclic complexes
showed a strong band near 1620-1650 cm –1
due to C=N group. The other characteristic
bands for these macrocyclic complexes
observed in the region 1230-1370 cm-1
, 1050-
1260 cm-1
, 690-890 cm-1
and 2930-3000 cm-1
may be assigned for the vibrations of aromatic
rings and C-H stretching of CH3 group
respectively (Ma et al., 2006; Chaudhary et al.,
2002 and Prasad et al., 2007). The other
absorption characteristics appeared in the
region 520-490 cm-1 may be assigned for ν(M-
N) vibrations. The IR data for these complexes
is given in table 2.
Complexes Colour Molar
conductance
(ohm-1cm-
2mol-1)
M.P.
(0C)
Mol. Wt. C
(found)
(%)
H
(found)
(%)
N
(found)
(%)
[FeC42H32 N4Cl2]ClLight
yellow65 230 755
67.65
(65.21)
4.24
(3.39)
7.42
(7.16)
[CoC42H32 N4Cl2] Brown 30 220 72269.81
(68.73)4.43
(4.73)7.75
(8.16)
Table 2: IR data of tetraazamacrocyclic complexes of Fe(III) and Co(II)
Electronic spectral studies
The electronic studies of these macrocyclic
complexes were carried out in methanol. The
observed data for these macrocyclic complexes
are given in the following table 3. On the basis
of results, the octahedral geometry has been
assigned for both tetraazamacrocyclic
complexes. The ligand field parameters studies
for these macrocyclic complexes (Dq, B' and β)
have been calculated for these macrocyclic
complexes using Orgel energy and Tanabe-
Sugano diagrams using ν3/ν1 and ν2/ν1 ratio.
The nephelauxetic parameter (β) was
calculated using the relation. β = B' / B where
the values of B for free metal ions are taken as
Fe (III) = 1153 cm-1
and Co(II) = 971 cm-1
(Chandra and Kumar, 2013). The calculated
values of nephelauxetic parameter (β) of these
macrocyclic complexes are given in table 3.
Complexes
Electronic SpectraStereoche
mistry
Ligand Field Parameter
Energy
(cm-1
)Transition
Dq
(cm-1
) ν3/ ν1 B' (cm-1) β
[C42H32 N4FeCl2]
Cl
27983 5T2g(D) →5Eg(D)Octahedral 1756 1.3 1035 0.76
[C42H32 N4CoCl2] 15635
14575
23356
4T1g(F) → 4T2g(F)4T1g(F) → 4A2g
4T1g(F) → 4T1g(P)
Octahedral 975 1.5 956 0.81
Table 3: Electronic spectral data of tetra-azamacrocycliccomplexes of Fe(III) and Co(II).
Mass Spectra
The mass spectrum of Fe(III) macrocyclic
complex [FeC42H32 N4Cl2]Cl showed molecular
ion peak (M+1) at m/z 756 and other peaks at
m/z 684 and 669 which may be assigned to the
cleavage of CH3 and Cl units respectively.
Co(II) macrocyclic complex [CoC42H32 N4Cl2]
showed molecular ion peak (M+1) at m/z 723
and other peaks at m/z 651 and 636 assignable
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to the cleavage of CH3 and Cl units (Chandra
et al., 2013).
Electrochemical studies
Cyclic voltammetry of these macrocyclic
complexes have been carried out in DMSO
containing 0.1M TEAP as supporting
electrolyte. Cyclic voltammograms of these
macrocyclic complexes are shown in fig. 2. In
this communication, the diffusion coefficient
(D0) and heterogeneous electron transfer rate
constant (K 0) for these macrocyclic complexes
have been calculated with the help of
Nicholson and Kochi methodologies (Anuj et
al., 2015 and Nicholson and Shain, 1964). Thecyclic voltammogram (Fig. 2a) of Fe(III)
macrocyclic complex at 200 mVs-1
scan rate
exhibited two anodic peaks corresponding to
the cathodic peak and one anodic peak without
corresponding cathodic peak. The first redox
process of Fe (III) macrocyclic complex is a
reversible redox couple Fe+2
/Fe+1
corresponds
to peak separation ∆E = -0.07 V and formal
potential E1/2 = -0.95 V while the second redox
process is a quasi-reversible with the
corresponding to peak separation ∆E = 0.15 V
and formal potential E1/2 = 0.65 V for the
couple, which is also supported by the peak
current ratio (i pa/i pc) that is close to unity. The
cyclic voltammogram (Fig. 2b) of [Co(II)L]
complex showed a reversible redox couple
L/L-1
corresponding to peak separation ∆ E = -0.13 V and formal potential E 1/2 from -1.01 V
at 200 mV s-1
scan rate. The reversibility of
this couple is also supported by the ratio i pa/i pc
that is close to unity while the second redox
couple for Co+2
/Co+3
is found at formal
potential +0.80 V with peak separation ∆ E =
0.20 V. This redox process is the
quasirreversible as also indicated by the peak
current ratio i pa/i pc. The redox process,
Co+2
/Co+1
of this macrocyclic complex is also
found the quasirreversible redox process,
supported by corresponding peak separation
∆ E and the peak current ratio. Further, the
plots of i p against v1/2
were found to be linear,
indicating that the redox process was
controlled by diffusion, following the Randles-
Sevcik equation for reversible electrochemical
reactions.
i = -2.69 × 105 n
3/2AD
1/2cv
1/2
Where n is the number of electrons transferred,A is the area of the electrode, D is the diffusion
coefficient, c is the analyte concentration and v
is the scan rate.
The diffusion coefficient (D0) and
heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant
(K 0), as calculated are in the order D0
Co(II)
(2.11× 10-5
cm2/s) > D0
Fe(III) (1.7 × 10
-5cm
2/s)
and K
0
Co(II) (5.41 × 10
-3
cm/s) > K
0
Fe(III) (3.41 ×10
-3cm/s).
.
(a)
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(b)
Fig. 2: Cyclic voltammograms of (a) Fe(III) and (b) Co(II)macrocyclic complexes.
Biological activity
The antimicrobial activities of these
macrocyclic complexes of Fe(III) and Co(II)
were studied by agar well diffusion method.
The microbial cultures for these macrocyclic
complexes were adjusted to 0.5 McFarland
standards, which are visually comparable to a
microbial pathogen suspension of
approximately 1.5 × 108 cfu/ ml. Now 25 ml of
agar media was poured into petri plates and
was swabbed with 100 µl microbial inoculums
of the test microorganisms and kept for 20
minutes. A 6 mm well was cut at the centre of
the all agar plates and were filled with test
complexes (Asiri et al., 2011; Al-Bishri et al.,
2011; Hunter et al., 2004 and Cushine et al.,2005). Solvent medium was used as a negative
control where as media with Gentamycin used
as positive control. After 24 h of incubation at
37ᵒC each plate was observed for the
measurement of diameter at inhibition zone and
in case for fungus, inhibition zone was
measured after 48 h of incubation at 28ᵒC.
Antimicrobial activity of these macrocyclic
complexes were evaluated by measuring the
zone of growth inhibition against the test
organisms with zone reader (Hi Antibiotic
Zone Scale) (Mallie et al., 2005; Chohan et al.,
2004; Roy et al., 1999 and Tagg and Giben,
1971).
The tetraazamacrocyclic complex of Co(II)
showed maximum zone of inhibition against E.
coli (20 mm) followed by S. aureus (14 mm),
B. subtilis (15 mm) and P. aeruginosa (16
mm). Fe(III) macrocyclic complex exhibit
maximum zone of inhibition against E. coli (18mm) followed by B. subtilis (16 mm) and S.
aureus (16 mm), P. aeruginosa (15 mm).
Against fungal pathogen C. albicans,
macrocyclic complexes of Fe(III) were found
most effective (18 mm) followed by the Co(II)
macrocyclic complexes (17 mm) as showed in
fig. 3.
Complex
(100 mg/ml)
Diameter of inhibition zone (mm)
E.
coli
P.
aerug
inosa
B.
subtil
is
S.
aure
us
C.
albican
s
[C42H32N4FeCl2]
Cl18 15 16 16 18
[C42H32N4CoCl2] 20 16 15 14 17
Gentamycin 24 24 24 24 20
Table 4: Antimicrobial activity of the
synthesized macrocyclic complexes
Fig. 3: Graphical presentation of antimicrobial activity of these
macrocyclic complexes against pathogens
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Fe(III)
Co(II)
Gentamycin
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Conclusions
In this communication, tetraazamacrocyclic
complexes of Fe(III) and Co(II) have been
synthesized by the template method using 2,4-
diaminotoluene and benzyl. The spectral
studies have confirmed the octahedral
geometry for these tetraazamacrocyclic
complexes. Cyclic voltammetric studies also
showed the interesting results for their unusual
oxidation state and also showed the
heterogeneous rate constant found in the order
K 0Co(II) > K
0Fe(III). These macrocyclic
complexes have shown good promise for
antimicrobial activity against both Gram +veand Gram –ve bacteria.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to CSIR New Delhi
for financial support in the past projects and
support is also acknowledged for completion
the studies from SAIF Panjab University
Chandigarh.
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36
Drinking Water Act charged the EPA with
responsibility for developing drinking water,
regulations to protect the public health. In
1975, the EPA published the interim primary
drinking water regulations and the secondary
regulations become effective from January 19,
1981. The international standards were first
published by the world health organization26
(WHO) in 1958. In the present study water
samples were collected from four different
locations of Chhoyya Nala of Hapur district.
Chhoyya Nala is the main drain of Hapur city
which are carrying industrial and domestie
waste water of city.In developing countries 95% of the used water
is not subject to cleansing treatment before it's
released to surface waters. So we must look
into all aspects of water uses to ensure the
quality of water available for all the present
and future needs. Owing to population
explosion pressure, pollution of water
resources is increasing3. At least 30000 human
deaths are caused daily by contaminated water
and poor sanitation16
. More than 1.7 billion
people have no direct access to potable water,
this number is likely to double within the next
25 years (ICMR, 1975).
Methodology
The bulk of the data used in this paper was
derived from archival sources and content
analysis of different research findings in
relation to environmental problems due to
impacts of human production and consumption
activities in India. In this present study
sampling station is Chhoyya Nala (Hapur)
which divided in to four sample points in
sequence near by asoda, near by Jasroop
Nagar, near by Ganeshpura and near by
Ramgari respectively. All sample points were
situated approximately equal distance from
each other having different pollutional
condition. Various water samples were
collected for analysis and sample points are
referred as SP1 to SP4.
S.
No.
Sampling
pointLocation (Area) Description
1 SP1 Near by Asoda SW
2 SP2 Near by Jasroop Nagar
SW
3 SP3 Near by Ganeshpura SW
4 SP4 Near by Ramgari SW
Table 1: Sampling points of Chhoyya Nala
*SW-surface water
Physico-chemical Parameters and analysis
of trace metal
Some of the physco-chemical characteristics
were analyzed in the field just after collection
and remaining parameters were estimated on
laboratory of chemistry of department, SSV
S.
No.Parameter
Technique
UsedEquipments
1 TDSEvaporating
filtrate
-------------------------
-
2 phosphate InstrumentalUV-VISSpectrophotometer,
SL-157, Elico
3Oil and
Grease
Liq. & Liq.
Extractionmethod
-------------------------
-
4 Turbidity Instrumental Nephelometry CL-52D, Elico
5 Free CO2 Titrimetric --------------------------
6Total
Coliform(MPN) Method
-------------------------
-
7 Vanadium Instrumental
UV-VIS
Spectrophotometer,SL-157, Elico
8 Mercury Instrumental
UV-VIS
Spectrophotometer,
SL-157, Elico
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37
All values are in mg/L except Turbidity and Total Coliform
Table 2: Analytical technique and instruments used inthe analysis
College, Hapur. All techniques and methods
followed for collection, preservation and
analysis by adopting standard methods of
APHA.
Result and Discussion
In the present research study various physico-
chemical parameters such as turbidity, TDS,
phosphate, vanadium, Mercury, Total
Coliform, Oil and Grease and Free CO2 were
determined. It is concluded that the water
sample from various sample points, during the
monitoring period have been found to contain
all trace metals above permissible limits. This
study indicated that the Chhoyya Nala main
drain of Hapur city were not found good and
should not be used for irrigation without prior
treatment and it is recommended that water
analysis should be carried out from time to
time to monitor the rate and kind of
contamination.Turbidity
Turbidity reflects the transparency in water.
Turbidity in water is the reduction in
transparency due to the presence of particulate
matter such as clay, slit and microscopic
organisms. As per BIS standered the desirable
and permissible limits are 5 and 10 NTU,
respectively. In all the samples of surface
water turbidity more than the maximum
permissible limit of BIS.
In 2013-14, during summer, turbidity for
surface water maximum 360.38 NTU at SP2
and minimum 180.54 NTU at SP1. During
winter, turbidity for surface water maximum
370.53 NTU at SP2 and minimum 122.73 NTU
at SP3.
Total Dissolved Solids
Total dissolved solids are a measure of total
inorganic substances dissolved in water. TDS
indicates the general nature of water quality.
According to the desirable limit standardized
by BIS standard, TDS is 500 mg/L and
permissible limit in the absence of alternate
source is 2000 mg/L. The TDS values at all
surface water sample points SP1, SP2, SP3 and
SP4 are exceeded the permissible limit
according to BIS. In all the sample points TDS
of surface water varied from 990 mg/L to 1240mg/L.
In 2013-14, during summer, total dissolved
solids for surface water maximum 1230 mg/L
at SP1, SP3 and minimum 1020 mg/L at SP2.
During winter, total dissolved solids for
surface water maximum 1240 mg/L at SP1 and
minimum 1012 mg/L at SP4.
Phosphate Mostly waters, especially waste water
phosphorus is present almost exclusively in the
form of phosphates. During the study, in
surface water Phosphate content was very high
in all the sample points i.e., SP1, SP2, SP3 and
SP4. Due to direct industrial effluent discharges
into Chhoyya Nala the phosphate value is
higher than permissible limit of BIS.
In 2013-14, during summer, phosphate for
surface water maximum 42.14 mg/L at SP3 and
minimum 30.11 mg/L at SP4. During winter,
phosphate for surface water maximum 42.87
mg/L at SP3 and minimum 32.77 mg/L at SP4.
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Free CO2
Free CO2 concentration was noticed in surface
water. During the study in different year the
value of Free CO2 of surface water samples
were recorded from 4.16 mg/L to 6.26 mg/L.
Free CO2 is a good indicator of water
contamination. If free CO2 increases in water
bodies it indicates the contamination load.
During summer in 2013-14 Free CO2 for SP1,
SP2, SP3 and SP4 was 5.25 mg/L, 5.95 mg/L,
5.83 mg/L and 4.53 mg/L respectively, and in
winter Free CO2 for SP1, SP2, SP3 and SP4 was
5.26 mg/L, 4.86 mg/L, 4.53 mg/L and 4.41
mg/L respectively.
Oil and Grease
During the study Oil and Grease was noticed in
surface water sample points SP1, SP2, SP3 and
SP4 of Chhoyya Nala. During the study in
different year the value of Oil and Grease of
surface water samples was recorded from
110.22 mg/L to 301.38 mg/L.
During summer in 2013-14 Oil and Grease forSP1, SP2, SP3 and SP4 was 150.77 mg/L,
230.22 mg/L, 301.38 mg/L and 270.21 mg/L
respectively, and in winter 2012-13 Oil and
Grease for SP1, SP2, SP3 and SP4 was 181.41
mg/L, 257.28 mg/L, 120.61 mg/L and
300.85mg/L respectively. Result showed in
2013-14 during summer the maximum Oil and
Grease was 301.38 mg/L and during winter the
maximum Oil and Grease was 300.85 mg/L.
Total Coliforms
During the study of surface water samples,
Total Coliform was noticed in surface water
sample points from Chhoyya Nala i.e., SP1,
SP2, SP3 and SP4. The Total Coliform are the
indicators of water contamination.
During summer in 2013-14 total coliform for
SP1, SP2, SP3 and SP4 was 190 MPN, 790
MPN, 160 MPN and 605 MPN respectively
and in winter 2013-14 total coliform for SP1,
SP2, SP3 and SP4 was 410 MPN, 682 MPN,
380 MPN and 502 MPN respectively. Result
showed in 2012-13 during summer the
maximum total coliform limit was 790 MPN
and during winter the maximum total coliform
was 682 MPN.
Vanadium
Vanadium is a potential hazardous pollutant
and most of the toxic effect of vanadium are
carcinogenic in nature, irritant to respiratory
organs and eyes, lung damages, nervous
disorders, rorethroat, Wilson’s disease.
Vanadium is reported to affect plant life as it
gets accumulated in the leaves and roots and
decrease the productivity of plants. The major
sources of vanadium are glass, ceramics andsteal industries. During the study of ground
water and surface water in 2013-14 the
concentration of vanadium was not detected.
Mercury
Mercury concentration was noticed in surface
water ranged 0.10 mg/L to 0.81 mg/L.
according to BIS standard the desirable limit
of Mercury content is 0.001 mg/L beyond this,
the water become toxic.
During summer in 2013-14 Hg for SP1, SP2,
SP3 and SP4 was 0.22 mg/L, 0.20 mg/L, 0.19
mg/L and 0.20 mg/L respectively, and in
winter 2012-13 Hg for SP1, SP2, SP3 and SP4
was 0.10 mg/L, 0.21 mg/L, 0.22 mg/L and 0.22
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mg/L respectively. Result showed in 2013-14
during summer the maximum Hg was 0.22
mg/L and during winter the maximum Hg was
0.22 mg/L.
S.No. ParametersRange in SW
(SP1-SP4)
BIS
standard
1 Turbidity (mg/L)122.73 –
370.531
2 TDS (mg/L) 1012 – 1240 500
3 Phosphate (mg/L) 30.11 – 42.87 Nil
4 Free CO2 (mg/L) 4.41 – 5.95 Nil
5Oil and Grease(mg/L)
120.61– 301.38
Nil
6Total Coliform(MPN/100 mL)
190 – 790 Nil
7 Vanadium (mg/L) ND 0.20
8 Mercury (mg/L) 0.10 – 0.22 0.001
ND : Not Detected
Table 4: Comparison of surface water qualityat studied area with drinking water
Conclusion and Suggestions
It is beyond doubt that after the Independence
of India, number of laws enacted by legislature
but the State has failed to discharge its
responsibility. Lack of implementation of
environmental protection laws is the main
reason for non-implementation of the principle
of Sustainable Development. Number of
Environmental protection laws have been
passed by legislature according to the
Constitutional demand but in reality the
principles are just on papers2. Lack of
incorporation of Sustainable Development in
India is one of the reasons for deterioration of
the environmental status in India10
.From this study, it may be concluded that the
pollution in surface water has been increased. As
a result of these investigations the following
tentative suggestion may be offered to safeguard
the quality of environment, ground water and
surface water of the Hapur city.
There should be some restrictions on all
industries not to dispose off their solid or
liquid waste directly into the sewage.
The heavy load of industrial waste tends to
make the lands barren. Specific lands for the
disposal of these wastes should be
compulsory.
It is suggested that, except few parameters
most of the parameters are within the
permissible limits of BIS standards but could
exceed any time. So careless disposal of the
water should be discouraged and there is a
need for each industry to install a waste
treatment plant with a view to treat wastes before being discharged into the sewage.
Develop a workable model for treatment of
both effluent and emissions starting from
source up to the final approach.
Programme like safe water Project should be
started by municipality so that local people
will be aware about the pollution and
safeguard the quality of water.
As not only government but every citizen
also could play an important role in abating
contamination in ground water and surface
water. So the problem of contamination
required closely coordinated series of
legislative, administrative and technical
measures.
It is very necessary to control water
contamination, if not, then in future we willnot have a drop of pure fresh water. So that
people may understand the value of ground
water and surface water
Public awareness programmes about the
pollution should be launched with strong
emphasis on the effects of pollution on
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personal and community health. Periodically
industrial pollution information must be
published by environmental public
organizations.
Utilizing audio and video media, hording,
workshops, seminars and presentations by
the experts for informing the common people
about contaminated water diseases so that
they take precaution to save themselves from
these diseases.
The government has to ensure that all new
and existing industries have adequate sites
facilities for treatment and removal of toxic
material from the contaminated water oreffluents.
Water and sewerage pipelines should not be
in close vicinity to prevent cross
contamination and there should be no
leakage within the distribution system and no
mixing of drinking and sewerage water.
More treatment plants are needed, which
should be located at shorter distances from
the consumer’s end, and water treatment
plants should be run by experts and well
trained persons.
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Cultural Organization.
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local network policy problems. In most cases it
will consume less time and effort that an
attempt to use a global model.
Zoning Criteria
Demand Equity
In the context of providing services, of equity
asserts that the entire population of potential
clients be treated as equally as possible in
terms of the quality of service they get. In
other words, subpopulations of customers shall
not be deprived by the service provider.
Apply the equity criterion to a service network
will imply that the performance measures by
which the quality of service is evaluated be
more or less equal in each sub zone practical
realization of this criterion could be
accomplished by partitioning the network into
sub network that are more or less equal in the
proportion of demand they generate.
The sample network G exhibited in Figure 1
Network G consists of 9 nodes and 16 links.
The nodes have been numbered arbitrarilyfrom 1 to 9. The figures near the links
designate the length of the links (either
distance units or travel time units). We will
denote them l (i, j) where i and j are node
numbers. The fractions near the nodes indicate
the proportions of the total demand generated
in the particular nodes. These are denoted by
hj, j=1… 9.
Suppose that we want to partition G into two
sub networks, G1 and G, where the only
guiding criterion is equity. We will certainly
not recommend that node 2 and 9 constitute G1
while all the rest of the nodes be assigned to G2
since such partitioning will load 81% of the
local demand G2 rather, we will try to mark
nodes such that their accumulated demand will
be close to 50% for example G1 = (1, 2, 3, 4);
G2 = (5, 6, 7, 8, 9). This partitioning will split
the demand will split the demand between the
two networks in a ratio of 48.5 to 51.5.
Figure 1: A sample network G.
The principle of equity can be quantitatively
formulated as follows: Let M be the desired
number of sub networks. Perfect equity 1 and
obtained if each sub network incurs 1/M
fraction of the total demand Denoted. We may
allow a certain deviation from, say 10%. Then
a sub network is feasible if the accumulated
demand from, say 10%. Then, a sub network is
0.9 h. In other words, let Gi be a proposed sub
networks of G let α be the allowed deviation
0<α<1. We turn now to the second criterion.
Contiguity
A basic principle in zoning is contiguity. A sub
network of contiguous if it is possible to travel
from every node in the sub network to every
other node in it without crossing another sub
network. In other words, there should be at
least on path between any two nods of sub
network such that a server will be able to travel
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between the two nodes on that path without
having to go through another sub network.
This is not to say that this path is necessarily
the shortest one. It may very well be that the
shortest path will across another network, but
there is at least one more path that is under the
sovereignty of the said networks therefore
contiguity is satisfy.
The major reason is that it allows the sub
network management to move its servers along
the network without having to get permission
or to coordinate the move with foreign
authorities. Thus, dispatching patrolling, and
repositioning policies can be devisedindependently.
One possible way to illustrate contiguity is by
constructing a square matrix whose elements
are binary, namely, zero or ones. The rows and
the columns correspond to the nodes of the
network. A 0 element designates that there is
no direct link between two nodes; a 1-element
marks a direct link. A subset of nodes is
contiguous if one can move along 1-element in
the matrix without exiting the subset. The
matrix is symmetric in a non directed network.
Compactness
An intuit interpretation of the notion
compactness is that the edges of a zone are not
too remote from each other. In partitioning a
planar area (rather than a network)
compactness can be measured by any of three
measurements.
1. Resemblance of the zone to a square.
2. Resemblance of the zone to a circle.
3. “Reasonable” distance of the population
from the center of the zone.
In network partitioning, managements related
to a planar area dopology do not adhere to the
notion of a network. But still it is imperative to
maintain a certain the nodes of a zone. This
can be obtained by imposing a length
constraint on the shortest distance between any
two nods that are considered candidates for
belonging to the same zone.
Table 1 displays the shortest distance between
any two nodes of network G. Based on this to
be we can impose an orbitrary length beyond
which two nodes cannot be part of the same
zone.
Node 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 - 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 1 - 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
3 1 0 - 1 0 1 1 0 0
4 0 1 1 - 1 0 1 1 0
5 0 1 0 1 - 0 0 1 1
6 0 0 1 0 0 - 1 0 0
7 0 0 1 1 0 1 - 1 0
8 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 - 1
9 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 -
Table 1: A contiguity martrix
Enclaves
During the process of zoning we have to make
sure that we do not create enclave is a node, or
a subset of nodes that cannot constitute an
independent zone because of the equity
criterion. On the other hand a the node cannot
be connected to other “fee” nodes for
noncontiguity reasons. Thus they might remain
“Orphans” if the zoning process proceeds
without being interrupted.
For example, suppose we selected nodes 3 and
7 in G to farm a zone, where the equity
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criterion is 0.25±0.03 of the total demand.
These two nodes comply with the equity
criterion since they consume together 23.5% of
the demand. However, we are left with node 6,
the load of which is 12.5%, but node 6 cannot
be connected to any other free node should be
wish to preserve contiguity, no need to
mention that it cannot form a zone of its own.
Thus, node 6 becomes an enclave and this is
undesirable.
Natural Boundaries
Natural and geographical boundaries can
certainly impose constraints on a zoning
process. However, we claim that such boundaries are inherent to the network
topology, because the link lengths do not read
as aerial distances but they do reflect the
realistic access time to a node. Therefore, we
are not required to incorporate such extra
measures into the zoning algorithm.
Additional Criteria
There could be some additional terms that anetwork planner would be required to accede
to under certain circumstances. Take for
instance administrative boundaries. Another
criterion is related to the characteristics of the
region being partitioned. It is therefore
recommended to account for the characteristics
of the region before a “mechanical” zoning
process is executed. When these or similar
criteria are being examined, one has to
distinguish between mandatory requirements
and optimal requirement. Mandatory
requirement posses a constraint that must be
followed. In a way, a mandatory requirement
can sometimes facilitate the compulational
complexity of a zoning algorithm because it
usually splits the problem into a number of
smaller problems, each of which can handled
more easily.
An optional requirement is unlikely to
facilitate the solving process it is more likely to
complicate it. The planner has to solve the
constrained model as well as the unconstrained
one is order to provide the decision maker with
the “cost” of the additional requirement, cost in
this respect is a decrease in performance.
Nonetheless, with the fast advance of
computing technology, running an algorithm
for a number of times under varied constraints
is usually not infeasible. We turn now tointroducing a zoning selection algorithm.
An algorithm for zoning selection
Zoning selection process have been applied
mostly for area districting. An elaborate
algorithm for such cases is provided by
Garfinkel and Nemhauser. When network
zoning is considered, however, some of the
guiding criteria have to be modified. For thenotion of compactness is expressed in distance
measurement rather than in area topology, the
notion of contiguity is expressed by
connectivity of nodes rather than by having
common borders.
Let us try to partition network G of figure 1.1
in to your zones. We impose the following
constraints.
Equity: The ‘ideal’ demand generated in
each zone would be 25% however, we
allow for 2.5% deviation, namely, an
acceptable zone may generate demand
ranging from 2.5% to 22.5% of the total
demand.
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Contiguity: Contiguity must be maintained
for each zone.
Compactness: The shortest distance
between any two nodes in a zone should
not exceed 10 units of time.
Here enclaves must be avoided during the
application of the algorithm. Suppose these are
the only restrictions imposed on the zoning
process. Let us now illustrate the algorithm.
The partitioning process consists of two major
phases. Phase I determines all the possible
zones that comply with the requirement listed
above. Since this phase identifies all the
possible zones, upon completion of Phase I, we
may very well face redundancy. Let us start,
then, with node 1. It is linked to node 2,
together they accumulate 27% of the total
demand. They do not violate compactness, nor
do they enclave any node, thus (1, 2) constitute
a feasible zone we cannot add any more node
(1, 2) since any additional node that is linked
either to 1 or to 2 will path the demand beyondthe tolerated limit which is 27.5%.
By similar arguments, nodes (1, 3) form a
feasible zone that cannot be further augmented.
Let us turn now to node 2. We do not have to
examine the combination of 2 and 1 becomes
this has already been covered. New feasible
zones are, therefore, (2, 4) and (2, 5, 9). When
node 3 examined the only new feasible zone is
(3, 6). Here again the zone (3, 7) could be
feasible in terms of quilts (23.5%), contiguity,
an compactness. However, if this zone is
established, node 6 becomes an enclave.
Hence, we have to exclude (3, 7) from the set
of feasible zones.
Table 2 summarizes the final results of phase I,
namely, the set of all feasible zones. In column
(a) we have numbered the zones; arbitrarily
column (b) designates the numbers of the zone.
Column (d) calculates the amount of deviation
of example, a zone whose accumulated
demand is 26% will yield.
Column (e) displays the largest shortest
distance, namely, the shortest distance between
the most remote nodes within a zone. The table
is divided into sections. Each section is
associated with another ‘root node’ namely a
node from the the search for feasible zones
begins. The “root node” determines the sectionnumber in column (f).
Phase I terminates when a complete set of all
the feasible zones is identified and a conclusive
table lists all of them.
In phase II we have to selected of zones that
covers all the nodes, but each node is a
member of only one zone. Before proceeding,
we have to select an objective function that wewish to optimize.
There is no rule stating an ultimate object
function. In fact, since all the zones listed in
the above table abide to all the constraints, we
may select one of the constraint on equity or on
compactness and strive to optimize it. Suppose
we choose to optimize compactness. This can
be achieved by selecting zones that will
minimize the sum of shortest distance between
the most remote nodes within all zones
selected. In other words, we wish to minimize
a sum of elements from column (e) of Table 2.
Another object could be to optimize equity.
Two classic versions of this objective function
are the minisum and minimax. In the minisum
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we minimize the total relative deviation of
demand [column (d)] of the zones selected.
The minimax criterion is to select the zones
such that the worst case of maximum relative
deviation is as good as possible.
Suppose minimize the total relative let us try to
devise a feasible partitioning. We start at the
first section of the Table 2 namely, all the
zones whose root node is node 1. We call this
set of zones list 1. Among them, zone 2, is
preferred since it incurs a deviation of 0.4 in
column (d). So we mark zones 2, tentatively, as
a candidate zone, and we record that nodes 1
and 3 are now covered. Since node 2 is notcovered, we have to select a zone from the
second section list 2, while avoiding double
coverage. A preferred candidate is zone 3,
whose deviation equals 0.2. The list of covered
nods now includes (1, 2, 3, 4).
Zone
no
(a)
Nodes
(b)
Demand
(%)
Relative
deviation
(d)
Largest
shortest
distance
(e)
Section
list (f)
1 1, 2 27 0.8 5 12 1, 3 24 0.4 3 -
3 2, 4 24.5 0.2 4 2
4 2, 5, 6 26 0.4 8 -
5 3, 6 22.5 1.0 6 3
6 4, 5, 9 24.5 0.2 8 4
7 4, 7 25 0 9 -
8 4, 8 24 0.4 8 -
9 5, 8, 9 25.5 0.2 8 5
10 6, 7 26 0.4 3 6
11 7, 8 26 0.4 6 7
Table 2: List of feasible zones
The next not yet covered node is 5, so we turn
to the fifth section list 5 of the table and addzone 9 to our candidate set. The covered nodes
are (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9). We now have to
examine node 6 and select zone 10 to the
candidate partitioning. All the nodes are now
covered and the partitioning is mutually
exclusive. The candidate zones are (2, 3, 9,
10), the total deviation is 1.2, hence the
average deviation is 1.2|4=0.3. If we apply
minimax criterion the objective function value
is max (0.4, 0.2, 0.2, 0.4) = 00.4. Next, we
have to backtrack and try to omit zones and
add alternate zone in order to check whether a
better partitioning does exist. We will save
rather the trouble of going backward, and
instead we will start again from the beginning.
Suppose we select zone 1 as a starter then
nodes 1 and 2 are covered, so we move to
section 3 and pick zone 5. We now have nodes
(1, 2, 3, 6) already covered. In fact, we do not
have to proceed after selecting zone 5 since theinterin accumulated deviation is already 1.8 for
zones 1 and 5.
Therefore, it is obvious that the entailed
partitioning cannot be better than the first one.
Since we cannot find any additional
partitioning that will cover node 1, we may
terminate phase II and conclude that zones (2,
3, 9, 10) constitute the optimal partitioning. It
can be verified that this is also the optimal
solution with the minimax criterion.
Suppose we opt to minimize the total shortest
distance [column (e)]. Our selection process
will undergo the following steps.
1. Select zone 2; covering (1, 3)
2. Add zone 3; accumulated coverage (1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 8, 9)
3. Add zone 3; accumulated coverage (1, 2, 3,
4)
4. Add zone 10; full coverage, average
shortest distance is 18/4 = 4.5
5. Try zone 1; covering (1, 2)
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Rudraman/Vol. VI [2] 2015/43 – 49
49
6. Add zone 5; accumulated coverage (1, 2, 3,
6)
7. Try to add either zone 6 or zone 8 since
there is a tie here, however, we may stop
the trial at this point since the intern
accumulated distance is already 19.
8. Cheek whether there is an additional
starter, since there is not one, the process
terminates.
Eventually, both optimizations of equity and
compactness have provided the same
partitioning. Thus, however, is not necessarily
the case a more complex problem is
encountered. Generally speaking, by
comparing the results of a number of
optimization processes, one can learn the
“price” paid in one criterion in order to
optimize another one.
The zoning process that is presented above was
performed mainly by observation.
References
Isakson Hans R. (2004): Analysis of the Effect
Of Large Lot Zoning. The Journal Of
Real Research Vol26, No. 4 PP-397-
415.
Heitzer, Franz (2004): From Based Zoning
PAS Quick Notes No.-1, American
Planning Association.
Journal Of Operational Research Society
(1985), 36,433-450,Issn 0160-5682
Regina Benveniste (1985): Solving the
Combined Zoning and Location
Problem for Several Emergency Units
University of Southampton.
Some Problems in the Theory of Intra Urban
Location, Operation Research Vol 91,
No. 5 PP 695-721 Hayden Dolores
2003.
W.H. Marlow (2012): springer Mathematics
Sale.
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Effect
Srivasta
Received
Abstrac
The De
comprisendophy
notoriou
member
effect o
families
Solanace
well as
from Pi
causal f
conditio
disease i
experim
Methano
(25%, 5
tested a
was use
extractantifung
mechani
pathoge
economi
used for
ESSEN
Volume V
For corre
Departmen
D.G. (P.G.
f Pinus
va, Archan
: September
teromycete
s of differ ic species
ly destr
. It has be
the memb
such as Cu
ae which
economical
us was tes
ngus of lea
. Maximu
ntensity wa
nts after sp
lic extracts
%, 75% a
ainst test
to compar
and its al principles
m of the
s. Pinus
cally friend
the control
E - Intern
I: No. 2 2015
pondence:
t of Botany
) College, Ka
oxburghi
a
2, 2015 A
fungal ge
nt saprophand is well
ctive pla
n found to
ers belongi
urbitaceae,
are having
food value.
ed against
f spot in-vi
m reducti
s observed
raying with
in different
d 80%) wa
organisms.
the toxicit
tifungal a are actuall
plants ag
extract w
ly and me
f plant dise
tional Jou
50 – 53]
pur, Uttar Pra
Bark Ex
ccepted: No
us Alterna
tic as wellknown for
nt patho
have a dra
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Brassicace
nutritional
Leaf extra
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ro and in-v
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in pot cult
pinus extr
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Ketoconaz
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ember 08, 2
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words: D
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N 0975 - 6272
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]
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Archana Srivastava/Vol. VI [2] 2015/50 – 53
51
compositions, hair fixing and nail polishing
preparations. It is used in preparation of
ointments and plasters and in many products
such as chewing gum, polishes, and varnishes,
but is a common cause of contact allergy. The
resin is applied to cure boils (Rajbhandari,
2001) and administered orally to combat
gastric troubles Manandhar, 2002. The resin is
useful in adhesives, printing ink, electric
isolation, paper, soldering flux, varnish and
matches. In printing ink industry rosin gives
adhesiveness, surface smoothness, hardness,
antiblocking and other properties. Resin has a
good electric isolation, being used as oil incables for high voltage electricity. In soldering
process, rosin is used to get rid of oxide
compounds in the surface of metal, synthetic
rubber and chewing gums (Wiyono, 2006).
Pinus plant
Disease symptoms
Alternaria fungi belonging to Deuteromycetes
are widespread in nature and pathogenic to
agricultural crops whether during their growth
or storage due to the production enzymes such
as cellulose, lipase, and protease (Fatiha1 et al
2014).
Materials and Method
Collection of Plant Material Fresh healthy
leaves were collected from different locations,
washed with tap water; surface sterilized with
2% sodium hypo chlorite for 5 min and washed
thoroughly 2-3 times with sterile distilled
water then shade dried. Dried leaves were
pulverized in electric blender to obtain fine
powder.
Preparation of Plant Extracts The powdered
leaves extracted with sterile distilled water at
room temperature at different level of
concentrations i.e. 25 g in 100 ml, 50 g in 100
ml, 75 g in 100 ml and 80 g in 100 ml. Then
extracts were filtered through double layered
muslin cloth and finally through Whatman
filter paper No.1. Extracts were stored at 4°C
in pre-sterilized flasks until use. Plant Pathogenic Fungi A. solani (leaf blight
pathogen were isolated from diseased parts of
host and pure cultures were maintained on
PDA slants.
Bioassay of Plant Extracts Bioassay was
carried out in PDA. Control received the same
quantity of water. To avoid bacterial
contamination, antibacterial substance was
used. Inoculum discs of 5 mm diameter,
obtained from 7 day old healthy growing
fungal cultures of A. solani were transferred to
flasks containing medium with and without
plant extracts aseptically. The flasks were
incubated at 25 ± 2°C for 7days. On incubation
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the myc
for eac
weighed
determin
and the
by the fo
% of inh
wt. of
myceliu
Pinus Pla
(meth
extr
25
50
7580
con
Table 1:
c
(The in
extract
inoculati
Discussi
The anti
tested w
fungi i.
were in
Antifung
recorded
aqueous,
0102030
40
50
2 5 %
lium biom
treatment
filter paper.
ed after 24
ercentage o
rmula
ibition = w
ycelium i
in control.
t extract
anolic
act) (
%
%
%%
trol
Inhibition of
ncentration o
ibitory ef
on mycelia
on (percent
on
fungal acti
ere recorda
. A. Solan
hibited by
al activity
. The an
alcoholic
5 0 %
7 5 %
8 0 %
ss from tri
was coll
The dry w
h oven dr
f inhibition
. of myceli
treatment
Mycelial
growth
ean) in mm
13.5
11.9
10.59.4
15
mycelial gro
methanolic pl
ects of t
l growth
inhibition a
ities of e
le with pl
i. There pl
the extra
f the extrac
ifungal ac
as observe
myc
Col
c o n t r o l
rchana Srivast
licate samp
cted on p
ight yield
aying at 60
was calcula
m in contr
X 100 wt.
Inhibition
percentage
20
26
3842
th at differe
ant extracts
e methan
f fungi a
ter 48hrs)
tract of pl
nt pathoge
ant pathog
cts of pl
s of pinus
ivity of
.This stud
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growth
umn1
mycelial
growt
inhibition %
Column1
ava/Vol. VI [
les
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] 2015/50 – 5
ement wit
erally in
eous extrac
vity of
hanolic ex
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ppeswamy
mma (199
holic bar
ogens. Mo
the fungic
ents bark
holic and
extracts sth similar
(2006) an
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inst Altern
raka et al.,
2)
mary and
s and gy
ntion of s
active co
rces could
fungal age
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the stud
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ortant ste
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the work o
ll the pla
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tracts poss
all tested
and Lo
) reported a
k extract
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ide (control
extracts
thyl acetat
owed moreresults wer
Parekh a
on the effic
ria sp. h
2011 and
Conclusio
nosperm
cientists al
pounds de
be a potent
nt, especia
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e adopted
biotics. T
clearly s
ve antifunge present
in devel
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f Goun et a
ts the act
tively less
tracts, w
essed the
pathogens.
esh (199
ntifungal ac
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sults were
used. Out
sed viz.
extracts, a
inhibitionreported b
d Chandra
cy of plant
ave been
Mishra an
have attra
l over the
ived from
ial candida
ly in the
and plant
resistance
e results
ggest that
al propertienvestigatio
ping plan
ch are eco
e pathogen
52
l., 2003.
ivity of
han the
ile the
highest
Earlier
) and
tivity of
fungal
ffective
of these
queous,
lcoholic
f fungalLee et
(2006).
extracts
reported
Gupta,
ted the
world.
natural
e as an
present
fungal
against
btained
selected
againstis an
based
friendly
ic fungi
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53
References
Nowicki, A. (2012): Marcin, Alternaria black
bpot of crusifers:Symptoms,
importance of disease, and perspectives
of resistance breeding, vegetable cropes
research bulletin,versita, warsaw,
Poland , doi no 10.2478/v 100 32-012-
0001-6.
Rajbhandari, K.R. (2002): Ethnobotany of
Nepal. Ethnobotanical Society of
Nepal, Kathmandu, 2001. 22.
Manandhar NP. Plants and people of
Nepal. Timber Press Inc. Portland,
Oregon.
Fatiha1, B.; Khodir, M.; Caroline, S.;
Mohamed, C. and Pierre, D. (2014):
Algerian mint species: high
performance thin layer chromatography
quantitative determination of
rosmarinic acid and in vitro inhibitory
effects on linoleic acid peroxidation,
Journal of Coastal Life Medicine.2(12): 986-992.
Goun, E.; Cunningham, G.; Chu, D.; Nguyen,
C. and Miles, D. (2003): Fitotherapia,
74 (6): 592-596.
Thippeswamy, T. and Lokesh, S. (1997): Int J
Tro Plant Dis. 15 (1):53-58.
Elsamma, T.; Shanmugam, J. and Rafi, M.M.
(1996): Biomedicine. 16 (2/3): 1520.
Lee, S.H.; Chang, K.S.; Su, M.S.; Huang, Y.S.
and Jang, H.D. (2006): Food control.
18: 1547-1554.
Parekh, J. and Chanda, S. (2006): Ind J Pharm
Sci. 68 (6): 835-838.
Wiyono, B.; Tachibana, S. and Tinambunan,
D. (2006): Chemical compositions of
pine resins, rosin and turpentine oil
from West Java, J Forest Res. 2006;
3(1): 7-17.
Ramjegathesh, R. and Ebenezer, E. G. (2012):
Morphology and physiological
characters of Alternaria alternata
causing leaf blight diseases of onion.
International Journal of Plant
Pathology, 3(2): 34-44.
Tagoe, D. N. A.; Nyarko, H. D. and Akpaha R,
(2011): A comparison of the antifungal
properties of onion (Allium cepa),
Garlic (Allium sativum) against
Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger
and Cladosporium herbarum. Research
Journal of Medicinal Plant, 5(3): 281-
287.
Baraka, M. A.; Fatma, R. M.; Shaban, W.I. andArafat, K.H. (2011): Efficacy of some
plant extracts,natural oils,biofungicides
and fungicides against root rot disease
of date palm. Biol. Chem. Environ. Sci.
6(2): 405-429.
Mishra, R. K. and Gupta, R. P. (2012): In vitro
evaluation of plant extracts, Bio- agents
and fungicides against purle blotch and
stem phylium blight of onion. J. Med.
Plant Res. 6(45): 5658-5661.
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Effect
Bhatt, S
Received
Abstrac
The genfamily c
herbs an
medicin
agent in
reduces
long ter
this stu
drying o
of Ocim
Ranikhe
Fresh a
hydro di
The oil
GC-MS.
sample
<β>
(17.49%While t
decrease
an incre
(
ESSEN
Volume V
For corr
Departme
Campus,
Email: ge
f drying
nita; Kun
: October 2,
s Ocimum,mprised o
d shrubs.
l, cosmeti
many foo
the moistu
storage o
y is to de
n chemical
um americ
(Uttarakh
d sun drie
stilled usin
amples we
The major
f O. ameri
(29.06%),
and cinhe sun d
in the quan
se in the pe
E - Intern
I: No. 2 2015
spondence:
nt of Chemist
umaun Univ
eta_k@rediff
n the qu
ar, Gitu;
015 Acce
member ofalmost 200
cimum oil
and as a
products.
e content
plant, the
termine th
compositio
anum coll
and). Aeri
O. ameri
Clevenger
e analyzed
ompounds
anum were
bisabole
ole <1,8->ied sampl
ity of bisab
rcent of cin
tional Jou
54 – 62]
y, D.S.B.
rsity, Nainital
ail.com
lity of es
ewari, Ge
ted: Novem
Lamiaceaespecies of
is used in
flavoring
As drying
nd allows
purpose of
effect of
and yield
cted from
l part of
anum was
apparatus.
y GC and
n the fresh
bisabolene
ne<( E )-γ->
(9.14%).s showed
lenes with
ole <1,8->
nal for En
ential oil
ta; Rani,
er 08, 2015
17.yiel
fres
Ke
La
ca
Int
Dr
the pos
sto
dif
fres
it o
al.,
ma
the
bio
dry
als
Ho
car
app
of
(Cr
ironmenta
of Ocimu
kanksha a
Online: D
6%) andd varied fro
h and sun d
words:
iaceae |
phor | bisa
oduction
ing is a pro
weight anitive conse
age (Calix
iculty in tr
hly harvest
cupies larg
2005). Mos
keted dried
growth
hemical re
ng process
increase
ever, dry
fully in or
earance an
the raw h
velli et al .,
l Rehabilit
america
d Bisht, M
cember 31,
amphor (3m 0.10% to
ied sample
cimum a
un-drying;
olene
cess that is
volume oquences fo
o, J.B. 20
nsportation
d medicina
e volume of
t of the her
, (Piga et a
of micro
ctions are
and shelf li
(Crivelli
ing must
der to pres
nutritiona
rbs as mu
2002). D
tion and C
[ISS
[w
num L.
amta
015
.34%). Th0.66% (v/w
respectivel
ericanum
essential
for reducti
the planttransport
0). There
and storag
l plants bec
space (Tan
s and spice
l 2007) bec
rganisms
lso inhibite
e of spicy
et al ., 2
be perfo
rve the ar
l characteri
ch as poss
pending o
onservatio
N 0975 - 6272
w.essence-jou
54
oil) for
y.
L.|
il |
n in
withand
is a
e of
ause
o et
s are
ause
and
d by
erbs
02).
med
ma,
stics
ible.
the
]
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Bhatt et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/54 – 62
55
sources of heat and use of energy, the
drying method can be performed either by
natural or artificial method. It reduces the
enzymatic activity by inhibiting chemical
reactions such as hydrolysis, oxidation, and
fermentation (Costa et al ., 2005). Many
drying methods such as convection oven
drying, freeze-drying, microwave drying
etc. are also used to preserve medicinal
herbs (Harbourne et al ., 2009).
Ocimum americanum L. commonly called
as Ocimum canum Sims. belonging to the
family Lamiaceae [Wealth of India] is a
wild herb with a distinct mint flavor, hairyleaves and scented flowers that is native to
tropical Africa [Steel J. 2006 ] and is useful
for its antimicrobial, antioxidant,
antihelmintic and anti diabetic activities
(Khare, C.P., 2007). Fresh lamiaceae herbs
as spearmint usually contain 75–80%
water, and the water levels needs to be
lowered to less than 15% for their
successful preservation (Dìaz-Maroto et
al ., 2002). Drying may improve the herb
quality such as appearance and aroma due
to the loss of volatile compounds or the
formation of new volatile compounds
through desertification or oxidation
reactions (Hossain et al ., 2010).
(Nykanen and Nykanen, 1987) have
reported that the total yield of essential oilsdecreased between 36–45% in sweet basil
during drying at ambient temperature. Di
Cesare et al ., (2003) observed microwave
drying to retain high percentages of
characteristic volatile compounds
(eucalyptol, linalool, eugenol, and
methyleugenol) in basil (Ocimum
basilicum L.) compared to samples dried
by air-drying and freeze-drying with
blanching, except freeze-dried unblanched
leaves.
Baritaux et al ., (1992) found that the
contents of methyl chavicol and eugenol
decreased during drying, however, the
levels of trans-bergamotene, linalool and 1,
8 - cineole significantly increased in basil
(Ocimum basilicum L.). Some more reports
are available on the effect of drying
processes on Calendula essential oil from
Nigeria (Okoh et al ., 2008) , Mentha from Norway, Nigeria and Egypt (Rohloff et al .,
2005). In Mentha longifolia, the yield of
dried plant material was more than that of
fresh plant material (Asekun et al ., 2006).
Shade dried and sun dried leaves of
Plectranthus glandulosus showed
difference in their chemical composition
(Katamssadan et al ., 2014). These
investigations revealed that the chemical
composition of oil varied with temperature
and humidity conditions. Selection and
optimization of drying methods could help
in minimizing the loss of volatiles and also
maintain the quality of the medicinal
species. After surveying literature, it was
observed that different drying methods like
sun drying, shade drying, oven drying, fireheat drying etc. have been used to dry
different aromatic and medicinal plants, but
to the best of our knowledge, no work has
been reported, on the impact of drying on
the chemical composition of O.
americanum from India. Therefore, the
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Bhatt et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/54 – 62
56
purpose of this study is to investigate the
effect of different drying on yield and
chemical composition of O. americanum
and find out the ways to obtain optimum
active constituent condition.
Materials and Method
Collection of plant material
Fresh O. americanum plants at flowering
stage were harvested from the field of
Ranikhet, Uttarakhand in September 2014.
A fraction of plant material was sun dried.
Botanical identification of plant was done
at C.C.R.A.S. Thapla. Voucher no.
(24660).
Isolation of essential oil
Fresh and sun dried plant material was
sliced into small parts and 500 gm of each
sample was extracted by using hydro
distillation technique in a glass Clevenger
apparatus for about 4 hours. The extracted
crude oil was stored in glass vials and
excess moisture was dried over anhydroussodium sulphate. The sealed glass vial was
stored in BOD incubator.
Analysis of the essential oil
A Shimadzu 2010 auto system GC fitted
with Rtx-5 MS and FID detector was used
to analyze the oil. Carrier gas was the
N2/air with linear velocity of 30.0 cm/sec.
Column temperature was set at 50°C for 2
min, then programmed until 210°C at a rate
of 3°C/min with hold time of 2 min, and
finally increased to 280°C at the 10°C/min
rate with 11 min hold time, using N2 at 3
mL /min column head pressure as carrier
gas, Injector and detector (FID, Flame
ionization detector) temperatures were
260°C and 270°C respectively. Injection
mode, split; split ratio 110.0, volume
injected, 1 μl of the oil. The GC-MS used
was Auto system 2010 GC (MS Serial
Number: 1009701) capillary column (30 m
× 0.25 mm, 0.25 μm film thickness).
Column temperature was set at 50°C for 2
min, then programmed until 210°C at a rate
of 3°C/min with hold time of 1 min, and
finally increased to 280°C at the 10°C/min
rate with 7 min hold time, using N2/Air as a
carrier gas. Injector temperature was 260˚c
and 1.0 uL in n- hexane. Split ratio 110.0
Relative percentage amounts of theessential oil components were evaluated
from the total peak area (TIC) by apparatus
software.
Identification of the components
Identification of components in the oils
was done by comparing their mass spectra
and retention time with literature data and
by computer matching with NIST and
WILEY library as well as by comparison of
the fragmentation pattern of the mass
spectral data with those reported in the
literature (Adams, 2007).
Results and Discussion
The GC and GC/MS results revealed that
there was a difference in the chemical
composition of oils after drying. Oil yield
of fresh and sun dried material was also
significantly different .with values ranging
from 0.10% for the fresh herb to 0.66%
(v/w) for the sun dried material. During
drying process the amount of essential oil
can decrease from 2.55% to 1.94% (Halva,
1987). Whereas, in our study, the yield of
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essential oil from sun dried plant material
was greater than that from the fresh plant.
Total number of components in the oil of
fresh and sun dried O. americanum were
48 and 116 respectively. The chemical
composition of fresh aerial parts and sun
dried of O. americanum is listed in Table 1.
The major compounds in fresh sample of
O. americanum were bisabolene <β>
(29.06%), bisabolene <( E )-γ-> (17.49%),
cineole <1,8-> (9.14%), methyl chavicol
(7.56%), ocimene <( Z )- β -> (7.18%),
germacrene D (5.80%) farnesene <( E )-β>
(4.09%) and caryophyllene <( E )->(2.61%).The chemical characterization of O.
americanum showed the presence of
camphor (60%) (Xaasan et al ., 1981),
trans-β-ocimene (29%) and 1, 8-cineole
(41.3%) (Tchoumbougnang et al ., 2006),
citral (62.43%) (Saeio et al . 2011) and ( E )-
methyl cinnamate (95.8%) (Vieira and
Simon, 2000).
After sun drying and the major compounds
of the same were cineole <1,8-> (17.86%),
camphor (38.34%), bisabolene <β>
(7.77%) and copaene <α-> (3.99%).
Our results showed that sun-drying caused
significant loss of some major components
like bisabolene <( E )>-γ-> (17.49% to 0%),
methyl chavicol (7.56% to 0.01%),
ocimene <( Z )-β-> (7.18% to 0%), eugenol
(2.68% to 0%) and sesquisabinene (2.12%
to 0%). . Drying also brought about
significant appearance of some components
in oil after sun drying which were totally
absent in the fresh oil like camphene (0%
to 1.93%) and 1-octen-3-ol (0% to 1.10%)
in sun dried sample.
In Mentha longifolia, the yield of dried
plant material was observed to be more as
compared to fresh plant material. In a
previous investigation, the oil of fresh plant
material contained 92.6% of
monoterpeinoids and major compounds
were pulegene (35.0%), menthone (31.1%)
and 1,8- cineole (13.0%). On the other
hand, in sun dried plant material,
percentage of monoterpenoid was 91.8%
and major compounds were menthone
(38.3%), pulegone (20.2%) and 1,8-cineole(16.6%) (Asekun et al ., 2006). Oven dried
(45˚C) Rosemary resulted in loss of 7.25%
volatile components, while microwave
drying causes 61.5% loss of volatile
component in the same plant (Jaganmohan
et al ., 1998).
The present study indicated that there is
loss of some components during drying
whereas appearance of some components
also occurs in drying. In O. americanum
collected from Ranikhet, concentration of
camphor increased significantly (0.08% to
38.34%). Fresh plant contains high
concentration of methyl chavicol and
linalool. Methyl chavicol is suspected to be
carcinogenic and linalool is used as a scent
in perfumed hygiene products and cleaningagents and also in mosquito repellent
products, thus it is good to use the plant to
obtain the above benefits. On the other
hand, camphor has stimulant, antiseptic,
decongestant, anesthetic and insecticidal
properties and hence it is an important
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constituent of many medicines and is used
for the treatment of cough, pain and skin
irritation. The oil yield increased by drying
and the quality of the volatile constituents
was also maintained thereby also
increasing the commercial potential of the
herb.
S. No. Name of compound RT RI
calculated
RI Adams O. americanum
Fresh Sun-dried
1. Isovalerate <ethyl-> 4.39 822 849 0.57 2.17
2. Hex-(3 Z )-enol 5.71 864 850 - 0.01
3. Thujene<α-> 7.70 936 924 - 0.05
4. Pinene<α-> 7.95 942 932 - 0.02
5. Camphene 8.54 958 946 - 1.93
6. Sabinene 7.96 984 969 0.17 0.01
7. Pinene<β-> 8.10 986 974 0.82 0.21
8. 1-octen-3-ol 9.77 992 974 - 1.10
9. 3-octanone 10.06 999 979 - 0.04
10.
Myrcene 8.64 1002 988 - 0.5611. Octanal<n-> 9.30 979 998 - -
12. Phellandrene-α 10.74 1015 1002 - 0.10
13. Hexenyl acetate<(3 Z -> 10.94 1020 1004 - 0.05
14. Terpinene<α-> 9.67 989 1014 0.05 -
15. Cymene<p-> 10.05 1035 1020 0.04 -
16. Limonene 11.75 1039 1024 - -
17. Cineole<1,8-> 10.38 1041 1026 9.14 17.86
18. Ocimene<( z )-β-> 10.53 1011 1032 7.18 1.54
19. Ocimene<( E )-β-> 12.76 1059 1044 - 0.07
20. γ-Terpinene 13.14 1071 1054 - 1.28
21. Sibinene hydrate<cis-> 13.56 1080 1065 - 0.25
22. Mentha-2,4(8)-dinene<p-> 11.42 1037 1085 0.08 -
23.
Linalool 13.85 1087 1095 0.28 0.3524. Menth-2-en-1,ol<cis-para-> 14.93 1111 1118 - 0.07
25. Sabinol<trans-> 12.10 1046 1137 0.10 -
26. Camphor 15.29 1119 1141 0.08 38.34
27. Isoborneol 18.21 1183 1155 - 0.02
28. Terpineol(δ) 16.58 1119 1162 0.22 -
29. Borenol 18.10 1181 1165 - -
30. Menthol 18.49 1189 1167 - 0.03
31. Terpinen-4-ol 16.92 1192 1174 - 0.06
32. Terpinol<α-> 19.49 1208 1186 0.04 0.26
33. Methyl chavicol 17.88 1184 1195 - 0.01
34. Octanol acetate 20.20 1227 1211 7.56 -
35. Frenchyl acetate<endo-> 20.54 1235 1220 - -
36.
Neral 21.06 1246 1235 - -37. Geranial 22.84 1286 1264 - -
38. Anethole<( E )-> 23.50 1301 1284 - -
39. Copaene<α-> 27.44 1407 1345 - 0.02
40. Eugenol 24.81 1331 1356 2.68 -
41. Copaene<α-> 25.27 1343 1374 0.17 3.99
42. Bourbonene<β-> 25.60 1400 1387 0.65 0.08
43. Elemene<β-> 25.93 1358 1389 0.28 -
44. Methyl eugenol 28.78 1425 1403 - 0.06
45. Gurjunene<α> 28.82 1426 1409 - -
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46. Caryophyllene<( E )-> 27.13 1385 1417 2.61 0.04
47. Cymene<2, E -dimethyl-p-> 29.49 1442 1424 - -
48. Copaene<β-> 29.67 1447 1430 - 0.02
49. Gurjunene<β-> 29.75 1449 1431 - -
50. Bergamotene<α-trans> 27.78 1453 1432 0.17 1.42
51. Sesquisabinene 30.29 1408 1440 2.12 -
52. Humulene<α-> 30.65 1471 1452 - 0.75
53.
Farnesene<( E )-β-> 28.74 1424 1454 4.09 0.3454. Caryophyllene<9-epi-( E )-> 30.94 1438 1464 - -
55. Germacrene-D 29.76 1484 1484 5.80 0.90
56. Bisabolene<β-> 31.24 1489 1505 29.06 7.78
57. Amorphene<δ-> 31.40 1472 1511 0.26 -
58. Cubebol 32.19 1534 1514 - -
59. Sesquiphellandrene<β-> 31.53 1492 1521 0.05 -
60. Cadiene<δ-> 33.51 1542 1522 - 0.03
61. Bisabolene<( E )-γ-> 32.47 1516 1529 17.49 -
62. Nerolidol 35.07 1583 1531 - -
63. Spathulenol 35.68 1598 1577 - -
64. Caryophyllene oxide 33.75 1603 1582 1.31 1.46
65. Viridiflorol 36.18 1612 1592 - -
66.
Fokienol 37.29 1642 1596 - 0.1067. Humulene epoxide ΙΙ 34.75 1631 1608 0.96 0.19
68. Murrola-4,10(14)-dien-1-pentol 38.58 1649 1630 - -
69. T-murrolol 38.08 1663 1644 - -
70. Eudesmol<β-> 38.38 1671 1649 - -
71. Cadinol<α-> 38.55 1676 1652 - -
72. Thujopsanone<3-> 38.89 1685 1653 - -
73. Bisabolol<α-> 37.71 1705 1685 - 0.05
74. Shyobunol 39.96 1713 1688 - -
75. Bergamotol<( Z )-α-trans-> 34.34 1564 1690 0.19 0.28
76. Mintsulphide 41.54 1759 1740 - 0.15
77. Bisabolenal<β-> 39.17 1485 1768 0.36 -
78. Hexadecanoic acid 49.12 1989 1959 - 0.03
% oil identified 95.83 84.08Table 1: Comparative essential Oil Composition of Ocimum
americanum Collected From Different Sites
05
1015202530354045
FreshSun dried
Fig. 1: Comparison
between essential oil
composition of fresh and
sun dried aerial parts of O.
americanum.
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Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the Department of
Science and Technology, New Delhi for
financial support under DST INSPIRE
fellowship, Dr. Chitra Pande, Professor,
Department of Chemistry, D. S. B. Campus,
Nainital for her sincere guidance, constant
support and encouragement during the present
research work and Head, Department of
Chemistry, Kumaun University Nainital, for
providing necessary laboratory facilities.
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64
persistent changes in the Climatic pattern have
led to decrease in area under irrigation,
resulting in low crop productivity and also a
shift in forest biodiversity. Forest, soil and
water conservation are the important issues
which has to be taken care of in order to reduce
future endangerments. Climate Change has
posed new challenges to natural resource
management and livelihood and particularly to
‘Food Security’.
Keywords: Climate Change | Himalaya |
Food Security | Agriculture
Introduction
Human civilization has always been dependent
on nature and its resources and when they
acquired traditional knowledge and skills, they
adopted agriculture as their basic necessity and
a mode of endurance. This human necessity by
the passage of time linked them to other parts
of ecosystem which itself undergo changes or
alterations in order to serve mankind and above
all various forms of nature (Wood, 1993).Overall, agriculture can be related as a crucial
part of biodiversity through which people get
nurtured and is itself nurtured by the people
(FAO, 1995). Thus we can consider agriculture
as an eminent part of our ecosystem which
helps us to thrive and fulfils our resource
dependency.
The mystique feature of Himalayan agrarian
system is its significant diverseness and a
prominent level of self-sufficiency which in
turn act as a basis for sustainable development
and food security. The Himalayas have a
complete different biodiversity and human
acculturations (Xu et al., 2007). The crop
production is completely dependent upon the
existing climatic conditions of the region and
not on the markets. This is because of the
traditional skills that the people of the
Himalayan region have acquired and have
adapted and have included their agrarian
system in the form of their culture. However,
reacting to changes is the human tendency
which he has brought in his culture also, either
they are positive or negative (Maikhuri et al.,
1999). The positive changes lead to food
security and the negative ones lead to the
insecure part which may prove calamitous.
Climate Change has now been reckoned as a
‘threat’, and there are surmises that changingclimatic patterns may lead to the issues of food
security. Climate Change, also cited as a man-
made environmental challenge (Sharma and
Chauhan, 2011), is now aiming the agrarian
system to the level of vulnerability. Studies
have shown that in a few years, direct and
unfathomed impacts of changing climate will
be discernible on agriculture (Scott et al.,
1990). The Himalayan communities which are
completely dependent on their traditional
cropping system are the most vulnerable to this
scenario. Results of changing climatic patterns
may lead to water scarcity, lack of fodder
which will lead to less domestication of
animals used in agriculture, low soil fertility,
lessened traditional crop production etc.
(Rawat, 2013).Water in the Himalayas is present in the form
of snow or ice or wetlands, aquifers etc.
(Vaidya, 2011) but the Himalayan cropping
system is basically centred on rainfed system.
But the rising climate issue will lead to
increase in temperature and less precipitation,
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65
affect on soil fertility, reduced groundwater
reserves and rapid floods and droughts, thus
inducing a threat to food security. However, it
is expected that some Himalayan areas will
experience an increased water supply and
others will get reduced water supply (Vohra,
1981). The changes in the timing and intensity
of Monsoons will cause increased runoff thus
causing rapid erosions leading to deterioration
of the fragile balance of Himalayan ecosystem
with its agriculture and biodiversity related to
it (Singh et al., 2011).
The Himalayas that have huge area reserved in
the form of permafrost (Li and Chen, 1999), isnow found to be shrinking and it is found to
have impact on hydrology of the area, the flora
and fauna and above all biodiversity of the area
which in turn will directly or indirectly effect
the food chain and regional water resources of
the people of the Himalayas (Trisal and
Kumar, 2008). On the other hand, increased
warming will cause species shift (Telwala,
2011), increased occurrence of pests and
diseases, change in species composition etc.
(Tse-ring et al., 2010) and hence will affect
food security of the people of the area by
affecting the biodiversity and ecosystem
functioning (Schutze and Mooney, 1994), and
also causing a negative effect on the
productivity and health of the crops of the
region. Further rise in temperature may alsoresult in decline of various traditional crop
varieties and plantations of crops from
lowlands thus threatening regional populations
and agriculture activities (Higgins et al., 2003;
Nogues- Bravo et al., 2007; Telwala et al.,
2013).
Global climatic change is predicted to affect
Himalayan ecosystem by inducing shifts in
intensity and timing of climatic systems of the
Himalayas (Xu et al., 2007). However, humans
have been adapting to these recurrent climatic
changes either they are natural or human
induced (Smithers and Smit, 1997). Studies
have shown that the relaying impacts of
changing Climate are uneven for the
Himalayan region and the communities
associated with it, thus making the people of
the area more prone to the impacts of Climate
Change (Bryan et al., 2009; Parmesan and
Yohe, 2003). Since, the mountain communitiesare completely dependent on nature for their
sustenance, with respect to rainfed agriculture,
thus making their livelihood more vulnerable
and extremely sensitive to any change in
Climate (Ramay, 2011; ICIMOD, 2011).
The direct impacts of Climate Change can be
marked on the Himalayas and studies have
shown observations regarding changes in the
phenology of the crops in response to changes
in Climatic conditions which involve early
ripening of seeds and growth of crops which
earlier were not possible to grow in extreme
conditions of the Himalayan regions (Root and
Hughes, 2005; Dye and Tucker, 2003).
Increase in temperature may affect pollination
and hence affecting the ecosystem functioning
of the area which may lead to the extinction ofthe native species or loss of genetic diversity of
the mountainous regime (Halpin, 1994; Singh
et al., 2010; Thomas, 2005; OECD, 1996). The
other study suggests the adaptation of other
species in place of native ones by either
replacing the original ones by competing them
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or by adapting the rigorous climate of the
Himalayas (Street and Semenov, 1990).
Agriculture, land use and food security for the
Himalayan regions have been examined by
Ghosh and Shama (2011). With the rise in
frequency of unfavourable changes in the
Himalayas, and because of the resource
dependency of the people of the hills on
agriculture and non-agriculture systems, the
livelihood of the people is in threat (IPCC,
2007a, b; Kreutzmann, 1993). These
conditions are more aggravated by lack of
sufficient agricultural land holdings, climatic
stresses, lack of irrigation, barriers to market participation, decline in good agriculture land
etc., are some of the challenges to households
of the mountains which are dependent on
agriculture and livestock production, which
play an important role in food security and are
meant to be affected (Goodall, 2004;
Hoermann et al., 2010; Tulachan, 2001;
Fischer et al., 2002a; Singh et al., 2011).
But the question to the arising threat and
factors related to Food Security related to
climate change are still open to the debate
(Iqbal et al., 2011). The climatic factors have
lead to observations of either decline in the
growth of crop production, crop substitution
(Chand et al., 2008), land conversion from
traditional farming in the Himalayas to cash
crop farming (Xu et al., 2006; Chen, 2007;Tulachan, 2001) or migration leading to
abandoning of agricultural lands (Khanal and
Watanabe, 2006).
Conclusion
Since there is a limited knowledge regarding
the level of uncertainties of the impacts of
changing Climate on the Himalayas, the actual
situation cannot be magnified without
scientific investigations and approaches. The
problem can be solved if we consider local
knowledge, culture and local people’s
perceptions to the changing climate and its
relation to the agricultural activities of the
people of the mountains regarding to their food
security. Thus a serious assessment is required
to make strategies to help the Himalayan
communities to get adapted to the changing
Climate scenario, by their vast knowledge and
skills. However, the Himalayan communities
have sustained a long way in the changingenvironments but they are themselves
unknown about the worst challenges that they
may have to face in near future and that is why
proper strategies and focus is urgently required
in the Himalayan region relating to
unavoidable Climate issues and upcoming
threat to Food security.
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72
implications on the human body. In extreme
cases of arrhythmia, stroke or cardiac failure
can occur.
An ambulatory ECG monitoring system
allows patients to keep continuous track of
their ECG which is a graphic tracing of thevoltage generated by the cardiac muscles
during heartbeat. A typical cardiac cycle is
depicted by the PQRST waveform. The first
deflection, P, is due to atrial contraction and
is hence, known as atrial complex. The Q, R,
S, T deflections are due to ventricular activity
and are together referred to as the ventricular
complex. The detection of the QRS complex
is most important as it bears information
about the heartbeat rate. In this system there
will be a continuous monitoring of the heartsignals through measurement and processing
of the ECG trace, which eventually will be
compared with the tolerable range. In case of
any abnormalities alert signals will be sent
via android application.
Methodology
This System will consist of several modules.
These Modules are:
Sensor Module
Processor and Microcontroller Module
Wireless Module and API (Application
Program Interface) Module
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73
Block wise detailed analysis: Sensor
module
Each of the cell membranes that form the
outer part of the heart is associated with some
amount of charge which is depolarized
during every heartbeat. The depolarizationfollowed by re-polarization of these cell
membranes result in variation of electric
potential. For the purpose of sensing we will
use Electric Potential Integrated Circuit
(EPIC) sensors. It is an advanced version of
EPS (Electric Potential Sensor) and has been
developed by Plessey Semiconductors [1].
The EPIC sensor is an electric field sensor
that measures electric field changes in thehuman body, i.e. it measures
electrophysiological signals. The electrode
surface of the detector is coated with passive,
thin dielectric in order to avoid the use of
electrically conductive gel. Hence, EPIC is
said to be a dry sensor[10].
The sensor is an
ultra high impedance sensor that acts as a
highly stable, extremely sensitive, digital
voltmeter that can measure electric potentialin the scale of mill volts (mV). The sensor
can be used in contact as well as non-contact
mode. Although for recording ECG signals,
contact mode is preferred[8].
As an insulated,
active electrode sensor, it requires no
resistive contact with the source and relies on
the displacement current through the
capacitive-coupled thin dielectric electrode
coating. The ECG trace ideally requires twosensors to measure electric signals from parts
of the body on opposite sides of the heart. So,
we will use two sensors, one placed on the
right chest and the other on the left chest. The
ECG signal obtained from the sensor will be
a low voltage signal that is produced in a
high offset and noisy environment. Removal
of a major part of this noise is important
before amplification of the required signal as
amplification of unwanted signals may lead
to a loss of the low voltage ECG signal. The
signal that is received from the sensors need
to be pre-amplified before any further signal processing. The pre-amplifier will have low
voltage gain and high input impedance. It
will be directly coupled with the sensor
electrodes to provide optimal low frequency
response as well as to minimize charging
effects on coupling capacitor from input bias
current.
Processor & microcontroller module
Typically, ECG signal is characterized bymaximum amplitude of 1-2 mV and a
bandwidth of 0.05Hz to 150Hz. The signals
from the electrodes are highly affected by
noise. Since the acquired signal has noise
super-imposed on ECG signal, a differential
amplifier with high Common Mode
Rejection Ratio (CMRR) will be used to
remove the common mode noise at the input
terminal itself.
The differential amplifier that will be used is
an INA321 instrumentation amplifier. The
INA321 family provides low-cost, low-noise
amplification of differential signals with
micro power current consumption of 40μA
and shutdown current of less than 1μA.
INA321 provides CMRR of approximately
94 dB extended up to 3 kHz, the INA321
rejects the common-mode noise signalsincluding the line frequency and its
harmonics. The instrumentation amplifier
therefore will eliminate the DC offset of the
human body. It is also capable of removing
the interference picked up from the AC
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74
mains (Power Line Interference), although in
this module we use a battery.
The MSP430 is the family name of the ultra-
low power 16-bit mixed-signal RISC
processors from Texas Instruments. MSP430
microcontroller has three operationalamplifiers OA0-OA2. Op -Amp OA0 will be
used to obtain a low pass filter circuit. The
low pass filter here will act as an anti-aliasing
filter which restricts the signal of higher
frequency (greater than 150Hz) to the further
stages of the circuitry. The output signal from
the OA0 will be 500x amplified. Due to such
a large amplification factor, the output will
be sensitive to variations in the electrode-to-skin contact resistance. These variations will
lead to a low frequency noise known as the
baseline wander[6]
. This low frequency noise
can be removed by using OA1 integrator
circuit. This circuit will integrate the DC
content of the 5x amplified ECG signal and
feed it back to the INA321.The sampled ECG
waveform will still contain some amount of
distortions. This will be removed by digitallyfiltering the samples
[7]. A low-pass FIR filter
with pass-band upper frequency of 6 Hz and
stop-band lower frequency of 30 Hz will be
implemented in this application. The filter
coefficients will be scaled to compensate the
filter attenuation and provide additional gain
for the ECG signal at the filter output. This
will add up to a total amplification factor of
greater than 1000× for the ECG signal. TheFIR filtering is implemented on-chip.
The programming of the microcontroller will
be done with a JTAG connector. There is
provision for UART connection out from the
microcontroller board. The ECG signal
derived from the circuit will transmitted to a
Bluetooth transceiver unit CC2541 using the
UART connection. The programming of the
microcontroller itself will be done using C
language along with development tools. The
number of heart beats per minute will be
calculated using a three beat average. Two
variables in the C main function,i.e.
, counterand Pulse period, will accurately track the
time scale. Each output sample from the QRS
discriminator will be compared against a set
threshold to detect the presence of a beat.
Pulse period is incremented by one during
every sample period. The threshold levels of
the PQRST deflections will be set according
to convention and any variation of the
measured ECG trace from the ideal values
will transmit an alarm signal wirelessly to the
user’s phone.
The R-R interval bears information about the
heartbeat rate which is checked against the
normal range of 50-100bpm in the MSP430.
The absence of the P deflection may be an
indication of atrial fibrillation. Baseline rise
of the ST segment is an indicative of
myocardial infarction. ST segmentdepression is an indicative of ischemia. The
variation of PQRST is to be monitoring by
comparison in the MSP430 C program to
predict possible occurrence of these
conditions.
Wireless module and API
For the purpose of wireless transfer
Bluetooth is preferred over Zigbee as mobile
phones are usually incorporated with aBluetooth module. CC2541
[5] is a low power
Bluetooth device from Texas Instruments. It
combines an RF transceiver unit with an
industry-standard enhanced 8051 MUC and
has a programmable flash memory, 8kB
RAM, besides other powerful features. The
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output from the MSP430 will be fed into
CC2541 using the UART. The ECG trace
information will be wirelessly transferred
along with the alert signals and calculated
heartbeat rate to the user’s phone. An android
application will be developed using AndroidDevelopment Tool. The main function of the
application will be to display the real-time
ECG trace and the value of the heartbeat rate.
Also, the application will be so configured,
that any deviation from the ideal values will
send alert signals and location information to
two relatives of the user (as mentioned by the
user) as well as the nearby healthcare facility.
Methodology and alogorithm of operationThe Sensor Module will consist of the EPIC
(Electric Potential Integrated Circuit)
Sensors. The ECG trace ideally will require
two sensors to measure electric signals from
parts of the body on opposite sides of the
heart. So, in this system two sensors will be
used, one placed on the right chest and the
other on the left chest. The acquired signal
will have noise super-imposed on ECGsignal; therefore a differential amplifier with
high Common Mode Rejection Ratio
(CMRR) will be used for removal of noise at
input terminal. The differential amplifier that
will be used is INA321 instrumentation
amplifier which will remove the dc offset of
the human body as well as the interference
picked up from the ac mains. The processor
module of the system will consist of processor MSP430 which contains three
operational amplifier 0A0-0A2 that will give
1000x amplified ECG signal. Further the
amplified ECG signal will be used for
comparison. Programming of microcontroller
will be done using C language. Each output
sample will be compared against a set
threshold value. The threshold value will be
set in accordance to convention and any
deviation of the output samples from the
ideal value will lead to wireless transmission
of alert signal to user’s phone. In this system
the wireless module will consist of a low power Bluetooth device from Texas
instruments (CC2541). Using an android
application which will be developed with the
help of android development tool, the alert
signals as well as location information will
be sent to registered relatives of user and
nearby healthcare facility.
Step 1: Two EPIC sensors measuring heart
signals from left and right side of chest and pre-amplification stage.
Step 2: Output signals from EPIC fed to
differential amplifier INA321
instrumentation amplifier to remove noise
signals superimposed on ECG signals.
Step 3: Signal from INA321 fed to processor
MSP430 for further noise removal, signal
amplification and comparison with threshold
limits (as programmed within the processor).
Step 4: Deviation of output values from ideal
values leads to wireless transmission of alert
signals to user’s phone via Bluetooth
CC2541.
Step 5: Android application present in user’s
phone sends alert signals and location
information to relatives and doctors.
As we can see from the Fig 3.3 the time
interval required by different segments are
different, more in case of ventricular
tachycardia. Moreover it is evident from the
Fig 5 - Graph 2 as well as from Fig 6 values
on the graph that in case of ventricular
tachycardia that the P wave is present for
negligible time interval or more generally we
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can say that QRS complex is not preceded by P waves.
MSP430 will be programmed with this
normal ranges incorporated within the
program .The input ECG signal from the
sensors will be measured for the time interval
of the different segments for comparison.
Deviation will result in signals sent to
Bluetooth module.
Fig 6 shows the graph comparing different
heart beat rate. The R-R interval of ECG
gives the heart rate value, thus for
comparison of heart rate the R-R interval is
measured and compared in MSP430.
Fig 5: Graph 1:- Normal ECG, Graph 2:- ECG showing ventricular trachycardia
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ConclusionThe two sensors of the system will be fitted
on the left and right side of the body
respectively .The feed from the sensors will
be given to the central unit which will
contain the processor and the Bluetooth
transceiver. The entire unit will be fitted
upon a belt and can be easily worn below the
chest by the user. This system has very low
power requirements as the componentsrequired to build the system like processor
MSP430 and Bluetooth module
CC2541operate on low power. The entire
system will provide a non invasive, cost
effective and portable healthcare unit for
patients which hopefully will reduce mishaps
due to delay in treatment
References
EPIC Sensors in Echocardiogram
Measurements, Kureon Esa,Oulu
University of Applied Sciences,
Autumn – 2013.
INA321 Micro Power Single-Supply CMOS
Instrumentation Amplifier data sheet
(SBOS168),U. Rajendra Acharya, A.
E. Spaan, J. Suri, and S. M. Krishnan(2007): Advances in Cardiac Signal
Processing. Springer.
Heart-Rate and EKG Monitor Using the
MSP430FG439-Murugavel Raju,
MSP430FG439 Mixed Signal
Microcontroller data sheet
(SLAS380)
Texas Instruments, T. (2012): Interfacing
CC2541 to the MSP430.Texas Instruments, CC2541 Data Sheet,
SWRS110D, January (2012): Revised
June 2013
Electrocardiogram (ECG) signal Processing,
Leif Sornmo, Lund University,
Sweden, Pablo Laguna, Zaragoza
University, Spain
Accurate ECG Signal Processing By Ajay
Bharadwaj, Applications Engineer Sr,
and Umanath Kamath, Contingent
Workforce, Cypress Semiconductor
Corp,
Application Report SLAA280A–October
(2005): Revised September 2007
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Single Arm ECG measurement using EPIC,
Application Note #291491,Plessey
Semiconductors
Recommendation for standardization and
interpretation of echocardiogram,
Journal of American College Of
Cardiology, Volume – 49, Issue - (10,
March - 2007)
A low Power wearable physiological
parameter monitoring system,
G.Vinod Kumar, J.Rajnikantha,
IJSRD, Volume -1, Issue - 5,ISSN(online) : 2321-0613
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Science and Technology for indigenous development in India
Sharma, Aditi
Received: October 29, 2015 Accepted: November 11, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Introduction
Science & technology is widely recognized
as an important tool for fostering and
strengthening economic and social
development of the country. Greater
emphasis is on the development of
indigenous technologies. At the macro level,
S&T management should focus on meeting
the needs of the nation (including industry),
and encompass a wide spectrum of activities,
namely basic research, applied research,
technology transfer, design development,
fabrication, tests and trials, manufacturing,
marketing, maintenance and product support
during the life cycle. At the micro level,
R&D institutions and the academia must
move from R&D to R&D and Engineering so
that the indigenous technology can meet thespecific requirements of the Indian industry.
Four pillars of Indian science and
technology
Science and technology in India rest on four
pillars:
1. Techno-nationalism: In some fields,
despite making every effort, India could
not obtain certain technologies, and the
country had to make do with export
control regimes. In addition, it was
denied so-called “dual-use” technology.
In response, India developed its own
technologies in space, defence, nuclear
energy, and supercomputers, among
others. All were institutionally led,mission-based technology delivery
systems.
2. Inclusive growth: In S&T, where
consideration of the population had been
excluded, it is now included in the
development and growth process. This
means making S&T work on behalf of
the poor of India, combining equity andexcellence, creating products within the
price-performance envelope that are
suited to those at the bottom of the
pyramid and to the needs of India’s
lower-middle class. Discovery,
development, and delivery of drugs and
therapeutics vaccines that are available,
affordable, and accessible to the poor is
one example. The recent launch of the
Nano automobile by Tatas, a low-cost
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For correspondence:
Deptt. Of Chemistry N.A.S College, Meerut
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(US$2500) vehicle for the lower-middle
class, is another example. The green
revolution, which made India self-
sufficient in food belongs to this category
too, since its effect was to include a vast
majority of rural farmers who were
otherwise excluded.
3. Techno-globalism: This refers to the
strong interactions between the
internationalization of technology and the
globalization of the economy, a widening
cross-border interdependence between
individual-based sciences and economic
sectors, and the location of knowledge
production centres in countries that offer
the required skill base at low cost. In
India, this led to multiple offshore R&D
services utilizing India’s low-cost
scientific manpower. This resulted in
Indian S&T talent being used within the
country, rather than outside the country,
to create technology for global players.For example, GE set up its R&D in India
because India offered the highest
intellectual capital per dollar spent.
Taking advantage of this, more than 300
multinational companies have set up their
R&D centres in India, including GE,
IBM, Microsoft, Dupont, Dow, Shell, and
General Motors. Indian scientists and
researchers have created intellectual
property for numerous foreign firms. This
trend toward globalizing R&D is
expanding into other activities, including
diverse types of knowledge process
outsourcing, other IT-based services, and
clinical trials and testing, all at similar
cost advantages.
4.
Global leadership:
Such leadership
demands substantial improvements in the
quality of basic research, creating
‘innovation ecosystems’ comprised of
forward-looking intellectual property (IP)
laws, venture capital, and so forth. The
aim is to see that tomorrow’s Silicon
Valley and Genome Valley are created in
India. This also means that Indian IQ will
not be used just to create IP for
multinational companies (as is implicit in
S&T techno-globalism), but Indian IQ
will generate IP for Indian companies as
they step up their R&D spending by
several orders of magnitude. This
leadership will also coincide with
stronger participation among globally
dispersed Indians and their eventual
return to India, as is already beginning to
happen. It also means that the “brain
drain” phenomenon will be reversed.
What is Indigenous Knowledge?
The increasing attention indigenous
knowledge is receiving by academia and the
development institutions has not yet led to a
unanimous perception of the concept of
indigenous knowledge. None of the
definitions is essentially contradictory; they
overlap in many aspects. Warren (1991) and
Flavier (1995) present typical definitions by
suggesting:
Indigenous knowledge (IK) is the local
knowledge – knowledge that is unique to a
given culture or society. IK contrasts with the
international knowledge system generated by
universities, research institutions and private
firms. It is the basis for local-level decision
making in agriculture, health care, food
preparation, education, natural-resource
management, and a host of other activities inrural communities. (Warren 1991)
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Indigenous Knowledge is the information
base for a society, which facilitates
communication and decision-making.
Indigenous information systems are dynamic,
and are continually influenced by internal
creativity and experimentation as well as by
contact with external systems. (Flavier et al.
1995: 479)
While using similar definitions, the
conclusions drawn by the various authors are,
controversial in a number of aspects. The
implications of this will be discussed in the
section "Public debate on indigenous
knowledge". Most authors explain their
perception of indigenous knowledge,
covering only some aspects of it.
Why is Indigenous Knowledge Important?
In the emerging global knowledge economy a
country’s ability to build and mobilize
knowledge capital, is equally essential for
sustainable development as the availability of
physical and financial capital. (World Bank,
1997) The basic component of any country’s
knowledge system is its indigenous
knowledge. It encompasses the skills,
experiences and insights of people, applied to
maintain or improve their livelihood.
Significant contributions to global knowledge
have originated from indigenous people, for
instance in medicine and veterinary medicine
with their intimate understanding of their
environments. Indigenous knowledge is
developed and adapted continuously to
gradually changing environments and passed
down from generation to generation and
closely interwoven with people’s cultural
values. Indigenous knowledge is also the
social capital of the poor, their main asset toinvest in the struggle for survival, to produce
food, to provide for shelter or to achieve
control of their own lives.
Today, many indigenous knowledge
systems are at risk of becoming extinct
because of rapidly changing natural
environments and fast pacing economic,
political, and cultural changes on a global
scale. Practices vanish, as they become
inappropriate for new challenges or because
they adapt too slowly. However, many
practices disappear only because of the
intrusion of foreign technologies or
development concepts that promise short-
term gains or solutions to problems without
being capable of sustaining them. The
tragedy of the impending disappearance of
indigenous knowledge is most obvious to
those who have developed it and make a
living through it. But the implication for
others can be detrimental as well, when
skills, technologies, artifacts, problem
solving strategies and expertise are lost.
Indigenous knowledge is part of the lives of
the rural poor ; their livelihood depends
almost entirely on specific skills and
knowledge essential for their survival.
Accordingly, for the development process,
indigenous knowledge is of particular
relevance for the following sectors and
strategies:
• Agriculture
• Animal husbandry and ethnic veterinary
medicine
• Use and management of natural resources
• Primary health care (PHC), preventive
medicine and psychosocial care
• Saving and lending
• Community development
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• Poverty alleviation
Indigenous knowledge is relevant on three
levels for the development process. It is,
obviously, most important for the local
community in which the bearers of such
knowledge live and produce.
Development agents (CBOs, NGOs,
governments, donors, local leaders, and
private sector initiatives) need to recognize it,
value it and appreciate it in their interaction
with the local communities. Before
incorporating it in their approaches, they
need to understand it – and critically validate
it against the usefulness for their intended
objectives.
Lastly, indigenous knowledge forms part of
the global knowledge. In this context, it has a
value and relevance in itself. Indigenous
knowledge can be preserved, transferred, or
adopted and adapted elsewhere.
The development process interacts with
indigenous knowledge. When designing or
implementing development programs or
projects, three scenarios can be observed:
The development strategy either relies
entirely or substantially on indigenous
knowledge, overrides indigenous knowledge
or, incorporates indigenous knowledge.
Planners and implementers need to decide
which path to follow. Rational conclusions
are based on determining whether indigenous
knowledge would contribute to solve existing
problems and achieving the intended
objectives. In most cases, a careful
amalgamation of indigenous and foreign
knowledge would be most promising, leaving
the choice, the rate and the degree of
adoption and adaptation to the clients.
Foreign knowledge does not necessarily
mean modern technology, it includes also
indigenous practices developed and applied
under similar conditions elsewhere. These
techniques are then likely to be adopted
faster and applied more successfully. To
foster such a transfer a sound understanding
of indigenous knowledge is needed. This
requires means for the capture and validation,
as well as for the eventual exchange, transfer
and dissemination of indigenous knowledge.
Role of science and technology:
Science, technology and innovation plays a
critical role in enhancing economic growth
and contributing to national development. It
is the means by which new products and
services are developed or improved and
brought to the market. However, to make this
contribution, science, technology and
innovation must be integrated in the national
development planning process. Over the
years, the integration of science, technology
and innovation in Uganda’s national
development planning has been implicit.
Intentions to use science, technology and
innovation as the vehicle for economic
growth were evident in the country’s
comprehensive development framework such
as the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (1997
– 2008/09) and the National Development
Plan (2010/11-2014/15). However, strategiesof how to use it to bring about the desired
outcomes of economic growth were lacking.
Developments in science and technology are
fundamentally altering the way people live,
connect, communicate and transact, with
profound effects on economic development.
To promote tech advance, developing
countries should invest in quality education
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for youth, and continuous skills training for
workers and managers.
Science and technology are key drivers to
development, because technological and
scientific revolutions underpin economic
advances, improvements in health systems,
education and infrastructure.
The technological revolutions of the 21st
century are emerging from entirely new
sectors, based on micro-processors, tele-
communications, bio-technology and nano-
technology. Products are transforming
business practices across the economy, as
well as the lives of all who have access to
their effects. The most remarkable
breakthroughs will come from the interaction
of insights and applications arising when
these technologies converge.
Through breakthroughs in health services and
education, these technologies have the power
to better the lives of poor people in
developing countries. Eradicating malaria, a
scourge of the African continent for
centuries, is now possible. Cures for other
diseases which are endemic in developing
countries are also now possible, allowing
people with debilitating conditions to live
healthy and productive lives
Government is vigorously pursuing
indigenous Research and Development
(R&D) in various areas of Science and
Technology (S&T) in the country. This has
resulted a strong independent base in R&D
and significant achievements have been made
in the areas of agriculture, nuclear and space
science, electronics, Information Technology
(IT) and defence. Development of critical
technologies in space sector such asindigenous cryogenic engine, air breathing
propulsion, microwave remote sensing, deep
space tracking antenna system etc. and
reactor technology have demonstrated the
focused directions of Indian research.
Development of new affordable indigenous
technologies for public health like vaccine
for Japanese Encephalitis, test for molecular
diagnosis of Thallassemia, test strips for
diabetics, diagnosis kit for TB/H1N1 etc.;
development of seed varieties and post
harvest technologies for better management;
indigenously developed drifter (Pradyu) with
INSAT communication deployed in Bay of
Bengal etc. are some fruitful results. India’s
performance in science sector is promising
and impressive in recent years which are
evident from the fact that India’s position in
research publications has improved from
10th position in 2006 to 9th position in 2010.
India has emerged as the third major country
in nano science and 5th in the world in
Chemistry with respect to scientific publications.
Government has put in several systems to
promote S&T in the country and create a
scientific temperament among people. These
measures include successive increase in plan
allocations for Scientific Departments /
Agencies, induction of new and attractive
fellowships, strengthening infrastructure for
R&D, encouraging public-private R&D
partnerships, launching mission mode
programmes etc. The space science missions
including planetary missions, organizing
National Level Exhibition and Project
Competition under INSPIRE, running an
exhibition train called ‘Science Express’,
observing National Science Day, organizing
regular national workshops etc. provide
excellent opportunities in research for the
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younger generations of the country and create
scientific temperament and excitement
among people.
Conclusion
Making or manufacturing of any product orservice is not possible unless you know the
science behind it. Product can be easily and
cost effectively manufactured if it is known
fully. This is possible only if it is designed
and developed by self. If the science and
technology in any product is indigenous then
huge money will be saved towards
intellectual Rights. The product suited to
Indian needs can be designed and developed
if indigenization is pressed more
economically. Made in India will go hand in
hand with science and technology for
indigenous India and will give own identity
in S&T and lead India as superpower and
global leader.
Alexander, Steve. E-Commerce. (2006):
from Computers and Information
Systems).
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indigenous knowledge or the
indigenous exploitation of
knowledge. Whose use of what for
what?", Institute of Development
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Brokensha, D., Warren, D.M., Werner, O.
(1980): "Indigenous knowledge
systems and development",
University Press of America,
Washington, D.C.
Flavier, J.M. et al. (1995): "The regional
program for the promotion of
indigenous knowledge in Asia", pp.
479-487 in Warren, D.M., L.J.
Slikkerveer and D. Brokensha (eds)
The cultural dimension of
development: Indigenous knowledge
systems. London: Intermediate
Technology Publications
Grenier, L. (1998): Working with Indigenous
Knowledge - A Guide for
Researchers, IDRC, Ottawa
Government of India. Scientific Policy
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(1958): Available at:
<http://nrdms.gov.in/sci_policy.asp>.
King, D. The Scientific Impact of Nations.
Nature (2004): (July 15); 430: 311.
Mashelkar, R.A. (2007): Education for
Innovation: Implications for India,
China and America. DeHaan RL,
Venkatnarayan KJ, editors. Atlanta:
Sense Publications.
Mashelkar, R.A. (2005): India’s R&D:Reaching for the Top. Science;
307:1415-1417.
Mundy, P. and L. Compton. (1991):
"Indigenous Communication and
Indigenous Knowledge".
Development Communication Report
74 (3): 1-3.
National Innovation Foundation website.Available at
<http://www.nifindia.org>.
Nanda, B. R. (2006): "Nehru, Jawaharlal" in
Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3), edited
by Stanley Wolpert. 222–227.
Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31352-9.
Sharma, Shalendra D. (2006):
"Biotechnology Revolution" inEncyclopedia of India (vol. 1), edited
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by Stanley Wolpert. 154–157.
Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31350-2.
Vrat, Prem (2006): "Indian Institutes of
Technology" in Encyclopedia of India
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Rajasekaran, B., D. M. Warren and S. C.
Babu (1991): "Indigenous Natural
Resource Management Systems for
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Tabor, J. A., Hutchinson, C. F. (1994):
"Using Indigenous Knowledge,
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Warren, D. M. (1991c): "Indigenous
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Tree Borne Oilseed (TBOs): Competitive Source for Biodiesel in Rural India
Arora, Gurveen and Kumar, Dinesh
Received: October 27, 2015 Accepted: November 08, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Abstract
Non-edible oils (TBOs) obtained from seedsof tree species can be used as potential
biodiesel source in rural areas and contribute
towards attaining self-sufficiency. TBOs are
grown in the country under different agro-
climatic conditions in a scattered form in
forests, non-forest areas, waste land, deserts
and hilly areas. The country has enormous
potential of oilseeds of tree origin like mahua
( Madhuca indica), simarouba (Simarouba
glauca), wild apricot ( Prunus armeniaca)
etc. in varied agro-climatic conditions.
Participation of community in growing
selected trees in agroforestry system as a
component and processing of seeds for oil
extraction requires concerted R&D works on
bio-fuel species. Oil obtained from wild
apricot can be used locally for diverse
pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food and allied
industries besides generating revenue for
local communities. Standardisation of
cultivation practices, development of quality
planting material, and establishment of
demonstration plantations need to be focused
upon for mainstreaming TBOs.
In this direction, genotypes of wild apricothave been selected from limited area for the
identification of plants having high seed yield
and oil content.
Key words: Tree Borne Oilseeds (TBOs) |
Transesterification | Wild apricot |
propagation techniques
Introduction
Energy is vital for social and economicdevelopment. High energy prices, increasing
energy imports and to recent petroleum crisis
(Venkataraman, 2004) and the demand for
petroleum diesel is increasing day by day
hence there is a need to find out an
appropriate solution. As the energy demand
increases worldwide, governments are
beginning to explore renewable energy
options. In India, oil provides energy for
95% of transportation and the demand for
transport fuel continues to rise. As per the
third assessment of IPCC, the global oil
demand will raise by 1.68% from 75 million
barrels (MB)/day in the year 2002 to 120
MB/day in 2030 i.e. a tenfold increase.
Energy input in agriculture is also increasing.
Part of this energy should come from
renewable source for continuity for efficient
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Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [86 – 93] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For correspondence:
Silviculture division, Forest Research Institute,
Dehradun
Email: [email protected]
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and effective and it can be fulfilled by
biofuels.
Biofuels are being given serious
consideration as potential sources of energy
in the future, particularly in developing
countries like India. Biofuels are a sub-
category of bioenergy, which refers to any
energy sourced from non-fossil biomass used
for heat, electrical power, or transport.
Bioenergy currently accounts for roughly
10% of total primary energy supply globally
but most of this energy is consumed as wood
for cooking in developing countries. Biofuels
make up only a small fraction of current
bioenergy use.
It is increasingly acknowledged that the
biofuels hold the potential to offer a
sustainable energy future which would create
opportunities for achieving environmental
and socio-economic goals of the sustainable
development (US Department of Energy
1998; Kartha and Larson 2000, Hardy 2002).
All fuels can be broadly divided into modern
and traditional biofuels (Rajagopal and
Zilberman 2007; Goldemberg and Coelho
2005). Modern biofuels typically include
liquid fuels (ethanol and biodiesel) and
biogas. The details on biofuel production is
given in Table 1. Ethanol and biodiesel are
the two most common forms of biofuels thatare widely used in the energy sector.
Biodiesel is a clean burning alternate fuel,
both edible and non-edible. It can be used in
compression-ignition (diesel) engines with
little or no modifications .Bio diesel is simple
to use, biodegradable, nontoxic, and
essentially free of sulfur and aromatics. It can
be stored just like petroleum diesel fuel andhence does not require a separate
infrastructure. The use of biodiesel in
conventional diesel engines results in
substantial reduction of unburned
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and
particulate matters. Its higher cetane number
improves the ignition quality even when
blended in petroleum diesel. The use of
edible oil to produce biodiesel in India is not
feasible in view of big gap in demand and
supply of such oil (Padhi and Singh,
2011).The major source of bio-diesel in India
is non-edible oil seeds (TBOs) and the
technology for its production is indigenously
available. Some of the important TBOs used
in India are Neem ( Azadirachta indica),
Karanj ( Pongamia pinnata), Mahua
( Madhuca indica), Jatropha ( Jatropha
curcas), Kusum (Schleichera), Pilu
(Salvadora oleoides), Bhikal ( Prinsepia
utilis), Undi (Calophyllum inophyllum),
Thumba (Citrullus colocynanthis) , Sal
(Shorea robusta), Jojoba (Simmondsiachinensis), chullu (Prunus armeniaca),
Cheura ( Diploknema butyracea) ,wild walnut
( Aleurites molucana) and Tung (Vernicia
fordii). The oil content varies between 21 to
73% in these species. There are at least four
ways in which oils and fats can be converted
into biodiesel, namely, transesterification,
blending, micro-emulsions and pyrolysis—
transesterification being the most commonly
used method (Ramdhas et al.. 2005, Ma and
Hanna, 1999). Transesterification refers to a
catalyzed (KOH/NaOH) chemical reaction
involving oil/fat (triglyceride) and an alcohol
(methanol/ethanol) to yield fatty acid alkyl
esters (i.e., biodiesel) and glycerol. The main
factors affecting transesterification are the
amount of alcohol and catalyst; reaction
temperature, pressure and time; the contents
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of free fatty acid (FFAs) and water in oils.
Conversion is complicated if oil contains
large amount of FFA (41% w/w) that will
form soap with alkaline catalyst. The soap
can prevent separation of the biodiesel from
the glycerin fraction (Srivastav and Prasad,
2000).
Biofuel Feedstock Processes
Ethanol Agricultural cropscontaining starch;
sugar;
lignocellulosic
biomass
Fermentation: sugars are converted into ethanol using micro-organisms underanaerobic conditions.
Hydrolysis: the long chains of polymers of starch molecules are first broken
down to simple molecules of glucose and then glucose is fermented to produce
ethanol.
Pretreatment and acid hydrolysis cellulose and hemicellulose in the
lignocellulosic biomass are broken down to simple individual sugars and sugars
are fermented to produce ethanol.
Biodiesel Oilseed crops such
as soybean, canola,
sunflower, palm oil
Transesterification: fat or oil is mixed with an alcohol to form methyl esters
known as biodiesel and glycerol
Biomass, cowdung, animal
carcasses, etc.
Hydrolysis: insoluble organic materials (e.g. lipids, proteins, fats etc.) aretransformed to soluble organic materials.
Fermentation: where soluble organic materials are fermented to acetic acid.
These are converted into a mixture of methane called biogas and carbon dioxide
Table 1: Details on biofuels production by type of biofuels
Tree borne oilseeds are the multipurpose tree
species in agriculture system. TBOs are
cultivated/grown in the country under
different agro-climatic conditions in a
scattered form in forest and non-forest areasas well as in waste land /deserts/hilly areas.
The best characteristic is that it can be grown
and established in the wasteland and have
varied agro-climatic conditions. They are
also of domestic and industrial utility like
agriculture, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, diesel
and substitute, cocoa-butter substitute, carbon
sequestration in wasteland, consumption ofoil etc. besides generating additional
employment for vast rural populations. They
are found in forest and non-forest areas but
are scattered and are not properly collected,
what so ever collected is of poor quality due
to the lack of awareness of their uses. There
is favorable environment for large scale
cultivation of this plant in the country which
will further add not only in the reduction of
biodiesel production cost but will also add to
the food stock of the country. (ICAR-Central
Agroforestry Research Institute report, 2015).
Major Tree Borne Oilseeds (TBOs)
Wild apricot (Prunus armeniaca syn
Armeniaca vulgar is )
Wild apricot belongs to rosaceae family. It is
an endangered plant. Locally called as chullu,
is an important oilseed of tree origin. It is a
hardy plant species and can be grown in most
of the deep well drained soils. Wild apricot is
quite hardy and can be grown in most of the
soils, which are deep and well drained. The
cultivated apricot has its origin in North-
Eastern China, whereas, wild apricot appears
to be indigenous to India. In India it is found
in the dry temperate regions of North-
Western Himalayas particularly in the valleys
of Jammu & Kashmir (especially Ladakh),
Chenab; Kullu and Shimla regions of H.P.
and Garhwal hills of Uttarakhand at altitudes
up to 3000 m. The tree starts flowering aftera gestation period of 4 years. The cultivation
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needs specific chilling hours ranging from
350-900 hrs below 7oC (45o
Simarouba or the paradise tree, belongs to
family simroubaceae is an ever green multiutility tree. It is a both source of edible oil
and also biofuel. The oil can be used as cocoa
butter substitute/ extenders in confectionary
and bakery industry. The oil cake is valued
organic manure. It could grow under a wide
range of agro climatic conditions like warm,
humid and tropical regions. Its cultivation
depends upon rainfall distribution (around
400 mm), water holding capacity of the soil
and sub-soil moisture. It is suited for
temperature range 10 – 40
F), for proper
foliation and bloom in spring. It comes to full
bearing of fruits from 5-6 years onwards. Oil
content ranged from 50.05 - 57.97%, while
range of stone length, breadth and thickness
was from 14.64 - 26.48, 12.26 - 21.49 and
8.63 - 14.65 mm, respectively. Stone and
kernel weight varied between 66.60 - 295.10
and 18.20 - 68.18 g. Kernel size (length,
breadth and thickness) and weight are most
desirable characters which affect oil
percentage. The oil is used for medicinal,
cosmetic, confectionary purpose and also as
biodiesel source. The cake extraction of oil
can be used as manure and as cattle feed after
detoxification of hydro-cyanic acid.
Ullah et al., 2009 calculated the benefit/cost
ratio of wild apricot in Pakistan was
evaluated for biodiesel produced from wild
apricot kernel oil on laboratory scale. They
found that the cost of biodiesel producedfrom wild apricot kernel oil was 1.2 U.S $L.
This high cost is due to problems associated
with collection of kernels from farmers and
laborious pressing of kernels for oil
extraction. The above estimated price for
wild apricot kernel oil biodiesel appears high
than existing price of high speed diesel (0.70
U.S $/L) in Pakistan. However, the cost of production can be further reduced by
utilizing byproducts of biodiesel such as
glycerin for industrial uses (soap, cosmetics
etc) and kernel cake as animal feed and
preparation of inocula for biofertilizers.
Siamrouba (Simarouba glauca )
0
Cheura belongs to sapotaceae family and
popular known as Indian butter tree and
mainly found in Uttarakhand state. It is a
multipurpose tree. It is a medium size
deciduous tree with straight trunk attaining a
height of 15-22m and girth of 1.5-1.8 m. The
fruit is a berry ,2.0-4.5 cm long , bright green
C, pH of the soil
be 5.5 – 8. It produces bright green leaves
20-50cm length, yellow flowers and oval
elongated purple colored fleshy fruits
(Yadvika et al.., 2004) Its seeds contain
about 40 % kernel and kernels content 55-
65% oil. The amount of oil would be 1000 –
2000 kg/ha/year for a plant spacing of 5m
x5m. It is used for industrial purposes in the
manufacture of soaps, detergents and
lubricants etc. The oil cake being rich in
nitrogen (7.7 to 8.1%), phosphorus (1.07%)
and potash (1.24%) could be used as valuableorganic manure (Yuan et al.., 2008).
Simarouba glauca can easily be propagated
through seeds provided they are sown as
fresh seeds. It is a polygamodioecious tree
and seed-raised plantations result in
segregation of male, andromonoecius and
female plants and in certain instances the
frequency of male plants reaches 60-70%.
Even in female plants, only a few are
generally, heavy bearers.
Cheura (Diploknema butyracea )
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in colour with three seeds which turns juicy
and grey after getting ripen. The exterior of
the fruit is thick, soft, and rich with glucose
and fragrance. It contains black and sparkling
seeds of 1.5 to 2.0 cm in length which has
almond shaped white coloured kernels inside
itself. Seed coat is thin to thick, woody to
crusty.
Cheura may be propagated through seeds and
cuttings. It is used as food, fodder and
medicines in kumaon hills and kalp-vriksha.
Cheura leaves are used as fodder for animals.
Leaves are also used for biodegradeable
plates for serving food.Useful for preparing
medicines, ointment, candles, cream and
other user-friendly products. Cake is used as
manure and can also has pesticidal
properties. Average fruit yield per annum is
about 100-250 kg/tree.
Jatropha (Jatropha curcas )
Jatropha curcus is a drought-resistant
perennial, growing well in marginal/poor
soil. Jatropha, the wonder plant produces
seeds with an oil content of around 37%. The
oil can be combusted as fuel without being
refined. It burns with clear smoke-free flame,
tested successfully as fuel for simple diesel
engine. The by-products are press cake a
good organic fertilizer, oil contains also
insecticidal properties. Jatropha grows almostanywhere, even on gravelly, sandy and saline
soils. It can thrive on the poorest stony soil.
Its water requirement is extremely low and it
can stand long periods of drought by
shedding most of its leaves to reduce
transpiration loss. Jatropha is also suitable for
preventing soil erosion and shifting of sand
dunes. The seed productivity of Jatrophaunder block plantation varies from as low as
1.5 kg /plant to 5 kg/ plant at 2 m x 2 m
spacing. The plant comes into seed bearing
from the second year onwards and stabilizes
by the 4th or 5th year. Normally, the seed
yield from one-acre plantation is in the range
of 800 – 1000 kg depending on the local
climatic and hydro-geological conditions
(ICAR, 2006 and Rao et al ., 2006).
Recovery of oil from seed of 28 percent, it
would take 3,571 kilograms (kg) of seed to
produce one ton of oil. Assuming a cost of
US$0.11/kg for seed and processing costs of
approximately US$19.60/ton, the overall cost
of production would be approximately
US$407.80/ton, which translates to
US$0.53/liter of biodiesel. The sale of the
glycerin and seedcake byproducts could
optimistically reduce the net cost to
approximately S$0.40/liter. Annual
production of non-edible oil seeds in India is
given in Table 2.
Current scenario of Tree Borne Oilseeds
(TBOs)
At present, the tree borne oilseeds (TBO’s)
contribute an insignificant portion of
vegetable oil production in the country
mainly due to lack of improved varieties,
elite planting material and agronomic
practices. A National Biodiesel Mission,
2009 was launched by the PlanningCommission to cover 2.5 million ha area in
the country, to meet 5 % replacement of the
diesel requirement of the country.
Government of India had fixed the target to
replace 20 % petrodiesel with biodiesel up to
2011-12 by producing 13.38 million tons of
biodiesel annually through plantations of
Jatropha alone in 11.19 million ha. The
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Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas has
launched biodiesel procurement policy w.e.f.
Type Production
(MT)
Oil%
Neem 500 30
Karanja 200 27-39Pilu 50 33
Ratanjot - 30-40
Jojoba - 50
Bhikal - 37
Wild walnut - 60-70
Undi 04 50-73
Thumba 100 21
Kusum 80 34
Table 2: Annual Production of Non-edible OilSeeds in India (Interim Report of “Auto
Fuel Policy”).01.01.2006 @ 25 / litre through state owned
petroleum companies in 12 states. However,
recently for the XIIth
Under the existing situation of tree borne
oilseeds being of forest origin, the problemsencountered are: collection from scattered
locations, high dormancy and problems in
picking and harvesting in avenue and forest
plantations, non-availability of quality
planting material or seed, limited period of
availability, unreliable and improper
marketing channels, lack of post-harvest
technologies and their processing, non-
remunerative prices, wide gap between
potential and actual production, absence of
state incentives promoting bio-diesel as fuel,
and economics and cost-benefit ratio. At
present, the tree borne oilseeds (TBO’s)
contribute an insignificant portion of
vegetable oil production in the Research and
development on germplasm resources,
identification of elite planting material,
propagation techniques, production
technology for management of large scale
block plantations of single or few species,
performance of progenies under different
agroclimatic situations, the resultant pest and
diseases situation, quality parameters etc.need to be undertaken as a priority.
Promoting TBOs has many benefits to the
country and the environment in terms of
additional supplies of vegetable oils,
employment to needy population, eco-
friendly system, foreign exchange earnings,
diesel substitution and pollution reduction is
required. Table no. 3 explains the integrated
R&D programs for biofuel feedstocks.
Conclusion
Producing biodiesel from tree-borne oilseeds
(TBOs) is seen by many as a win-win
opportunity to solve India’s most pressing
problems. It will stimulate rural development
and will bring rural infrastructure. Better
management of marginal and wasteland can
be helpful with extensive cultivation using
Plan, the Department of
Agriculture and Co-operation, Ministry of
Agriculture, has formulated the Mini Mission
III to promote the oil seeds in addition to
TBOs for biofuel. The aim of Mini Mission
III of National Mission on Oil Seeds and Oil
Palm (NMOOP) from the current year is to
promote 11 tree borne oilseeds (Simarouba,
Neem, Jojoba, Karanja, Mahua, Wild
Apricot, Jatropha, Cheura, Kokum, Tung &
Olive). Moreover, with both National Biofuel
policy (2009) and National Agroforestry
Policy (2014) being launched in the country,
the first policy targets the replacement of
fossil fuels by biofuel to the extent of 5% by2012, 10% by 2017 and above 10% beyond
2017 and the second policy aims at integrated
land use option for livelihood, environment
and energy security.
Problems and priorities of Tree Borne
Oilseeds (TBOs)
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Modeling Studies Process Technology Agronomy Basic R&D
Life cycle analysis andIndustrial ecologyAspects
Optimization of oilseed processing and extraction
Crop yield analysistesting of localvarieties and hybrids
Fatty acid profilingIdentification and isolationof potential high value
products Net energy and CO2 Development of jatropha
oil purification/refining andother feed stocks for processing
emissions estimationTesting of variousfarming practices (e.g. optimal crop spacing)
Toxicologicalstudies
Ecological riskassessment
Optimization oftransesterification
Development of organicfertilizationschemes
Germplasm bank
Socioeconomic Impactassessment
Construction of integrated pilot plant
Identification of potential pestsand diseases. Start up of a pilotfarm to be integrated with the
pilot plant
Engine performance andemissions testing
Table 3: Integrated R&D programs for biofuel feed stocks
improved, standard and certified planting
material for the sustainable biofuel business.
This will bring boost to processing industries
and plantation, pharmaceutical and other
subsidiary industries. With Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) companies
in industrialised countries can buy “carbon
credits” from project developers in
developing countries in order to achieve their
own green house gas reduction targets.
Biodiesel could bring agricultural
development and create employment and
income for many of the poor people. At the
same time, it may satisfy a significant part of
the country’s fuel demand, increasing India’s
energy security and saving foreign exchange.Shifting to biodiesel could also reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and urban air
pollution.
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94
A comparative study on gain enhancement techniques of leaky wave antenna
Pandey, Namita; Chauhan, Anjali and Agrawal, Rahul
Received: October 25, 2015 Accepted: November 05, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Abstract
Over the years, Leaky wave antennas (LWA)
has provided various advantages such as
wide beam scanning, higher gain capabilities
and easy integration with other planar
components. With the advancement of
metamaterial (MTM) technology, various
LWA structures based on composite right/left
handed (CRLH)/ substrate integrated
waveguide (SIW) are investigated for
obtaining narrow beam patterns at broadside.
In this paper, comparative analysis &
overview of various techniques for
improving the gain is presented. The gain
achieved from various techniques lies in the
range of 10 to 18 dBi is reported.
Key words: Composite right/left handed
(CRLH), Half mode substrate integrated
waveguide (HMSIW), Gain enhancement,
substrate integrated waveguide (SIW), leaky
wave antenna (LWA).
Introduction
MTM are effectively artificial structure that
exhibits electromagnetic properties not
commonly found in nature such as negative
values of effective permittivity, permeability
and/or refractive index. Metamaterial have
been found to enhance specific performance
parameters of low & high profile antennas. In
1968, Veselago first investigated the
electrodynamics of hypothetical materials
with simultaneously negative permittivity
and permeability which he called the left
handed materials (LHM). On the basis of
Veselago’s theoretical analysis of LH MTM,
JB Pendry introduced metallic structures with
negative permittivity and a periodic non
magnetic structure of a split ring resonator
with a negative permeability. Recently,Caloz, Iyer and Efeltheriads proposed a
transmission line (TL) approach for LH
MTM.
A LWA is a class of travelling wave antenna
which uses a guiding structure that supports
wave propagation along the length of the
structure, with the wave radiating or
‘’leaking’’ along the structure. Particularly,
planar LWAs configurations with their
advantages of wide beam scanning, higher
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [94 – 100] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For correspondence:
Department of ECE, D.I.T University Dehradun,
India
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gain capabilities, low profile, simple
fabrication and easy integration with
electronic components have found
applications in various radar and
communication systems at microwave
frequencies.
This paper focuses specifically on
comparison of the gain of different leaky
wave antennas based on CRLH structures.
The CRLH transmission-line based LWAs
can improve boresight gain over a narrow
frequency band when a balanced condition
(when series resonance equal to shunt
resonance) is satisfied. If a CRLH structure is
unbalanced, a stop-band gap region is
generated between the left-handed region and
the right-handed region. The stop-band gap
region is undesirable for the antenna
applications because it prevents the boresight
radiation and thus degrades the boresight
gain at the transition frequency.
Substrate integrated waveguide (SIW) and
half mode substrate integrated waveguide
(HMSIW) have been very popular types of
planar guided wave structures over the past
decade which provides minimum gain of
10dBi. It uses metamaterial radiating
structures by etching interdigital slots on
waveguide surface and ground. In four types
of antennas are analyzed which exhibitvarious features such as balanced or
unbalanced operating schemes, quasi-omni-
directional radiation patterns and
miniaturized size while keeping a high gain.
A leaky wave antenna implemented on a
SIW with inverted v shaped slot which
contributes to the series capacitance and also
act as the radiator, it radiates efficiently with
high gain at the operating frequency based on
CRLH. It gives a gain of 6to 8 dBi in left
hand region and 13dBi in right hand region.
The half mode SIW is a more compact
guided wave structure which preserves nearly
all the advantages of SIW whereas its size is
nearly reduced to half. In this the SIW is cut
into two parts along the symmetry plane,
each of the half SIW is called the HMSIW. A
novel LWA based on the Half mode SIW
technique possessing features such as wide
bandwidth and a conical or quasi omni-
directional radiation pattern is presented in
which provides a gain of 11.1 dBi in H-plane
and 11.4 dBi in E-plane at 26.5 GHz
frequency. A LWA based on CRLH SIW
consisting of two leaky wave radiator
elements featuring boresight gain of 12 dBi
with a variation of 1.0 dBi over the frequency
range of 8.775 to 9.15 GHz is presented.
(a) Prototype of two fabricated CRLH SIW leaky-wave antennas
(b) Prototype of Multilayered CRLH LWA with consistent gain
Fig.1: Prototype of Antenna
(a) Prototype of dual elements based LWA
(b) Photograph of the fabricated antennas using grating cover.
Fig.2: Prototypes of Antenna
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It Uses LWA based on CRLH SIW which
consists of two leaky wave radiator elements
with different unit cells. The dual element
configuration is proposed to improve the
boresight radiation. Each CRLH based
element is designed using the multilayered
SIW structures consisting of an embedded
patch array and slot array. A LWA for
boresight radiation have also been proposed
based on the different aperture-shaped
structures. A multilayered CRLH based
LWA composed of 15 unit cells with
consistent gain is presented. A multilayered
CRLH based LWA is proposed which
comprises of a SIW with an array of CRLH
unit cells. The CRLH unit cell is formed by a
slot cut on the upper ground of SIW, and a
parasitic patch beneath the slot. The antenna
achieves continuous beam scanning against
frequency and the optimal boresight gain at
the balanced condition frequency. Generally,
a LWA with more unit cells features highergain but this paper shows that, there is a
limitation for gain enhancement with the
increasing of the unit cells. This multilayered
structure offers desired measured
performance with the 3-dBi gain bandwidth
of 47% with the maximum gain of 12.8 dBi.
A novel high gain active antenna array using
dual fed distributed amplifier(DA) based on
CRLH LWA with a maximum gain of 16dBi
is presented, it offers around 7 dBi increase
in gain in comparison to the single-fed DA-
based active antenna. A CRLH microstrip
structure incorporating varactor diodes for
fixed frequency voltage controlled operation.
A 30-cell LWA structure is designed
incorporating both series and shunt varactors
for optimal impedance matching and a
maximum gain of 18dBi at broadside is also
achieved. A planar beam scanning SIW slot
LWAs are proposed for gain enhancement
using a metallic phase correction grating
cover. Two types of grating (type A & type
B) are introduced as the upper layer of the
antenna with an unchanging feeding
structure.
Comparative Study
On comparing various techniques, it is found
that minimum gain achieved is 10dBi using
CRLH/SIW, HMSIW technique while the
maximum gain achieved is 18dBi using
CRLH structure incorporating varactor
diodes. Beam scanning is achieved either by
varying the operating freq. or voltage.
Minimum beam scanning achieved is (-30˚
to+30˚) using metallic phase correction
grating cover technique while the maximum
beam scanning achieved is (-66˚ to 78˚) using
multilayered CRLH/SIW. The technique
providing the maximum gain is better as it
provides angle scanning at fixed frequency as
well as Beamwidth tuning is obtained by
making the structure non-uniform by
application of a non-uniform bias voltage
distribution of the varactors.
Conclusion
In this paper a comparative analysis and
overview of various techniques for
improving the gain of LWA is presented.
Among the different techniques discussed,
CRLH/SIW, HMSIW technique provides a
minimum gain of 10dBi, which emphasizes
on making the structure compact, while the
maximum gain achieved is 18dBi by using
CRLH structure involving varactor diodes
which focuses on achieving the gain at
broadside as well as on optimum impedancematching. Further by implementing metallic
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phase correction grating cover with a planar
antenna, the gain can be enhanced by 4 to 6
dBi.
TECHNIQUES USED FEATURES GAIN STRUCTURE
1. CRLH/SIW,HMSIW Beam scanning=(-70˚ to
60˚) Operating freq.=(8.6 to
12.8 GHz)
Avg. efficiency= 87%
10dBi
2. CRLH/SIW Beam scanning=(-32˚to
61˚)
Operating
frequency=(31to 41ghz)
6-8dBi
(left hand)
&
13dBi
(right hand)
3. HMSIW Operating freq.=(26.5 to
28GHz)
11dBi
4. CRLH/SIW Beam scanning=(-60˚ to
+66˚)
Operating freq.=(8.775
to9.15GHz)
12dBi
5. Multilayered
CRLH/SIW
Beam scanning=(-66˚ to
78˚)
Operating freq.=(8.0 to
13.0GHz
12.8dBi
6. CRLH[using dual fed
DA amplifier]
Operating freq.=(2.4GHz
ISM band)
16dBi
7. CRLH [using varactor
diodes]
Fixed freq.=(3.33GHz)
Beam scanning=(50˚ to -
49˚)
18dBi
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Yuandan, Dong and Itoh, Tatsuo (2011):
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Arokiaswami, Cheng, Jin and
Nasimuddin (2014): Compact Leaky
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Gomez-Diaz, J. S.; Alvarez-Melcon, A. and
Perruisseau-Carrier, J. (2012):
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8. Metallic phase
correction grating cover
Beam scanning=
(-30˚ to 30˚)
Operating
freq.=25.45GHz
It enhances
gain by 4 to 6
dBi
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Gagnon, N.; Ittipiboon, A. and Petosa, A.
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Antar, Y. M. M. (2010): “Segmented
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(iWAT 2010).: 1–4.
Podilchak, S. K.; Freundorfer, A. P. and
Antar, Y. M. M. (2008): “Planar
leaky-wave antenna designs offering
conical-sector beam scanning and
broadside radiation using surface-
wave launchers,” IEEE Antennas
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Gagnon, N.; Petosa, A. and Ittipiboon, A.
(2012): “Design of a strip-line
leakywave antenna for broadside
radiation,” in Proc. Eur. Conf. on
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Lovat, G.; Burghignoli, P. and Jackson, D. R.
(2006): “Fundamental properties and
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Jackson, D. R. (2008): “Full-wave
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antennas,” IEEE Trans. Antennas
Propag.56(12): 2826–2837.
Martinez-Ros, A. J.; Gomez-Tornero, J. L.
and Goussetis, G. (2012): “Broadside
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252–254.
Cameron, T. R.; Sutinjo, A. T. and
Okoniewski, M. (2010): A circularly
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Nasimuddin, Nasimuddin; Ning Chen, Zhi
and Xianming, Qing (2012):
Multilayered Composite Right/Left-
Handed Leaky-Wave Antenna With
Consistent Gain,” IEEE Trans. on
antenna and propagation.
Chung-Tse Michael wu and Tatshuo Itoh
(2012):” A High gain antenna array
using dual-fed distributed amplifier-
based CRLH leaky wave antenna,”
Proceedings of APMC 2012,
Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
Transmission-Line (2005): Structure as a
Novel Leaky-Wave Antenna with
Tunable Radiation Angle and
Beamwidth,” IEEE Trans. On
microwave theory and techniques.
53(1).
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Cao , Wenquan; Hong , Wei; Ning Chen , Zhi
Zhang, Bangning and Liu, Aijun
(2014): Gain Enhancement of Beam
Scanning Substrate Integrated
Waveguide Slot Array Antennas
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Cover,” IEEE Trans. on antenna and
propagation, 62(9).
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101
Use of marginal materials in road works
Swami, R. K. and Arun, Uma
Received: October 29, 2015 Accepted: November 19, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Abstract
Hard stone is being used as a road construction
material for all categories of roads in the country.
Sources of conventionally used hard stone are
depleting very fast and in many parts of the
country, the leads involved are very long. On the
other hand there are different types of soils and
low grade materials available in the country
which may be used to advantage in road
construction.
Introduction
Conventionally, hard stone has been used as
a road construction material for all categories
of roads in the country. Although the hard
stone has all the attributes of a good
construction material, both in regard to
strength and durability, its sources are
depleting fast. Moreover, in many parts of
the country, the leads involved are so long
that they make the construction costs prohibitive. It is not uncommon in in several
areas that leads of the order of 200 kms. are
involved from the nearest hard stone quarry.
Therefore, it is necessary to go in for locally
available low grade materials especially for
low volume roads where the construction
costs have to be kept low.
Pavement Materials
All India surveys carried out for different
types of soils and low grade materials
encountered in the country reveal that there is
a wide variety of soil types as well as gravels,
moorums and naturally occurring soft
aggregates which can be used to advantage in
road construction.
Broadly, the soil types in the country can becategorized as under:
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [101 – 104] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
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a) Lateritic soils
b) Moorums/ red soils
c) Desert sands
d) Alluvial soils
e) Clays including black cotton soils.
Similarly, a wide variety of naturally
occurring low grade materials/ soft
aggregates are available in the different parts
of the country. These can broadly be
categorized as under:-
a) Gravels/ moorum
b) Kankar
c)
Dhandla
d)
Laterite
e) Soft stone/ sand stone
f) Brick- aggregate
Material surveys
The material surveys and related laboratory
investigations constitute an essential part of
any road project. More so, for a road projectwhere use of locally available materials is to
be maximized. The locally available
materials that can be incorporated in the
pavement design should be very thoroughly
and judiciously explored. In this class of
materials are included various types of soils
encountered; sands from streams/river beds
and other sources; moorum which may even
be available at shallow depths below the
ground level or from other quarries; gravels,
well spoils, soft aggregates like laterite,
kankar , dhandla, rivers and- gravel mixes ,
etc. While locations of the PWD/ Zilla
Parishad approved quarries of stone metal
can be obtained from the district
headquarters, the quarries for locally
available materials like the ones listed above,
are generally not known but local enquiries
from villagers etc. can help a great deal in
this regard. Samples of the locally available
materials like lime that could possibly be
used as soil stabilizer should also be
collected.
Special care has to be exercised in collection
of samples of these locally available
materials since these are generally quite
variable in their engineering properties. So
much so, the locally available moorums and
gravels from the same source can give widely
different strength values. This, naturally, has
significant implications in the construction
and performance of roads.
Material testing
The samples of subgrade soils and other
locally available materials collected during
the field surveys should be subjected to the
following laboratory tests:
a) Atterberg limits
b)
Gradation
c)
Compaction test
d) CBR
e) Aggregate Impact Value
In areas infested with harmful salts like
sulphates and containing organic matter,
special tests to determine their approximate
content need to be carried out, in addition to
the above tests.
Suitability Criteria for material:
The samples of soils/ soil-gravel/ aggregates
collected during the material survey are
tested in the laboratory to confirm their
suitability for use in different pavement
layers. The criteria regarding the suitability
of these materials for gradation, plasticity
and strength requirement have been given in
IRC special publication No. 20.
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In case the available materials meet the
requirements, these can be used as such.
Otherwise, the local materials have to be
processed with a view to improve their
engineering properties so that these can be
incorporated in the lower layers of road
pavements. The various methods which can
be adopted to improve the local soils and
inferior aggregates are as under:-
Selection of StabiliserThe selection of the stabiliser is based on
plasticity and particle size distribution of the
material to be treated. The appropriate
stabiliser can be selected according to the
criterion shown in table 1. Some control over
the grading can be achieved by limiting the
coefficient of uniformity to a minimum value
of 5; however, it should preferably be morethan 10. The coefficient of uniformity is
defined as the ratio of the sieve size throughwhich 60 percent passes to the sieve size
through which 10 percent passes. If the
coefficient of uniformity lies below 5, the
cost of stabilisation will be high and the
maintenance of cracks in the finished road
would be expensive. If the plasticity of soil is
high there are usually sufficient clay minerals
which can be readily stabilised with lime.
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Type of
stabilisation
More than
25% passing
the 0.075 mm
sieve
Soil
Properties
Less than 25%
passing the 0.075mm
sieve
PI < 10 10 < PI < 20 PI > 20 PI < 6,
PP < 60
PI < 10 PI > 10
Cement Yes Yes * Yes Yes Yes
Lime - Yes Yes No * Yes
Lime-
Pozzolan
Yes - No Yes Yes *
Table 1: Guide to the type of stabilisation likely to be effective
Cement is more difficult to mix intimately
with plastic material but this problem can be
alleviated by pre-treating the soil with
approximately 2 percent lime.
•
Plasticity Product (PP), expressed as product of PI of soil and percentage
fraction passing 75 micron sieve should
not exceed 60
There are many manufactured
commercial products in the market that
claim, when added to the soil in the
proper quantities, improve some
engineering characteristics of the soil
such as strength, texture, workability, and
plasticity. These chemical additives can
be tried for construction of test sections.
Conclusion
• In case the available materials meet the
requirements, these can be used as such.
• The inferior locally available materials
can be improved by using suitablestabilization techniques and used in
lower pavement layers.
Acknowledgement
Authors are thankful to Director, CSIR-
Central Road Research Institute, New- Delhi
for giving permission to publish this paper.
References
1. Rural Road Manual, IRC: SP: 20.
2. Guidelines for soil and granular material
stabilization using cement, lime & fly
ash, IRC: SP: 89-2010.
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105
Funaria Hygrometrica extracts with activity against plant pathogenic fungi
Al ternar ia species
Srivastava, Naina
Received: October 28, 2015 Accepted: November 18, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Abstract
The invitro antifungal activity of Funaria
was studied against test fungi Alternaria
using disc diffusion and direct dilution
methods. Extract treatments reduced the
fungal growth several biomass ranging from
15 to 23%, The alcohol extract was evaluated
for its short-term toxicity. Levels of activity
against the test fungi; the alcohol extract
exhibited maximum activity. Data showed
that all the extracts showed variable
antifungal activity. Among the various
extracts, methanol extract, showed the
antifungal activity resulting in 0–63% and 0-
69% reduction in fungal biomass over
corresponding control treatments,
respectively. The implications of using the
Funaria extracts in controlling Alternaria
species. Therefore, products of bryophytes
deserved to be reliable sources as biocontrol
agents and may play significant roles for
future practical applications in a socially and
ecologically healthy crop management
system.
Keywords: Antifungal agents | toxicity |
Fungal biomass
Introduction
The toxic effect of synthetic chemicals can
be overcome, only by persistent search for
new and safer pesticides accompanied by
wide use of pest control methods, which areeco-friendly and effective (Mohana et al.,
2011). Green plants represent a reservoir of
effective chemo therapeutants and can
provide valuable sources of natural
pesticides. Plant metabolites and plant based
pesticides appear to be one of the better
alternatives as they are known to have
minimal environmental impact and danger to
consumers in contrast to synthetic pesticides.
Alternaria fungus has about one hundred
species, found in various places all over the
world. Many of them are plant pathogens and
cause disease in a wide range of hosts.
Alternaria has an important place among
species of this genus, as it depends on range
of hosts including garden plants, field crops,
vegetables, and ornamentals. The taxon is the
principal causative agent of blight of ripe
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [105 – 112] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For correspondence:
Botany Department, D.A.V (Pg) College, Dehradun
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tomatoes, brown necrotic lesions on foliage,
black pit disease of potatoes.
Extracts of many plants have been reported
to exhibit antifungal properties under
laboratory (Parekh et al., 2006; Buwa and
Staden, 2006). Pathogenic fungi alone cause
20% reduction in the yield of major food and
cash crops (Agrios, 2000). To avoid the
implication of yield losses due to plant
diseases, variety of control measures
presently are in use. The chemical
compounds are most commonly used for the
controlling of plant diseases. No doubt the
use of chemicals has been found very
effective in controlling plant fungal diseases
but some major problems threaten to limit the
continued use of fungicides. Pathogenic fungi
are the main infectious agents in plants,
causing alterations during developmental
stages including post-harvest but are also
indirectly responsible for allergic or toxic
disorders among consumers because of the production of mycotoxins or allergens
(Dellavalle et al. 2011).Fungal plant diseases
represent an important cause of increased
annual crop losses. More than 70% of all
major crop diseases are caused by fungi
(Agrios, 2005). Alternaria alternata causes
leaf spots and blight on a large variety of
agricultural and horticultural Moreover, A.alternata can also attack a several weeds and
ornamental plants. There is also little doubt
that sensitivity to Alternaria is an important
factor in the induction of allergic rhinitis and
asthma on immunodepressed patients,
especially in children (Kuna et al., 2011)
Generally, the control of plant diseases and
pests is well established with synthetic
fungicides and other agricultural practices
such as crop rotation inter-cropping and
sanitation (Pretty, 2008). However, in the
recent years the farmers all over the world
have reported an efficacy decrease of the
treatments with traditionally used fungicides
to control early blight and other plant
diseases (Fairchild et al., 2013). Furthermore,
the inappropriate use of fungicides, such as
applying increased and more frequent units
(Genet et al., 2006) has resulted on the one
hand in the occurrence of fungal resistance
(Haouala, 2008) and on the other hand in
hazardous effects in human and animal health
and on the environment resulting in
ecological imbalances (Pramila and Dubey,
2004).
Traditionally, because of their antimicrobial
activity, mosses were used as a natural
medicine in Indian culture. Today, mosses
represent interesting tools for
biotechnological use in medicine, agriculture,
and pharmacology. However, although
mosses are becoming increasingly importantin many fields and moss is used as a model
organism for antimicrobial studies. Little is
known about moss-associated
microorganisms, beneficial as well as
pathogenic. The effect of mosses by fungi is
a very frequent though generally neglected
phenomenon. The bryophytes, including
liverworts, hornworts, and mosses, are adiverse group of land plants that usually
colonize habitats with moist or extremely
variable conditions. One of their most
important features is their life cycle, which
involves alternation between a diploid
sporophyte and a dominant, free-living
haploid gametophyte generation. Funaria
hygrometrica is a common type of water
moss which grows on moist, shady, and
damp soil. It can also be found on moist
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walls and the crevices of rocks and places
where recent fires have taken place. The
plant body is green, soft, and upright.
The rhizoids present in this species are multi-
cellular and branched. They have oblique
septa. The main axis of the plant, which is
upright, bears a set of spirally
arranged, sessile leaves having a clearly
distinguishable midrib. At the apex of the
main plant axis, the antheridium is borne.
This is the male part of the shoot. A lateral
branch from the main plant axis bears the
female shoot archegonium at its meristem.
Materials and Methods
Isolation of pathogens from diseased plant
tissues
Plant infected with disease found during the
survey at field. Surface disinfestations of
tissues selected for isolation work was done
by 1 % sodium hypochlorite. The stems
infected with disease were cut into small
pieces and placed directly on acidified PDA
(Mehrota R.S. and Aggarwal Ashok., 2003).
After a day, colonies of fungi are visible
which was further subjected for the
identification of pathogen. The stems
infected with disease were cut into small
pieces and placed directly on acidified PDA
(Mehrota R.S. and Aggarwal Ashok., 2003).
.Microscopical examination of the pathogenrevealed the pale brown to light brown
conidia produced in long chain of 5,
obclavate, short conical beak at the
tip,smooth surface with several vertical and 8
tranverse septa which is confirmed as
Alternaria species.
Preparation of plant extracts
Dried plant was powdered by using blender,and the powder was used for preparation of
extracts in the organic solvent, viz methanol.
The sample (powder) 100 g each was
dissolved in 400 ml respective solvent using
soaking method and allowed to stand at room
temperature for few days. The extracts
obtained with different solvents were filtered
through Whatman filter paper No. 1. The
medium (PDA) without any phytoextract
served as the control. All the inoculated Petri
dishes were incubated at 25±1°C. The radial
growth of the test fungus was measured in all
the treatments after three days and compared
with the control (Tapwal Ashwani., et al ,
2011). The petriplates were incubated at
room temperature for the growth of
Alternaria. After 3 days, blackish colony
growth was observed in incubated petri
dishes the per cent inhibition of fungal
growth was estimated by using following
formula (Vincet, 1927).
Identification of Isolated Fungi
The fungal isolate from growing culture was
identified by lactophenol cotton blue
staining. Microscopic examination was
carried out after examining the colony
characteristics, while the morphological and
cultural characteristics were observed. The
test fungus were grown and maintained on
potato dextrose agar slants, following
incubation for 5 days, the cultures were eitherutilized or stored until required. The
organisms were sub cultured to obtain pure
colonies and it was done once in every
intervals.
Antifungal assay of plant extracts
A volume of 1 ml of each extract (methanol)
was aseptically poured in respective petri-
plates followed by the addition of 9 ml ofmelted PDA and was swirled gently to
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achieve thorough mixing of the contents. A
petri-plate with PDA having no plant extract
was used as control. After the solidification
of the media, pure culture of the isolated
fungi was then transferred aseptically onto
the petriplates with plant extract using a
sterile cork borer of 5.0 mm diameter upside
down right at the centre. Distilled water was
used as negative control. The plates were
then incubated for 48 hours at 27°C. At the
end of the incubation period the zones of
inhibitions were measured to the nearest
millimeter (Andrews et al., 2001). The
inhibition zone is the area surrounding the
hole with no growth of inoculated fungi. For
confirmation of the results each test was
performed in triplicate. The petri plates were
incubated at 27o
Treatments
C and growth (diameter) of
the tested fungi was measured after 24 hrs
and 72 hrs respectively. The radial growth of
the test fungus was measured in all the
treatments after three days and compared
with the control (Tapwal Ashwani., et al.,
2011).The rate of extraction of the fungicide
from the disc is greater than the rate of
diffusion, as the distance from the disc
increases. Zone of inhibition of fungus
growth around eachdisc is measured and the
susceptibility is determined.
Mycelial
growth
(mean)after 48 hrs
in mm
Inhibition
percentage
after 48
Mycelia
dry weight
after 48
hrs in mg
Mycelial
growth
(mean)after 72 hrs
in mm
Inhibition
percentage
after 72
hrs
Mycelia
dry weight
after 72
hrs in mg
control 15 170 15 17015% methanol 12.4 14% 130 10 30% 11025% 10.1 22% 100 9 45% 80
55% 9.5 34% 90 7 59% 7065% 6.4 49% 70 5 67% 56
Table 1: Inhibition of mycelial growth at differentconcentration of methanolic plant extracts
(The inhibitory effects of the methanolic extract on mycelial growth of fungi after inoculation (percent inhibition after 48hrs)
The percent inhibition of mycelial growth
was calculated using the formula:
Percent inhibition = C – T / C Χ 100
where C = Mycelial weight in control and
T = Mycelial weight in treatment.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
control 15 25 55 65
radialgorwthpercentaggeinhibition
percentage inhibition
dry mycelial weight
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In vitro efficacy of plant extracts on
inhibition of Alternaria alternata against
mycelial growth at different days of interval.
The inhibition of the growth of the
pathogenic fungi is due to the active
ingradients predominantly found in the plant.
The present investigations are in line with the
investigations carried out by other workers
who infer that plant extracts in general have
great potentiallity in the control of fungal
diseases in commercially important crop
plants. These leaf extracts could be suitable
substitute for controlling fungal pathogens.
Treatments Mycelial
growth (mean)after 48 hrs in
mm
Inhibition
percentage
after 48
Mycelia
dry weight
after 48
hrs in mg
Mycelial
growth (mean)after 72 hrs in
mm
Inhibition
percentage
after 72 hrs
Mycelia dry
weight after
72 hrs in mg
control 15 170 15 17015%
methanol14.4 9% 150 10 30% 140
25% 12.1 12% 130 9 35% 11055% 11.5 14% 120 7 39% 9865% 10.4 29% 100 5 57% 96
Table 2: Inhibition of mycelial growth at different concentrationof aqueous Leaf extracts (In vitro screening of plant leafextracts on A.alternata)
(The inhibitory effects of the methanolic extract on mycelial growth of fungi after inoculation (percent inhibition after 72hrs)
It may be concluded that keeping aside the
environmentally hazardous commercial
fungicides, these leaf extracts could be a
suitable substitute for controlling the fungal
pathogens. Many of the existing synthetic
drugs cause various side effects. Hence, drug
development plant based compounds could
be useful in meeting this demand for newerdrugs with minimal side effects (Srivastava et
al ., 2000). The phyto-constituents alkaloids,
glycosides, flavanoids and saponins are
antibiotic principles of plants. These
antibiotic principles are actually the
defensive mechanism of the plants against
different pathogens (Hafiza, 2000).
The differential extracts of plant
demonstrated strong antifungal activitytowards all the pathogenic fungi tested. The
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
control 15 25 55 65
radial mycelial growth
inhibition %
dry mycelial weight
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highest activity was shown by methanol
extract followed by water. All the solvent
extracts showed activity against fungus .The
differential and moderate activities were
observed against pathogens but the results
revealed that activity of methanol extract was
greater in comparison to the synthetic
standard antibiotic. The antifungal activity of
extracts showed little variation and excellent
reproducibility of zone of inhibition for
selected pathogens. In fungal species, the
inhibition zone diameter was found. The
results were compared with the synthetic
standard antibiotic. The methanol extract
gave strong and promising results in
comparison to the standard. The results also
showed that different solvent extractions
gave different results against the same
pathogens.
Funaria plant
Diseased plant
Fungal growth of alternaria blight
Symptoms of alternaria blight
Botanical extracts with antifungal activity are
being explored in order to make available the
pesticides, which are easily biodegradable,
selective, cheap and can be locally produced,
especially for the farmers who cannot afford
expensive synthetic pesticides. The results
revealed that all of the tested plant extracts at
given concentration inhibited the growth of pathogens Similar results on the efficacy of
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plant extracts against Alternaria sp. have
been reported by Baraka et al . (2011), Mishra
and Gupta (2012), and Ravikumar and
Garampalli (2013). These are the evidences
from the earlier work that plants possess the
pesticidial activity that can play a pivotal role
in the management of the plant disease which
are cheap, locally available, and
biodegradable and environment friendly.
This study shows optimistic results regarding
the potential of plant species as sources of
plant based products with activity against
plant pathogenic fungi.
References
Mohana, D.C.; Raveesha, K.A. and
Lokanath, R. (2008): Herbal remedies
for the management of seed-borne
fungal pathogens by an edible plant
Decalepis hamiltonii (Wight and
Arn). Archives Phytopathol. Plant
Protect 41(1) 38-49.
Parekh, J.; Karathia, N. and Chanda, S.(2006): Evaluation of antibacterial
activity and phytochemical analysis
of Bauhinia variegata L. bark.
African Journal of Biomedical
Research 9 53-56.
Buwa, L.V. and Staden, J.V. (2006):
Antibacterial and antifungal activity
of traditional medicinal plants used
against venereal diseases in SouthAfrica. Journal of Ethno
Pharmacology 103(1) 139-142.
Agrios, G.N. (2000): Significance of plant
diseases In Plant pathology.
Academic Press London 25-37.
Agrios, G.N., ed. (2005): Plant Pathology.
Fifth edition,
Academic Press. New York. 978-
0120445646N. pp: 633.
Dellavalle, P.D.; Cabrera, A.; Alem, D.;
Larrañaga, P.; Ferreira, F.; Rizza,
M.D. (2011): Antifungal activity of
medicinal plant extracts against
phytopathogenic fungus Alternaria
spp. Chilean Journal of AgriculturalResearch 71(2): 231 – 239.
JeanLuc, Genet; Jaworska, Grazyna; Deparis,
Francine (2006): Effect of dose rate
and mixtures of fungicides on
selection for QoI resistance in
populations of Plasmopara viticola.
Pest management science Volume 62
Issue 2, pp 188-194.
Jules, Pretty (2008): Agricultural
sustainability: concepts,principles and
evidence. Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences 363.1491, pp 447-465.
Tripathi, Pramila and Dubey N. K. (2004):
Exploitation of natural products as an
alternative strategy to control
postharvest fungal rotting of fruit andvegetables. Postharvest biology and
technology, Volume 32 (3), pp 235-
245.
Haouala, R.; Hawala, S.; ElA-yeb, A.;
Khanfir, R. and Boughanmi, N.
(2008): Aqueous and organic extracts
of
Trigonella foenum-graecum inhibit the
mycelia growth of fungi. Journal of Environmental Sciences, Volume 20
(12), pp 1453-1457.
Ramjegathesh, R. and Ebenezer, E. G.
(2012): Morphology and
physiological characters of Alternaria
alternata causing leaf blight diseases
of onion. International Journal of
Plant Pathology, 3(2): 34-44.
Tagoe, D. N. A.; Nyarko, H. D. and Akpaha,
R. (2011): A comparison of the
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antifungal properties of onion (Allium
cepa), Garlic (Allium sativum)
against Aspergillus flavus,
Aspergillus niger and Cladosporium
Herbarum (2011): Research Journal of
Medicinal Plant, 5(3): 281-287.
Maity, P.; Hansda, D.; Bandyopadhyay, U.
and Mishra, D. K. (2009): Biological
activity of crude extracts and
chemical constituents of Bael Aegle
marmelose (L) Corr. Indian Journal of
Experimental Biology, 47: 849-861.
Eloff, J.N. (1998): A sensitive and quick
microplate method to determine theminimal inhibitory concentration of
plant extracts for bacteria. Planta
Medica 64 (8): 711 – 713.
Andrews, J.M. (2001): Determination of
minimum inhibitory concentrations.
Journal of Antimicrobial
Chemotherapy 48 (1): 5 – 16.
Oboh, I.E.; Akerele, J.O. and Obasuyi.
(2007): Antimicrobial activity of theethanol extract of the aerial parts of
Sida acuta Burm. (Malvaceae).
Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical
Research 6 (4): 809 – 813.
Igbinosa, O.O.; Igbinosa, E.O. and Aiyegoro,
A.O. (2009): Antimicrobial activity
and phytochemical screening of stem
bark extracts from Jatropha curcas
(Linn). African Journal of Pharmacyand Pharmacology 3 (2): 058 –062.
Mehrotra, R. S. and Aggarwal, A. (2003):
Plant Pathology. Tata McGraw-Hill
(P) Ltd., New Delhi, India. pp. 815-
824.
Tapwal, A.; Garg N.; Shipra, Gautam, N. and
Kumar, R. (2011): In vitro antifungal
potency of plant extracts against five
phytopathogens. Brazillian Archives
of Biology and Technology. 54(6).
Vincent, J. M. (1927): Distortion of fungal
hyphae in the presence of certain
inhibitors. Nature. PP. 850.
Srivastava, A.; Shukla, Kumar Y.N. (2000):
Recent development in plant derived
antimicrobial constituents A Review.
J Med Arom Pl. Sci.20: 717-72.
Sarvamangala, H.S.; Goviandaiah and Datta,
R.K. (1993): Evaluation of Plant
Extracts for the Control of Fungal
Disease of Mulberry. Indian
Phytopathology, 46, 398-401.
Baraka, M. A.; Fatma, R. M.; Shaban, W.I
and Arafat, K. H. (2011): Efficacy of
some plant extracts, natural oils,
biofungicides and fungicides against
root rot disease of date palm. Biol.
Chem. Environ. Sci. 6(2): 405-429.
Mishra, R. K. and Gupta, R. P. (2012): In
vitro evaluation of plant extracts, Bio-
agents and fungicides against purle blotch and stem phylium blight of
onion. J. Med. Plant Res. 6(45): 5658-
5661.
Ravikumar, M.C. and Rajkumar, H.G.
(2013): Antifungal activity of plants
extracts against Alternaria solani, the
causal agent of early blight of tomato.
Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Prot. DOI:
10.1080/03235408.2013.780350.
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113
Exploring potentials of science & technology for research in swaryogic science
Giri, Rakesh
Received: October 30, 2015 Accepted: November 18, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
In the last three decades, the science and
technology has revolutionized the world in
respect of comforts of mankind. Now-a-days,
the technology has been advanced in
different dimensions of life; viz.
Telecommunications, Agriculture,
Medicines, Surgery, Cinema, Food
Processing, Computer and InformationTechnology etc.
Yoga is an ancient heritage and culture of
India and widely known & recognized all
over the world for its healthful and
therapeutic utility. U.N.O. has celebrated
21st June in 2015 as Ist International Yoga
Day to spread the message of Yoga all over
the world. In the last 2-5 decades, variousHathyogic practices; viz. Asnas, Pranayama,
Satkarmas, meditation etc. have been found
useful for preservation and promotion of
Health as well as management of various
physiological, psychosomatic and
psychological disorders. (Mohan, J., 1996;
Naveen, et. al ., 1997; Malhotra, V. et. al .,
2002; Bijlanni, R.L. et. al ., 2006; Kosuri, M.
& Sridhar, G.R., 2009; Vempati, R. et. al .,
2010)
Swaryogic Science is rarely known to the
World community and need scientific
research for its use in the interest of human
welfare. The modern medical science has thescientific explanation for existence of two
eyes for clear vision of three dimensional
objects; existence of two ears to know the
source and direction of sound; but the
existence of two nostrils instead of one is yet
to be explained. The Swaryogic science has
the answer traditionally for the existence of
two nostrils and their specific functions.
According to Swaryogic science, a man does
not breathe evenly through both the nostrils
but alternately. The micro-sound vibration so
generated as a result of flow of breath is
known as Swara in Swaryogic science. The
functioning state of right nostril with its free
flow of breath is known as Surya Swara;
whereas the functioning state of left nostril is
designated as Chandra Swara. Similarly, the
free flow of breath through both the nostrils
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [113 – 115] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For Correspondence:
Deptt. of H. Concs. & Yogic Science, GKV, Haridwar
E-mail : [email protected]
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is being designated as Sushumna-Swara.
Moreover, the functioning state of one of the
nostrils can be realized in lateral lying
portion of the body. In addition to this, the
Swaryogic science describes the existence of
five types of breath based on tattwas in Surya
Swara as well as in Chandra swara.
Functioning state of particular swara with
specific tattwa has lot of significance in
preservation and promotion of health,
diagnosis and treatment of diseases,
prediction of death, prediction of weather and
environment, successful accomplishment of
activities of daily regimen, efficiency of
Games and sports etc.
There are descriptions about crude methods
of verification of flow of swara along with a
specific tattwa, but there is not scientific &
digitalizod instrument for 100% accuracy.
These methods are briefed below for
development of scientific instruments and
their standardization :
1. Detection of Tattvas from the shapes
developed through water vapors of
breaths - In this technique, one has to
exhale the breath deeply on the cleaned
mirror and there is development of
various shapes in respect of water
vapors of breath. The result prediction
is as follows :
Shape of Water vapors Ie
(a) Square shaped water vapors Earth element
(b) Half moon shaped water
vapors
Water element
(c) Triangular shaped water
vapors
Fire element
(d) Oval/Circle shaped water
vapors
Air element
(e) Scattered shaped water
vapors or without any shape.
Space element
2. Direction based Tattva and its
Identification - The Swaryogic science
had described identification technique
for Tattva's functioning state on the
basis of direction of breath flow
through a nostril as mentioned below -
Similarly Tattva of a specific nostril is
being identified through taste of salivra
in the mouth as mentioned below :
Taste of Saliva Identification of
Tattva
(a) Sweet taste Earth element
(b) Astringent taste Like a Bitter
guard
Water element
(c) Taste like fruits of neem tree Fire element
(d) Sour taste like a curd Air element
(e) Pungent taste like a chilli with
hotness and bitterness
Space element
3. Breath- Length Based Tattva
Identification - This technique involve
the measurement of length of exhaled
breath through a nostril under the
normal circumstances. The
identification criteria is as follow :
Length of exhaled breath Identification of
Tattva
(a) 12 Angula Earth element
(b) 16 Angula Water element
(c) 4 Angula Fire element
(d) 8 Angula Air element
(e) Almost no breath Space element
4. Tattwas can also be identified on the
basis of variations of temperature in a
breath of a specific nostril. The criteria
is as follow :
Breath Direction Identification of
Tattva
(a) From the center of the nostril Earth element
(b) After touching lower surfaceof the nostrils
Water Element
(c) After touching upper surfaceof the nostrils
Fire element
(d) Breath coming out laterally
and upwardly
Air element
(e) Breath coming out in whirling
motion
Space element
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Temperature of breath Identification of
Tattva
1 Luke warm temperature Earth element
2 Extremly hot temperature Fire element
3 Slighly cold temperature Air element
4 Cold breath Water element
In view of above mentioned techniques, there
is a need of developing technology and
instruments on the basis of -
1. Chemical technology in respect of
shapes of water vapors of breath.
2. Air-censors based computerized
technology to detect the direction of
breath.
3. pH based chemical technology for
precise detection of taste of saliva and
their standardization.
4. Air intensity based technology to
measure the length of breath.
5. To develop thermometers for
measuring slight temperature variations
in the exhaled breath.
The development of above mentionedtechnology for identification of Tattvas will
verify the traditional and ancient knowledge
of Swaryogic science in respect of existence
of tattvas and will also revolutionize the
Yogic world for their therapeutic use. The
Swaryogic therapy, if combined with
Hathyogic therapy, will improve efficacy of
yogic practices. The above said developmentof technology will open new chapters of
research especially in the medical field.
References
Anurag, Dass, Baba (2003): Swarodaya Ke Char
Ratan. Radhir Prakashan, Haridwar.
Bijlani, R.L.; Gupta, N.; Khera, S.; Vempati, R.P.
and Sharma, R. (2006): The Effect of Yoga
Based Lifestyle Intervention on State and
Trait Anxiety. Department of Physiology,
All India Institute of Medical Sciences,
New Delhi.
Gautam, C.L. (2005): Vradh Shiv Swarodaya,
Sanskriti Sansthan, Bareilly.
Kanan, S.V. (1967): Swar Chintamani, Kanan
Publications, Madras - 28.
Kosuri, M. and Sridhar, G.R. (2009): The Effects
of Yoga Practice in Diabetes for Physical
and Psychologifal Outcomes from Yoga
and Diabetes. Institute of Yoga and
Consciousness, Visakhapatnam, India.
Malhotra, V.; Singh, S.; Tandon, O.P.; Madhu,
S.V.; Prasad, A. and Sharma, S.B. (2002):
Department of Physiology, UniversityCollege of Medical Science, Guru Tegh
Bahadur Hospital, Delhi. Effect of Yoga
Asana of nerve conduction in type 2
diabetes : Indian Journal Physiol
Pharmacol. 46(13) : 298-306.
Mohan, J. (1996): Stress Management and Yoga.
Int. J. Psychology, 31(3-4) : 1818. Nekl,
J.S. 1975, Past, present and future.
Psychotherapy, India. Naveen, Telles; Nagarathna, R. and Nagendra,
H.R. (1997): Yoga Breathing Through a
Particular Nostril Increases Spatial
Memory Scores Without Lateralized
Effects. Vivekananda Kendra Yoga
Research Foundation, Bangalore, India.
Sharma, J.K. (2005): Swarodaya Tantra, Diamond
Pocket Books (Pvt.) Ltd., Delhi.
Vempati, R.; Bijlani, R.L. and Deepak, K.K.
(2009): Department of Phisiology, AIIMS,
New Delhi "The efficacy of
comprehensive lifestyle modification
programm based on yoga in the
management of bronchial asthma : a
randomized controlled trial" BMC Pulm
Med. 30; 9:37.
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116
Metamaterial based antenna for 10.0 GHZ Frequency
Ghosh, Devankar; Kher, Sakshi and Kumar, Nitin
Received: October 13, 2015 Accepted: November 23, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Abstract
In this paper a Microstrip patch antenna
(MPA) based on CRLH metamaterials with
improved Gain is presented. The MPA
consists of a microstrip gap and metal Via,
which behaves as series capacitor and shunt
inductor respectively. The metal Via leads to
negative permittivity while microstrip gap
leads to negative permeability, and the
combination of these two leads to negative
refractive index. In order to improve the gain,
metallic walls are placed at a distance of
“λg/4” from the patch which shows an
improvement in the results as compared to
the structure with no metallic walls. The
antenna is designed at 10GHz frequency with
maximum gain of 11.7dB.
Introduction
It is essential to briefly describe metamaterial before introducing metamaterial based
antennas. Metamaterials are composite
materials that are purposely engineered to
provide material properties that are not
otherwise attainable with ordinary materials.
It is important to know that the properties of
the metamaterials are derived from their
physical structure, not from their chemistry.
Metamaterials were introduced by Veselago,
1967. The utilization of the unusual
properties of the metamaterials in small
antennas is tried here to get an efficient
antenna. The advantage of using
Metamaterial structures in patch antennas is
that enhanced antenna properties can be
obtained as well as size of the antenna can be
reduced for convenience while maintaining a
good radiation performance. For the
proposed antenna a cylindrical via is used
which is the main radiating element of the
antenna.Metamaterial antennas open a way to
overcome the restrictive efficiency
bandwidth limitation for small antennas. Yet
this approach is still far from being mature.
The most recent progress in the developmentof metamaterial-based small antennas can be
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [116 – 121] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For Correspondence:
Department of ECE, DIT University Dehradun
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classified in the following four categories
(Dong and Itoh, 2012).
1) CRLH-based or dispersion engineered
resonant antennas. This includes the
antennas with negative-order modes
and zeroth-order resonators. There are
a variety of antennas in this type that
have been developed based on the
engineered dispersion curves (k–beta
diagram) .
2) Miniature antennas based on the
metamaterialloadings, such as the
epsilon/mu-negative materials, high
permeability shells and the magnetic
photonic crystals (MPC).
3) Metaresonator antennas (Alici and
Ozbay (2007), Dong et al., 2012)
particularly or the antennas based on
the split-ring resonators (SRRs) and
complementary split-ring resonators
(CSRRs).
4)
Antennas loaded with metasurfaces(Zhang, et al., 2003 and Dong et al.,
2011) such as the electromagnetic band
gap (EBG) mushroom structures or
patch-type reactive impedance surface
(RIS). They are able to miniaturize the
antenna size, reduce the surface wave
as well as to improve the radiation
characteristics.Theory
Veselago (1968) stated that although LH
materials do not exist in nature, they can be
artificially constructed. In particular,
Veselago concluded that the realization of a
LH Metamaterial will be possible with the
discovery or construction of an isotropic
negative μ material. When Veselago published his paper, materials with μ < 0
were not known to exist. For 30 years,
Veselago’s paper and its theory was not
investigated any further. Interest in
Veselago’s paper and LH materials begin to
materialize when Professor Pendry at
Imperial College demonstrated the first non-
ferrite negative μ Metamaterial based on split
ring resonators (SRRs) in 1998 Pendry’s
SRR was the cornerstone of the first bulk LH
Metamaterial realization by a group at
University of California, San Diego (UCSD)
in 2000 . The UCSD’s LH Metamaterial was
based on combining a SRR (negative μ) with
a metal wire (negative ε).
The SRR based LH Metamaterials only
exhibit LH properties around the resonance
of the SRR. Therefore realiazation of LH
Metamaterials using SRRs are known as the
resonant approach (Eleftheriades et al.,
2002). In terms of microwave engineering
applications, the resonant approach towards
LH Metamaterial is not practical for thefollowing reasons :
• Bulky, not applicable to planar microwave
circuits
• Narrow-band due to requirement of
operation near SRR resonance
• Lossy due to requirement of operation
near SRR resonance
To overcome the drawbacks of SRR based
LH Metamaterials for microwave
engineering applications researchers realized
that backward wave transmission line can be
used to realize non resonant LH
Metamaterials. This transmission line
approach towards LH Metamaterials is based
on the dual configuration of a
RH/conventional transmission line. As
shown in the figure conventional
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transmission lines are modelled as unit cells
with series inductance (LR) and shunt
capacitance (CR), while LH transmission
lines are modelled as unit cells with series
capacitance (CL) and shunt inductance (LL).
(a) (b)
(a) RH Transmission Line Unit Cell
(b) LH Transmission Line unit Cell
Fig 1: Transmission Line Circuit Model Unit Cell
The propagation constant for the RH and LH
unit cell are given by equation (i) and (ii)
respectively.
βRH = ω√ …………(i)
βLH = ω√ …………(i)
By plotting a ω-β diagram, commonly
referred to as dispersion diagram, the group
velocity (vg=dω/dβ) and phase velocity
(vp=ω/β) of a material can be directly
observed. The dispersion diagram for the unit
cell are plotted in figure below.
Fig 2: Dispersion Diagram of Unit Cell
The dispersion diagrams of Fig - 2 shows
that vg and vp of the RH transmission line
are parallel (vg.vp>0), while vg and vp for
LH transmission line are antiparallel
(vg.vp<0). Therefore an RH transmission line
supports a forward wave, while an LHtransmission line supports a backward wave.
In addition, the LH transmission line’s
dispersion diagram shows that vg approaches
infinity as frequency increases. However, this
is not physically possible since it violates
Einstein’s special theory of relatively. This
means that a pure LH transmission line is not
possible. Instead, the unit-cell model has to
be modified to account for unavoidable
parasitic effects with any practical realization
of a LH transmission line.
A pure LH transmission line (Eleftheriades et
al., 2002) cannot be physically realized due
to RH parasitic effects. As a result, a LH
transmission line is a more general model of
a composite right/left-handed (CRLH)
transmission line, which also includes RH
attributes. The general model of a CRLH TL
is shown in Fig 3 and consists of a series RH
inductance LR, a series LH capacitance CL, a
shunt RH capacitance CR , and a shunt
inductance LL. A pure LH transmission line
cannot be physically realized due to RH parasitic effects. The propagation constant
for the CRLH unit-cell is given by
βCRLH =S(ω)� ( ∗ ∗ ) + (
∗∗) − ( +
)
where S(ω) = -1, if ω < ωΓ1= min( ,
)
S(ω) = 1, if ω > ωΓ2= max (
,
)
A CRLH unit cell is a combination of via
(cylindrical metal generally perfect electric
conductor) and microstrip gaps whose
behavior is equivalent to the combination of
series capacitors and shunt inductors
respectively. And is used to realize
Metamaterial and this is called transmissionline approach to realize Metamaterial.
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Metamaterial using unit cell is called
transmission line approach. The transmission
line approach is made by shunt inductance
and series capacitance. The via is used to
shot the ground plane and the patch and
behaves like a shunt inductor and the series
capacitors can be obtained by the gaps
created by the free plates or patches.
Fig 3: General Model of CRLH Transmission Line
(a)Via in an Unit Cell (b) Cascaded Unit Cell
Fig 4: CRLH Unit Cell Structure
Design Of The Antenna
A single layer planar DNG (Ziolkowski,
2003) antenna photo etched on thin substrate
[2] is designed. First we have taken a ground
plane of height 0.017mm next a rectangular
substrate (44mm×40mm×1.6mm) of duroid
having permittivity 2.2 is developed. A
circular patch having radius 8mm (Kwaha et
al., 2011) , width of 2mm and a circular gap
having an outer radius of 6mm and inner
radius of 5.8mm is printed on the substrate
(Fig 5). A via of radius 0.2mm is insert edat
the center point of the patch as shown in the
Fig 6. For feeding we have used a
microstripline of length 9.8mm, width 5mm
and height of 0.017mm, by using the above
dimensions a gap of 0.2 mm is found
between the microstrip line and the patch.
Metallic walls of thickness 1mm are placed
at a distance of λg/4 from the patch as shown
in the figure. Our antenna is simulated using
Ansys HFSS-16. Directly, negative
permittivity and permeability values can be
entered using HFSS, based on finite element
method.
Fig - 5
Fig - 6
Results
The frequency range of 8GHz to 12GHz is
taken for the simulation of the antenna. Fromthe 3D pattern it is shown that the gain for
10GHz frequency is 11.7dB as shown in Fig
- 7. The S-parameter is in good agreement
with the resonant frequency (Kwaha et al.,
2011) with optimization. The Fig 8 implies
that the antenna radiates best at 5.24 GHz,
where S(1,1)= -33.69dB. The graph also
shows that the proposed antenna is a narrow
band antenna. Fig 9 shows the 2D radiation
patterns for our antenna with E and H field.
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Fig 7
Fig - 8
In the paper (Kalia and Behera, 2011), the
gain achieved by the antenna with one ‘via’
was 3.786dB at 5.0GHz frequency. In our
proposed antenna structure, three additional
metallic walls are placed at a distance of λg/4
from the circular patch with a ‘via’ at the
center of the patch as shown in Fig 5.The
simulation result shows an enhancement of
the gain to 11.7dB at 10.0GHz frequency.
Further, array can be developed to enhancethe gain of the structure. Simulation results
promises a gain of 10dB to 21.75dB. The
beam width from Fig 9 can be obtained,
which would come to be near about 60°.
Fig - 9
Conclusion
References
Alici, K. B. and Ozbay, E. (2007):Electrically small split ring resonator
antennas”, J. Appl. Phys.,101: 083104-
1–083104-4.
Dong, Y.; Toyao, H. and Itoh, T. (2011):
Miniaturized zeroth order resonance
antenna over a reactive impedance
surface”, Proc. Int. Workshop Antenna
Technol. pp. 58–61.
Dong, Y.; Toyao, H. and Itoh, T. (2012):
Design and characterization of
miniaturized patch antennas loaded
with complementary split-ring
resonators, IEEE Trans. Antennas
Propag. 60(2): 772–785.
Dong, Yuandan and Itoh, Tatsuo (2012):
Metamaterial-Based Antennas, IEEE,IEEE. 100 (7).
Eleftheriades, G.V.; Iyer, A.K.; Kremer, P.C.
(2002): Planar negative refractive index
media using periodically L-C loaded
transmission lines. IEEE Trans.
Microwave Theory Tech., 50(12):
2702-2712.
Hany E. Abd El-Raouf; Sulaiman SyedZaheer and Yahia M. M. Antar (2008):
Design of small antennas based on
DNG Metamaterials, IEEE
international RF and Microwave
conference, December 2-4.
Kalia, Jyotisankar and Behera, S. K. (2011):
Compact High Radiation Metamaterial
Antenna For Wireless Application
International conference in electronic
system (ICES-2011), NIT Rourkela.
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Kwaha, B. J.; Inyang, O. N and Amalu, P.
(2011): The circular microstrip patch
antenna – design and implementation.
Veselago, V. G. (1968): The electrodynamics
of substances with simultaneously
negative values of µ and ɛ, Sov. Phys.
Uspekhi, vol.10, no. 4, pps. 509-514.
Zhang, Y. ; Hagen, J. von; Younis, M.;
Fischer, C. and Wiesbeck, W. (2003):
Planar artificial magnetic conductors
and patch antennas”, IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propag. 51(10): 2704–2712.
Ziolkowski, R.W. (2003): Design,
fabrication, and testing of double
negative metamaterials”, IEEE Trans.
on Antennas and Propagation, 51(7):
1516-1529.
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122
Gesture Controlled Quadcopter
Vishwas, Shivam; Arora, Rishabh; Bhaskar, Nikhil; Lal, Suraj Kr; Bhandwal, Mohit
Received: October 11, 2015 Accepted: November 21, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Abstract
During designing of the gesture controlled
quad copter there are few things which has to
consider about its multitasking abilities and
its control through the hand gesture. Most of
the quad copters are controlled by the wifi
remote sensor or infrared sensor. This paper
describes the movement of quad copter
movement via hand gestures. The sensors
like orientation sensor (G Sensor),
accelerometer and gyroscope attached to the
quad copter sense the movement of quad
copter. For controlling the motion of the quad
copter on three directions we coupled all the
control of quad copter with the gesture
controlled sensor mounted in glove. The
movement of the quad copter in three
dimensions is controlled by the gesture made
by hand. This experiment was verysuccessful and the moment was controlled by
the moving gesture of hand.
Keywords: Quad copter | Accelerometer |
Orientation sensor (G Sensor) | Gyroscope
Introduction
One of the most versatile and complex flyingmachine which can perform various task due
to its multitasking ability in today’s world is
Quad copter (UA). They have been
researched in many applications and some
are capable of doing aggressive maneuvers.
Mellinger et al., (2010), Conventional quad
copter has been using four asymmetrical
motors of same capability. All the four equal
length arms have equal rotor blades and
motors attached to its very end. Each single
system has been studied and developed in
order to meet safety requirement. Instead of
having all of its capabilities there are many
safety concerns regarding its control has
came into light. Most of the quad copters are
controlled by the wifi remote sensor or
infrared sensor. Carrying of remote andkeeping it in charge is sometimes very
complex and difficult. There has been major
change in the remote design and system in
recent years. There has been recent
development in wireless technology which
we coupled in with modern sensors. For
controlling the motion of the quad copter on
three directions we coupled all the control ofquad copter with the gesture controlled
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [122 – 125] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For Correspondence:
Department of Mechanical & Automation, Amity School
of Engineering & Technology, Amity University, Noida
Email: [email protected]
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sensor mounted in glove. The model were the
first rotaty wing to complete a flight to fly 1
kilometer (McGowen, 2005). The movement
of the quad copter in three dimensions is
controlled by the gesture made by hand. This
experiment was very successful and the
moment was controlled by the moving
gesture of hand
Earlier projects were made in which quad
copter was controlled using Xbox kinetic
camera. It helps to control the quad copter in
less complicate manner. It uses the pitch
length algorithm to share data between the
controller and quad copter. The gyro sensor
in quad copter and high frame rate of camera
play vital role in closed loop configuration.
Equipment used in this process were arduino
Uno & hop erf rfm73 2.4ghz Nordic
nof2420+rfic
Quad copter being used to control using the
ultraviolet waves in PID controller. There are
two methods used to control this concept
mode based and unmode based. In mode
based independent controller for each state
are needed and a higher level controller to
decide the interactive level. Other one is
unmode based where we use single controller
to control all state together. These use
transformation of yaw, pitch and roll angle to
send the feedback to pid controller.Quad copters were used in detection of
human body. It uses image processing
feedback method. It used algorithm using
vector machine, ad boost, partial least square
method, edge detection, thermal vision, laser
vision to sense the changes which helps in
detection of human body.(start-image-binary-
detection tracing algorithm-detect-yes-sendinformation to micro controller ).
Quad copter being used to detect the human
body using the image processing method
using the GUI (graphic user interface).it uses
image to communicate between device and
user interaction.
Design
The design of the quad copter model is based
on the conventional way. The first design of
the quad copter was designed to be as simple
as possible, and was created in the
preliminary project (Øyvind, 2010). Using
four aluminum bars the base frame was
designed. Due to its low weight aluminum
was considered for manufacturing. For the
fitting of the sensor and control board was a
cox which was created in the center of all the
four bars. It was serval centimeters from the
center of gravity and would give dynamical
acceleration because of its translate motions
due to the placement, and not just sense the
gravity (Rakshit and Chattopadhyay, 2004).
The hand glove was designed to couple with
the sensor for the movement of the
quadcopter. The model uses only the
fingertips as input data and permits a model
that represents each fingertip trajectory
through space as a simple vector (Oka et al.,
2002).This hand model is designed in three
dimension with considerable DOF’s and
there is comparison to estimate the hand parameter by comparison between 3D hand
model and 2D appearance projected by the
model (Sidenbladh et al., 2000).
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Copter Design
3D Model of Frame
Aurdino Uno
Hand Fitted with Sensor
Methodology
For controlling the quad copter through the
hand gesture it is important to couple the
sensor fitted in the quad copter with the
sensor fitted in the hand gloves. The coupling
of the sensor is based upon the flow chart and
the crop irrigation system. Due to the
versality of aurdino-uno was chosen. It’s
quite easy to use aurdino uno and has
capability to burn software easily. Arduino
1.6.4 was used as software to install the
program. Gyroscope and accelerometer arethe sensors which are used to manage the
angle and the movement of the quad copter.
The four brushless motors are connected with
the control sensor mounted on the hand
gloves which gives motion control to motors
coupled. Aurdino Uno transmits Radio
Frequency Signals to Flight controller in
phase of both X and Y axis. Flight Controller
also receives signal from Gyro-sensor and G-
Sensor (Gravity Sensor) which then transmits
the signal to ESC (Electronic Speed
Controller) which controls all the brushless
motor for the flight control and movement of
quadcopter. The signal processing of the
system is done in a flow so the in a system
there is undisrupted and undisturbed
movement in the quadcopter.
Block Diagram or Transmitter and Receiver
Wireless hand Gesture Components
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Conclusion
In variety of computer application hand
gestures provides an indigenous interaction
between human interface and computer
system. Vision based is the second way of
collecting data. This paper presents the most
advance technology to control the quad
copter wirelessly. In the experiment done in
the movement was controlled by hand as the
hand was moved up the quad copter gained
height in proper relation. Using gesture
controlled sensor and the modern quad copter
technology coupled together the quad copter
controlling technology changed its shape.
Combination of both of the gyro and
accelerometer values was very difficult but
by using Kalman filter, which is the most
common approach of combining these two
sensors by filtering out noise from both
sensors and derived angles to range between
-90 and 90 degrees.
References
McGowen, Stanley S. (2005):. Helicopters:
an illustrated history of their impact.
ABC-CLIO, Inc.
Mellinger, D.; Michael, N. and Kumar, V.
(2010): Trajectory generation and
control for precise aggressive
maneuvers with quadrotors. In
Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Experimental Robotics.
Oka, K.; Sato, Y. and Koike, H. (2002):
Real-time tracking of multiplefingertips
and gesure recognition for augmented
desk interface systems, In IEEE
International Conference on Automatic
Face and Gesture Recognition.
Øyvind Magnussen Kjell E. Skjønhaug
(2010): The quadcopter investigation.
Technical report, University of Agder.
Rakshit, P.C.; Chattopadhyay, D. (2004):
Elements Of Physics, Vol. 1. New Age
International Publisher.
Sidenbladh, M.; Black and D. Fleet (2000):
Stochastic tracking of 3Dhuman figures
using 2D image motion. In Sixth
European Conferenceon Computer
Vision, pages II:702–718, Dublin,
Ireland.
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126
Gesture Controlled Quadcopter
Gaur, Vivek; Mishra Abhishek; Aquil, Manal; Thapa, Himanshi and Verma, Rahul Kumar
Received: October 11, 2015 Accepted: November 21, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
AbstractIn designing of a gesture controlled gimble
during the flight of a quadcopter. This paper
describes the sensing of hand gestures using
sensors like accelerometer and gyroscope.
Their integrated outputs are transmitted and
received wirelessly through a X-Bee attached
on both the ends. This helps in operating a
gimble attached to a quadcopter. The proposed design of gesture controlled gimble
gives movement in X,Y axis when the
quadcopter is in aerial flight state. Most
common of the movements were used and
the system was designed in a way so that the
best results can be seen.
Keywords: Gimble | Quadcopter |
Accelerometer | Gyroscope
IntroductionA quadcopter is one of the most complex
flying machines due to its versatility to
perform any type of aerial tasks. Classical
quadcopters or quadrotors are usually
equipped with four rotors and now a days a
gimble is attached to control the camera
angles and its movement. A gimble is a
simple structural design consisting of three
motors usually brushless to control the
camera movement in X,Y as well as circular
direction. These sort of models are now a
days used in surveillance, photography etc.
A primary goal of gesture recognition system
is to create a system which can identify
specific human gestures and use them to
convey information or for device control
(Butalia and Shah, 2010). The main idea of
this paper is to build a gimble that can be
controlled by hand gestures wirelessly.
Through hand gestures a user is able to
control the motion of this gimble in both X
and Y axis. Thus, helping the camera to
provide the desired view.
Review of Literature
Not much work has been done on designing a
gimble that can be controlled by the human
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [126 – 129] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For Correspondence:
Amity University, Noida, Uttar PradeshEmail: [email protected]
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hand gestures. But because in this research
we are focusing epically on motion gestures
(Bhattacharya et al. (2012))there have been
many questions especially about the motion
gesture design that has been left unanswered
in the past researches like what parameters
do users manipulate to create different types
of motions and gestures? Is there a design
space or taxonomy of different dimension
that design can manipulate in the creations of
these gestures? Etc. In this paper, we
describe the results of a guesibility study for
motion gestures which elects natural gestures
from end users as follows: given a task to
perform with the device (e.g. Rotating the
gimble motors to get different views from
camera, Zoom IN, Zoom OUT for camera)
(Mistry and Chang, 2009). The results of the
study yields a specific research contribution
to motion gesture design i.e. participants
were asked to give motions to operate a
gimble as per their convenience and then themost common movements were reviewed
and selected. As a result an end user motion
gesture which was very easy and convenient
for the user was selected. These motions
selected by the users were performed,
wearing a glove equipped with an
accelerometer and a gyroscope. The range of
outputs were received and studied thoroughly
and logics were designed to operate the servo
motors using them. The two servo motors
were synchronized together to obtain the best
results.
Block Diagram Or Transmitter And
Receiver
The block diagram of gesture controlled
gimbleis shown in the Fig 1. The reason of
choosing Arduino Uno was its versatility,
cost effectiveness and numerous other
advantages. Arduino Uno is quite easy to
operate and at the same time it is easy to burn
a program in it. It has an Atmega 328p and
Fig 1: Block Diagram of transmitter and receiver
uses its own software to burn the program.
The software used was Arduino 1.6.4.
The system makes use of two sensors i.e.
accelerometer and gyroscope.Theaccelerometer used in this paper was
ADXL335. This sensor is used to measure
the change or palm movement in X,Y and Z
axis. Although outputs of onlyX and Y axis
were used for more convenience. The sensor
is very small, low profile package with
excellent temperature stability and can
survive about 1000 G shocks. The gyrosensor
used in this paper is GY-521 MPU 6050.
This sensor is also used to measure the
movements in X,Y and Z axis. This sensor
also is very small in size and gives accurate
readings in all sorts of temperatures. For
communication between both the ends X-Bee
were used at both transmitting and receiving
end. X-Bee is one of the most commonly
used signals transmission device in today’sera. It has an outdoor range of about 300 feet.
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Servo motors used were Futaba s303 (Kaura
et al ., 2013). They have an operating
temperature range of -20 to 60 degree
Celsius. They have a high torque of 3.2 kg
per cm. Thus they were the best in market to
be used.
Flow Chart
Fig 2: Design of flow of outputs.
Input parameters
As shown in figure 2, the outputs from the
hand gestures were obtained through
accelerometer and gyrosensor outputs
(Shiravandi et al., 2013). The outputs of the
gyrosensors are more accurate and stable in
comparison t the accelerometer. The mail
aim of using a gyrosensor was to make the
system redundant i.e. if the outputs of the
accelerometer were not received due to any
technical glitch then the system would
automatically shift to the output of
gyrosensor. The outputs are thus fed in to
Arduino Uno which processes them so that
they can be transmitted through X-Bee. Theinputs received from Accelerometer and
gyrosensors are both received in analog form
whereas the signal transmitted by the X-Bee
is in the digital signal form. Thus, the analog
signal is converted to digital form and then
transmitted.
Output Parameters
The signal is received by a X-Bee receiver
and is decoded. This decoded signal is then
fed into an Arduino Uno and the servo
motors are operated. The inputs of the X axis
are used for to regulate Servo1 in X-axis
whereas the inputs of the Y-axis are used to
rotate the servo2 in Y axis.
Both the motors are synchronized to get the
best glitch free output.
Experimental Results
Table1. Data Recorded during tests
The outputs of the accelerometer and
gyroscope ranged from 235 to 540 in analog
units. These outputs were converted into a
range of 0-1023, where 235=0 and 540=1023and then this range was used to define the
angles of the motor where 0=0degree and
1023=170degree.
Both the servos are kept at an initial angle of
90 ̊ for a straight palm parallel to the earth.
Conclusion
This is a small effort made in the field of
quadcopters and one of its most popular
applications of aerial surveillance and aerial
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photography. The gimble was earlier
controlled through a channeled remote
control. But now operating a gimble would
be much more convenient and user friendly,
as simple hand gestures would provide the
desired view from the camera. This paper
also shows our vision of introducing hand
gestures controlled quadcopters and
quadrotors which would be much more user
friendly and flying them would be much
more easy and convenient.
References
Bhattacharya, S.; Czejdo, B. and Perez, N.
(2012): “Gesture classification with
machine learning using Kinect sensor
data”, Emerging Applications of
Information Technology (EAIT), 2012
Third International Conference, (2012)
pp. 348 - 351.
Butalia, Ayesha and Shah, Divya (2010): D.
R. D. Gesture Recognition System,
International Journal of Computer
Applications.
Kaura, Harish Kumar; Honrao, Vipul; Patil,
Sayali and Shetty, Pravish (2013):
“Gesture Controlled Robot using Image
Processing”, (IJARAI) International
Journal of Advanced Research in
Artificial Intelligence. 2(5): 2013.
Mistry, Pranav; and Chang, L. (2009): WUW
- Wear Ur World - A Wearable
Gestural Interface.
Shiravandi, S.; Rahmati, M. and Mahmoudi,
F. (2013): “Hand gestures recognition
using dynamic Bayesian networks”, AI
& Robotics and 5th RoboCup Iran
Open International Symposium
(RIOS), 2013 3rd Joint Conference.
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A study of Role Conflict and Occupational Stress in Relation to Quality of
Life of Married Working Women
Kumar, Arun
Received: October 08, 2015 Accepted: November 19, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Abstract
It was a practice that women would
principally do the household tasks, bringing
up families and men would work to impart
financial support to the family in all class of
society not only in India but also in most
parts of world. No doubt, increasing number
of women is taking up jobs in various fields, but it entails peculiar problems too. Men and
women have become dysfunctional to some
extent due to the rapid changes in traditional
roles. Now-a-days many working women
experience conflict and stress in their
essential fulfillment of roles of wifehood,
motherhood and earning hand of the family.
Different expectations of others brings within
it not only role conflicts but also work stress,
effecting him physically and leads to
inefficiency or disability in correct
performance of her different duties. The
present study is an attempt to investigate the
effect of role conflict and occupational stress
working women in the age range on twenty
five to forty five years was included in the
study through purposive sampling technique
from different government organizations of
Hardwar district. Role conflict, Occupational
Stress Index and WHO Quality of Life scales
were used to measure the role conflict,
occupational stress and quality of life of
married working women. Critical analysis of
the data revel that married working women
are high on role overload, role conflict,
unreasonable group and political pressure,
under participation and poor peer relations in
occupational stress. Whereas inter-correlation
of the all eighteen variables of role conflict,
occupational stress and quality of life revel
that that married working women high on
role conflict is low on responsibility for
person, unprofitability in occupational stress
and psychological functioning, social
relations and general well being of married
working women. Married working women
high on role overload were low peer
relationship. Negative significant correlation
of role ambiguity with physical health alsoshows poor physical health of married
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [130 – 140] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For Correspondence:
Dept. of Psychology
Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Hardwar
Email: [email protected]
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working women. All these observations
points out that woman in professional job
positions with high job demand were more
prone to experience role conflict and
occupational stress which affects their
quality of life.
Keywords: Married working women |
occupational stress | role conflict | quality of
life
Introduction
It was a practice that women would
principally do the household tasks, bringing
up families, whereas men would work toimpart financial support to the family in India
as well as in most part of world. The
economic development of any country
requires an integration of both the male and
female labor forces. This means that beside
men, women have to contribute to
development process of the country,
economic growth and poverty reduction. No
doubt, increasing number of women is taking
up jobs in various fields, but it entails
peculiar problems too. As contemporary
Indian society is at the transitional stage, the
working women phenomena is yet to be fully
integrated in the larger patterns of culture. It
requires ample modifications and
readjustment in various aspects of the
culture.
Men and women have been becoming
dysfunctional to some extent due to the rapid
changes in traditional roles. There is fluidity
of sex role definitions causing lots of
problems. These days many working women
experiences conflict and stresses in their
essential fulfillment of roles of wifehood,
motherhood and earning hand of the family.Young women of today are educated and
many are qualified for various professions.
No doubt, the concept of working women has
been widely accepted but even in this
emancipated era, when we have entered the
twenty first century, mothers continue to
assume major responsibility for childcare. It
is still thought that due to lack of time for her
child, she is depriving the child emotionally.
Women are experiencing several types of
frustrations and pressure of trying to maintain
a balance between family and career; and as a
result women have been facing role conflict
and occupational stress affecting their quality
of life.
According to Kapur (1974) women who
choose to combine marriage with career face
almost a situation of formlessness and they
hardly know how to apportion time and
resource between these two major
responsibilities. This makes the experience
great conflict. Paterson(1978) confirmed
that the job taken by women created moreconflicting situation for them due to double
role played and inability to tolerate the whole
burden. Role conflicts among the roles
corresponding to two or more statuses. In
general, role conflict is a situation where an
individual cannot properly enact two (or
more) roles at the same time without facing
problems. Role conflict between work andfamily is a situation where the roles that a
woman has at work cannot be properly
enacted because of the roles she has at home;
- a situation where the roles that a woman has
at home cannot be properly enacted because
of the roles she has at work.
Occupational stress is known as stress at
work. Asad and Khan (2003) interpreted that
occupational stress is the effect of tension on
an employee by the job pressures to fulfill
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job assignment and to respond to deadline.
According to Onder and Basim (2008)
occupational stress is defined as a response to
chronic job-related stress, characterized by
physical and emotional exhaustion. It refers
to the process through employees perceive,
appraise and respond to adverse or
challenging job demand at work (Frese and
Zapf, 1988). Jex (1998) reported that the
topic of occupational stress has generated a
tremendous volume of research in a
surprisingly short period of time.
Quality of life as defined by world health
organization is individual’s perception of
their position in life in the context of the
culture and value systems in which they live
and in relation to their goals, expectations,
standards, and concerns (Orley et al ., 1997;
The WHOQOL group, 1996). It is a broad
ranging concept, incorporating in a complex
way individual physical health, There has
been considerable discussion of whatconstitutes quality of life and psychological
state, level of independence, social
relationships, personal beliefs, and their
relationship to silent features of the
environment. This definition highlights the
view that quality of life is multidimensional.”
Quality of life can be affected by a number of
significant positive and negative life events.The factors contributing to the quality of life
of an individual may be broadly classified
under two groups: (i) satisfactory conditions:
These include factors like group
cohesiveness, sharing of each other’s
experiences, helping attitudes, understanding
and sharing each other’s problems, absence
of conflicts among members, absence of
mental or severe physical illness, etc.; (ii)
satisfying conditions: these include factors
like sense of belongingness, subjective
feelings of physical psychological, mental,
social and spiritual well-being, absence of
unhappy experiences within the family etc.
Although role conflict and occupational
stress has been studied fairly and extensively
among male managers, administrators,
human resource professionals, IT-
professionals to date but very little research
focused on married working women in
relation to their quality of life particularly in
India. Many authorities in India have now
recognized the crucial role of working
women in the development of not only her
family but also the progress of the nation. If
the working women is misfits or are
indifferent to their responsibilities the whole
system of the caring of the family and
development of the society is then likely to
be ineffective and largely wasted. So, it is
important to measure role conflict and
occupational stress among married workingwomen in relation to their quality of life.
Thus, if role conflict and occupational stress
and its effect on their quality of life do exist
in married working women, there are
implications for the design of intervention
programs intended to alleviate the harmful
aspects of role conflict and job stress. It is
important for married working women tounderstand how role conflict and job stress
can have negative effect on their quality of
life so that with proper support from family
and their work organization and guidance it
can be minimized.
Methodology
For this a sample of 140 married working
women in the age range on twenty five toforty five years were included in the study
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through purposive sampling from different
organizations of district Hardwar. Exclusion
criteria: Those married working women were
excluded from the study those have past
history of a) chronic medical diseases such
as asthma, heart diseases, pre-history of
hypertension etc. b) having severe family or
marital problems. Role conflict, Occupational
Stress Index and WHO Quality of Life scales
were used to measure the role conflict,
occupational stress and quality of life of
married working women.
Tools
Role conflict scale for working women
(Verma and Vinayak, 1999):It is four point
rating scale having 26 items with responses
categories, viz. ‘always’, ‘often’, ‘something’
and ‘never’. Split half reliability of the scale
is 0.93. This scale can be used to measure
role conflict in women irrespective of age,
education, and years of married life.
Occupational Stress Index - Shrivastava and
Singh (1984). The scale consists of 46 items,
each to be rated on the five-point scale. The
items relate to almost all relevant
components of the job life which cause stress
in some way or the other and measures ‘role
overload’, ‘role ambiguity’, ‘role conflict’,
‘unreasonable group and political pressure’,
‘responsibility for persons’, ‘under participation’, ‘powerlessness’, ‘poor pear
relations’, ‘intrinsic impoverishment’, ‘low
status’, ‘strenuous working conditions’, ‘un-
profitability’.
World health organization Quality of life
scale (WHO QOL) - BREF: The
questionnaire has been developed by work
health organization group in 1996 in order to provide a short form quality of life
assessment that looks at Domain level
profiles. It is an abbreviated 26 item
assessment and contains 2 items from the
overall QOL and general health, and one item
from each of the 24 facets included in WHO
QOL - 100 for providing and comprehensive
assessment. Each item is rated on a five point
scale. The questionnaire assesses quality of
life in 4 domain, namely physical health,
psychological, social relationship,
environment.
Procedure
Every married working woman was seated
comfortably and informal consent was taken
for participation in the study. All three tests
were administered to each married working
woman individually. Responses to the role
conflict scale, Occupational Stress index,
WHO-Quality of life scale were noted down.
The tests were administered strictly
according to their prescribed manual
instructions. Participants were assured that
their results and the information obtained
would be kept confidential and used for
research purpose only.
Statistical Techniques and Analysis of
Data
The necessary data for each of the test that
was used in the study was collected and
scrutinized; scores were tabulated for finding
out the nature of test scores all of the
variables under consideration. Mean, median,
standard division, skewness, kurtosis, and
Pearson’s product moment correlation at
significance level of 0.01 and 0.05 levels
were seen among all the variables.
Results and discussion
The present study has been undertaken to
assess the role conflict, occupational stress,
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and quality of life among married working
women. The data was collected from 140
married working women of different
government organizations of district
Haridwar. The data has been organized and
described to yield the statistics namely mean,
median, mode and standard deviation to
study the general nature of the data sample
for the variables of role conflict, occupational
stress, and quality of life. To find out the
significance relation between the different
variables of role conflict, occupational stress,
and quality of life the Pearson’s product
moment correlation was calculated.
N Percentage
Age 25 to 29
30 to 34
35 to 39
40 to 45
31
43
51
15
22.14
30.71
36.23
10.71
Occupation Clerical job
Teaching
Doctors
Technicians
39
41
33
27
27.85
29.28
23.57
19.28
Qualification Intermediate
Graduates
Post graduates
Doctorates
49
62
25
4
35
44.28
17.85
2.85
Duration of Job Upto 5 yrs
Upto 10 Yrs
Upto 15 yrs
20 yrs or more
35
41
48
15
25
29.28
34.28
10.71
Married life in years Upto 5 yrs
Upto 10 Yrs
Upto 15 yrs
20 yrs or more
31
43
51
15
22.14
30.71
36.42
10.71
Number of Children No child
Single child
Two children
More than two
8
39
75
18
5.71
27.85
53.57
12.85
Joint family of nuclear family Nuclear
Joint family
94
46
67.14
32.85
Table I: Socio-demographic features of the sample
As per the socio-demographic features of thesample of 140 married working women
51(36.23%) were in the age group of 35 to 39
years. As per the occupational status
41(29.28%) were teachers, 39 (27.85%) were
of clerical jobs, 33(23.57%) were doctors and
27 (19.28%) were of technical job. As per
qualification 62 (44.28%) were graduates and
49 (35%) were intermediate. 48(34.28%)were married working women having up to
fifteen years of job and 41 (29.28%) have upto 10 years of job. As per the duration of
married life 51 (36.42%) have up to 15 years
of married life and 43(30.71) were having up
to 10 years of married life. 75(53.57%)
married working women have two children
and 39 (27.85%) were having single child.
94(67.14%) married working women live in
nuclear family and 46(32.85%) were of jointfamily.
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Table-II exhibits the scores of minimum
scores, maximum scores, mean, standard
division, skewness, kurtosis for role conflict
of married working women. The mean scores
of married working women is 47.64
Role Conflict
Min. 26
Max 93
Mean 47.64
SD 13.61
SK 1.08
Kt 1.35
Table II: Minimum, maximum, mean, standard deviation,
skewness and kurtosis of the scores of Role
Conflict (N=140)Table - III exhibits the scores of minimum
scores, maximum scores. mean, standard
Table - III exhibits the scores of minimum
scores, maximum scores. mean, standard
division, skewness, kurtosis for twelve
dimensions of occupational stress, i.e., “role
overload ‟, “role ambiguity‟, “role conflict”,
“unreasonable group and political pressure”,
“responsibility for persons”, “under
participation”, “powerlessness”, “poor pear
relations”, “intrinsic impoverishment”, “low
status”, “strenuous working conditions”, and
“un-profitability”. The mean scores of twelve
dimensions of occupational stress are 17.42,
9.11, 12.75, 10.69, 8.63, 12.76, 9.74, 11.21,
9.71, 7.39, 9.51, and 5.79 respectively. After
analysis of data revel that married working
women are high on role overload, role
conflict, unreasonable group and political
pressure, under participation and poor peer
relations dimensions of occupational stress.
Table III: Minimum, maximum, mean, standard
deviation, skewness and kurtosis of the scores of
occupational stress (N=140)
Table-IV exhibits the scores of minimum
scores, maximum scores, mean, standard
division, skewness, kurtosis of five
dimensions, i.e., “physical health”,
“psychological functioning”, “social
relationships”, “environment” and “general
wellbeing” of quality of life of married
working women. Mean scores are 25.31,
22.49, 11.96, 30.19, and 7.22 respectively
high on physical health, psychological
functioning and environment dimensions of
quality of life.
Table IV: Minimum, maximum, mean, standard
deviation, skewness and kurtosis of the scores of
occupational stress (N=140)
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*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) Table V: Inter correlation matrix between different**Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) variables of role conflict, occupational stress, and quality
of life (N=140)
Table-V shows the Pearson’s product
moment correlation matrix, calculated among
all the eighteen variables. From the inter-
correlation table, it can be seen thatrole
conflict scores have negativesignificant
correlation with responsibility for persons (r=
-.231, df =138, p<.05), and positive
significant correlations with under
participation (r=.240, df =138, p<.05), poor
peer relations (r= .366, df = 138, p<.01),
negative significant correlation with
unprofitability (r= -.350, df =138, p<.01),
positive significant correlation with physical
health (r= .502, df =138, p<.01) and negative
correlations with psychological functioning
(r= -.490, df =138, p<.01),social relations (r=-
.422, df =138, p<.01) and general wellbeing
(r=-.439, df =138, p<.01).
The negative significant correlation of role
conflict with responsibility for persons,
unprofitability, psychological functioning,
social relations and general wellbeing revel
that married working women high on role
conflict is low on responsibility for person,
unprofitability in occupational stress and
psychological functioning, social relations
and general wellbeing which shows low
quality of life of married working women.
Role conflict has also positive correlation
with under participation, poor peer relations
physical health. This shows that married
working women high on role conflict are also
high on under participation, poor peer
relations.
Role overload has significant positive
correlation with role ambiguity (r=.236,
df =138, p<.05), unreasonable group and
political pressure (r=.275, df =138, p<.01),
responsibility of others (r=.506, df =138,
p<.01), negative significant correlation with
under participation (r=-.222, df =138, p<.05),
poor peer relations (r=-.383, df =138, p<.01),
positive significant correlations with
strenuous working conditions (r=.250,
df =138, p<.05) unprofitability (r= .592,
df =138, p<.01) and psychological
functioning (r = .246,df =138, p<.05 ).Positive
significant correlation of role overload with
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role ambiguity, unreasonable group and
political pressure, responsibility of others,
strenuous working conditions, unprofitability
and psychological functioning revel
overlapping of the data. Whereas negative
significant correlation with under
participation and poor peer relations shows
that married working women high on role
overload are low on under participation and
peers relationship.
Role ambiguity has significant positive
correlation with role conflict in occupational
stress (r= .253, df =138, p<.05), and
unreasonable group and politic pressure (r =-
365, df =138, p<.01), strenuous working
conditions (r =377, df =138, p<.01), and
negative significant correlation with physical
health (r =-224, df =138, p<.05). The negative
significant correlation of role ambiguity with
physical health show poor physical health of
married working women. Role conflict has
significant positive correlation withunreasonable group and political pressure (r=
.253*, df =138, p<.05), and negative
significant correlation with physical health
(r=-.255, df =138, p<.05). This revel that
married working women who are high on
role conflict are also high on political
pressure whereas negative significant
correlation with physical health shows pooreffect on health.
Unreasonable group and political pressure
has negative significant correlation with poor
peer relations (r =-219df =138, p<.05),
strenuous working conditions (r =-342,
df =138, p<.01). This shows that married
working women high on unreasonable group
and political pressure are low on peer
relations and on work. Whereas also shows
positive significant correlations with
unprofitability (r =316, df =138, p<.01),
environment (r =283, df =138, p<.01), and
general wellbeing (r =352, df =138, p<.01).
Responsibility for persons has negative
correlation with under participation (r =-410,
df =138, p<.01), powerlessness (r =-547,
df =138, p<.01) , poor peer relations(r =-548,
df =138, p<.01), this shows that married
working women who are high on
responsibility for person are low on
participation, peer relations and low in
power. There are also significant positive
correlation of responsibility of persons with
unprofitability(r =547, df =138, p<.01),
psychological functioning (r =331, df =138,
p<.01), environment (r =251, df =138, p<.05),
general wellbeing (r = 351, df =138, p<.01)
shows that married working women who are
high on responsibility of person are also high
on psychological functioning and general
wellbeing.
Under participation has positive significantcorrelation with poor peer relations (r =424,
df =138, p<.01), low status (r =250, df =138,
p<.05), and negative significant correlation
with Unprofitability (r =-386, df =138, p<.01),
environment (r =-329, df =138,
p<.01),powerlessness (r =-588, df =138,
p<.01). The negative significant correlation
of under participation with unprofitability,environment and powerlessness show poor
environment and low in power of married
working women.
Powerlessness has positive significant
correlation with poor peer relations (r =473,
df =138, p<.01), and negative significant
correlations with unprofitability (r =-.39,
df =138, p<.01),psychological functioning (r
=-.229, df =138, p<.05), environment (r =-
211, df =138, p<.05).Poor peer relations has
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positive significant correlation with intrinsic
improvesment(r =269, df =138, p<.05), and
negative significant correlation with
unprofitability (r =-498, df =138, p<.01),
physical health (r =-.29, df =138, p<.01),
psychological functioning (r =-.391, df =138,
p<.01), environment (r =-307, df =138,
p<.01), general wellbeing (r =.226, df =138,
p<.05).
Psychological functioning has positive
significant correlation with social
relationship (r =210, df =138, p<.05),
environment (r =377, df =138, p<.01), and
negative significant correlation with general
wellbeing (r =-.591, df =138, p<.01).
Socialrelationship has positive significant
correlation with environment (r =454,
df =138, p<.01), general wellbeing (r =783,
df =138, p<.01). And environment has
significant correlation with general wellbeing
(r =665, df =138, p<.01).
On the basis of the obtained results it can be
stated that married working women are high
on role conflict and dimensions of
occupational stress like role overload, role
conflict, unreasonable group and political
pressure, under participation and poor peer
relations.Emmons (1990) also reported that
disproportionate share of household and child
care responsibilities in working motherresulted in home and work responsibilities
being placed in opposition to one another and
hence leading to role conflict. Kumar (2014)
also support the present investigation.
Occupationalstress as being the harmful
physical and emotional responses occurs
when the requirements of the job do not
match the capabilities, resources, or need or
the workers (Humphrey, 1998). Married
working women who are high on role
overload have negative significant correlation
with general wellbeing, i.e., married working
women who are high on role overload are
low on their wellbeing. In occupational stress
role ambiguity has also negative correlation
with physical health means that married
working women who are high on role
ambiguity are low on physical health. Role
conflict of married working women has
negative significant correlation with physical
health means married working women who
are high on role conflict are low on physical
health. Under participation has negative
significantcorrelation with psychological
functioning and environment. This shows
that married working women who are high
on under participation on their job work are
also low on psychological and environmental
health. Powerlessness has negative
significant correlations with psychological
functioning and environment. This shows
that married working women who are highon powerlessness in occupational stress are
low on psychological functioning and
environment. Poor peer relations of married
working women has negative significant
correlation with environment in quality of
life. Married working women of low status
has negative significant correlation with
environment which shows that married
working women who have low status have
not better quality of life.
Conclusion
The outcome of the present research in
finding that there is a significant relationship
between levels of occupational stress and role
conflict in married working women. Mainly
observed that married working women in
professional job positions with high job
demand were more prone to experience work
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family conflict and work stress affect their
quality of life. Married working women face
stress and conflict in managing their family
life and with work.
Recommendations
• Trained psychologists/ counselors should
be appointed at work place; so that they
may help working women settling issues
of job related stress.
• Social and welfare clubs at work place
should be encouraged to facilitate to
participation of work women in
recreational activities.
• Women-friendly HRM policies should be
framed to encourage women to participate
effectively in the developmental process.
• Child care facilities and family friendly
employment policies should be
encouraged to accommodate the needs and
demands of married working women.
• Rules should be framed that in-service
husband and wife are posted in the same
or nearby place.
• Special attention should be given to the
need of women in the provision of safe
drinking water, sewage disposal, toiled
facilities and sanitation.
Limitations of the Study
Since a small population was interviewed and
purposively selected sample of married
working women from urban area was taken
any generalization of our results should be
made with caution.
References
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Humphrey, J.H. (1998): Job Stress.Needman
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study of occupational stress and coping
strategies among working women in
relation to their feeling of well-
being.Global Journal of Business
Management. Global Vision Publishing
House, New Delhi, 1, No.1
Kumar, A. and Srivastava, S.K. (2014):
Occupational stress among teachers,
feeling of wellbeing and coping
strategies, International Journal of
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Innovative and Applied Research, 2,
(10); 68-76.
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of occupational burnout using burnout
profiles of nurses. Journal of Advanced
Nursing; 64(5), 514-523.
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Billington, R. (1997): Development of
the WHOQOL-Brief quality of life
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Verma, P. and Vinayak, S. (1999):
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Phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of the leaves of plant
Casearia tomentosa
Shukla, Abha
1; Tyagi, Ritu
1and Shukla, Rishi Kumar
Abstract
In the present study petroleum ether extractof the leaves of plant Casearia tomentosa
were investigated for phytochemical
screening and antioxidant activity. Casearia
tomentosa leaves were extracted by soxhlet
apparatus and phytochemical screening was
evaluated using standard methods. The
antioxidant activity was performed by 1, 1-
diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free
radical scavenging method and Ascorbic acidused as standard antioxidant. Phytochemical
screening revealed that the presence of
various medicinal active phytoconstituent
such as terpenoids, steroids, phytosterol, fat
and oil etc. This extract shows good
antioxidant activity with IC
2
Received: October 05, 2015 Accepted: November 15, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
50
value 280
µg/ml. All these experimental analysis
established a good support to the use of this
plant in herbal medicine and can be used to
prevent oxidative stress.
Keywords: Casearia tomentosa |
Phytochemical | Antioxidant activity |
Ascorbic acid | Terpenoids
Introduction
Search for drugs to improve the quality oflife and cure diseases has been a part of
human life right from its beginning. In many
of the well developed ancient civilizations
this knowledge was evaluated and formed an
essential part of the texts of their traditional
systems of medicine, such as Ayurveda,
Siddha and Unani (Singh et al., 2009).
Ayurveda has enriched with numerous plants
introduction, their medicinal importance andusage. Plants have been used and still are
using as a rich source of many natural
products. In India most of which have been
extensively used for traditional human health
care system (Rex and Lyla, 2009).
The Indian Himalayan region alone supports
about 18,440 species of plants of which about
45% are having medicinal properties.
According to Samant et al., out of the total
species of vascular plants, 1748 species are
medicinal. Uttarakhand is a storehouse of a
rich variety of herbs and medicinal and
aromatic plant species (Samant, et al., 1998).
Medicinal plants are increasingly gaining
acceptance even among the literates in urban
settlements, probably due to easy availability,
no side-effects, and better patient
compliance. These contain dozens of active
constituents such as alkaloids, flavonoids,
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [141 – 147] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For Correspondence:1Department of chemistry, Kanya Gurukula Campus,Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar (U.K.)2
Department of chemistry, Gurukula KangriVishwavidyalaya, Haridwar (U.K.)Email: [email protected]
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glycosides, saponins, terpenoids, phytosterol,
steroids, tannins etc which combine to give
the plant its therapeutic value
(Vijayaraghavan et al., 2013). Natural
antioxidants play a key role in health
maintenance and prevention and treatment ofcomplex diseases like atherosclerosis, stroke,
diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease and cancer
(Jayasri et al., 2009; Uddin et al., 2008). In the
last few decades, the demand for natural
antioxidants has been increased due to
consumer concerns about the safety of
synthetic antioxidants (Shukla et al ., 2014).
One of such natural source is Casearia
tomentosa, it is a small tree up to 50-80 cm
girth and 7 m tall belongs to the family
Salicaceae. Its common name is Chilla.
Different parts of Casearia tomentosa is
traditionally claimed for its medicinal
importance like in ulcers, dropsy, fissures,
colic pain in the abdomen, malarial fever,
tonsillitis pain, wounds, and in severe bone
fractures as a plaster (Rao et al., 2014);
Adhikari et al., 2010; Maurya and Seth, 2014).
Therefore, the present investigation was
undertaken to study the antioxidant potential
of this plant and to put forward the evidence
of the fact that this plant is having good
antioxidant activity.
Material And Methods
Plant material
Casearia tomentosa leaves were collected
from Lachhiwala forest Dehradun,
Uttarakhand (India) in the month of August
and September, identified and authenticated
by Botanical Survey of India, (BSI)
Dehradun with accession No.115689. A
voucher specimen has been deposited in
medicinal plants herbarium in Department of
Chemistry, Kanya Gurukula Campus,
Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya. The
collected leaves were washed, dried in shade
and finally grinded to powdered form and
stored in polythene bags for further use.
Chemicals and reagents
(DPPH)1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl
(Sigma Aldrich), Ascorbic acid (Rankem,
India), Petroleum ether (Merck), Ethanol
(Merck). All the other solvents and chemical
used were of analytical grade.
Extraction
150 gm air dry powderd leaves of Casearia
tomentosa was treated with 1250 ml of
petroleum ether by soxhlet extraction
technique for 18 hr. It was concentrated to
dryness under reduced pressure and
controlled temperature using rotary
evaporator. The petroleum ether extract
yielded a greenish yellow waxy mass. The
collected leaves extract was stored in a
refrigerator.
Phytochemical screening
The phytoconstituents present in petroleum
ether extract was analysed by using standardqualitative method (Evans, 2009; Harborne,
1998). The leaves extract was screened for
the presence of biologically active
compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids,
glycosides, saponins, terpenoids, phytosterol,
steroids, tannins, fat and oils etc.
Alkaloids
Five milligrams of extract was dissolved in
twenty milliliters of dilute HCl and then
filtered.
Mayer’s test:- 5 milliliters of filtrate was
treated with Mayer’s reagent. Yellow colour
precipitate indicates presence of alkaloid.
Wagner’s test:- 5 milliliters of filtrate was
treated with Wagner’s reagent. Brown
reddish precipitate indicates presence of
alkaloids.
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Dragendroff’s test:- 5 milliliters of filtrate
was treated with Dragendroff’s reagent. Red
precipitate indicates presence of alkaloids.
Hager’s test:- 5 milliliters of filtrate was
treated with Hager’s reagent. Yellow
precipitate indicates presence of alkaloids.
Flavonoids
Alkaline Reagent test:- Extract was treated
with few drops of NaOH solution. Formation
of intense Yellow color which becomes
colourless on addition of dilute acid (HCl or
H2SO4
Molisch Test:- 5 ml filtrate was treated with
a drop of alcoholic naphthol solution in a test
tube. Formation of Violet ring at the junction
indicates the presence of carbohydrates.
) indicates the presence of Flavanoids.
Lead Acetate test:- Extract was treated with
few drops of Lead Acetate solution.
Formation of intense Yellow coloured
precipitates indicates the presence of
flavanoids.
Shinoda’s test:- Small quantity of extract
was dissolved in alcohol. To that few piece
of magnesium with concentrated
hydrochloric acid was added dropwise and
heated. Appearance of magenta colour
indicates the presence of flavonoids.
Sulphuric acid test:- Extract was treated
with few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid
. Yellow orange colour indicates the presence
of flavonoids.
Tannins
Ferric Chloride Test:- 100 mg of the extract
was boiled with 20 ml of 45% ethanol for 5
minutes. The mixture was cooled and then
filtered. Filtrate was diluted with distilled
water and then 2 drops of ferric chloride
solution was added. A transient greenish to
black colour indicates the presence of
tannins.
Carbohydrate
50 mg extracts were dissolved in 20 ml of
distilled water and filtered. The filtrate wasused to test for the presence of carbohydrates.
Fehling’s Test:- 5 ml filtrate was boiled on
water bath with I ml of each Fehling solution
A and B. A red precipitate indicates the
presence of sugar.
Bendict’s Test:- 5 ml filtrate was treated
with Bendict’s reagent and heated gently in
water bath. An orange red precipitate
indicates the presence of reducing sugar.
Barfoed’s Test:- 5 ml filtrate was treated
with Barfoed’s reagent and heated gently inwater bath. An orange red precipitate
indicates the presence of reducing sugar.
Glycosides
Five milligrams of extract was dissolved in
twenty milliliters of dilute HCl and then
filtered.
Modified Borntrager’s test:- Extract was
treated with 5 % Ferric Chloride solution andimmersed in boiling water for about 5
minutes. The mixture was than cooled and
extracted with equal amount of chloroform.
The chloroform layer was separated and
treated with Ammonia solution. Formation of
pink colour in the ammonical layer indicates
the presence of glycosides.
Legal test:- Five milligrams of extract was
treated with sodium nitroprusside in Pyridine
and NaOH. Formation of red colour indicates
the presence of glycosides.
Keller killiani test:- Five milligrams of
extract mixed with chloroform and evaporate
to dryness. Add 1 ml glacial acetic acid
containing trace amount of ferric chloride.
Transfer it to test tube and add carefully 0.5
ml of concentrated H2SO4 by the side of the
test tube. Acetic acid layer shows blue colour
indicates the presence of glycosides.
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Terpenoids and Steroids
Salwoskii Test:- 20 mg of extract was mixed
with chloroform followed by 3 ml of
concentrated H2SO4 to form a layer. A
reddish brown precipitate coloration at the
interface formed indicated the presence of
terpenoids.
Libermann Buchard’s Test:- Extract was
treated with chloroform and filtered. The
filtrate was treated with few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid followed by few
drops of acetic acid, 3 ml of acetic anhydride.
Formation of brown ring at the junction
shows the presence of terpenoids and upperlayer turn green which shows presence of
steroids.
Fats and Oils
Saponification Test:- A few drops of 0.5 N
alcoholic KOH are added to small quantity of
extract along with drop of phenolphthalein.
The mixture was heated on water bath for
1hours. Formation of soap or partial
neutralization of alkali indicates the presence
of fixed oil and fats.
Filter paper spot Test:- Extracts rubbed
between filter paper and if a spot resist after
boiling of that filter paper confirm the
presence of fixed oil and fats.
Saponins
Foam test:- 100 mg of the extract was
diluted with 10 ml of distilled water. The
mixture was shaken vigorously and then
observed on standing for stable foam.
Phytosterols
Salwoskii Test:- 5 mg of extract was mixed
with 10 ml of chloroform followed by 3 ml
of concentrated H2SO4
Libermann Buchard’s Test:- Extract was
treated with chloroform and filtered. The
filtrate was treated with few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid followed by few
drops of acetic acid, 3 ml of acetic anhydride.
A bluish green colour indicates the presenceof phytosterols.
Protein and Amino acid
50 mg extracts were dissolved in 20 ml of
distilled water and filtered.
Millon’s Test:- Few drops of Millon’s
reagent was added to 2 ml of aqueous filtrate.
A white precipitate shows the presence of
protein.
Biuret Test:- In 2 ml of aliquot of filtrate
few drops of 2% copper sulphate solution
was added. To this, 1 ml of ethanol (95%) is
added followed by excess of KOH pellets.
Pink colour in the ethanol layer indicates the
presence of protein.
Ninhydrin Test:- 2 drops of ninhydrin
solution are added to 2 ml of aqueous filtrate.
A characteristic purple colour indicates the
presence of amino acid.
Anthraquinone
Benzene test:-10 mg extract was shaken with
20 ml of benzene and filtered. Few drops of
10% ammonia solution was added to the
filtrate and the mixture was shaken well and
the presence of violet colour in the aqueous
phase in the presence of the authraquinone.
Antioxidant activity
Antioxidant activity of petroleum ether
extract was performed by DPPH free radical
scavenging assay (Brand - Williams et al.,
1995).
DPPH free radical scavenging assay to form a layer. A
brown precipitate coloration at the interface
formed indicated the presence of phytosterols.
The free radical scavenging assay of
petroleum ether leaves extract of Casearia
tomentosa was evaluated by stable DPPH
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free radical according to the method of
Brand-Williams et.al with some modification
(Brand - Williams et al., 1995). A working
solution of 0.004% was freshly prepared by
dissolving 4 mg of DPPH in 100 ml of
methanol. 1ml of each extract solution ofdifferent concentration (1, 5, 10, 50, 100,
250, 500, 750, 1000 µg/ml) was added to 3
ml working solution of DPPH, Keep this
reaction mixture in dark for 30 min. After 30
min the absorbance of the preparations were
taken at 517 nm with an UV-VIS
spectrophotometer which was compared with
the corresponding absorbance of standard
ascorbic acid of similar concentrations (1-1000 µg/ml). 1 ml of methanol with 3 ml of
working DPPH solution serves as blank.
Then the % inhibition or % anti radical
activity was calculated by equation:
% inhibition = (Absorbance of control−
Absorbance of sample) / (Absorbance of
control) × 100
IC50
The result for phytochemical screening of
Casearia tomentosa leaves are summarized
in Table.1. The Preliminary phytochemical
screening of extract of this plant revealed the
presence of active phytoconstituent such as
steroids, phytosterol, terpenoids and fats and
oils etc. Out of which terpenoids are among
the most widespread and chemically diverse
groups of natural products. It is reported that
plant derived terpenoids possess activities
like antioxidant, anticancer, anti-
inflammatory, sedative, cytotoxic activity
etc. Plant steroids also referred to as ‘cardiac
glycosides’ are one of the most naturally
occurring plant phytoconstituents andnumerous reports support their use as cardiac
drugs and as antioxidant (Mooradian, 1993).
Beside these phytosterols was also present in
this plant extract, which is also responsible
for antioxidant activity[16]. Various reports
support that plants fixed oil have variety of
biological activity such as cytotoxic and
antioxidant etc (Muna et al., 2014)
From above discussion, we can interpret that
the presence of these phytochemicals in
petroleum ether extract shows medicinal
importance of leaves of Casearia tomentosa.
DPPH free radical scavenging assay
DPPH radical scavenging activity is one of
the most widely used method for evaluation
of the antioxidant activity of plant extract.
The principle of DPPH method is based onthe reduction of DPPH in the presence of a
hydrogen donating antioxidant. Extracts
reduce the colour of DPPH due to the power
of hydrogen donating ability (Blosis, 1958).
DPPH is one of the compounds that possess a
proton free radical with a characteristic
absorption, which decreases significantly on
exposure to proton radical scavengers
(Yamaguchi et al., 1998). Petroleum etherextract of leaves showes DPPH anion
scavenging power. The IC
of extract and standard ascorbic acidwas calculated by graphical method by
plotting % inhibition vs concentration.
Results and Discussion
Extractive yield
The extractive yield (in % w/w) of petroleum
ether extract was 1.515 %. After complete
removal of the solvent its consistency is
waxy and greenish yellow in colour.
Phytochemical screening
50 280 μg/mL, and
20μg/mL were evaluated for petroleum ether
extract and ascorbic acid respectively (Fig.1).
Antioxidants may guard against reactive
oxygen species (ROS) toxicities by
scavenging reactive metabolites and
converting them to less reactive molecules
(Shukla et al ., 2014).
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Conclusion
The present study was aimed to perform
phytochemical evaluation and antioxidant
activity of Casearia tomentosa leaves. From
the study it is concluded that this plant is a
good sources of antioxidants as observed in
DPPH scavenging assay. Phytochemical
studies in leaves laid down a platform in
search for a lead molecule that could be a
potent antioxidant agent of natural origin.
The present finding partially validates the
traditional knowledge of the tribals about the
goodness of consumption of this plant andrequired more research works.
Phytoconstituents and Test performed Petroleum ether Extract
Alkaloids Mayer’s Test -
Wagner’s Test -Hager’s Test -Dragendroff’s test -
Flavonoids Alkaline test -Lead acetate test -Shinoda’s Test -Sulphuric acid test -
TanninsFerric chloride test
-Carbohydrate Molisch’s Test -Fehling’s Test -Benedict’s Test -Barfoed’s test -
Glycosides Keller-Killiani Test -
Legal’s Test -
Borntrager’s test -
Terpenoids Liebermann burchard test +
Salwoski test +
Salwoski test (Triterpenes) -
Steroids Liebermann burchard test +
Fat and Oil Saponification test +
Filter paper test +
Saponin Foam test -
Protein and amino acid Millon’s test -
Ninhydrin -Biuret -
Phytosterol Salwoski test +
Liebermann burchard test +
Anthraquinone Benzene test -
(+)-Present;(-)-Absent Table 1 : Phytoconstituents present in leaves
extract of Casearia tomentosa
Fig 1: DPPH radical scavenging activity ofleaves extract of Casearia tomentosa
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 10001100
% I n
h i b i t i o n
Concentration of extracts in µg/ml
%Inhibition vs. Concentration of DPPH assay
Ascorbic acid
PE
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148
Metamaterials: Characteristics, Structures And Applications
Badoni, Anumeha; Belwal, Pravesh and Kumar, Nitin
Received: October 17, 2015 Accepted: November 05, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Abstract
Metamaterial (MTM) is a metallic orsemiconductor substance whose properties
depend upon its inter atomic structure rather
than on the composition of the atoms
themselves. In this paper, overview of unique
properties of MTMs is presented. Further
discussion is held over MTM structures
based on their resonant characteristics
(Resonant and non resonant structure) and
their applications in various fields. Thesuperiority of non resonant structure over the
resonant structure is also discussed in this
paper. Applications of MTMs are
characterized in three categories: guided
wave application, radiated wave application
and Refracted wave applications.
Keywords Metamaterials (MTM) | negative
refractive index | split ring resonator | CRLH
Introduction
As the light propagates through matter,
conventional materials only react to the
electric field, resulting in most common
optical effects, including refraction,
diffraction and imaging (Jackson, 1999). Five
decades ago Russian physicist victor
veselago pondered about whether magnetic
field of light interacts with matter. Then he
classify the materials based on permittivity
and permeability according to their sign
(positive and negative).In electromagnetism
electric permittivity and the magnetic
permeability determine the propagation of
electromagnetic waves in matter (Veselago,
1968), due to the fact that they are the only
parameters of substance appear
Fig1: Classification of materials
in the dispersion equation. According to
veselago the materials in third quadrantshows the reverse properties than
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [148 – 154] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For Correspondence:
Department of ECE, DIT University Dehradun, India
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conventional materials and are named as left
handed materials.
After more than thirty years, Pendry and
Smith have developed a novel class of
metallic structure based on thin wires and
Split ring resonators (SRR) that are known as
metamaterials (Pendry et al., 1999; Smith et
al., 2000 and Pendry et al.,1998). The
concept of MTM transmission line(TL) was
introduced for the first time in 2002 (Iyer and
Eleftheriades, 2002). Caloz and Smith given
their useful work on MTM TL.
Unique Properties of Metamaterials
Metamaterials are defined as artificial
effectively homogeneous structures with
unusual properties not readily available in
nature. For an effectively homogeneous
structure the average cell size ‘p’ of a
structure should be much smaller than the
guided wavelength ‘ λ g ’ . Averaged cell size
should be at least small than quarter of
guided wavelength[8]. Therefore the
condition for effective homogeneity
p = λg
For metamaterials with negative permittivity
and permeability, several names and
terminologies have been suggested, such as
“left-handed” media (Veselago, 1968), media
with negative refractive index (Iyer and
Eleftheriades, 2002), “backward-wave
media” (Lindell et al. 2001); and “double-
negative (DNG)” metamaterials (Sanada et
al ., 2003), to name a few. MTM shows
Negative permittivity and permeability which
results in negative refractive index. Due to
negative index, it supports backward waves
i.e. inside MTM, phase velocities and group
velocities are antiparallel. MTM shows
reversal of some fundamental laws like
Snell’s law, Doppler effect, Vavilov-
Cerenkov radiation etc. Due to these unusual
properties, MTM can change the propagation
property of electromagnetic wave passing
through it. Miniaturization in the size of the
design component is possible as the structural
cell size of MTM is less than one-fourth of
the guided wavelength (Paul et al., 2013). To
understand why such materials are also called
left hand materials, let us assume time
harmonic and plane wave variation for field
in maxwell’s equation
E(x,y,z, t) =
.
− .
(2)
where wave vector k has been introduced ,
Maxwell equation take the form
k×E = - (3) × = + (4)
From the above equation and definition of
cross product, one can immediately see that
for
>0 and
>0 the vector E,H and
k from a right handed triplet of vectors, and if <0 and <0 they from a left handed
system.
Elementary Structure of Metamaterials
Metals at optical frequencies are
characterized by its electric permittivity that
varies with frequency according to the Drude
relation
() = 1 − 2(+ ) (5)
where ω
/4 (1)
p2= Ne2 /me0 is the plasma frequency
i.e. the frequency with which the collection
of free electron (plasma) oscillates in the
presence of an external driving field, where
N= electron density, e = electron charge, m=
mass of electron, ϒ = rate at which the
amplitude of the plasma oscillation
decreases.
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By the drude relation it can see that when
ϒ=0 and ω<ω p
then value of ‘e’ is less than
zero i.e. the medium is characterized by
negative permittivity. Unfortunately for all
frequencies for which ω<ωp while ϒ is very
large which is associated with losses(light
absorption) therefore negative permittivity
was imaginary in past.
Pendry first proposed a thin metallic structure
to overcome this limitation. The plasma
frequency which depends on the density and
mass of the collective electron motion is very
low in that thin wire structure (Smith et al.,
2000). This give rises to two effects, firstly,
the effective electron mass is increased due
to self inductance of the wire structure.
Secondly, the effective electron density is
apparently reduced. Thin metallic wires give
negative permittivity when electric field is
directed in the z-axis (Pendry et al., 1996).
SRR shows negative permeability when its y
axis is perpendicular to magnetic field. Acombined array of thin wires and split rings
shows that simultaneously negative
permittivity and permeability are achieved.
Fig 2. (a) thin metallic wires (b) split ring
resonators (Smith et al., 2000)
Classification of MTM Structure
Resonance type MTM: Resonant structures
are made of thin wires and/or split ring
resonator (Pendry et al., 1999). They are
narrow band or high loss structure due to
their resonant characteristics. SRR and
complimentary split ring resonator (CSRR)
falls in this category. Equivalent circuits for
SRR and CSRR are given below (Baena et
al., 2005)
Fig.(a).SRR with its equivalent circuit
(b).CSRR with its equivalent circuit
(Baena et al., 2005)
A variety of split ring resonators have been
come into existence by researchers i.e. square
split rings (Majid et al., 2008), omega split
rings (Othman et al.,2009), S type structure
(Patel and Kosta, 2014), R split rings (Reddy
and Raghavan, 2015), single split rings
(Nornikman et al., 2012), and many more. In
2003, a new category of CRLH resonant
antenna comes into existence (Sanada et al.,
2003). CRLH resonant antenna has several
advantages over resonator type antenna.
Different types of CRLH resonant antennas
have been investigated with their specific
applications.
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Non resonant type MTM: Resonant
structure was lossy with narrow bandwidth,
limited its applications. Non resonant
transmission line (TL) structures are made of
lumped inductors and capacitors, have low
loss over a broad bandwidth under
appropriate matching conditions and
overcomes the limitation of resonant type
MTM. Composite right and left handed
transmission line (CRLH TL) falls in this
category. CRLH is combination of left
handed (LH) and right handed (RH)
transmission line because in general a pure
left hand structure is not possible due to
unavoidable right hand parasitic series
inductance and shunt capacitance effects. The
propagation constant of a transmission line is
given by
γ = α + jβ =√ Z’Y ’ (6)
where Z’ and Y’ are respectively the per unit
length impedance and per unit length
admittance. In the case of CRLH TL, Z’ and
Y’ are defined as [24]
′ () = j ′ − 1 ′ (7)
′ () = ′ − 1 ′ (8)
Therefore the dispersion relation for a
homogeneous CRLH TL is
(
) =
()� 2 ′ ′ +1 2 ′ ′ − ′
′ + ′
′ (9)
Where ()
=
−1 < 1 = min 1
� ′ ′ ,
1
� ′ ′
+1
>
2 = max
1
� ′
′ ,
1
� ′
′
β can be real and imaginary; when β is
purely imaginary γ = α a stop band occurs in
the frequency range which shows the unique
characteristic of CRLH TL. The equivalent
circuit of CRLH TL and its dispersion
diagram in balanced condition is shown in
fig.
(a)
(b)
Fig 4. (a) Equivalent circuit model of
CRLH (b) dispersion diagram in
balance condition
Balanced condition of CRLH TL is achieved
when series and shunt resonance are equal.
Under balanced condition the propagation
constant reduces to the simpler expression
= + = � ′ ′ − 1
� ′ ′
(10)
• Superiority of Non- resonant Structure
over Resonant Structure: The structure
made of resonating element generally does
not constitute a good transmission medium
for a modulated signal because of the quality
factor intrinsically associated with each
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resonator (Collin, 1992). In 2002, to
overcome this limitation a new approach of
transmission line is being introduced.
Because of their non-resonant nature, TL
MTMs can be designed to exhibit
simultaneously low loss and broad
bandwidth, where low loss is achieved by a
balanced design and broad bandwidth can be
directly controlled by its LC parameters.
Another advantage of TL MTM structures is
that they can be engineered in planar
configurations, compatible with modern
microwave integrated circuits (MICs).
Finally, TL MTM structures can benefit from
the efficient and well-established TL theory
for the efficient design of microwave
applications.
Application of MTM
MTMs have many microwave applications
which may be classified in three
categories:guided wave, radiated wave and
refracted wave application.
Guided Wave Applications: In guided wave
applications may be 1D or 2D CRLH TL.
Electromagnetic energy remains confined in
the metal and dielectric media constituting
the components. Some 1D guided wave
applications are dual band components,
quarter wavelength transmission line and
stubs,passive components(quadrature hybrid
and Wilkinson power divider),nonlinear
components,couplers etc.
Radiated Wave Application: Radiated-
wave applications cover several types of
novel antennas and reflectors, which may be
1D or 2D, passive or active, and static or
dynamically tuned. If a MTM structure is
open to free space and support a fast wavemode called a leaky wave mode, it radiates
and can therefore be used as an antenna.
Leaky wave antenna and resonant type
CRLH TL comes in this category.
Refracted Wave Application: In refracted
wave applications some examples are planar
distributed negative lens, microwave surface
plasmons etc. A 2-D LH TL circuit using LC
lumped-element components has been
implemented and its NRI focusing property
has been shown experimentally by an NRI
slab lens (Lai et al., 2004).
Conclusion
Metamaterials have become an extremely
exciting research area. The unique
electromagnetic properties of MTMs attract
considerable attention of research. Non
resonant structures who are recently
discovered have several advantages over the
previous structures with having many
applications in the field of microwaves.
Many other fascinating discoveries and
applications are waiting for us to explore
with the complete degree of freedom to
control over material properties.
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Agarwal et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/155 - 160
155
Optimal Design of UWB Antenna Using Differential Evolution
Agarwal, Ankit1, Srinivas, K.
3 and Gupta, M. S.
Abstract
Wireless technology is one of the main areas
of research in the world of communication
systems today and a study of communication
systems is incomplete without an
understanding of the operation of antennas.
This paper reports the optimization of
staircase ultra wideband antenna with an
inverted U shaped structure for 5.8 GHz ISM
band suppression. Generally antennas are
optimized on trial and error techniques,
which are time consuming and even after a
number of iterations there is no guarantee of
achieving optimum result. The optimal
design of Ultra Wide Band (UWB) antenna
with a large number of dependent variables is
achieved using Differential Evolution
Metaheuristic. Suitable representation,
mutation operator and fitness function have
been designed for the purpose andimplemented using MATLAB. Twelve
dependent antenna variables are optimized in
a very efficient way by exploiting dependencies
2
Received: October 01, 2015 Accepted: November 11, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
among them in terms of bandwidth, notch
band selection and return loss. The UWB
antenna with optimized parameters is
designed and simulated using CST
Microwave Studio a state-of-the-art
microwave design and simulation software
used in the industry. The antenna covers
frequencies from 2.2 to 8.5 GHz and is
immune to 5.8 GHz communication by
rejecting the frequency.
Keywords: Optimization | Differential
Evolution | Ultra Wideband Antenna | CRLH
Introduction
One of the fundamental attributes of current
short-range wireless technologies is the use
of high bandwidth to achieve the desired data
rates. The high transmission power is not a
feasible option to achieve the required high
data rates. In recent years, the commercial
operations of Ultra Wideband (UWB)
technology attracted researchers to contribute
in its evolution by proposing various designs.
Ultra-wideband (UWB) wireless technology
guarantees very high bit rates availability,
low power consumption, low costs and
location capabilities (Giuliano and
Mazzenga, 2006). Therefore, the antennas
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [155 – 160] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For Correspondence:1Department of Computer Science & Engineering and2Department of Electronics & Communication
Engineering, Quantum School of Technology, Roorkee3Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Dayalbagh
Educational Institute, Agra
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employed for these applications should be
very efficient.
The UWB antennas cover a wide bandwidth
which makes them susceptible to interference
from other narrowband systems like in 5.8GHz ISM band, HyperLan and Wi-Fi. To
protect the system from such interference, a
notch can be introduced in the radiation or
receiving characteristics of UWB antennas
which eliminate the requirement of any
additional high quality band-pass filter
structures. Several techniques have been
proposed to introduce a notch in the desired
band, such as a tuning fork shaped antenna
(Ryu and Kishk, 2009), printed monopole
antenna with slots (Movahedinia and
Azarmanesh, 2010), antenna with inverted L
shaped slot in the ground plane (Movahedinia
et al., 2011), antenna with parasitic elements
on the patch (Abbosh and Bialkowski, 2009),
etc. One of the basic techniques is the use of
inverted U shaped slot in the patch antenna to
create the notch (Kerkhoff and Hao, 2004).
This technique of inverted U shaped slot has
been adopted to introduce the band rejection
characteristics in this work.
In general, it is rare to achieve the desired
characteristics with mere theoretical
calculations; the optimization process is thus
required which involves various variables
whose inter-dependencies are not well
established. Sequential search techniques for
optimizing these parameters consume time
and valuable resources. Hence a random
search in the solution space is highly
beneficial in terms of temporal cost as well as
convergence to the optimal/ near optimal
solution. This reduces significant amount of
time and resources as compared to techniques
used otherwise.
Differential evolution (DE) is one of the most
powerful stochastic real-parameter
optimization algorithms. DE operatesthrough similar computational steps as
employed by a standard evolutionary
algorithm (EA) (Das and Suganthan, 2010).
One of the advantages of DE algorithm
compared to GA is that this method does not
require the transformation of the variables
into binary strings (Shamekhi, 2013). DE
maintains a population of agents which are
iteratively combined and updated using
simple formulae to form new agents
(Pedersen, 2010). The algorithm evolves
towards an optimum solution by randomly
searching a population of candidate solutions
called parent population, and then applying
mutation operators to generate mutant
population. With the help of a pre-defined
fitness function, the algorithm advances in a
step wise iterative manner until a desired
termination condition is reached. The fitness
function is defined on the basis of desired
antenna attributes like bandwidth, gain,
reflection coefficients, and return loss and
antenna dimensions.
The UWB antenna with optimized
parameters is designed and simulated using
CST Microwave Studio (CST MWS). This
tool is based on the finite integration
technique (FIT), a very general approach,
which describes Maxwell's equations on a
grid space and can be written in time domain
as well as in frequency domain and is not
restricted to a certain grid type. It is possible
to handle large radiating structures and evencomplete arrays with more than some
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hundreds of radiating elements in this
software (Hirtenfelder, 2007).
This paper provides prime solution for
optimizing UWB antennas which saves time
and resources. Optimizing band rejectioncharacteristics of an antenna using DE will
help to achieve a global optimum solution
efficiently for any desired radiation
characteristics. In this work, a staircase UWB
antenna with inverted U shaped slot for 5.8
GHz band suppression is proposed. The
bandwidth, notch band, and return loss were
selected as the core components of the fitness
function for establishing dependencies and
optimizing the selected parameters. In section
II, the selected antenna design, its inter-
dependent parameters and DE algorithm is
discussed. A parametric analysis of this
design and its optimization using DE is
proposed in Section III. In Section IV, the
simulated results obtained by DE and CST
MWS are discussed. Finally in section V,
paper is concluded.
System Model
The proposed antenna consists of a
rectangular patch with staircase on the
feeding edge. The patch has an inverted U
shaped slot which creates the notch at the
desired frequency. The ground plane of the
antenna has a slot beneath the feeding line
Fig. 1 Layout of proposed antenna
which helps in better impedance matching.
The layout is shown in Fig 1. The design is
symmetric along Y axis from center which
helps in reducing the complexity of the
optimization process.
Various antenna parameters from Fig 1 were
analyzed to define the variable set for
optimization. It was observed that the
inverted U shaped slot affects the notch
position and attenuation at the rejection band.
Larger slot length brings the notch to lower
frequencies and vice versa. The position of
the slot with reference to the feeding line,
referred to as u_y, directly affects attenuation
and the quality factor of the notch. Apart
from the parameters related to the slot, the
impedance matching is very important to
achieve the desired in-band rejection and out-
of-band transmission. The parametric
analysis including various tests concluded
that overall 12 parameters required
optimization to achieve the desired response.
These parameters are listed in Table 1 with
their initial values, optimization range and
their optimized values.
The main stages of the proposed evolutionary
algorithm are shown in Fig 2. Firstly, a
randomly initiated population vector, known
as genome/chromosome, forms a candidate
solution to the optimization problem. Then, a
mutant vector, known as donor vector, is
obtained through the differential mutation. In
Crossover, the donor vector exchanges its
components with the target vector. During
Selection, the population either gets better or
remains the same in fitness status by
determining whether the target vector
survives to the next generation or not.
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Fig. 2: Main Stages of DE Algorithm
Proposed Methodology
Differential Evolution was implemented in
MATLAB. There are 12 genes in the solution
string of the UWB antenna design problem
with respect to each inter-dependent antenna
parameter. In DE, each individual gene
represents the design parameters range.
Initially, the parent population consists of a
single solution string containing initial values
of each parameter. The mutation operator
generates the mutant population from parent
population.
The fitness value is calculated by summation
of alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ):
Fitness = α + β + γ
where, α is bandwidth
β is notch band existence
γ is return loss
Bandwidth (α) is calculated by:
=∑ =1
×
where, n is number of points
SF is scaling factor
xi
3, if spike exists
β =
0, otherwise
Return loss (γ) is given by:
is vector of reflection coefficients
Notch band existence (β) is given by:
1, if S11 > -15dB
γ = 2, if -15 > S11 > -25dB
3, S11
The value of alpha is based on the reflectioncoefficients which are calculated at different
frequencies (in the operating range). The
value of beta is based on the spike of the S
< -25dB
11
parameter (reflection coefficient) and gamma
also depends on S11
After a number of iterations and crossover, asolution string is obtained with minimum
fitness and has optimized design variables of
the antenna. These variables are used for
designing and simulating antenna using CST
Microwave Studio.
Simulation Results
The optimized inter-dependent variables are
obtained using DE which is shown in Table 1with their initial values, optimization range
and optimized values. These variables are
used for designing the antenna in CST MWS,
shown in Fig 3 and Fig 4. Rogers’s 4533
substrate with thickness of 1.524 mm,
relative permittivity of 3.3 and loss tangent of
0.0023 was used for optimized design. The
antenna covers the frequency band of 2.2 –8.5 GHz and the notch band is achieved at
5.8 GHz, presented in Fig 5. The radiation
pattern at 5.8 GHz frequency is shown in Fig
6.
parameter.
S. No.
Inter-
dependent
Variable
Initial
Value (in
mm)
Optimization
Range
(in mm)
Optimized
Value
(in mm)
1. s1x 6 5 – 7 5.11
2. s1y 1 0 – 2 1.90
3. s2x4 3 – 5 4.05
4. s2y 1 0 – 2 1.81
5. s3x 2 1 – 3 2.25
6. s3y 1 0 – 2 0.28
7. u_y 13 12 – 14 13.16
8. u_width 1 0 – 2 1.97
9. U 6.5 5.5 – 7.5 7.48
10. U_length 6 5 – 7 6.02
11. ground_sw 2 1 – 3 1.93
12. ground_sl 6 5 – 7 5.47
Table 1: Optimized Values Of Inter-
Dependent Variables
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Fig 3: Front View
Fig. 4: Back View
Fig 5: S11
Fig. 6: Radiation Pattern
Graph
Conclusion
The optimization process of an UWB antenna
has been proposed with notch band
characteristics to reject the narrow band
communications at 5.8 GHz. A rectangular patch, having inverted U shaped slot, with
staircase on the feeding edge was used to
achieve the desired specifications. DE has
been applied on the initial design to optimize
the radiation characteristics and antenna
variables. The UWB antenna is designed and
simulated in CST MWS using these
variables. The antenna covers frequencies
from 2.2 GHz to 8.5 GHz with rejection 5.8
GHz.
References
Abbosh, A. M. and Bialkowski, M. E. (2009):
“Design of UWB Planar Band-Notched
Antenna Using Parasitic Elements”, IEEE
Transactions on Antennas and Propagation,
57(3): 796-799.
Babu, B. V. and Jehan, M. M. L. (2003):
“Differential Evolution for multi-objective
optimization”, Congress on Evolutionary
Computation, (CEC 2003): 2696-2703.
Das, S. and Suganthan, P. N. (2010):
“Differential Evolution: A Survey of the
State-of-the-Art”, IEEE Transactions on
Evolutionary Computation, 15(1): 4-31.
Eldek, A. A. and Smith, A. E. (2005):
“Rectangular Slot Antenna with Patch Stub
for Ultra Wideband Applications and
Phased Array Systems,” Progress in
Electromagnetic Research, 53: 227-237.
Giuliano R. and Mazzenga F. (2006): “Capacity
Analysis for UWB Systems with Power
Controlled Terminals under Power and
Coexistence Constraints”, IEEE
Transactions on Wireless
Communications, 5 (11): 3316-3328.
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Hirtenfelder, F. (2007): “Effective Antenna
Simulations using CST MICROWAVE
STUDIO (R)”, 2nd International ITG
Conference on Antennas.
Kerkhoff, A. and Hao, L. (2004): “A Parametric
Study Of Band-Notched UWB Planar
Monopole Antennas”, IEEE Antennas And
Propagation Society International
Symposium Digest, 2: 1768-1771.
Movahedinia R. and Azarmanesh M. N. (2010):
“Ultra-Wideband Band-Notched Printed
Monopole Antenna”, IET Microwave
Antennas & Propagation, 4 (12): 2179–
2186.
Movahedinia R.; Ojaroudi M and Madani S. S.
(2011): “Small Modified Monopole
Antenna for Ultra-Wideband Application
with Desired Frequency Band-Notch
Function”, IET Microwave Antennas &
Propagation, 5 (11): 1380–1385.
Pedersen, M. E. H. (2010): “Good Parameters for
Differential Evolution”, Technical Report,
HL1002.
Ryu K. S. and Kishk A. A. (2009): “UWB
Antenna with Single or Dual Band-
Notches for Lower WLAN Band and
Upper WLAN Nand”, IEEE Transactions
on Antennas and Propagation, 57 (12):
3942-3950.
Shaker, A., Zainud-Deen S. H.; Mahmoud K. R.
and Ibrahem S. M. (2011): “Compact
Bluetooth/UWB Antenna with Multi-Band
Notched Characteristics”, Journal of
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Shamekhi, A. (2013): “An Improved Differential
Evolution Optimization Algorithm”,
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Zhao, M.; Liu, R.; Li, W. and Liu, H. (2010):
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Kumar et al./Vol. VI [2] 2015/161 - 168
161
Genotoxicity due to Chromium -Mitotic effects in Vigna angular is (L.) Gaertn.
(Adzuki Bean)
Kumar, Anil1; Dhingra, G. K.
1and Gupta, Shalabh
2
Received: October 22, 2015 Accepted: November 12, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Abstract
In the present investigation two accessions of
Vigna angularis L. were subjected to
Chromium toxicity. The detailed root mitotic
studies were made in control and treated
plants. The effect of Cr was clearly visible on
root growth. No seeds germinated in 10-1 M
Cr. In 10-2M, the mitotic index (MI) was
found to be extremely low (0.029 in V1 and
0.023 in V2). In the course of mitosis various
anomalies were observed as fragmentation,
stickiness of chromosomes, early movement
of chromosomes, restitution nucleus, random
grouping at anaphase, micronuclei,
multinucleate condition, chromosome bridges
at anaphase, and C-metaphase. Chromosome
stickiness, clumping, chromosome bridges
and c-metaphase were observed in almost all
the treated sets. Most of the anomalies wereobserved at 10-2
Keywords: Vigna angularis | Cr-toxicity |
Mitotic Index
M Cr concentration in both
of the accessions of Vigna.
Introduction
Chromium (Cr) occurs in nature in bound
forms that constitute 0.1-0.3 mg/kg of the
Earth’s crust and has several oxidation states
from Cr(-II) to Cr(+VI) (Zayed and Terry,
2003). It is unique among the heavy metals
because of its existence in two
environmentally important oxidation states:
trivalent (Cr III) and hexavalent (Cr VI)
(Srivastava et al., 2006). Chromium is
recognized as an essential element for
humans and animals but not for plants (Liu et
al ., 1992), although some investigations
report that it is beneficial to plant growth
(Zheng et al., 1987). The toxicity of
chromium and chromium-content in plants,
however, is species specific. Much research
has been conducted to determine the toxic
effects of chromium on different plantspecies (Jain et al., 2000; Ren and Gao,
2000; Peralta et al., 2001; Manjappa et al.,
2002; Gardea-Torresdey et al., 2005;
Karbassi et al., 2008). The pulse plants can
uptake heavy metal from polluted soil
(Bishnoi et al., 1993).
Plants take water and other essential metal
ions from soil for their metabolism. Theyutilize these nutrients for various
biochemical processes taking place in them.
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [161 – 168] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For Correspondence:1Deptt. Of Botany, Govt. P.G. College Rishikesh,Uttarakhand2
Department of Botany, S. B. S. Govt. P.G. College,Rudrapur, Uttarakhand
Email: [email protected]
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The plants growing near industries emitting
liquid pollutants or air pollutants or solid
waste do not survive. This is because the
heavy metals cause changes in their genetic
contents thus leading to abnormal phenotype
and irregular meiosis. These plants do not
produce normal seeds. It has been observed
that certain strains of plants takes these heavy
metals and store them in their body parts.
This is because of change in the genetic
constitution of these plants. The phenotype is
the result of interaction of genotype and
environment. These metals may be
recollected from the ashes of plant parts. The
ability of these plants to accumulate heavy
metals in them is utilized in the removal of
these heavy metals from soil. This process is
known as Phytoremediation. Cary et al.
(1977) found that plants accumulated Cr
from nutrient solutions but retained most of
this in their roots. It was also found that
plants tend to accumulate Fe alsoaccumulated Cr. It was observed that the
leafy vegetables have more potential to
accumulate Cr than the seed plants. A
number of crop species have been tested for
this and are used in phytoremediation. Zakia
et al (2014) reported remarkable reduction in
Mitotic induction and abnormal Mitosis in
Vicia faba after treating seeds with 1%
Melathion.
Materials and Method
The purpose of the current work was to
assess the Chromium effect on the
cytogenetic changes in one of the most
economically important crop plant of
Garhwal, Vigna angularis. Two accessions
of Vigna were procured from local sources at
different altitudes and subjected to detailed
root mitotic studies. Vigna angularis
(Wild.) Ohwi and Ohashi (Adzuki Bean)
is commonly known as Soonthiya or Rayans
in Garhwal. It belongs to the family
Papilionaceae. In Vigna angularis the
chromosome number (2n = 22; Karpechenko,
1925).
Accessions Procurement place
V1 Chaubattakhal, 1800m asl
V2 Uttarkashi, 1200 m aslasl = above sea level
Table 1: List of accessions of Vigna
angularis
The seeds of each accession of Vigna (V1,
V2) were first surface sterilized with 0.1%
mercuric chloride (HgCl2) solution for 3-4
minutes and washed thoroughly with tap
water and finally with distilled water. The
seeds were placed on double layered filter
papers (3 mm, Whattman, filter papers) with
cotton pads ‘sandwiched’ between them
equidistantly in various treatments in petri
dishes and incubated under white light at
22oC. Ten molar solutions of K 2Cr 2O7 ranging
from 10-10M to 10-1M were prepared. The
control sets were raised in distilled water and
treated sets were raised in various molar
concentrations of K 2Cr 2O7
For mitotic studies, 20 root tips of control and
treated seedlings of V. angularis were fixed in
3:1 absolute ethanol and glacial acetic acid
having a pinch of ferric chloride. The fixed root
tip samples were stored in 70% ethanol in
refrigerator. After 24 hours of fixation, the root
tips were boiled in 3% aceto-carmine and left
for overnight. After that these were smeared
and squashed in 1.5% aceto-carmine. The
. Only a fixed
amount (about 50 ml) of distilled water or Cr
solutions was added in petri dishes. The
various molar concentrations of Cr were
prepared in Hoagland’s solution.
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following parameters were used for the
analysis:
a) Number of non-dividing cells,
b) Number of dividing cells,
c) Number of actively dividing cells, and
d) Percent frequency of mitotic
anomalies.
Mitotic index was also calculated by using
following formula:
Number of cells in mitosis (actively dividing cells)
Mitotic index = -------------------------------------------------
Total number of cells (non-dividing cells + dividing
cells + actively dividing cells)
Results and Discussion
Both the accessions of V. angularis were
subjected to detailed root mitotic studies in
control and treated plants. The effect of Cr on
root growth varied with different
concentrations used. No roots were available
in 10-1
The frequency distribution of different
anomalies in different concentrations of Cr in
both the accessions of V. angularis is shown
in table 3. Mitotic Index (MI) was also
calculated by formula given in materials and
methods and is shown in table 4. At 10
M Cr concentration during the whole
experiment. The mean data related to non-
dividing cells (NDC), dividing cells (DC)
and actively dividing cells (ADC) is given in
Table 2.
-2
a)
Fragmentation (plate 1 d),
M,
the MI was extremely low (0.029 in V1 and
0.023 in V2). The graphical representation of
mitotic index in different concentrations in
both the accessions of V. angularis is shown
in figure 1. In the course of mitosis various
anomalies were observed. Following mitotic
anomalies were observed in treated sets:
b) Stickiness of chromosomes (plate 1 e),
c) Early movement of chromosomes (plate 1
f),
d) Restitution nucleus (plate 1 g, h, l),
e)
Random grouping at anaphase (plate 1 i),
f) Micronuclei (plate 1 j),
g)
Multinucleate condition (plate 1 k),
h) Chromosome bridges at anaphase (plate 1
m), and
i) C-metaphase (plate 1 n, o).
Anomalies like chromosome stickiness,
clumping, chromosome bridges and c-
metaphase were observed mostly. At 10-2
The characteristic feature of heavy metal is
poisoning and inactivation of enzyme
systems. Heavy metals are potentially toxic
and eventually cause harmful effects at
higher doses. Thus plant growth is correlated
with the disruption of physiological and
cytological processes. The mitotic index (MI)
reflects the frequency of cell division and is
regarded as important parameter for
determining the rate of root growth. Heavy
metal accumulation in soil and its importance
on the morphological, biochemical and
cytological aspects of plants have received
more attention in recent times by many
workers (Abbasi et al ., 1992; Prem kumar etal ., 2001; Prakash et al ., 2004).
M
Cr concentration most of the anomalies were
observed in both of the accessions of V.
angularis.
In Vigna angularis, the MI decreased
progressively with the increase in Cr
concentrations in V1 and V2 except in the 10-
7M of V1 and 10-6M of V2. In treated roots
the MI was found to be lower than the
control. At 10-2M, the MI was extremely low
(0.029 in V1 and 0.023 in V2). Thechromosome stickiness, clumping, c-
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metaphase were due to toxic effects of Cr and
may probably lead to cell death. The mitotic
index in the present study can be correlated
with rate of root growth, suggesting that the
inhibition of root growth resulted from
inhibition of the cell division.
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Alteration in nuclear structure induced by Cr
and inhibition of cell division in roots has
been observed by Levan, 1945; Corradi et al .,
1991 and Villalobos-Pietrini et al ., 1993. The
most appropriate reason for the increase in
abnormalities may be due to malfunction and
inactivation of number of key enzymes for
ion uptake and spindle control.
Nagpal and Grover (1994) classified induced
chromosomal abnormalities into two groups
viz., clastogenic effects such as fragments,
ring chromosome bridges and micronuclei.
The precocious movement of the
chromosome might have been caused by the
early terminalization, stickiness of
chromosome or because of the movement of
the chromosome ahead of the rest during
anaphase (Permjit and Grover, 1985;
Chidambaram et al ., 2009).
The mitotic index (MI) reflects the frequency
of cell division and is regarded as important
parameter for determining the rate of root
growth. Heavy metal accumulation in soil
and its importance on the morphological,
biochemical and cytological aspects of plants
have received more attention in recent times
by many workers (Abbasi et al ., 1992; Prem
kumar et al ., 2001 & 2014; Prakash et al .,
2004).In the present studies, induced toxic
effects on chromosomes during cell division
such as c-mitosis, anaphase bridges and
chromosome stickiness, are in agreement
with the findings of Levan (1945) and Liu et
al ., (1992).
Table 2: Mean data related to non-dividing cells
(NDC), dividing cells (DC) and actively
dividing cells (ADC) in different
accessions of Vigna angularis
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Table 3: Mean data related to percent frequency
of different mitotic abnormalities indifferent accessions of Vigna angularis
Eleftherios et al (2015) investigated the
detrimental effects of chromium (Cr) on
mitotic microtubules (MTs) in some fabaceae
members. They reported that MI disturbance
adversely affected the proper aggregation of
chromosomes on the metaphase plate, their
segregation at anaphase and organization of
the new nuclei at telophase.
Conclusion
The results obtained from the present study
indicate that the chromium caused reduction
in morpho-physiology parameters, reduced
Mitotic Index, abnormal mitosis and
remarkable cytogenetic effect that occurred
in the form of the abnormal chromosome and
chromatid behavior.
Table 4: Mitotic index (MI) in various
concentrations in different
accessions of Vigna angularis
Fig. 1: Graphical representation of mitoticindex (MI) in various
concentrations in different
accessions of Vigna angularis
a. Clumping g. Trinucleate condition
b. Restitution Nucleus h. Unequal distribution of chromosomes
c. C- Metaphase i. Tetranucleate condition
d. Late movements of chromosomes to metaphase
plate
j. Micronuclei in telophase
e. Chromatin bridges
f. Binucleate condition
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Environmental conditions for the conservation of wildlife and its
anthropogenic responses in Himachal Pradesh
Pal, Anil1; Goswami, D.C.
2 and Pal, Brijesh
3
Received: October 24, 2015 Accepted: November 24, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Abstract
Himachal Pradesh a part of Indian Himalaya
is one of the crucial mega-biodiversity hub.
It is well known for its scenic beauty, which
attracts tourists from far and wide. The
region has a varied topography, climate and
forest cover and it endowed with a vast
variety of flora and fauna. Wild animals and
birds capable of living under different
climatic conditions ranging from tropical toarctic climates and from a thick forest cover
to sparse tree growth are found in the region.
As in other parts of the Himalaya, the terrain
in the area is rugged and steep. Geologically,
the mountains are young with many fault
zones and are subject to seismicity,
denudation, landslide hazards and soil
erosion. Himachal Pradesh is a mountainous
terrain with altitudes ranging from 350 to
7000 meters (1050 ft. to 21000 ft) above the
sea level. Himachal Pradesh is one of India‘s
most heavily forested region with
approximately 66% area under forest. The
Forests of Himachal Pradesh known for their
grandeur and majesty are like a green pearl in
the Himalayan crown. The largest natural
resource of the State is its thick forest cover.
The total recorded forest area of the study
area is 37,033 Sq. Km. Himachal Pradesh has
brought 13.6% of its geographical area under
the protected area network, an extremely
high figure when compared to the national
average of hardly 4.5%. The state has 32
wildlife sanctuaries and two unique National
Parks.
In last few decades, Himachal Pradesh has
observed progress in almost every aspect like
agriculture, horticulture, floriculture,
population, mining, industries and tourism.
Development in different fields has certain
impacts on wildlife are matter of great
concern and essential for explore. Keeping inview above, the area has been selected for the
study. The main objective of the present
study is to analyze the anthropogenic impacts
on wildlife in Himachal Pradesh, to identify
the major issue affecting the wildlife
conservation in Himachal Pradesh, to
propose and suggest the measures for
conservation of wildlife in the region. Themajor findings are discussed in the paper and
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [169 – 179] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For Correspondence:1Dept. of Geography, D.B.S. ( P G ) College, Dehradun2Dept. of Geography, Govt. P. G. College Rishikesh
3Department of Geography, H.N.B. Garhwal University,Srinagar, Garhwal
Email: [email protected]
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suggestions for the conservations of wildlife
are proposed.
Keywords: Himachal Pradesh | Wildlife
conservation | Environmental conditions
Introduction Himachal Pradesh is a part of Indian
Himalayas and is one of the mega-
biodiversity centers of the world selected for
biodiversity conservation. The region is
highly varied in term of topography and
climatic conditions. It is well known for its
picturesque beauty, which attracts tourists
from far and wide. Himachal is bestowed by
nature with variety of vegetation, wildlife
and climate un-paralleled anywhere.
Himachal Pradesh has a varied topography,
climate and forest cover and its endowed
with a vast variety of flora and fauna. From
times immemorial, this tract is known for its
wilderness, landscapes, beautiful forest and
diverse wild life. The fauna consist of a
galaxy of magnificent animals. They all are a
great attraction to the tourists, the state is
thus a paradise for sportsmen and naturalists.
Diverse and interesting wild life is found in
Himachal Pradesh as a result of great
elevation, topography, climate and forest
cover. Wild animals and birds capable of
living under different climatic conditions
ranging from tropical to arctic climates and
from a thick forest cover to sparse tree
growth are found in the study area. This has
enriched the state extensive and diversified
varieties of wild animals and bird life.
Out of the approximately 16000 species of
higher plants in the country, over 3500 occur
in Himachal Pradesh. Many of these are,
however, under threat because of everexpanding human and cattle populations and
the consequences demand for more land for
agriculture and habitation. The only means of
conserving our wild heritage for prosperity is
by creating refuges for them and protecting
them strenuously. The preservation of
wildlife in Himachal Pradesh is thus a
necessity. The beautiful wild animals and
birds found in the state are our nation’s
invaluable assets and should be preserved not
only for our benefit, but for the future
generations as well. The forests of Himachal
Pradesh known for their grandeur and
majesty are like a green pearl in the
Himalayan crown. This life supporting
systems are presently under great stress due
to impact of modern civilization, economic
development and growth in human and cattle
population.
Himachal Pradesh has brought 13.6% of its
geographical area under the protected area
network, an extremely high figure when
compared to the national average of hardly4.5%. This percentage is the one of the
highest in the country. The state was a
pioneer in initiating wildlife conservation by
establishing wildlife sanctuaries as early as
fifty years ago. The state has 32 wildlife
sanctuaries and two unique National Parks,
which contains vast multitude of plant
species and few remaining habitats for thesnow leopard, Ibex, Blue Sheep, Tibetan
wolf and Markhor, all highly endangered
species. The Great Himalayan National Park
and the Pin Valley National Park together
constitute 1380 km2
Selection of the study Area
with rich biodiversity.
Himachal Pradesh is located in North West in
India in the lap of the Great Himalayas and bordered by Jammu and Kashmir in the
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North, Punjab in the West, Haryana and
Uttaranchal in the South and Tibet in the
East. This beautiful state is divided into two
parts Southern and Northern Himachal. The
southern Himachal also known as lower
Himachal is as hot as plain areas, where as
upper is Northern Himachal less hot in
summer and extreme cold and heavy snow in
winter. Himachal Pradesh is located between
300 22’ and 33012’ north latitude and
between 75047’ and 790
The climate of Himachal Pradesh, depending
on the altitude, varies at different places from
semi tropical to semi arctic. Tours in
Himachal Pradesh during winters (October to
February) can be very severely cold, with
heavy snowfall recorded during this season.
4’ east longitude. It is
a mountainous state with altitudes ranging
from 350 to 7000 meters (1050 ft. to 21000
ft.) above the sea level. Mountains are the
spectacular creation of crustal deformation of
the planet earth. The Himalayan range
furnishes an outstanding example of this
mode of formation. There is great
diversification in the climatic conditions of
Himachal due to variation in elevation (450-
6500mtrs). It varies from hot and sub-humid
tropical (450-900mtrs) in the southern lowtracts, warm and temperate (900-1800mtrs),
cool and temperate (1900-2400mtrs) and cold
alpine and glacial (2400-4800mtrs) in the
northern and eastern high mountain ranges.
And Himachal has five major perennial rivers
– the Beas, the Chenab, the Rave, the Satluj
and the Yamuna that form its drainage
system.
Himachal Pradesh is selected to carry out this
study for a number of reasons. Firstly it is
one of India’s most heavily forested states
with approximately 66% area under forest.
Himachal Pradesh contains large areas,
which covered in moist temperate forest
habitat. Which is rich in wildlife and
substantial areas of forest are disturbing by
developmental activities. The human
population and therefore pressure on natural
resources are both rising very rapidly. All
these above conditions in the state are
favorable to wildlife. But, in last few
decades, Himachal Pradesh has observed
progress in almost every aspect like
agriculture, population, mining, industries
and tourism. Development in different fields
has certain impacts on wildlife are matters of
great concern an essential investigate.
Keeping in view of all these reasons, the area
has been selected for the study.
Methodology
The present study aims to analyze
anthropogenic impacts on wildlife. First step
of the study is to collect the secondary data
on different issues from various published
and unpublished sources of different
governmental and non-governmental
agencies. Then the reconnaissance survey
was made to the study area.
Environmental Conditions for the
Conservation of Wildlife
The Himalayan mountain system represents
one of the richest natural heritage sites in the
world. It has a remarkable assemblage of
biodiversity – both plants and animals. The
rich diversity of Himalaya is now severely
threatened and many species have become
endangered on account of a variety of
physical, biotic and strategic factors to the
region. The loss in biodiversity has been
largely on account of habitat losses, which inturn have happened due to anthropogenic
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factors, like deforestation, overexploitation of
natural resources, human settlements/
encroachments and population growth. The
rich endemic flora and fauna of the
Himalayan region faces the threat of
extinction due to human interference,
degradation of forests and natural habitats for
expansion of agriculture, industrial and urban
development’s.
Across the world, wildlife habitats continue
to be degraded and lost by human activities.
In general, such degradation and loss is
accompanied by a decline in the region’s
biodiversity. However, as landscapes are
increasingly modified by humans, not all
species are affected similarly. While some
species quickly go to be extinct, others are
able to persist initially, but eventually
become extinct if the human pressures on the
habitat keep on increasing. There are still
others that continue to persist, and even
benefit from increased human presence andhabitat modification.
The Himalayas present a storehouse of bio-
diversity, where flora and fauna vary
extensively with climate diversity from one
region to the other. Poaching and illegal trade
in wildlife are other major threats to species
survival in the Himalayas. The region
provides many transit routes for illegalwildlife trade. Of the various Himalayan
species, plants and plant products are among
the most heavily traded. Among fauna, Musk
Deer, Himalayan Black bear, butterflies and
Tibetan antelopes are sought for their high
value in the international market. As a result
of the above processes, many endemic
species of the study area such as Snow
leopard, Leopard, Himalayan black bear,
Himalayan brown bear, Himalayan red fox,
civets, jackals, Serow, Himalayan Tahr,
Musk Deer, Gora, blue sheep, Monal,
Koklass, Kaleej and western Tragopan are
now endangered. Approximately 10% of
known species in the Himalayas were listed
as threatened in 1995, and the number of
species on the verge of extinction has
increased since then (IPCC, 2001).
Habitat destruction is the main cause for
wildlife extinction in India. The rapid
deterioration of the environment due to
human interference is aiding the
disappearance of wildlife from the biosphere.
Habitat loss is due to deforestation for
extended cultivation, construction of dams,
mining operations and road lying. When the
natural habitat of animals is destroyed, it
leads to a decline in their primary food
supply and breeding and nesting grounds.
Hence their numbers get drastically reduced.
In the case of plants, if their natural habitat is
destroyed and the species that controls the pests that attack them are lost, then their
survival is at risk.
Human activities by the local people is
causing serious disturbance to wildlife
reserves. Their dependence on protected
areas for fuel, fodder, grazing, etc. is having
great impact on the fragile ecosystems of
wildlife reserves.
The National Parks and wildlife sanctuaries
have very delicate and fragile ecosystems,
which are very highly susceptible to
anthropogenic interferences. The human
factors affecting the delicate ecosystems and
bio- diversity of the Natural Reserve of the
area under study are associated mainly with
rising human population and increasedresource use pressure on the forests of the
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protected area, gaining popularity of wildlife
tourism and its changing concept, expanding
urbanization and industrialization and
expansion of development activities and
projects in and around the protected area.
The resource use pressures, which adversely
affect the forest ecosystems, threaten wildlife
population and its habitat and ultimately lead
to loss of biodiversity, are all related to
human beings and their various activities.
Poaching and commercial exploitation
constitute yet another category of population
related- threats to the conservation and
protection of wildlife in natural reserves.
This large human population around the
National parks is totally dependent on the
forests of the PAs for cattle grazing and for
collecting fuel wood, fodder and thatching
grasses. The collection of fuel wood is not
only for domestic use but it is also sold in the
nearby markets as a mean of livelihood.
Tourism has capacity to damage the
environment directly and indirectly;
indirectly in the misuse of environment
through building of tourism infrastructure,
industries and directly through the
concentration of visitors and tourism support
of manpower, equipments and facilities in
areas of natural beauty, and in and around the
natural reserves.
An attempt has been made to assess the
environmental impact of various human
activities with the application of Leopold
matrix of environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA). This matrix was used here in a slightly
modified and simplified form. In this matrix,
the impact of grazing, resource dependence
of people living inside and adjacent to parks
and sanctuaries on the protected areas,
transport, tourism, development projects and
industrialization, on the environmental
components of land, water, fauna and flora
was analyzed with the help of range numbers.
The range numbers, indicating the magnitude
of impact, rang between of 1 (least) and 3
(maximum) in Table 1.
Activities Environmental Component
Land Flora Fauna Water
Human Activities 1 2 2 1
Agriculture 3 2 2 1
Deforestation 2 3 3 2
Tourism 2 2 3 1
Transport System 2 2 3 1
Hydrological Projects 2 2 2 2
Grazing 1 3 2 1
Poaching 1 1 3 1
Forest Fire 1 3 3 1Table 1: Different Activities
Affecting the Different
Environmental Component inthe Protected Areas ofHimachal Pradesh
The relative assessment of the magnitude of
impact of a particular activity on different
environmental components, in all natural
reserves and allotment of respective range
number was done subjectively through the field
surveys and the intensity and pressure of various
human activities considered, on different
national parks and sanctuaries. In this exercise
the relative environmental impact assessment,
both direct and Indirect impacts of activity
system have been considered.
Population
Demographic and social changes place more
people in direct contact with wildlife: as human
populations grow, settlements expand into and
around protected areas (IUCN, World Park
Congress, 2003), as well as in urban and sub-
urban areas. In the study area, human population
growth has lead to encroachment into wildlife
habitats, restriction of species into marginal
habitat patches and direct competition with local
communities, as
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• Degradation and alteration of the ecosystem
due to grazing.
• Destruction of habitats due to forest fires –
both accidental and intentional – started by
people collecting NTFP and by trains.
• Air and noise pollution due to traffic in
protected areas.
• Disturbance to animals due to the large
number of pilgrims and tourists within the
protected area.
• Accumulation of solid waste around religious
places and settlement in forest areas.
• Degradation of forest due to collection of
fodder and small timber.
• Over grazing of sheep and goats in the
protected areas and in high-altitude thatches
(meadows) is degrading the habitat and
disturbing the animals.
• Collection of medicinal, aromatic and edible
herbs and plants is degrading the habitat,
disturbing the animals, and threatening many
species with local extinction.
• Collection of fuel wood and fodder is
degrading the habitat.
• Commercial extraction of timber is
deforesting the area.
• Poaching of animals, especially the Musk
deer (Moschus moschiferus), is threatening
the species with local extinction.
Agriculture
Agricultural lands play a critical role in
conserving biodiversity. Agriculture,
horticulture, animal husbandry and many other
economic activities depend simultaneously on
both the exploitation and conservation of natural
resources. In most of the hilly regions,
agricultural expansion threatened the
biodiversity. One of the major ecological
influences of man has been to simplify the
ecosystems. Thus man plows the grassland,
eliminating a hundred species of native herbs
and grasses, which he replaces with pure stands
of maize, wheat, or barley. This increases
efficiency, productivity and yield, but it also
increases ecologic vulnerability and instability.
The landscape diversity is reduced.
Because anthropogenic contaminants have
become ubiquitous in the environment and
influence the ecology of wild species, wildlife
managers and scientists are increasingly
required to consider chemical disturbances as an
essential component of habitat destruction. This
is a new and powerful human threat to species
diversity with rising levels of toxic pesticides
used in agriculture, which many pollute waters
and soils, has a devastating effect on wildlife
and biodiversity of the area. Large-scale use of
pesticides and fertilizers has polluted the land
and river ecosystems also.
Years Total area under cultivation 1950-51
406.3
1955-56 423.3 1960-61 428.7 1965-66 487.7 1970-71 911.7 1975-76 927.3
1980-81 946.4
1985-86 983.6 1990-91 971.6
1995-96 949.8 2000-01 947.5
Grasslands are an important breeding habitat for
many species of birds and mammals. The area
under pasture in Himachal Pradesh is declining,
which fell to 36% by 1991. The reduction was
due to conversion of pastures for horticulture
and food crops cultivation and some areas
became barren due to overgrazing and neglect.
The area under pastures was decreasing and the
number of grazing animals was increasing, thus
the pressure on natural resources increases day
by day. During this period 1970-90 the
population of cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats
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increased at the annual rate of 0.2%, 1.8% and
0.6% respectively.
The study reveals that large and growing
population, extensive nature of agriculture, soil
erosion and land destruction, overgrazing of
pastures, shifting cultivation and increased
stress on forest resources are creating loss of
biological diversity in the study area. On the
basis of above identified factors which are
affecting biodiversity, there is a sharp need to
preserve the biodiversity.
Deforestation
Massive deforestation in the Himalayan region
is the important factor in ecological degradation.
Non-availability of certain species, decline of
fodder and wood resources, loss of the habitat
of wildlife, soil erosion, recurrent floods and
drying-up springs and seasonal streams and
climatic changes are the consequences of man’s
activity.
Deforestation has been caused by commercial
logging; commercial exploitation of trees for
timber, resin, medicinal herbs, clearing of
forestland for settlements and agriculture;
excessive exploitation of forests for fuel wood
and food; and overgrazing by animals, the
coming up of new habitation and the building
of roads. Deforestation is posing a serious threat
to both flora and fauna in the study area. It is not
uncommon to hear the sound of an axe striking
a tree in the forests. The past decade has seen a
large amount of deforestation, which definitely
is a cause of concern.
One of the most serious consequences of
deforestation is the loss of habitat for wildlife.
Deforestation severely impacts forest
ecosystems, causes soil erosion in catchments
areas, a decline in soil fertility, landslides and
siltation of reservoirs, water sources and canals.
The most important direct cause of biodiversity
loss is habitat destruction from clearing and
burning.
Tourism
Tourism and the environment have a verycomplex and interdependent relationship. The
Himalayan region is considered to be
abundantly suited for tourism since it offers all
kinds of attractions to tourists. The lush green
valleys, emerald meadows, vast ice fields have
now started showing abrasion due to increasing
human activity. Tourism brings a large number
of people together, which leads to marked
changes that are detrimental to the ecosystem as
a whole. Tourism is found in the form of pilgrim
tourism and for pleasure and adventure. To
accommodate the large tourist influx, hundreds
of new buildings and mean of transportation are
being constructed every year. Unplanned
development in the Himalayas is causing
irreparable damage. The problems of litter,
noise, erosion, destruction of fauna and flora
have become acute.
S.
No.
Year No. of
Hotels /Guest
Houses
Tourist Arrivals (In lacs)
1. 1990 440 19.23 0.19 19.42
2. 1991 569 23.68 0.15 23.83
3. 1992 711 29.57 0.18 29.75
4. 1993 762 28.77 0.12 28.89
5. 1994 904 34.38 0.52 34.90
6. 1995 1023 30.99 0.47 31.46
7. 1996 1180 35.28 0.51 35.798. 1997 1208 38.30 0.63 38.93
9. 1998 1217 41.80 0.75 42.55
10. 1999 1241 43.52 0.91 44.43
11. 2000 1434 45.70 1.11 46.81
12. 2001 1504 51.11 1.33 52.44
13. 2002 1562 49.60 1.44 51.04
14. 2003 1643 55.44 1.68 57.12
15. 2004 1710 63.45 2.04 65.49
Transport Systems
The developmental activities of man such as the
construction of high dams, roads, exploration for
minerals and mining activity and the quest for
arable land are some of the common reasons for
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the loss of biodiversity. Human inference in
natural environmental conditions often gives
these dynamic processes catastrophic
proportions, leading to disasters and irreparable
damage to the natural balance of the ecosystem.
Road building activities, railway lines, air links
and electronic communication, together with
spread of market economy and policy
interventions, have not merely impacted the
socio-economic dynamics but also the rate of
exploitation of natural resources in the region.
These affects wildlife, habitat, and ecosystems
in numerous in various ways. The threat to the
country’s national parks and sanctuaries
continues unabated.
Hydrological Projects
There is a realization that hydroelectric power
projects are not as clean as they were normally
considered to be world over. They cause many
adverse environmental and social impacts. A
major conflict arises between development and
biodiversity conservation when projects are
located in the protected areas because such
projects impact upon prevailing patterns of
allocation of land and resources to people and
interface with various forestry and wildlife
conservation objectives.
Hydl projects of the study area increasing
sedimentation, indiscriminate mining, pollution,
rapid construction of roads, dumping into
rivers and deforestation have destroyed the
habitat of the fish in many rivers and streams.
Study also pointed out that the environmental
changes were affecting the watersheds.
Pesticides and insecticides have also worsened
the situation. Study area has a cumulative stream
length of about 3000 fishable waters, including
the Beas, Tirthan, Parvathi, Uhl, Pabbar and
Ravi. According to the draft biodiversity Action
Plan prepared for Himachal Pradesh,
“Avowedly, the dams, weirs and barrages act as
physical barriers to migration, tending to prevent
access of the fish, their usual breeding regions
and feeding grounds. Fishes dying due to large-
scale abstraction of river waters and dams and
embankments altering the flow, fisher folk are
being fast pushed into oblivion”.
Today Himachal Pradesh has a very rich and
varied fauna with a land mass of 7572.55 km2
(13.6%) of its geographical area of 55673 Sq.
Km under the protected area network, an
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extremely high figure when compared to the
national average of hardly 4.70%. As a result,
there has been an increase in the number of wild
animals, not only within the protected areas, but
more so outside the protected area network. The
state has 32 wildlife sanctuaries and two unique
national parks namely great Himalayan National
Park and Pin Valley National Park, which
contains the highly endangered species. There
are recorded 77 species of mammals, 463
species of birds, 44 species of reptiles, 80
species of fishes, 436 aquatic plants and more
than 3500 species of higher plants (seed
bearing) in the state and India has 21 Wetlands,
of these 21, three, namely, Renuka, Pongdam
and Chandertal are in the State of Himachal
Pradesh.
S.No. Name of the Project Location
1. Nathpa Jhakri Project Kinnaur
2. Parbati Stage-I Kullu
3. Parbati Stage-II Kullu4. Parbati Stage-III Kullu
5. Chamera-I Chamba
6. Chamera-II Chamba
7. Dhamwari Shimla
8. Larji Project Mandi
9. Gumma HEP Shimla
10. Sanjay Vidyut Pariyojna Kinnaur
11. Andhra Hydel Project Shimla
12. Padamshri Kailash Chand Mahajan Chamba
13. Holi Chamba
14. Rohtang Hydel Project Lahul-Spiti15. Bhaba Power House Kinnaur
16. Khauli Project Kangra
17. Baspa Stage-II Kinnaur
18. Malana Kullu
19. Giri Bata Project Sirmaur
20. Dhamwari Sunda Shimla
21. Bassi Project Mandi
22. Uhl-III Mandi
23. Pandoh Dam Mandi
24. Neogal Kangra25. Karcham Wangtoo Kinnaur
26. Allain Duhangan Kullu
27. Hibra Chamba
28. Sawra Kuddu Shimla
29. Budhil Chamba
30. Koldam Bilaspur
31. Renuka Dam Project Sirmour
32. Rampur Shimla
33. Binwa Project Kangra
34. Siul-Baira Scheme Chamba
35. Thirot Lahul-SpitiMajor Hydrological Projects in Himachal Pradesh
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There is an urgent need to understand such
impacts, and to avoid interference in the most
critical wildlife habitats. There is need for
creating awareness and raising information
levels on ecological and conservation issues.
There should be frequent wildlife survival
discussions with locals. Educational programs
that promote awareness and changes in attitude
towards wildlife through the medium of
television, slide shows, street plays and
pamphlets will go a long way in creating
awareness in the locals. Alternative employment
opportunities should be created for communities
depending on wildlife for economic interests.
It’s often a case of too little too late. The
government usually will not react until a species
is severely threatened. The government has to
be proactive in terms of conserving the flora and
fauna of the state. The biodiversity of the state
has suffered immediately due to lack of interest
shown by the government. The government
gives preference to development activities at the
cost of wildlife. It should give wildlife its due
share of respect and further help in conserving
them by providing advance training and latest
techniques to the forest department.
Project Activities Impacts
Tunnel Development by blasting and other project
activities during construction phase.
Affects wild life through air & noise pollution.
Transportation Adverse effect due to air and noise pollution due to
vehicular traffic.
During operation phase the project component areas
will be lit with lights.
Poses potential of disturbance to mammals and birds at
nights.
Operation phase- Development of Reservoir. Beneficial impacts to avifauna.
Forestland diversion for establishing project
components.
Loss of forest land and removal of trees and other
vegetation.
Fuel requirement of workers during construction phase. Pressure on forest produce for fuel use.
Transportation – Vehicular movements. Adverse impact of dust and air emissions.
Impacts of Hydrological Project Activities on Flora and Fauna
Increasing man-animal conflict is an outcome of
shrinkage, fragmentation and deterioration of
habitats, it has caused destruction of wildlife and
generated animosity against wild animals and
protected areas. This is a crucial management
issue, which needs to be addressed throughinnovative approaches. The government should
have to take decision to shift the local villagers
like guzars and others, dwelling inside the
protected areas to control over the conflict
between men and animals and should be strict
implementation of laws to avoid entrance inside
the protected areas for different resources. Thus
the destruction to wildlife and fragmentation of
habitats can be reduced. Overgrazing by
domestic stock is another factor, which
contributes in destruction of wildlife in study
area. Grazing pressure should be control by the
construction and careful maintaining fences
around small, critical areas and more
importantly, by the enforcement of the existing
grazing permits regulations. An effort should bemade to freeze the present livestock population.
There should be restricting entry in the protected
areas and need to construct barriers such as
walls and fences.
The government needs to make policies for
controlling the shifting agriculture, which is
highly responsible for deforestation. Spray of
pesticides and insecticides in and around the
protected areas should be stopped. This the
factor, which is also responsible for the
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extinction of wildlife species. Forest cover is
reduced rapidly by local peoples for collection
of fuel wood and fodder. Less forest cover is the
major cause of the wildlife extinction. So there
is a demand of conservation of forests and huge
plantation to control over the wildlife
destruction.
Tourism is also playing a major role behind the
destruction of wildlife habitat and caused
serious impacts on ecosystem of the study area.
To reduce its impacts on protected areas there
should be less numbers of tourists, allowed
inside the protected area. The tourist should be
aware about the rule and regulations of the
protected areas and should be eco-friendly.
Tourists need to be educated on how to behave
in order to minimize disturbance kept to a
minimum and the hunting totally prohibited,
thus there is a strong possibility that the wildlife
will become tame and more easily observed,
thus enhancing the attractiveness of the area to
tourists. It should be responsibility theattractiveness of the area to tourists. It should be
responsibility of every tourist to avoid the use of
polythene and other non-biodegradable garbage.
Thus we can reduce the wildlife destruction in
protected area.
The construction of large-scale road network
and hydrological projects should not be allowed
inside the sanctuaries and national parks. Roadsare a major contributor to habitat fragmentation
because they divide large landscapes into
smaller patches and convert interior habitat into
edge habitat. The hydel projects also increase
the destruction of wildlife by noise pollution,
deforestation, blasting, transportation and the
conflict arises between development and
biodiversity conservation when projects are
located in the protected areas. So government
needs to make policies to avoid the construction
of roads and hydrological projects inside the
Sanctuaries and National parks.
References
Arya, S.R. Status of the Wildlife Protected
Areas and their Management in
Himanchal Pradesh, Department of Forest
Farming & Conservation Himanchal
Pradesh.
Balakrishnan and Ndhlova, D. E. (1992):
Wildlife Utilization and Local People: A
Case Study of Upper Lupande Game
Management Area Zambia
Environmental Conservation.19,135-144.
Bhatnagar, Y.V.; Rawat, G.S.; Singh, A. J. T.
and Stuwe, M. (2000): Ecological
separation between ibex and resident
livestock in a trans Himalayan protected
areas, In Grassland ecology and
management in the protected areas of
Nepal Volume 3 technical and status
papers on grassland of mountain
protected areas:70-84.
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Sex and altitude based study on leaf related parameters in Zanthoxylum
Armatum Roxb.
Gupta, Shalabh1; Kumar, Anil
2 and
Paliwal, Ajai Kumar
1
Received: October 25, 2015 Accepted: November 05, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Abstract
Zanthoxylum armatum Roxb. is a vulnerable
medicinal plant known for its medicinal
properties for long globally. In Garhwal
region of Himalaya the plant is dioecious in
nature and is found from 600 to 2000 m amsl
(above mean sea level). In the present work
leaf material of three different accessions
from different altitudes (700, 1200 and 1600
m amsl) was collected and subjected to studyof leaf related parameters like number of
leaflets, size of leaflets, number of prickles
and size of prickles. A considerable variation
was found in all the accessions. In general it
was found that the mean number of leaflets
and leaflet size increased with increasing
altitude in both the sexes. The mean number
of prickles was found to be more at higher
altitudes but minimum was found at middle
altitude in both the sexes. The mean number
of leaflets in accessions varied from 6 to 9 in
male plants and in female plants from 8 to
10. The mean size of leaflets in male plants
varied from 6 to 11 cm and in female from 7
to 9 cms in different accessions. The numberof prickles in male plants ranged from 10 to
15 per leaflet and in female leaflets from 5 to
10 in different accessions. In all three
accessions the size of prickles varied from
0.82-1.32 cm in male and 0.45 to 1.28cms in
female plants.
Keywords: sex and altitude variation | foliar
characters | Zanthoxylum armatum Roxb.
Introduction
Among different medicinal plants
Zanthoxylum (family: Rutaceae) is one of
such vulnerable genus which possess high
medicinal, economical as well as ecological
importance and have about 250 species
spreading all over the world. In India, 11
species of this genus are reported. These are; Z. budrunga, Z. oxyphyllum, Z. ovalifolium,
Z. acanthopodium, Z. planispinum, Z.
armatum, Z. nitidium, Z. rhesta, Z. simulans,
Z. avicennae and Z. limonella. Out of these, 4
species; Z. armatum DC., Z. acanthopodium
DC., Z. oxyphyllum Edgew, and Z. budrunga
are present in Uttarakhand (Kala et al .,
2005). Z. armatum is commonly known as
Indian Prickly Ash, Nepal Pepper or
Toothache Tree. Local name of this plant is
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [180 – 183] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For Correspondence:1Department of Botany, S. B. S. Govt. P.G. College, Rudrapur,
Uttarakhand2 Department of Botany, Pt. L.M.S. Govt. P.G. College,
Rishikesh, Uttarakhand
Email: [email protected]
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Tejphal (Hindi), Tejowati (Sanskrit),
Mukthrubi (Manipuri) and Timur (Nepal).
Zanthoxylum armatum is a vulnerable
deciduous shrub or small tree which grows in
well drained alluvial, black soil. In India, it
has been reported from the warmer valleys of
the Himalaya from Jammu and Kashmir to
Assam and Khasi (1,000 to 2,100m asl), in
the Eastern Ghats in Orissa and Andhra
Pradesh (1,200 m) and the lesser Himalayan
regions in the north-eastern part of India for
example, Naga Hills, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
and Manipur (Kala et al ., 2005). Z. alatum is
synonyms to it (Gupta et al ., 2011).
Zanthoxylum armatum prefers semi shady or
no shade for growth. Valleys and thickets in
the mountain wasteland and the under-storey
of mixed forests are customary locations of
the species. Now this plant is facing severe
problems like over-harvesting, less
germination of seeds, ignorance by local
people and many more and is becoming
lesser in frequency. The plant has been
cytomorphologically less explored. In
Garhwal region the plant is present in
dioecious nature (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). To the
best of our knowledge no work on sex and
altitude has been done earlier only very less
morphological work has been reported in this
plant (Gaur, 1999).
Materials and Method
The leaf material of both male and female
plants was collected from three different sites
of Garhwal as shown in table 1 and was
subjected to the study of leaf related
parameters like number of leaflets, size of
leaflets, number of prickles and size of
prickles.
Observations
The leaves were found to be alternate,
imparipinnate compound and prickly (Fig. 3).
The parameters studied showed variation in
both sexes at different altitudes. In both male
and female plants the mean number of
leaflets increased from lower to higher
altitudes. The mean number of leaflets in
male plants ranged from 6 to 9 and in female
plants from 8 to 10. The data is as shown in
Table 2.
The mean size of leaflets in male and female
plants increased with increase in altitude
(table 3). The mean size of male and female
plant leaflet varied from 6 to 11 cms and 7 to
9 cms respectively.
The mean number of prickles per leaf in male
plants increased with altitude while in female
such relationship was not found (table 4).
The mean number of prickles in male varied
from 10 to 15. In female plant leaf minimum
number of prickles was found in middle
heights and maximum was found at higher
altitudes. In female leaves the prickles ranged
from 5 to 10 per leaf.
Accession
No.
Altitude (meter above
mean sea level)
Name of the
village
Z-1 750 m Devtoli,
Karanprayag
Z-2 1200 m Semi-Gwar, Pokhri
Z-3 1500 m Kumud , Joshimath
Table 1. Details of sites from which leafmaterial was collected
In both sexes at higher altitudes mean size of
prickles was found to be maximum, though
in both minimum size of prickles was found
at middle altitudes (Table 5). Maximum size
of prickles was found to be 1.37cms in male
leaves and 1.28 in female leaves.
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Fig. 1: Female plant
Fig. 2: Male plant
Fig. 3: A single leaf with leaflets of Z. armatum
Fig. 4: Plant with seeds
Results and Discussion
To the best of our knowledge this type of sex
and altitude based study on leaf related
morphology has been done for the first time.
Gaur (1990) reported 1.5cm long prickles,
alternate leaves and 10-15 cms long
imperipinnate, leaflets 3-30, 2-6 X 1.5 to 2.5
cms toothed. In the present work the number
of leaflets in male and female were found to be increase along with rise in altitude and the
mean number varied from 6 to 9 and 8 to 10
Accession Sex Mean ± SE Range
Z-1 Male 6.25 ± 0.36 3.00 - 7.00
Female 8.31 ± 0.49 5.00 - 11.00
Z-2 Male 7.09 ± 0.28 5.00 - 9.00
Female 9.91 ± 0.83 3.00 - 13.00
Z-3 Male 9.40 ± 0.45 7.00 - 11.00
Female 10.09 ± 0.41 7.00 - 11.00
Table 2: Data showing mean number
of leaflets in male andfemale plants of Z. armatum
Accession Sex Mean ± SE Range
Z-1 Male 9.90 ± 0.77 7.00 - 13.00
Female 7.50 ± 1.28 3.00 - 12.00
Z-2 Male 12.20 ± 1.13 8.00 - 17.00
Female 4.80 ± 1.45 2.00 - 13.00
Z-3 Male 14.70 ± 0.40 13.00 - 16.00
Female 9.70 ± 0.65 7.00 - 12.00
Table 3: Data showing mean number
of prickles in male and
female leaflets of Z.
armatum
Accession Sex Mean ± SE Range
Z-1 Male 6.25 ± 0.32 5.30 - 8.00
Female 7.37 ± 0.47 5.00 - 8.50
Z-2 Male 8.66 ± 0.32 7.50 - 10.30
Female 7.57 ± 0.30 6.40 - 9.00
Z-3 Male 11.46 ± 0.32 10.00 - 12.20
Female 9.45 ± 0.83 6.00 - 12.00
Table 4: Data showing mean size of
leaflets in male and female
plants of Z. armatum
Accession Sex Mean ± SE Range
Z-1 Male 0.89 ± 0.02 0.80 - 1.00Female 0.47 ± 0.06 0.20 - 0.70
Z-2 Male 0.82 ± 0.04 0.70 - 1.00
Female 0.45 ± 0.05 0.30 - 0.80
Z-3 Male 1.37 ± 0.07 1.10 - 1.60
Female 1.28 ± 0.20 0.60 - 2.00
Table 5:Data showing mean number
of prickles in male and
female leaflets of Z.
armatum
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respectively. The size of leaflets also
increased with rise in altitude in both male
and female plants, the mean size of leaflets
varied from 6 to 11 and 7 to 9 cms
respectively. The mean number of prickles
was found to increase with altitude but in
female leaves maximum number was found
at high altitude but the minimum size was
found at middle altitude. The mean number
of prickle in male and female varied from 10
to 15 and 5 to 10 respectively. In both sexes
at higher altitudes mean size of prickles was
found to be maximum, though in both
minimum size of prickles was found at
middle altitudes. Maximum size of prickles
was found to be 1.37cms in male leaves and
1.28 in female leaves.
References
Gaur, R.D. (1999): Flora of the district
Garhwal North West Himalaya with
ethnobotanical note. Transmedia,
Srinagar, Garhwal, India. Paridhavi and
Agrawal, 2007.
Gupta, S.; Bhaskar S. and Andola H.C.
(2011): Altitudinal variation in
essential oil in leaves of Zanthoxylum
alatum Roxb. A high value aromatic
tree from Uttarakhand. J. Med. Plant
Res. 5(3): 348-351.
Kala, C. P. (2005): Indigenous uses,
population density and conservation of
threatened medicinal plants in protect-
ed areas of the Indian Himalayas.
Conservation Biology 19:368-378.
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184
Synthesis and Characterization of ZnO Thin Films Fabricated by Sol-Gel
Method
Pathak, Trilok Kumar1; Pal, Pankaj K.
1; Gupta, Himanshu
1; Matta, Gagan
2; Kumar,
Ajendra3; Kumar, R
1. and Purohit, L. P.
1
Received: October 19, 2015 Accepted: November 29, 2015 Online: December 31, 2015
Abstract
ZnO is a strategic material for various
photonic applications. Highly oriented and
transparent ZnO thin films have been
fabricated on ultrasonically cleaned quartz
substrates by the sol-gel technique. X-ray
diffraction (XRD), Scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), UV-VIS, FTIR and
photoluminescence are used to characterize
ZnO thin films. XRD study show that all the
films prepared in this work have hexagonal
wurtzite structure, with lattice constants a = b
= 3.260 Å, c = 5.214 Å. The optical band gap
energy of the thin films is found to be direct
allowed transition ~3.24 eV. The FTIR
spectrum of the film has the characteristics
ZnO absorption band at 482 cm-1
. The
photoluminescence spectrum of the sampleshas an UV emission peak centred at 383 nm
with broad band visible emission centred in
the range of 500 - 600 nm.
Keywords: ZnO films | XRD | SEM | FTIR |
Photoluminescence
Introduction
ZnO has been extensively investigated due to
its potentials in optoelectronics application. It
has a wide band gap (3.37 eV) and large
excitation binding energy (60 meV) (Service,
R. F., 1997). ZnO thin film has wide range
application due to their potential application
in trans- parent electrode in display, window
layers in solar cells, field emitters, ultraviolet
laser emission, photodetectors,
piezoelectricity, bio-sensors, short
wavelength light emit- ting diode and
information technology (Li et al., 2004 andTsukazaki et al., 2005). ZnO thin film has
unique optical, electrical and semiconducting
properties, ZnO thin films are extensively
used in various applications. Despite several
approaches adopted for making these ZnO
thin films, controlling the size, shape,
crystallinity and various parameters affectingthe size and shape of these materials still
ESSENCE - International Journal for Environmental Rehabilitation and Conservation
Volume VI: No. 2 2015 [184 – 188] [ISSN 0975 - 6272]
[www.essence-journal.com]
For Correspondence:1Department of Physics2Department of Zoology and Environmental Science2Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Gurukula Kangri University, HaridwarEmail: [email protected]
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need to be investigated. Thus essential
condition must be satisfied for fabrication of
highly oriented and transparent ZnO thin
films. The main concern of researcher is to
get better quality of material stoichiometry.ZnO thin films are grown by different
techniques such as pulsed laser deposition
(PLD), magnetron sputtering, MOCVD,
spray pyrolysis etc. Lee et al., 2005 and
Salaoru et al., 2006). Sol-gel technique is
widely adopted due to its comparatively
simple procedure as there is no need ofcostly vacuum system and it has a wide-
range advantage of large area deposition and
uniformity of the films thickness. The sol-gel
process also offers other advantages for thin
film deposition including outstanding control
of the stoichiometry and easy doping in film
composition. The structural and physical
properties of ZnO thin films prepared by sol-
gel technique using various inorganic and
organic precursors at different deposition
conditions have been reported in literature
(Ye et al., 2002 and Lee et al., 2003). In the
present work, we report growth of ZnO thin
films on quartz substrate by Sol-gel method
using zinc acetate precursor and their
structural, optical, vibrational and
photoluminescence properties.
Experimental Details
Zinc acetate di- hydrate
(Zn(CH3COO)2·2H2O) was first dissolved
in a 2-methoxyethanol ((CH3)2CHOH) with
monoethanolamine (MEA:
H2 NCH2CH2OH) which was used as a
sta biliser. The molar ratio of MEA to zinc
acetate was kept to 1.0 and concentration of
zinc acetate was 0.80 moll. The resultant
solution was stirred at 60˚C for 1 h to yield a
clear and homogeneous solution ready for
coating. The coating was performed with
freshly prepared solution. The films on
ultrasonically cleaned quartz substrates were
prepared using spin-coating unit which was
rotated at 3000 rpm for 30 s. The films were
preheated (baked) at temperature 250˚C for 5
min in a furnace to evaporate the solvent and
remove organic residuals. The spin- coating
to preheating procedure was repeated tentimes. The films were then post-heated
(annealed) in air at 400˚C for three hour. The
phases of ZnO thin film were determined by
X-ray diffraction, using Panalytical
Diffractometer type PW3710 with Cu Ka
radiation ( λ = 0.154 nm). Surface
morphology was examined by the Scanning
Electron Microscope model- Carl ZEISSEVO-40. Optical transmittance was observed
sing UV-Visible double beam
spectrophotometer model, and the optical
band gap energy was cal- culated from the
data of the optical transmittance and
wavelength. The IR spectrum was recorded
using SHI- MADZU FTIR in the range of
400 cm−1
to 5000 cm−1
.Photoluminescence of the samples was
measured using a He-Cd laser as an
excitation source, operating at 325 nm with
an output power of 50 mW and
monochromatic fitted with a Hamamatsu
R928 photomultiplier detector.
Result and Discussion
X-ray Diffraction analysis
The XRD pattern of ZnO thin film fabricated
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by sol-gel method on quartz substrates is
shown in Fig 1. All the peaks of the ZnO thin
films correspond to the peaks of standard
ZnO. For all the samples, (100), (101) and
(002) diffraction peaks are observed in the
XRD pattern, showing the growth of ZnO
crystallites along different directions. Strong
preferential growth is observed along (002)
plane indicating that the films are oriented
along c-axis. The typical hexagonal wurtzite
structure of thin films is inferred from the
XRD pattern.
The crystallites sizes (D) of the films are
estimated using the Scherer formula (Znaidi
et al., 2003):
D =.
Where λ is the wave length of X-ray used at
B is the full width at half maximum peak of
XRD pattern. The average value of grain size
is found to be 20 nm.
Figure 1.XRD pattern of ZnO thin
film Surface
Morphology analysis
Surface morphology of thin films is very
important tool to investigate microstructure
of thin films. SEM micrograph of ZnO
thin films is shown in Fig 2. The growth
of unsymmetrical ZnO rod having large
surface area can be seen in SEM
micrograph. From micrograph, it is
observed that growth of small square shape
crystallites with the rod shape. Such type of
square slabs in ZnO thin films are also
observed by L. Znaidi et al. (2003).
Optical Properties
The optical transmission spectrum of theZnO thin film grown on quartz substrates is
shown in Fig 3. The average value of
transmittance of thin films in the visible
range is found to be 91% - 95%. In the
visible region of solar spectrum,
transmission spectra of ZnO thin films show
sinusoidal behaviour; this may be due to the
layered structure of thin films. The value of
Figure 2: SEM micrograph of ZnO thinfilm
band gap is es-timated from fundamental
absorption edge of the films. For the direct
transitions, the absorption coefficient is
expressed by [10]:
(αhν) = A (hν - Eg)
where A is the constant, Eg is the energy gap,
ν is the frequency of the incident radiationand h is Planck’s constant. Fig 4 shows the
plot (αhν)
1/2
2 vs. hν. The Eg val-ues of thin film
are calculated from this plot. The presence of
a single slope in the plot suggests that the
films have direct and allowed transition. The
band gap energy is obtained by extrapolating
the straight line portion of the plot to zero
absorption coefficient. The band gap value ofZnO thin film is found to be 3.24 eV.
100 nm
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Figure 3. Transmission spectrum of ZnO
thin film
Fig 4: The plots (αhν)2
FTIR Analysis
vs photon energy of
the ZnO thin film
FTIR Spectroscopy is very useful tool for
investigating vibrational properties of
synthesized materials. The band positions
and absorption peak not only depend on the
chemical composition and structure of the
thin films but on the morphology of thin
films also (Yang et al., 2009). FTIR
spectrum of ZnO thin film is shown in Fig 5.
The absorption band observed at 482 cm−1 is
attributed to the ZnO stretching vibrations.
The broad peak in the range of 3900 to 3800
cm−1 is attributed to water molecule present
in thin films. Weak peaks at 1550 cm−1 and
1665 cm−1
are attributed to symmetric and
Fig 5: FTIR spectrum of ZnO thin film.
asymmetric C=O bonds vibrations
respectively. The absorption peaks appearingat 2380 cm−1 is due to the absorption of
atmospheric CO2
Photoluminescence Spectroscopy
by metallic cation.
Photoluminescence spectrum of ZnO thin
film is shown in Fig 6. Two emission peaks
is observed in photo-luminescence spectrum.
A strong peak centred at 383 nm, near the
band edge due to free exciton emission isobserved in photoluminescence spectrum. A
weak and broad peak centred at 550 nm is
also observed in photo-luminescence
spectrum. The broad band in the re-gion of
500 - 600 nm, in photoluminescence
spectrum of ZnO thin films is related to the
amount of non-stoichiometric intrinsic
defects and the same may be due to zincvacancy in ZnO films as reported Kim et al.
(Kim et al., 2005). It is known that pure ZnO
can show green or orange visible
luminescence depending on the growth
temperature and availability of oxygen
during sample preparation. The main issue is
improving material quality, mostly ZnO
shows the ultraviolet emission with the green
emission. Visible emission in ZnO shows the
defects in material crystal structures. In this
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Fig 6: Photoluminescence spectrum of ZnO
thin film
thin film we have observed one visible band,
presence of this band due to thestochiometric defects occurs during the
synthesis of thin films.
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