-УДК 811.111(07) ББК 81.2АНГЛ-5

Г95

Гуревич В.В.

Г95 English Stylistics. Стилистика английского языка ; учеб,

пособие / В.В. Гуревич. — 3-е изд. — М.: Флинта : Наука, 2008. — 72 с. ISBN 978-5-89349-814-1 (Флинта) ISBN 978-5-02-033392-5 (Наука)

Пособие содержит лекционный раздел, описывающий разные функциональные стили, основные экспрессивные средства, и материал для практических (или семинарских) занятий по темам.

Для студентов высших учебных заведений, учащихся старших классов школ и изучающих английский язык самостоятельно.

УДК 811.111(07)

ББК 81.2АНГЛ-5

ISBN 978-5-89349-814-1 (Флинта)

ISBN 978-5-02-033392-5 (Наука) Издательство «Флинта», 2005

Part 1

On the Notions of ‘Style’ and ‘Stylistics’

In different situations of communication people use different

manners of expressing their thoughts, wliich, in the Russian

linguistic tradition, are usually called styles or functional styles

(функциональные стили), and in the linguistic tradition abroad

— registers of speech (регистры речи). Stylistics is a branch of

linguistics that studies the various functional styles of speech and

also the various expressive means and devices (экспрессивные

средства и приемы) of language. Apart from that, some

linguists apply the term ‘stylistics’ to the study of various stylistic

peculiarities of the language of works of fiction (стилистика

художественной речи).

The distinction between a lofty style and a low style of speech

(высокий и низкий стили) was put forward as far back as in the

18"' century by Michail Lomonosov. However, stylistics as a

special branch of linguistics was singled out only towards the

middle of the 20“' century. Academician V.V. Vinogradov was

among the first linguists to describe the different styles of speech

in respect to their functions (= aims). He distinguished, in

particular;

1) the colloquial style, which has the function of communicating

{функция общения)]

2) the official and scientific styles, which have the function of

informing {функция сообщения)]

3) the publicist {публицистический) and belle-lettres

{художественно-беллетристический) styles, which have

the function of producing an emotional impact {функция

эмоционального воздействия) on the listeners.

This classification undoubtedly rellects certain differences

between speech styles, although its criteria for the opposition of

functions are rather confusing. Thus, for example, the functions of

informing and communicating are present in any

style (colloquial, official, scientific, publicist, belles-lettres), as

speech always contains some information and is used for

communicating. Therefore it would probably be more precise to

say that the colloquial style is characteristic of the situation of

direct communication (when the listener/interlocutor is present

during speech), while the other, more bookish styles (official,

scientific, publicist) are used in situations of indirect

communication (without any listener/interlocutor present during

speech).

Moreover, production of emotional impact on the listener/

reader is not so much the aim of a special style of speech, but rather

the aim of publicist or fiction (belles-lettres) works, which

represent particular literary genres {жанры). It goes without

saying that such works (texts) have also the function of informing.

One more point to mention here is that the study of the language of

various works of fiction constitutes a special branch in both

linguistics and also in literature theory {литературоведение),

and that fiction works themselves generally comprise samples

{образцы) of both colloquial style (the speech of the characters)

and of bookish style (the speech of the author).

Two Types of Stylistic Information

Every style of speech brings about with it some additional

information about the conditions and peculiarities of

communication. The choice of style may depend 1) on particular

relations between the participants of communication

(interlocutors) and 2) on a particular attitude of the speaker to what

he says. These two types of stylistic information will be used

below as the basis for the classification of styles.

From this point of view, functional styles express the first

type of information, i.e. the relations between the interlocutors. In

some situations these relations may be unrestrained

{непринужденные), friendly, easy-going or intimate, and in that

case the speaker chooses the so called informal style of speech,

viz.

the colloquial style, which is a ‘lower ’ {сниженный) style of

speech, characteristic of oral communication. In other situations

the relations between the interlocutors may be restrained

{сдержанные), strictly official, etc., and then the interlocutors try

to be deliberately polite {подчеркнуто вежливыми), and they

choose the so called formal style (the lofty, bookish style), which

is generally characteristic of written language. The formal style is

used in the genres of official or business documents, of scientific

or publicist works. These genres, in their turn, may be further

subdivided into more particular varieties of genres; for example,

official documents may represent an order, instruction, resolution,

proceedings of a meeting {протокол заседания), report,

application {заявление), etc.

It is natural for speakers to try to avoid any confusion of

formal and informal styles within one text, as such a confusion

might give the wrong idea of the relations between the

interlocutors; e.g. a letter to a person of higher authority cannot

begin with words like 'Hi, how are you doing?’, which would bear

a sense of familiarity. But at the same time it is well worth

mentioning that there may be samples of speech (oral or written)

which are not clearly marked by features of any particular style,

and which can therefore be regarded as a “neutral” style, suitable

for any communicative situations.

Besides the formal and informal functional styles mentioned

above (which reflect the relations between interlocutors), there are

also stylistic characteristics of speech that reflect the attitude of the

speaker to the content of his speech. This second type of stylistic

information concerns the emotional character of speech, viz. the

presence or absence of emotional or evaluative {оценочный)

elements. In this respect we can distinguish:

1) an emotionally coloured style of speech

2) a deliberately unemotional {подчеркнуто безэмоционалъ-

ный), or “cold” style of speech

3) a neutral style of speech

Emotionally coloured speech may be characterized, on the

one hand, by a lofty emotional colouring {приподнятая

эмоциональная окраска), such as solemn {торжественная),

passionate {патетическая), ironic, wrathful {гневная), sarcastic

{саркастическая), etc., or, on the other hand, by a lower

colouring {сниженная окраска), such as jocular/humo- rous

{шутливая), derogatory {уничижительная), rude {грубая),

disapproving {неодобрительная), endearing {ласкательная),

etc.

The lofty emotional colouring is characteristic of the

publicist/oratory style, while the lower emotional colouring is

typical of colloquial style. The deliberately unemotional character

of speech is typical of the formal (‘cold’) styles, such as scientific,

official or business speech, where the speakertends to make his

speech impersonal and avoid any emotional or evaluating

elements.

Apart from the two directly opposed styles — the

emotionally coloured and the deliberately unemotional — there

may also be intermediate, stylistically neutral speech, which is

neither emotionally coloured nor deliberately devoid of emotion.

Thus, there may be samples of speech that are neutral both with

respect to the relations between the interlocutors and with respect

to the speaker’s attitude toward what he says.

Stylistic differences of any kind can be expressed by various

language means: phonetic, lexical or grammatical. One of the

most vivid means is, naturally, the choice of vocabulary.

Stylistic Characteristics of English Vocabulary

With respect to the functional styles, vocabulary can be

subdivided into bookish (literary), which is typical of formal

styles (scientific, official, business, publicist), and colloquial

vocabulary which is typical of the lower style (colloquial). In

addition, there is always present in the language a stylistically

neutral vocabulary, which can be used in all kinds of style. Cf:

child (neutral) — kid (colloq.) — infant (e.g. infant schools —

official, bookish) — offspringi^ho bookish, used in scientific

works);

father {ntvd.) — daddy (coll.) — maleparent/ancestor (formal);

leave/go away (neut.) — be off/get out/get away/get lost (coll, or

familiar- colloquial) — retire/withdraw (bookish); continue

(neutr.) — go on, carry on (coll.) — proceed (bookish, formal);

begin/start (neutr.) — get going/get started/Come o«.'(coll.) —

commence (formal);

Stylistically neutral words usually constitute the main

member in a group of synonyms, the so-called synonymic

dominant (синонимическая доминанта)', they can be used in any

style, they are not emotionally coloured and have no additional

evaluating elements; such are the words child, father, begin,

leave/go away, continue in the examples above.

Unlike neutral words (synonymic dominants), which only

denote (обозначают) a certain notion and thus have only a

denotational meaning (денотативное значение, обозначение

некоторого понятия), their stylistic synonyms usually contain

some connotations (коннотации), i.e. additional components of

meaning which express some emotional colouring or evaluation

(оценка) of the object named; these additional components may

also be simply signs of a particular functional style of speech.

Observe, for example, the following connotations:

an endearing connotation (ласкат.) — e.g. in the words kid,

daddy, mummy (as different from the neutral words child, father,

mother); derogatory (презрит. — уничижит.) connotation —

e.g. in rot, trash, stuff (as different from the neutral ‘something

worthless or silly’); jocular/humourous — e.g. in come.stibles

(=food), beak ( = nose), to kick the bucket (= to die); rude or

vulgar, e.g. in shut up/shut your trap; ironical or sarcastic —

brain-wash (= промывка мозгов), a pretty kettle offish (= an

embarrassing situation), notorious (= пресловутый; his notorious

jokes; he is notorious for his bad behaviour — “ела-

вится”, т.е. “печально известей”)', approving evaluation

{одобрительная оценка) — e.g. in the word reno'wned {a

renowned poet = прославленный; Edison is renowned for his

great inventions)', on the other hand, its synonyms like well-

known, famous are neutral in this respect (have no connotations).

It should be noted that we do not include into the stylistically

coloured vocabulary words that directly express some positive or

negative evaluation of an object — хороший, плохой, красивый,

некрасивый, прекрасный, уродливый', good, bad, pretty, ugly.

Here the evaluation expressed makes up their denotational

meaning proper (it represents the notion expressed by the word),

but not an additional connotation. Also, it is easy to notice that

words like ugly, awful, beautiful, wonderful, superb denote a high

degree of quality (negative or positive), but this component of

degree (of intensity) is again part of their denotational meaning,

not a connotation (which is understood as an additional element

accompanying the denotational meaning of a word).

As connotation proper (a special colouring), negative

evaluation is present e.g. in the word scary {a scary girl — cf. the

Russian страшненкая; both words have an ironic or derogatory

colouring) or pretty — when it is used in phrases like a pretty

boy/man (humorous, ironical or derogatory connotations; cf. also

the Russian красавчик, красотка), or a pretty state {It’s a pretty

state of affairs when I can’t afford the price of a pint of beer any

more!). That’s a pretty kettle offish (= ну и дела!)', there is ironical

connotation in the word cox-comb (literally “петушиный

хохолок”), like in the corresponding Russian word щеголь, or in a

cock of the walk {зазнайка).

There is a derogatory connotation in the words to fabricate, to

concoct {сфабриковать, выдумать), as different from the

neutral phrase ‘to create a false story’ (which expresses the

negative evaluation by the denotational meanings of the words);

there is a negative evaluative connotation in to slander

{клеветать) — as different from emotionally neutral expressions

like to distort facts {искажать факты), which again express the

idea of ‘falsification’ directly. In the sentence Don’t read this had

book the negative evaluation is expressed directly (by the

denotational meaning of the adjective bad), whereas in Don’t read

this trash the evaluation is expressed by the derogatory colouring

of the noun trash — in other words, it is present here only as a

connotation; thus, words like trash, rot, stuff (= “something

worthless, bad”) are stylistically marked {стилистически

маркированы, m.e. обладают определенной стилистической

окраской), while the word bad is stylistically unmarked

(стилистически немаркировано, нейтрально).

Apart from that, as was already mentioned above, the stylistic

connotation of a word may be just a sign of a certain functional

style to which the word belongs, without carrying any emotional

or evaluative element. Thus, sentences like She is cute (= pretty).

It is cute (= very good), It’s cool {Это круто) contain not only a

high positive evaluation (in the same way as the stylistically

neutral variants She is pretty/good-looking or It is very good), but

also a stylistic connotation which shows that they belong to the

familiar-colloquial style (фамильярно-разговорный стиль), or

even to slang. Colloquial connotations are also present in the

phrases to fix a watch (neutral — to repair a watch), to fix an

appointment for seven o’clock { = to arrange), to fix breakfast

(American — to cook breakfast). On the other hand, a bookish

connotation, or colouring (as a feature of official or scientific style

of speech) is present in expressions like to cause/to inflict bodily

injuries (neutral — to hit/to beat/to hurt), to cause/to inflict

damage (neutr. to harm/to do harm), to impose a tax/a fine (neutr.

to tax/to fine), an impoverished person (neutr. a poor person),

highly improbable (neutr. very unlikely), etc.

A rude (vulgar) connotation is present in vulgarisms, or taboo

words, which are not to be used in the speech of educated people

and are therefore often replaced by euphemisms (эвфемизмы) —

the more ‘gentle’ names of the object. Thus, the word ‘devil’ is, for

many people, unacceptable in speech and

may be replaced by phrases like ‘the evil one’, ‘the fallen angel’,

‘the Prince of darkness’, ‘Lucifer’, ‘Mephistopheles’. The same

concerns expletives (curse-words, бранная лексика)', damn,

damned are often replaced by the euphemistic darn, darned,

dashed', bloody is sometimes replaced by blooming, blasted,

blessed, etc.

Some Characteristics of English That Are Close

to Stylistic Ones

a) Territorial Varieties of English

With respect to the accepted literary norm (standard) of the

language, we distinguish Standard (Received) English (the

variant that is fixed in the written language, in works of fiction, in

radio and TV speech, etc.), and non-standard English (не

входящий в литературную норму), which is represented by

dialects and variants of the language found in the different

geographical areas where English is used. To the dialects are

usually referred the non-standard varieties of English used on the

territory of Great Britain, while the word variants {varieties) refers

to the use of English outside this territory, e.g. the English

language of the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zeeland, etc.

English dialects are divided into northern (including the

Scottish dialect) and southern (including ‘cockney’, the dialect of

the area south of London).

The Scottish dialect comes back to the Gaelic language

{гаэльский язык), a language of Celtic origin {кельтский) and to

the Scottish (Scots) language (one of the Germanic languages); cf.

such words used by speakers of English in the area of Scotland as

bairn {=child), auld (= old), ben {= mountain), bonnie ( =

beautiful), canny { — careful), brae (= slope, bank), haggis { =

pudding), ilka { = eveiy), keek { = look), kirk (= church), laddie,

lassie (= boy, girl), loch {= lake). The pronunciation of Scottish

dialectal words may also have some peculiarities, e.g. [u: | instead

of [au], e.g. liunsj (= house), [u:tj (= out), [du:n] (= down); |ai]

instead of [ouj — e.g. [stain] (= stone), [bain] (= bone), [raid] (=

road), etc.; long |ae| instead of long |a:j in certain

words, e.g. |daens| {- dance), llaest) (= last); the consonant |r] is

produced by vibration of the tip of the tongue. The poet Robert

Burns wrote in the Scottish dialect.

The Southern dialect of English is phonetically characterized

by the dental-nasal [n] instead of the purely nasal [ng] {He is

doin/siftin’, instead of‘doing’, ‘sitting’); by the loss of the

consonant [h] in the initial position: [ia] (=hear), [a:t] (= heart), etc.

Elements of this dialect can be observed in the speech of the

characters in the novels of Thomas Hardy (19"’ century English

classical writer).

The Irish dialect of English is spread in Northern Ireland,

which is part of the UK. It is not the Irish language itself (which is

of Celtic origin and is spoken in the Irish Republic — in the

southern part of the island), but a variety of English, which

includes: Irish words: girsha (= little girl), gaurlagh (= baby),

colleen (= young girl), donny { = of weak health), cardia { =

friendship)-, also — English words with a changed meaning: likely

i=good), bravely { = very well), to join ( = to cry), able {=strong),

harvest { = autumn), to learn smb. (= to teach).

Variants of English used outside the territory of Great Britain

are found in the former British colonies. One of the most notable

and widespread is the American variant, which has preserved some

of the features of the English language of the 17"’ century (the

period of Early New English — the language used by the first

British settlers in America). It has certain peculiarities of

pronunciation, which include: the pronunciation of the sound [r ] in

any position in the word {girl, here) and the retroflexive

articulation of this sound (as different from its alveolar articulation

in British English); the substitution of the vowel |ae | for the long

|a:| in ask, last, after, grass, laugh, chance, etc. (as in the Scottish

dialect); pronunciation of the back lower variant of the vowel |a]

instead of [o | in words like hot, pot, stop, cop, college, etc.; the loss

of |j| before the vowel |ul after some consonants: cf [su:t] for.vw/Y,

|nu:] for new, |tu:n| for tune, |duti| for duty, the use of the dark

variant of the consonant |fj in all positions; the voicing of some

voiceless consonants in

1 1

intervocal position {better, letter, closer)-, a slight nasalisation of

vowels before or after nasal consonants {can’t, stand).

There are also differences in vocabulary, e.g./u//(British —

autumn), guess { = think), baggage { = luggage), drug{ =

medicine), store (= shop), can {= tin), elevator (= lift), hardware (

= ironmongeiy), grades {=marks), mail{= post), bill{ —banknote),

to pay a check { = to pay a bill), gas {=petrol), hog {=pig), to line

(= to queue up), movies { = pictures, cinema film), stocks ( =

shares), information desk {= enquiry-office), sidewalk { =

pavement), carousal [karu’sel] { = merry-go-round), vacation { =

holiday), class {= form', the boy is now in his first class at school),

closet (= cupboard), candy (= sweets), sick {= ill), ten minutes

after five (= past five), etc. As for grammar forms, American

English uses gotten instead of got, and the future auxiliary will

with all the persons. It also prefers simplified variants of spelling:

color {=colour), favorite {= favourite), theater {=theatre), center

{=centre), telegram (= telegramme), etc.

b) English Vocabulary in the Aspect of Time

Besides the vocabulary that is in current (present-day) use, we

also find archaic or obsolete {устарелые) words, which belong to

some previous stage of language development but can still be

found in works of fiction (especially in the works of Shakespeare,

Chaucer, Swift or other classical authors). Cf the archaic words

Behold! {= Look.), Hark! {= Listen.), methinks { = I think). Nay

{—no). Wither are you going? {= Where are you going to 7),

hither and thither { = here and there), thou/to thee { = you/to you),

whilst (= while), awhile {=for some time), yon { — this, that),

yonder { = there), etc.

Archaic words are frequently used in poetry and thus belong

also to poetic vocabulary (potic diction): cf quoth { = said), woe {=

sorrow), swain {= shepherd), foe {= enemy), steed/charger (=

horse), realm { = kingdom), nought/naught { = nothing), ere (=

before), albeit {= although)', here also belong certain shortened

variants of the currently used words, e.g.oft{ — often), eve { =

evening), morn { = morning), etc.

1 2

The vocabulary that has gone out of use also includes the so

called ‘historisms’ {историзмы) — words which reflect some

phenomena belonging to the past times, e.g. knight {рыцарь),

yeomen {йомены, independent peasants in old England), archer

(лучник), sling (праща), ram (таран); cf. also Russian historisms

like городничий, городовой, бояре.

On the other hand, we can also find in English vocabulary the

so-called ‘neologisms’, i.e. words that have recently come into the

language and are still felt as rather new: allergy, computer,

astronaut, isotope, quasar, laser, aliens, supermarket,

chain-stores, bikini, mini/maxi/midi (of clothes), paperbacks, etc.

Comparatively new borrowings from other languages, which

are not yet completely assimilated in the language (phonetically or

grammatically), are stylistically marked as ‘foreign’ words

(sometimes, as barbarisms); they usually belong to a lofty

(bookish) style: e.g. protege, a propos, bonjour, idee fixe, chic {=

of very good taste, fashionable), alter ego (= one’s second self), de

facto {= in point of fact), status quo (= the existing state of things),

ibid/ibidem {= by the same author), etc., viz. (= videlicet)

(namely).

Part 2

Functional Styles of Speech in Greater Detail

The Colloquial Style

This is the style of informal, friendly oral communication.

The vocabulary of colloquial style is usually lower than that of the

formal or neutral styles, it is often emotionally coloured and

characterized by connotations (cf. the endearing connotation in the

words daddy, kid or the evaluating components in 'trash’, etc. in

the examples of connotations above).

Colloquial speech is characterized by the frequent use of

words with a broad meaning (широкозначные слова): speakers

13 -3608

tend to use a small group of words in quite different meanings,

whereas in a formal style (official, business, scientific) every word

is to be used in a specific and clear meaning. Compare the different

uses of the verb “get”, which frequently replaces in oral colloquial

speech its more specific synonyms;

I got ( = received) a letter today. Where did you get (= day)

those shoes?', We don’tget { = have) much rain here in summer, I

got (= caught) flu’ last month'. We got (= took) the six-o'clock train

from London', I got into {^entered) the house easily. Where has my

pen got to (= disappearech) ?', We got (= arrived) home late'. Get

(=put) your hat on!', I can ’tget (=fit) into my old jeans'. Get (=

throw) the cat out of the house!'. I’ll get { = punish) you, just you

wait!'. We got {=passed) through the customs without any

checking'. I’ve got up to {= reached) the last chapter of the book', I

’ll get (= fetch) the children from school'. It’s getting (= becoming)

dark'. He got (= waj) robbed in the street at night', I got (= caused)

him to help me with the work', I got the radio working at last{ =

brought it to the state of working)'. Will you get give, bring) the

children their supper tonight?', I didn’t get hear) what you said'.

You got (= understood) my answer wrong', I wanted to speak to the

director, but only got (= managed to speak) to his secretary. Will

you get (= answer) the phone?'. Can you get (= tune in) to London

on your radio ?

There are phrases and constructions typical of colloquial type:

What’s up?{= What has happened)', so-so { = not especially

good)', nothing much/nothing to write home about (= nothing of

importance); How are you doing? (= How are things with you?)'.

Sorry ? Pardon ?(= Please, repeat, I didn’t hear you); Not to

wony! (= there is nothing to wony about)'. No problem! { = This

can easily be done)'. See you (= Good-bye)', Me too/neither {=

So/neither do I), etc.

In grammar there may be: a) the use of shortened variants of

word-forms, e.g. isn’t, can’t, there’s ; I’d say ; he’d’ve done (=

would have done)', Yaa (= Yes)', b) the use of elliptical

(incomplete) sentences — / did', {Where’s he?) — At home'. Like

it? (= Do you/Did you like it?) — Not too much (= / don’t like it

14

too much)', {Shall / open it?) — Don’t /; May I? { = May / ask a

quest ion/do this?).

The syntax of colloquial speech is also characterized by the

preferable use of simple sentences or by asyndetic connection (=

absence of conjunctions, бессоюзная связь) between the parts of

composite sentences or between separate sentences. Complex

constructions with non-fmite forms are rarely used. Note the

neutral style in the following extract:

When 1 saw him there, 1 asked him, ‘Where are you going?’,

but he started running away from me. 1 followed him. When he

turned round the corner, I also turned round it after him, but then

noticed that he was not there. 1 could not imagine where he was...

and the possible more colloquial version of the same.-

I saw him there, / say ‘Where’ye going?’ He runs off, I run

after him. He turns the corner, me too. He isn’t there. Where’s he

now? lean’t think.... (note also the rather frequent change from the

Past tense to the Present, in addition to the absence of conjunctions

or other syntactic means of connection).

Familiar-Colloquial Style and Slang

(фамильярно-разговорный стиль, жаргоны)

Besides the standard, literary-colloquial (нормативная

литературно-разговорная) speech, there is also a nonstandard (or

substandard) style of speech, mostly represented by a special

vocabulary. Such is the familiar-colloquial style (a ‘lower’

variant of colloquial style) used in very free, friendly, informal

situations of communication (between close friends, members of

one family, etc.). Here we find emotionally coloured words,

low-colloquial vocabulary {просторечная лексика) and slang

words. This style admits also of the use of rude and vulgar

vocabulary, including expletives/obscene words/four-letter

words/sweawords {бранная лексика).

See some examples of familiar-colloquial/low-colloquial

words (also called ‘slang’):

15 3*

Rot/trash/stuff (= smth. bad)\ the cat’s pyjamas { = just the

right/suitable thing)', bread-basket (= stomach)', grass/pot ( =

marijuana, narcotic drugs)', tipsy/underthe influence {affluence)/

under the table/has had a drop (—drunk)', cute/great! (Am) (=veiy

good)', wet blanket (=uninteresting person)', hot stuff! (smth.

extremely good)'. You’re damn right! { — quite right)'. Where are

those darned/damned socks? What the hell do you want?

The term slang is used in a very broad and vague sense.

Besides denoting low-colloquial (familiar-colloquial) words, it is

also used to denote special social jargons/cants, i.e. words

typically used by particular social groups to show that the speaker

belongs to this group, as different from other people. Originally

jargons were used to preseiwe secrecy within the social group, to

make speech incomprehensible to others — such is the thieves’

jargon/cant. There is also teenagers’ slang/jargon, school slang,

army slang, prison slang, etc. See examples of American army

slang: to take felt {= to retire from the army, literally — 0 / 7 a

felt hat)', fly boy {=pilot)', coffin {= unreliable aeroplane)',

Molotov cocktail { = bottles with explosive materials)'.

But often words from a particular jargon spread outside its

social group and become general slang. See examples of general

British slang: crackers {= crazy), the year dot { = long ago), drip

{= uninteresting person without a character), get the hump ( = get

angry), mac { = Scotsman), mug{=fool), nipper {=young child),

ratted {= drunk), snout (= tobacco).

Some examples of general American slang: buddy {= fellow),

buck {= dollar), cabbage { = money), john ( = lavatory), jerk ( =

stupid person), juice (= wine); joker (= man); glued (=arrested);

give smb. wings (= teach to use drugs)', stag party {=

мальчишник)', top dog { = boss)', like a million dollars { = very

good)', to nip { = steal), smash (= a drink).

There is also professional slang/jargon, i.e. words which are

used by people in their professional activity: tin-fish ( =

submarine)', block-buster { = a bomb- in militaiy use, or a very

successfulfilm — in show business); piper (= a specialist

decorating

16

cakes with cream and using a pipe); see also some professional

slang words for a ‘blow’ in boxing: an outer (= a knock-out blow),

a right-hander (=one made with the right hand); an uppercut

(апперкот); a clinch (position of boxing very close, with body

pressed to body).

The Formal (Lofty, Bookish) Style

(высокий, книжный стиль)

A formal (lofty, bookish) style is required in situations of

official or restrained relations between the interlocutors, who try to

avoid any personal and emotional colouring or familiarity, and at

the same time to achieve clarity of expression (to avoid any

ambiguity and misunderstanding). This style is used in various

genres of speech, such as in official (legal, diplomatic, etc.)

documents, scientific works, publicist works or public speeches,

etc.

The Style of Official

or Business Documents

Official (legal, diplomatic, etc.) and business documents are

written in a formal, ‘cold’ or matter-of-fact style of speech, which

requires the choice of a special kind of vocabulary, grammar forms

and structures. Such documents often require the use of special

formulas of politeness and cliches, e.g. I beg to inform you] I beg to

move] I second the motion] the items on the agenda, the

above-mentioned, hereinafter named] on behalf of] Dear Sir] IVe

remain respectfully yours, etc. Official documents are frequently

characterized by the use of abbreviations or conventional

symbols.- MP (Member of Parliament), Gvt {government). Ltd

(company of limited liability), Co {company)] ad {advertisement)]

AD {Anno Domini = since Christ’s birth)] BC {before Christ’s

birth)] USA] UK] $ {dollar)] Lb. {pound), etc.

Official or business documents may require special patterns;

see the structure of a business letter below

17

Domby and Co.

24 South Street

Manchester 7"' February,

1985 (the address of the

sender)

Mr. John Smith

19 Green Street

London

(the address of the party addressed)

Dear Sir,

We beg to inform you of a plausible opportunity of concluding an

agreement on the issue on the following terms ... Respectfully

yours,

Domby and Co.

The syntax of official or business style is characterized by the

frequent use of non-fmite forms — gerund, participle, infinitive

{Considering that...', in order to achieve cooperation in solving the

problems), and complex structures with them, such as the Complex

Object (We expect this to take place). Complex Subject {This is

expected to take place), the Absolute Participial Construction (The

conditions being violated, it appears necessary to state that...).

The vocabulary is characterized by the use of special

terminology {memorandum', pact, the high contracting parties', to

ratify an agreement, extra-territorial status', plenipotential

representative', proceedings, protocol, the principles laid do'wn in

the document, etc.) and generally by the choice of lofty (bookish)

words and phrases: plausible {= possible)', to inform { = to tell)', to

assist {to help), to cooperate {= to work together), to be

determined/resolved { = to wish)', the succeeding clauses of the

agreement {= нижеследующие статьи договора), to reaffirm

faith in fundamental principles', to establish the required

conditions', the obligations arising from treaties and other sources

of international law, to promote { = to develop) and secure (= to

make stable) social progress', with the following objectives/ends

{=for these purposes).

18

The Style of Scientific Works

The genre of scientific works exists for the most part within

the bounds of the written form of language (scientific articles,

monographs or textbooks), but it may also manifest itself in its oral

form (in scientific reports, lectures, discussions at conferences,

etc.); in the latter case this style already has some features of

colloquial speech.

The aim of scientific speech is to present precise information,

therefore it requires the use of special terminology which does not

admit of polysemy or of figurative meanings, of emotional

connotations (all of which is typical of colloquial and publicist

styles). The author of scientific works tends to sound impersonal,

hence the use of the pronoun “WE” instead of“I”, of impersonal

constructions, ofthe Passive Voice (which allows the author not to

mention himself or any other subjective participants of the events

described).

The syntax of scientific speech is characterized by the use of

complete (non-elliptical) sentences (unlike the syntax of colloquial

speech), the use of extended complex and compound sentences

without omission of conjunctions, as these connectors enable the

author to express the relations between the parts more precisely (as

different from the asyndetic connection typical of colloquial

speech); the use of bookish syntactic constructions, such as

complexes with non-finite forms of the verb; the use of extended

attributive phrases, often with a number of nouns used as attributes

to the following head-noun (Noun + Noun construction). See some

examples of grammar structures typical of scientific language:

- Noun + Noun constructions:

the sea level', the time and space relativity theoiy, the World

peace conference', a high level consensus', the greenhouse effect

{парниковый)', carbon dioxide emissions {эмиссия двуокиси

углерода)', fossil fuel burning {сжигание ископаемых горючих

веществ)', deforestation problems {= problems related to the

disappearance afforests on the earth).

Passive Voice constructions;

Water is not the sole variety of substance from which oxygen

can be obtained'. Methane is produced by leaks from gas pipelines.

Bookish syntactic structures:

The compound type of predicate: These gases are easy to

control but they are persistent once emitted (= It is easy to control

these gases, but it is hard to stop them when they come out)',

Deforestation is probably even harder to change {= It Is even

harder to change the situation when forests begin to disappear).

The use of abstract nouns, gerundial, participial or infinitive

phrases and complexes instead of the much simpler clauses with

conjunctions; Apart from this, controlling emissions of greenhouse

gases would require huge increase in energy efficiency (= Besides,

if we want to control the gases which come out when the air

becomes warmer, we shall have to produce much more energy);

Agreement to implement such huge projects would require

overcoming differences between countries (= If we want to agree

to carry out such big projects, we shall have to change the situation

when every country is different from another); The measures

suggested are worth considering/require careful consideration (=

It is necessary to think about the measures that we have suggested);

Our planet is known to have been hot once and to have grown

cooler in the course of time (= We know that once it was hot and

then grew cooler).

Special emphatic constructions to lay a logical stress on some

part of the sentence; It is not solely from water that oxygen is to be

obtained (= we can get oxygen not only from water). It is on these

terms that the UN would be prepared to intervene into the conflict

(= The UN will intervene only on these terms).

Publicist (Oratory) Style

This is a style used in public speeches and printed publicist

works, which are addressed to a broad audience and devoted to

important social or political events, public problems of cultural or

moral character. Such communication requires clarity in the

presentation of ideas, its aim is to convince the readers/listeners

20

ol'the truth of the ideas expressed, and at the same time to produce

an emotional impact (impression) on the audience. Thus the main

features of this style are clear logical argumentation and emotional

appeal to the audience. In this way the publicist style has features

in common not only with the style of official or scientific works,

on the one hand, but also with some elements of emotionally

coloured colloquial style, on the other hand. Indeed, in this case

the author has no need to make his speech impersonal (as in

scientific or official style) — on the contrary, he tries to

approximate his text to lively communication, as though he were

talking to people in direct contact. Accordingly, the publicist style

is characterized by the use of logically connected syntactic

structures in their full form,

i. e. complete extended sentences connected by conjunctions

clearly showing the relations expressed, but at the same time, an

emotional impact is achieved by the use of emotionally coloured

vocabulary, just as in belles-lettres style (the style of fiction works)

and in colloquial style.

Publicist (oratory) style requires eloquence (красноречие),

and such works are often ornamented with stylistic devices and

figures of speech (see Part 3). Some authors of publicist works

may prefer verbosity {многословие), others — brevity of

expression, often resembling epigrams.

There are various genres in which the publicist style is

employed, such as public speeches, essays, pamphlets, articles

published in newspapers or magazines, radio and TV

commentaries, etc.

The oral variant of publicist style — the oratory style proper

(which is used in speeches and mass media commentaries), is

especially close to spoken language in its emotional aspect. It is

aimed at logical and emotional persuasion of the audience. As

there is direct contact with the audience, it allows the speaker to

combine effects of written and spoken varieties of language. For

example, the author can use direct address (the pronoun of the

second person “You”), and often begins his speech with special

formulas of address to the audience; Ladies and

,,-3608

21

Gentlemen! Му Lordsl (in the House of Lords); Mr. Chairman-,

Highly esteemed members of the conference!', or, in a less formal

situation — Dear Friends', or, with a more passionate colouring —

My friends!

As the speaker/author attempts to reach closer contact with

the audience, he may use such devices as asking the audience

questions:

Sometimes it is said that man cannot be trusted with the

government of himself. Can he, then, be trusted with the

government of others ? Or have we found angels in the forms of

kings to govern him?(Th. Jefferson)

or making an appeal to the audience:

Let us then, with courage and confidence, pursue our own

federal and republican principles! {ibid.).

On the other hand, as different from colloquial style, the

vocabulary of speeches and printed publicist works is usually very

elaborately chosen and remains mainly in the sphere of lofty

(high-flown) style. See examples below:

a) Friends and Fellow Citizens:

Called upon to undertake the duties of the first executive

office of our country, I avail myself of the presence of that

portion of my fellow citizens which is here assembled, to

express my grateful thanks for the favor with which they have

been pleased to look toward me, to declare a sincere

consciousness that the task is above my talents, and that I

approach it with those anxious and awful presentiments

which the greatness of the charge and the weakness of my

powers so justly inspire (Th. Jefferson. First Inaugural

Speech)

b) The method which Mr. Burke takes to prove that the people of

England had no such rights, and that such rights do not now

exist in the nation ... is of the same marvellous and monstrous

kind with what he has already said', for his arguments are,

that the persons, or the generations of persons, in whom they

did exist, are dead, and with them the right is dead also. (Th.

Paine. Rights of Man)

22

Like colloquial style, the publicist style is usually

characterized by emotional colouring and connotations, but there

is a difference. The emotional colouring of publicist style is lofty:

it may be solemn (as in example a) above), or it may be

ironic/sarcastic (as in example b)), but it cannot have the “lower”

connotations (jocular, endearing, rude or vulgar, slangy) found in

colloquial/familiar colloquial speech.

The syntax of publicist style is often characterised by

repetition of structures (syntactic parallelism) — a device used to

rouse the audience emotionally:

It is high time this people had recovered from the passions of

war. It is high time that the people of the North and the South

understood each other and adopted means to inspire confidence in

each other (from a public speech made at the end of the Civil War

in the USA).

What do we see on the horizon? What forces are at work?

Wither are we drifting? Under what mist of clouds does the future

stand obscured? (from Lord Byron’s speech in Parliament)

Syntactic repetition may be combined with lexical repetition

(periphrasis):

Robert Burns exalted our race and the Scottish tongue. Before

his time we had for a long period been scarcely recognised’, we

had been falling out of the recollection of the world ... Scotland

had lapsed into obscurity ... Her existence was almost forgotten

(all those different phrases simply repeat the idea “nobody knew

us, Scots, before”).

Some Particular Genres of Publicist Style

The Essay

This genre in English literature dates from the 16"’ century,

and its name is taken from the short “Essays” (= experiments,

attempts) by the French writer Montaigne, which contained his

thoughts on various subjects. An essay is a literary composition of

moderate length on philosophical, social or literary subjects, which

preserves a clearly personal character and has no pretence to deep

or strictly scientific treatment of

23 4*

the subject. It is rather a number of comments, without any definite

conclusions. See an extract from Ben Johnson (16"' century):

Language most shows a mair, speak, that I may see thee. It

springs of the most retired and in most parts of us, and is- the

image of the parent of it, the mind. No glass renders a man ’5 form

or likeness so true, as his speech, and, as we consider feature and

composition in a man, so words in language. Some men are tall

and big, so some language is high and great. Then the words are

chosen, the sound ample, the composition full, all grace, sinewy

(жилистый) and strong. Some are little and dwarfs', so of speech,

it is humble and low, the words are poor and flat', the members are

periods thin and weak, without knitting (связь) or number.

Nowadays an essay is usually a kind of feature article

(тематическая статья) in a magazine or newspaper. It is

characterized by clarity and brevity of expression, by the use of the

first person singular, by expanded use of connecting words (to

express clearly all the logical relations in the development of

thought), and abundant use of emotionally coloured words, of

metaphors and other figures of speech.

Newspaper Speech

English newspaper writing dates from the 17"' century. First

newspapers carried only news, without comments, as commenting

was considered to be against the principles of journalism. By the

19"’ century newspaper language was recognised as a particular

variety of style, characterized by a specific communicative

purpose and its own system of language means.

The content of newspaper material is fairly diverse, it

comprises news and commentary on the news, press reports and

articles, advertisements and official announcements, as well as

short stories and poems, crossword puzzles and other such like

material for entertainment of the reader.

24

Newspaper style includes a system of interrelated lexical,

phraseological and grammatical means seiwing the purpose of

informing, instructing and, in addition, of entertaining the reader.

As a result of this diversity of purposes, newspapers contain not

only strictly informational, but also evaluative material —

comments and views of the news-writer (esecially characteristic of

editorials and feature articles).

As the newspaper seeks to influence public opinion on

various social, political or moral matters, its language frequently

contains vocabulary with evaluative connotation, such as to allege

{the person who allegedly committed the crime), or to claim {the

defendant claims to know nothing about it), which cast some doubt

on what is stated further and make it clear to the reader that those

are not yet affirmed facts. A similar idea is expressed by special

grammar structures, e.g. The man is said to have taken part in the

affair, or The chief of the police is quoted as saying... Evaluation

can be included in the headlines of news items {Government going

back on its own promises) and in the commentary on the news, in

feature articles, in leading articles (editorials), where emotionally

coloured vocabulary is widely employed. The characteristics

mentioned are common to different genres of publicist style.

Nevertheless, the informative content generally prevails in

newspaper material as compared with purely publicist or oratory

works.

On the whole we may single out the following features

typical of newspaper style:

in vocabulary — the use of special political or economic

terminology {constitutional, election, General Assembly of the

UN, gross output, per capita production):

the use of lofty, bookish vocabulary, including certain cliches

{population, public opinion, a nation-wide crisis, crucial/pressing

problems, representative voting), which may be based on

metaphors and thus emotionally coloured; war hysteria, escalation

of war, overwhelming majority, stormy applause/a storm of

applause, captains of industry, pillars of society {столпы), the

bulwark of civilization {оплот', букв, бастион).

25

frequent use of abbreviations — names of organizations,

political movements, etc.: UN {United Nations Organization),

NATO {North Atlantic Treaty Organization), EEC {European

Economic Community), UK {The United Kingdom of Great Britain

and Northern Ireland), FO {Foreign Office), PM {Prime-

minister), MP {member of Parliament), etc.

the use of neologisms, since newspapers quickly react to any

new trends in the development of society, technology, science and

so on: sputnik, a teach-in {the form of campaigning through heated

political discussions), black Americans/Afro- Americans (=

Negroes), Latin Americans {emigrants frbm South America),

front-lash {a vigorous anti-racist movement), stop-go politics {=

indecisive policies), a shock announcement, to work flat out { = to

work very hard), a frosty reception.

in grammar — the use of complete simple sentences, of

complex and compound sentences, often extended by a number of

clauses:

The Secretary to the Treasury said he had been asked what

was meant by the statement in the Speech that the position of war

pensioners would be kept under close review.

On the other hand, in newspaper headlines we find elliptical

sentences, with the finite verb omitted or replaced by a non- finite

form, and the grammatical articles also often omitted: Price rise

expected {=A rise in prices is expected)'. Witnesses silent in court

{— The witnesses are silent during the court trial)'. Prime Minister

on new tax {= What the Prime Minister said about the new tax).

Parts

Expressive Means of Language

(Stylistic Devices)

As expressive means, language uses various stylistic devices

which make use either of the meaning or of the structure of

language units.

26

STYLISTIC DEVICES MAKING USE OF THE MEANING

OF LANGUAGE UNITS (FIGURES OF SPEECH)

The term Figures of speech (фигуры речи, тропы, образные

средства) is frequently used for stylistic devices that make use of a

figurative meaning of the language elements and thus create a

vivid image (образ).

Metaphor (метафора)

Metaphor denotes a transference of meaning based on

resemblance (перенос, основанный на сходстве), in other words,

on a covert (скрытое) comparison:

He is not a man, he is just a machine', What an ass you are!',

the childhood of mankind', the dogs of war, a fdm star.

Not only objects can be compared in a metaphor, but also

phenomena, actions or qualities: Some books are to be tasted,

others swallowed, andsomefew to chewed and digested (V.

Bacon); pitiless cold', cruel heat, virgin soil', a treacherous calm.

Metaphors may be simple, when expressed by a word or

phrase (Man cannot live by bread alone = by things satisfying only

his physical needs), and complex (prolonged, or sustained,

сложная метафора), when a broader context is required to

understand it, or when the metaphor includes more than one

element of the text; cf. the metaphoric representation of a city as a

powerful and dangerous machine in the example below: The

average New Yorker is caught in a machine. He whirls along, he is

dizzy, he is helpless. If he resists, the machine will crush him to

pieces. (W. Frank)

... the scene of man,

A mighty maze, but not without a plan',

A wild, where weeds and flowers promiscuous shoot',

A garden tempting with forbidden fruit. ...(A. Pope)

A trite metaphor (стершаяся метафора) is one that is

overused in speech, so that it has lost its freshness of expression.

Such metaphors often turn into idiomatic phrases (phraseological

expressions) that are fixed in dictionaries: seeds

27

of evil, a rooted prejudice, a flight of imagination, in the heat of

argument, to burn with desire, to fish for compliments, to prick

one’s ears

Simile (сравнение)

This is a comparison creating a vivid image due to the fact

that the object with which we compare is well-known as an

example of the quality in question. The characteristic itself may be

named in the simile, e.g. when the conjunction “as” is used; (as)

beautiful as a rose', stupid as an ass', stubborn as a mule', fresh as

a rose', fat as a pig', white as snow, proud as a peacock', drunk as

a lord. Such similes often turn into cliches. In some idiomatic

similes the image is already impossible to distinguish: as dead as a

doornail, as thick as thieves.

The characteristic on the basis of which the comparison is

made, may only be implied, not named, as when the preposition

“like” is used.- to drink like a fish (=very much)'.

Oh, my love is like a red, red rose

That’s newly sprung in June. (Bums);

Rise like lions after slumber, in unvanquishible

number, Shake your chains to earth, like dew That in

sleep had fallen on you.

We are many, they are few. (Shelly).

Similes may contain no special connector expressing

comparison, as in.- She climbed with the quickness of a cat'. He

reminded me of a hungry cat.

Comparative constructions are not regarded as simile if no

image is created, viz., when the object with which something is

compared, is not accepted as a generally known example of the

quality.- John skates as beautifully as Kate does'. She Is not so

clever as her brother, John is very much like his brother.

Note that, unlike a simile, a metaphor contains a covert (not

expressed openly) comparison, which is already included in the

figurative meaning of a word: cf. a metaphor in What an ass he

/Т'with the simile He is stupid as an ass. Metaphors are usually

more expressive and more emotionally coloured

2«

than similes just because they do not express the comparison

openly.

Metonymy (метонимия)

Metonymy denotes a transference of meaning which is based

on contiguity of notions {перенос, основанный на смежности

понятий, явлений), not on resemblance. In cases of metonymy,

the name of one object is used instead of another, closely

connected with it. This may include:

1. The name of a part instead of the name of a whole

(synecdoche, синекдоха):

Washington and London (= USA and UK) agree on most

issues; He was followed into the room by a pair of heavy boots (=

by a man in heavy boots); cf the Russian: “Да, да ”, ответили

рыжие панталоны {Чехов). In а similar way, the word crown {to

fight for the crown) may denote “the royal power/the king”; the

word colours in the phrase to defend the colours of a school

denotes the organization itself

2. The name of a container instead of the contents;

He drank a whole glass of whiskey { = drank the liquid

contained in a glass). This is such a frequent type of transference

of meaning in the language system that in many cases (like the

latter example), it is not perceived as a stylistic device.

Sometimes, however, the stylistic use of this change of meaning

can be still felt, and then it is perceived as a figure of speech: The

whole town was out in the streets {=the people of the town).

3. The name of a characteristic feature of an object instead of

the object:

The ma.ssacre of the innocents { = children; this biblical

phrase is related to the killing of Jewish male children by King

Hemd in Bethlehem).

4. The name of an instrument instead of an action or the doer

of an action:

All they that take the sword, shall perish with the sword (=

war, fighting).

29 c-3608

Let us turn swords into ploughs (=Let us replace fighting by

peaceful work; Перекуем мечи на орала).

Zeugma (зевгма, каламбур)

This is а stylistic device that plays upon two different

meanings of the word — the direct and the figurative meanings, thus creating a pun {игра слов). The effect comes from the use of a word in the same formal (grammatical) relations, but in different semantic relations with the surrounding words in the phrase or sentence, due to the simultaneous realization (in one text) of the literal and figurative meaning of a word;

A leopard changes his spots, as often as he goes from one spot to another {spot = 1. пятно; 2. место).

Dora plunged at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room. (Shaw)

She possessed two false teeth and a sympathetic heart. (O. Henry)

She dropped a tear and her pocket handkerchief. (Dickens) At noon Mrs. Turpin would get out of bed and humor, put on

kimono, airs, and water to boil for coffee. (O. Henry) The title of O. Wilde’s comedy The importance of being

Earnest plays upon the fact that the word earnest {= serious) and the male name Ernest sound in the same way: one of the female

characters in the play wished to marry a man with the name of Ernest, as it seemed to her to guarantee his serious intentions.

A similar effect may result from the decomposition of a set-

phrase, when the direct and figurative meanings of the words within the set-phrase are realised at the same time;

May’s mother always stood on her gentility, and Dot’s

mother never stood on anything but her active little feet. (Dickens) ‘ When Bishop Berkley said: ‘there is no matter’

And proved it — it was no matter what he said’. (Byron) One of the characters of L. Carrol’s book ‘Alice in

Wonderland’ is called Mock Turtle {Фальшивая черепаха)’, this name has been coined from the phrase “mock turtle soup” {суп из

телятины, дословно — «как бы черепаший суп»).

30

One more example of zeugma (or deconaposition of a set-

phrase) is represented in the humorous story about two duellists

who fired al each other and both missed, so when one of the

seconds said, after the duel, ‘Now, please, shake your hands!’, the

other answered ‘There is no need for that. Their hands must have

been shaking since morning’.

Oxymoron (оксюморон)

This is a device which combines, in one phrase, two words

(usually: noun + adjective) whose meanings are opposite and

incompatible {несовместимы):

a living corpse] sweet sorrow] a nice rascal] awfully

{terribly) nice] a deafening silence] a low skyscraper.

Hyperbole and Litotes

These are stylistic devices aimed at intensification of

meaning. Hyperbole {гипербола, преувеличение) denotes a deliberate extreme exaggeration of the quality of the object: He was so tall that I was not sure he had a face. {0. Henry)] All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. (Shakespeare); a car as big as a house] the man-mountain {человек-гора, Гулливер)] a thousand pardons] I’ve told you a

million times] He was scared to death] I’d give anything to see it. Litotes (understatement; литота, преуменьшение) is a

device based on a peculiar use of negative constructions in the positive meaning, so that, on the face of it, the quality seems to be underestimated (diminished), but in fact it is shown as something very positive or intensified: Not bad {= very good)] He is no

coward (= very brave)] It was no easy task (= veiy difficult)] There are not a few people who think so{ = very many)] I was not a little surprised (= very much surprised)] It was done not without taste {= in very good taste).

Epithet (эпитет)

This is a word or phrase containing an expressive

characteristic of the object, based on some metaphor and thus

31 5*

creating an image:

О dreamy, gloomy, friendly trees! (Trench)

Note that in phrases like an iron {silver) spoon, the adjective

is Just a grammatical attribute to noun, not an epithet, as no

figurative meaning is implied; on the other hand, in a man of iron

will the adjective is already an epithet, as this is an expressive

description, based on covert comparison (metaphor).

An epithet may be used in the sentence as an attribute: a

silvery laugh', a thrillingstory/film', Alexander the Great, a cutting

smile {насмешливая, едкая), or as an adverbial modifier: to smile

cuttingly. It may also be expressed by a syntactic construction (a

syntactic epithet): Just a ghost of a smile appeared on his face', she

is a doll of a baby, a little man with a Say-nothing-to-me, or — I’ll-

contradict- you expression on his face.

Fixed epithets {устойчивые) are often found in folklore: my

true love', a sweet heart, the green wood', a dark forest, brave

cavaliers', meny old England.

Periphrasis (перифраз, перифраза)

This is a device by which a longer phrase is used instead of a

shorter and plainer one; it is a case of circumlocution (a roundabout

way of description), which is used in literary descriptions for

greater expressiveness:

The little boy has been deprived of what can never be

replaced (Dickens) (= deprived of his mother);

An addition to the little party now made its appearance {=

another person came in).

The notion of king may be poetically represented as the

protector of earls', the victor lord', the giver of lands', a battle may

be called a play of swords', a saddle = a battle-seat, a soldier = a

shield-bearer, God"= Our Lord, Almighty, Goodness, Heavens,

the Skies.

Periphrasis may have a poetic colouring:

a pensive warbler of the ruddy breast (= a bullfinch, снегирь',

A. Pope); The sightless couriers of the air {= the winds;

Shakespeare),

32

or a humorous colouring: a disturber of the piano keys (= a

pianist; O. Henry).

Antonomasia (антономасия, переименование)

This device consists in the use of a proper name instead of a

common name or vice versa. Thus, we may use a description

instead of a person’s name, creating a kind of nickname: Mister

Know-all {a character of S. Maugham)', Miss Toady, Miss Sharp

(W.Thackeray)', Mr. Murdstone {Ch.Dickens). On the other hand,

a proper name may be used instead of a common name: He is the

Napoleon of crime (= a genius in crime as great as Napoleon was

in wars); You are a real Cicero (= a great orator, reminding of

Cicero); I have a Rembrandt at home (= a picture by Rembrandt);

He looked at himself in the glass. Here, then, was a modern

Hercules — very distinct from that unpleasant naked figure with

plenty of muscles, brandishing a club. {Л. Christie) (= a man who

is like this hero of ancient Greek myths).

As we can see, on the one hand, antonomasia is a subtype of

periplirasis, on the other, it is a subtype of metonymy.

Euphemisms (эвфемизмы)

This term denotes the use of a different, more gentle or

favourable name for an object or phenomenon so as to avoid

undesirable or unpleasant associations. Thus, the verb to die may

be replaced by euphemisms like to expire, to be no more, to join

the majority, to begone, to depart, a madhouse may be called a

lunatic asylum or a mental hospital', euphemisms for toilet,

lavatoty are ladies’ {men’s) room', rest-room', bathroom.

Euphemistic expressions may have the structure of a

sentence:

China is a countiy where you often get different accounts of

the same thing (= where many lies are told) (from Lord

Salisbury’s Speech).

There are euphemisms replacing taboo-words (taboos), i.e.

words forbidden in use in a community: The Prince of darkness

33

or The Evil One {=the Devil)', the kingdom of darkness or the

place of no return (= Hell).

Allegory (аллегория) and Personification

(олицетворение)

Allegory is a device by which the names of objects or

characters of a story are used in a figurative sense, representing

some more general things, good or bad qualities. This is often

found in fables {басни) and parables {притчи). It is also a typical

feature of proverbs, which contain generalizations (express some

general moral truths): All is not gold that glitters {= impressive

words or people are not always really so good as they seem); Every

cloud has a silver lining (= even in bad situations we may find

positive elements); There is no rose without a thorn {= there are

always disadvantages in the choice that we make); Make the hay

while the sun shines (= hurry to achieve your aim while there is a

suitable situation).

As a subtype of allegory we distinguish Personification, by

which human qualities are ascribed to inanimate objects,

phenomena or animals:

‘No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet

To chase the glowing Hours with flying feet. (Byron)

Silent, like sorrowing children, the birds have ceased their

song ...the dying day breathes out her last... and Night, upon her

sombre throne, folds her black wings above the darkening world,

and, from her phantom palace, lit by the pale stars, reigns in

stillness. (Jerome).

In the well-known poem:

Twinkle, little star!

How 1 wonder what you are!...

a star is represented as if it were a living being whom the

author addresses.

In poetry, fables, etc., personification is often represented

grammatically by the choice of masculine or feminine pronouns

for the names of animals, inanimate objects or forces of nature.

The pronoun He is used for the Sun, the Wind, for the names of

34

any animals that act like human beings in the tale (The Cat who

walked by himself), forstrong, active phenomena Ocean,

River) or feelings [Fear, Love). The pronoun She is used for what

is regarded as rather gentle {the Moon, Nature, Silence, Beauty,

Hope, Mercy, cf. Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth.

But Melancholy marked him for her own — Gray) or in some way

woman-like (in Aesop’s fable about The Crow and the Fox, the

pronoun She is used for the Crow, whose behaviour is coquettish

and light-minded, whereas He is used for the Fox).

Allusion (аллюзия)

This is indirect reference to (a liint at) some historical or

literary fact (or personage) expressed in the text. Allusion

presupposes the knowledge of such a fact on the part of the reader

or listener, so no particular explanation is given (although this is

sometimes really needed). Very often the interpretation of the fact

or person alluded to is generalised or even symbolised. See the

following examples:

Hers was a forceful clarity and a colourful simplicity and a

bold use of metaphor that Demosphenes would have envied.

(Faulkner) (allusion to the widely-known ancient Greek orator).

He felt as Balaam must gave felt when his ass broke into

speech (Maugham) (allusion to the biblical parable of an ass that

spoke the human language when its master, the heathen prophet

Balaam, intended to punish it).

In B. Shaw’s play “Pygmalion”, the following remark of Mr.

Higgins “ Eliza: you are an idiot. I waste the treasures of my

Miltonic mind by spreading them before you alludes to the English

poet of the 17"' century John Milton, the author of the poem

“Paradise Lost”; apart from that, the words spreading the treasures

of my mind before you contain an allusion to the biblical

expression to cast pearls before swine {метать бисер перед

свиньями). In А. Christie’s book of

stories‘77ге£я6ом/'5о/Я(ггс«/е5’ the name of the famous

detective Hercule Poirot is an allusion to the name of Hercules and

the twelve heroic deeds (labours) of this hero of the ancient Greek

myths.

35

Irony

Irony, like the stylistic device of zeugma, is based on the

simultaneous realisation of two opposite meanings: the permanent,

“direct” meaning (the dictionary meaning) of words and their

contextual (covert, implied) meaning. Usually the direct meaning

in such cases expresses a positive evaluation of the situation, while

the context contains the opposite, negative evaluation:

How delightful — to find yourself in a foreign country without

a penny in your pocket!

Aren’t you a hero — running away from a mouse!

I like a parliamentary debate,

Particularly when it is not too late. (Byron)

The Holy Alliance {Russia, Prussia, Austria) was minded to

stretch the arm of its Christian charity across the Atlantic and put

republicanism down in the western hemisphere as well as in its

own. (Goldwin Smith).

/ do not consult physicians, for I hope to die without their

help. (W. Temple).

Rhetorical Questions

Having the form of an interrogative sentence, a rhetorical

question contains not a question but a covert statement of the

opposite: Who does not know Shakespeare? (the implication is

“everybody knows ”); Is there not blood enough ... that more must

be pouredforth ? (Byron) (= there certainly is enough blood). This

king, Shakespeare, does not he shine over us all, as the noblest,

gentlest, yet strongest, indestructible? (Carlyle) (= he certainly

does).

The most common structural type of rhetorical question is a

negative-interrogative sentence, as in the examples above. But it

may also be without an open negation: Can the Ethiopian change

his skin, or the leopard his spots? (a phrase from “The Old

Testament”) (the implication is that they cannot); For who has

sight so swift and strong. That it can follow the fight of a song?

36

{Longfellow) (= nobody has). IVlmr business is It of yours

?{Sha'w) (= it is none of your business).

Since the implied statement is opposite to what is openly

asked, a rhetorical question may contain irony: Since when are you

interested in such things? (= I doubt that you are really interested

in them); I never see him doing any work there... Wity can’t he

work? What use is he there?.. (Jerome) (= he certainly ought to

work, he is no use here).

STYLISTIC DEVICES MAKING USE

OF THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE UNITS

Repetition (повтор) ^ ' Ai

Lexical repetition is often used to increase the degree of

emotion:

‘Oh, No, John, No, John, No, John, No!’{from a folk song)

And like a rat without a tail. I’ll do. I’ll do. I’ll do. (Shakespeare)

Alone, alone, all, all alone,

Alone on a wide, wide sea. (Coleridge)

The repetition of the same elements at the beginning of

several sentences is called anaphora:

Should auld acquaintance be forgot

And never brought to mind?

Should auld acquaintance be forgot

And days of auld lang syne ?

(Burns)

The repetition of the same elements at the end of several

sentences is called epiphora:

/ am exactly the man to be placed in a superior position in

such a case as that. I am above the rest of mankind, in such a case

as that. I can act with philosophy in such a case as that. (Dickens)

The term Syntactic repetition refers to repetition of syntactic

elements or constructions. This may include syntactic tautology

(синтаксическая тавтология), such as, for example, the

repetition of the subject of a sentence, which is typical of English

folklore:

37

Little Miss Muffet

She sat on a tuffet. (Nursery rhyme)

and also of later stylisations of the ballad character:

Ellen Adair she loved me well,

Against her father’s and mother's will. (Tennison)

The skipper he blew a whiff from his pipe And

a scornful laugh laughed he. (Longfellow)

Syntactic tautology may be used in literary works to represent

the speech of a person of little education:

Well, Judge Thatcher, he took it. ...(M. Twain)

Repetition of the subject may also be combined with giving it

some more specific additional information:

She has developed power, this woman — this — wife of his!

(Galsworthy)

Oh, it’s a fine life, the life of the gutter. (Shaw)

A special variant of syntactic repetition is syntactic

parallelism, which means repetition of similar syntactic

constructions in the text in order to strengthen the emotional

impact or expressiveness of the description:

The seeds ye sow — another reaps,

The robes ye weave — another wears.

The arms ye forge — another bears. (Shelley)

Few of them will return to their countries', they will not

embrace our holy religion', they will not adopt our manners. (B.

Franklin) There were real silver spoons to stir the tea with, and

real china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to hold the

cakes. (Dickens)

Chiasmus (хиазм)

This term denotes repetition of the same structure but with the

opposite order of elements (a reversed version of syntactic

parallelism):

Down dropped the breeze.

The sails dropped down. (Coleridge)

In the days of old men made the manners.

Manners now make men. (Byron)

The cloud-like rocks, the rock-like clouds

Dissolved in glory float. (Longfellow)

The sea is but another sky,

The sky a sea as well (ibid)

Climax (gradation, градация) and Anticlimax

Climax is repetition (lexical or syntactic) of elements of the

sentence, which is combined with gradual increase in the degree of

some quality or in quantity, or in the emotional colouring of the

sentence:

A smile would come into Mr. Pickwick’s face: the smile

extended into a laugh: the laugh into a roar, and the roar became

general. (Dickens)

Doolittle. I’ve no hold on her. I got to be agreeable to her. I

got to give her presents. I got to buy her clothes... I’m a slave to

that woman. (Shaw)

He was pleased when the child began to adventure

acrossfloors on hand and knees', he was gratified, when she

managed the trick of balancing herself on two legs', he was

delighted when she first said ‘ta-ta', and he was rejoiced when she

recognised him and smiled at him. (Paton)

They looked at hundreds of houses', they climbed thousands

of stairs', they inspected innumerable kitchens. (Maugham)

The opposite device is called anticlimax, in which case the

final element is obviously weaker in degree, or lower in status than

the previous; it usually creates a humorous effect:

Music makes one feel so romantic — at least it gets on one’s

nerves, which is the same thing nowadays. (Wilde)

People that have tried it tell me that a clean conscience makes

you veiy happy and contented. But a full stomach does the thing

just as well. (Jerome)

Doolittle: I’m a thinking man and game for politics or

religion or social reform, same as all the other amusements.

(Shaw)

The autocrat of Russia possesses more power than any other

man on earth, hut he cannot stop a sneeze. (M. Twain)

39

This war-like speech, received with many a cheer. Had filled them with desire of fame, and beer. (Byron)

Stylistic Inversion

By inversion is meant an unusual order of words chosen for

emphasis greater expressiveness. The notion of stylistic inversion

is broader than the notion of inversion in grammar, where it

generally relates only to the position of subject and predicate.

Thus, in stylistics it may include the postposition of an adjective in

an attributive phrase:

Adieu, adieu! My native shore

Fades о ’er the waters blue.

(Byron)

A passionate ballad gallant and gay.... (A. Tennyson)

Little boy blue.

Come blow your horn (Nursery rhyme)

It may also refer to a change in the standard position of all

other members of the sentence (Subject — Predicate — Object).

Thus, in poetic language secondary members (object, adverbial

modifier) may stand before the main members:

Yon sun that sets upon the sea

We follow in his flight.

(Byron)

The sea is but another sky.

The sky a sea as well.

And which is earth and which is heaven,

The eye can scarcely te/A'(Longfellow)

At your feet 1 fall. (Dryden)

As for the position of the predicate before subject, we may

distinguish cases of 1) full inversion:

The cloud-like rocks, the rock-like clouds

Dissolved in glory float.

And midway of the radiant flood.

Hangs silently the boat. (Longfellow)

On goes the river

And out past the mill. (Stevenson)

On these roads from the manufacturing centres there moved

many mobile homes pulled by trucks. (Steinbeck); Blessed are 40

the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. (Mathew) 2)

cases of partial inversion, usually when an adverbial modifier,

object or a predicative begins the sentence and only part of the

predicate comes before the subject:

Never can true reconcilement grow where wounds of deadly

hate have pierced so deep. (Milton); How little had I realized that,

for me, life was only then beginning. (Christie); Many sweet little

appeals did Miss Sharp make to him about the dishes at dinner.

(Thackeray); Terribly cold it certainly was. (Wilde)

Ellipsis

As in colloquial speech, this device consists in omission of

some parts of the sentence that are easily understood from the

context or situation. But, while in colloquial style this omission

simply makes the speech more compact (Where is he? — In the

garden), in literary descriptions it may give the construction an

additional expressive or emotional colouring. Note, for example,

the solemn tone of the extracts below with the predicate omitted:

And on that cheek, and о ’er that brow.

So soft, so calm, yet eloquent,

The smiles that win, the tints that glow.

But tell of days in goodness spent,

A mind at peace with all below,

A heart whose love is innocent! {Ъутп)

Youth is full ofpleasance.

Age is full of care]

Youth like summer morn.

Age like winter weather. (Shakespeare)

The sea is but another sky.

The sky a sea as well.... (Longfellow)

Asyndeton {асиндетон, бессоюзие)

This is a deliberate omission of conjunctions or other

connectors between parts of the sentence. It may be used in the

41

description of a group of events connected in time: taking place

simultaneously or in succession; in this case the absence of a

conjunction may correspond to the meaning of the conjunction

‘and’:

There was peace among the nations'.

Unmolested roved the hunters,

Built the birch-canoe for sailing,

Caught the fish in lake and river.

Shot the deer and trapped the beaver.

Unmolested worked the women.

Made their sugar from the maple.

Gathered wild rice in the meadows.

Dressed the skins of deer and beaver. (Longfellow)

Asyndeton may also express other logical connections between

parts, thus corresponding to various connectors:

‘There’s no use in talking to him, he’s perfectly idiotic!’said

Alice desperately. (L. Carroll) (reason: “ because”)

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for

redress in the most humble terms: our repeated petitions have

been answered only by repeated injuries. (Thomas Jefferson)

(contradiction: “but”)

Youth is full of pleasance,

Age is full of care'.

Youth like summer morn.

Age like winter weather. (Shakespeare) (contrast: “ whereas”)

Should a Frenchman or Englishman travel my route, their stored

pictures of it would be different from mine. (Steinbeck) (condition:

“If’)

Polysyndeton {полисиндетон, многосоюзие)

This is a device opposite to asyndeton: a repeated use of the

same connectors (conjunctions, prepositions) before several parts

of the sentence, which increases the emotional impact of the text:

Should you ask me, whence these stories ?

Whence these legends and traditions.

42

With the odours of the forest,

With the dew, and damp of meadows,

With the curling smoke of wigwams,

Mth the rushing of great rivers,

With their frequent repetitions... (Longfellow)

Antithesis (антитеза, противопоставление)

This denotes a structure that stresses a sharp contrast in

meaning between the parts within one sentence: Art is iong, iife is

short'. One man’s meat is another man’s poison'. Some peopie are

wise, some otherwise. (B. Shaw)

As Caesar ioved me, 1 weep for hint, as he was fortunate, /

rejoice at it', as he was vaiiant, / honour him', but as he was

ambitious, Isiew him. There’s tears for his iove',joy for his

fortune', honour for his valour, and death for his ambition.

(Shakespeare) Youth is fuii ofpieasance.

Age is fuii of care'.

Youth iike summer morn.

Age iike winter weather (ib.)

Suspense (Retardation, ретардация, замедление)

This is a compositional device by which the less important

part of the message is in some way separated from the main part,

and the latter is given only at the end of the sentence, so that the

reader is kept in suspense.

‘Mankind’, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend was

obiiging enough to read and expiain to me, ‘for the first seventy’

thousand ages ate their meat raw’. (Ch. Lamb)

A Break in the Narration (Aposiopesis, умолчание)

This device consists in a sudden stop in the middle of a

sentence when the continuation is quite clear: ‘Don’t you do this,

or... ’(a threat); ‘These are certainiy good intentions, but... ’ (the

continuation is clear from the well-known proverb that

43

good intentions pave the way to Hell); Keith: My God! If the police

come — find me here — (Galsworthy)

Represented Speech (несобственно-прямая речь)

This is the case when the speech of a character in the work of

fiction is represented without quotation marks, as if it were the

author’s speech:

To horse! To horse! He quits, for ever quits A scene of

peace, though soothing to his soul. (Byron)

Old Jolion was on the alert at once. Wasn’t the “man of

property ’’going to live in his new house, then ? (Galsworthy) Note

that although represented speech resembles direct speech, it still

preserves some features of indirect (reported) speech, such as the

phenomenon of Sequence of Tenses, which is observed in the last

example.

PHONETIC EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND DEVICES

Alliteration (аллитерация), Assonance (ассонанс)

Alliteration is a device based on repetition of the same or

similar sounds at close distance, which makes speech more

expressive. It is frequently used in idioms:

blind as a bat; tit for tat ( = an eye for an eye); tit-bit

{лакомый кусочек); {It is) neck or nothing {nan или пропал); bag

and baggage; last but not least; waste not, want not; as good as

gold; as green as grass; willy-nilly {volence-nolence); hurly-burly

(= noise); to shilly-shally/to dilly-dally {= to waste time without

taking action). Note also the use of alliteration in poetry:

A fly and a flea in the flue were imprisoned.

Said the fly, ‘Let us flee ’,

Said the flea, ‘Let us fly ’,

So they flew through a flaw in the flue

We wonder whether the weather Will

weather the wether,

Or whether the weather the wether will kill.

44

/ love your hills and I love your dales,

And / love your flocks a-bleating (Keats) (the sound [1]

repeated)

O, my love is like a red, red rose.

That’s newly sprung in June.

O, my love is like the melodie,

That’s sweetly played in tune. (R. Burns) ([r, 1] repeated)

Ye whose h earts are fresh and simple,

Who have faith in God and Nature,

Who believe, that in all ages

Eveiy human heart is human. (Longfellow) ([h] repeated)

Darkness there, and nothing more.

Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there

wondering, fearing.

Doubting, dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream

before. (Edgar Poe) ([dj repeated)

A variant of alliteration is assonance, i.e. repetition of the

same or similar vowels only, as in the phrase wear and tear {My

shoes show signs of wear and tear, the wear and tear of city life).

This device is sometimes found in poetic speech; see the

repetition of the vowel [e] in the line

Tenderly bury the fair young dead. (M. La Costa)

or the repetition of the diphthong [ei] in the lines

Tell this soul, with sorrow laden, if within the distant Aiden,

I shall clasp a sainted maiden, whom the angels name Lenore

— Clasp a rare and radiant maiden, whom the angels name

Lenor?{E. Poe)

The term “assonance” is also used to denote an imperfect

rhyme (= неточная рифма), when only vowels are rhymed:

number — blunder, same — cane.

Onomatopoeia (ономатопея, звукоподражание)

This term denotes sound imitation, i.e. the use of words

which denote some phenomenon by imitating its real sounding.

4.S

It may be imitation of the sounds produced by animals: buzz

(sounds of bees); hiss (snakes); bow-wow (dogs); mew/miaow and

purr (cats); hoink (pigs); baa-baa (sheep); cackle (chickens);

quack (ducks); cuckoo] caw (crows); moo (cows). It may also be

imitation of other natural noises: bubble (булькать); rustle

(шуршать); 5/7(плескаться);/7о/7 (шлепнуться); whistle

(свистеть); giggle, chuckle (хихикать, хмыкать); 7'оа/'(реветь);

tinkle (звякнуть); ding-dong, jingle (= звенеть), click (щелкать),

tick, tick-tuck (тикать); bang, slap, rap, tap (звук удара), etc.

Words built on the basis of onomatopoeia make speech

especially expressive when used in their figurative meanings:

Cars were whizzing past (=moving very fast); The pot was

bubbling on the fire (= boiling and making this sound); The crowd

buzzed with excitement (= made a noise like that); I’ll just give him

a buzz (— phone call).

Onomatopoeia may also be used in poetry:

IVe ’re foot — slog — slog — slog — slogging over Africa —

Foot —foot — foot — foot — slogging over Africa.

{Boots — boots — boots — boots — moving up and down

again.) (Kjpling)

THE USE OF RHYTHM AND RHYME IN VERSIFICATION

(СТИХОСЛОЖЕНИЕ)

Rhythm in poetic speech is produced by regular alternation

{чередование) of stressed and unstressed syllables.

Why do you ay, Willie ? ( ' u u | ' u u)

Why do you ay? ( ' u u ( ')

Why, Willie, why, Willie, ( ' u u | ' u u)

Why, Willie, Why ? ( ' u u | ')

For a purely syllabic {силлабическая) system of

versification (e.g. in French poetry), the important feature is the

same number of syllables in different lines, whether stressed or

unstressed. For a purely tonic {тоническая) system (as in

Anglo-Saxon poetry of old times) the important feature is the

number of stressed syllables (ro/i/c= ‘stressed’). Forthesyllabic-

46

tonic {силлабо-тоническая) system of versification, which is

typical of modern English (and Russian) poetry, the important

feature is the same number of stressed and unstressed syllables.

A division {отрезок) of the poetic line from stress to stress,

which contains one stressed syllable and one or two unstressed

syllables, is called a Foot {стопа). The foot is the main unit of

rhythm in poetic speech. According to the correlation of stressed

and unstressed syllables within the foot, we distinguish the

following 5 types of feet:

1) trochee {хорей), or a trochaic foot {хореическая стопа),

with two syllables, of which the first is stressed and the second

unstressed;

Peter, Peter, pumpkin-eater, ( ' u I" u I ' u 1 ' u) Had a wife

and couldn’t keep her

See also the Russian trochaic foot;

Прибежали в избу дети Второпях зовут отца ...

2) iambus {ямб), or ап iambic foot, with two syllables, of

which the first is unstressed, the second stressed:

And then my love and I shall pace, (u ' 1 u ' 1 u ' I u ') My jet

black hair in pearly braids. (Coleridge)

Мой дядя самых честных правил.

Когда не в шутку занемог...

3) dactyl {дактиль), or а dactylic foot: three syllables, the

first stressed, the other two unstressed;

Why do you ay, Willie? ( ' u u I ' u u)

4) amphibrach {амфибрахий), or an amphibrachic foot:

three syllables with the stress on the second:

A diller, a dollar, a ten о ’clock scholar... (u" u 1 u' u | u'

u I u ' u)

5) anapaest {анапест): three syllables, stress on the third;

Said the flee, ‘Let us fly’, (u u ' 1 u u ' )

Said the fly, ‘Let us flee ’,

So they flew through a flaw in the flue.

The type of foot and the number of feet in the line determine

the Metre of the verse {стихотворный размер). Here we

distinguish:

47

iambic trimetre {трехстопныйямб): three iambic feet in a line:

IVho sets an apple tree (u ' 1 u ' 1 u ')

May live to see its end,

Who sets a pear tree

May set it for a

friend.

iambic tetrametre {четырехстопный ямб): four iambic feet in a

line;

And then my love and I shall pace, (u ' I u " I u ' 1 u ') My jet

black hair in pearly braids. (Coleridge) iambic pentametre

{пятистопный ямб)

Her lovely looks a sprightly mind disclose (u ' I u " 1 u ' l u ' l u ' )

Quick as her eyes and as unfixed as those. (A. Pope) trochaic

trimeter {трехстопный хорей)

Ring -a — ring of roses, {' K J \ ' v j \ ' u~)

Pocket full of posies

trochaic tetrametre (четырехстопный хорей)

Peter, Peter, pumpkin-eater ( ' u I ' u 1 ' u I ' u)

amphibrachic tetrameter (четырехстопный амфибрахий)

A diller, a dollar, a ten о ’clock scholar (u' u 1 u ' u 1 u' u l u '

u )

A verse with four or more feet in a line usually has a caesura

{цезура), i.e. a pause in the middle of the line:

Praised be the Art || whose subtle power could stay

Yon cloud, and fix it || in that glorious shape'.

Nor would permit || the thin smoke to escape.

Nor those bright sunbeams Ц to forsake the day. (W.

Wordsworth)

English versification is often characterized by certain

Irregularities {нарушения) in the metre, e.g. a combination of

one-syllable and two syllable feet

Pease porridge hot ( ' I ' u 1 ' 1)

Pease porridge cold, ( ' I ' u I " I)

Pease porridge in the pot ( ' 1 ' u | ' u I ')

Nine days old. ( ' 1 ' I ' 1)

4S

or a combination of one-syllable, two-syllable and three-

syllable feet

Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall. ( ' u i ' u l ' u u i ' )

Huinpty Dumpty had a great fall, ( ' u l ' u l ' u u l ' l ) All the

King’s horses and all the King’s men ( ' u u 1 ' u u I ' u u K)

Couldn’t put Humpty Dumpty together again. ( ' ~ 1 ' — I '

Another kind of irregularity is represented by the so called

Pyrric foot (пиррихий), in which the rhythm is broken due to the

use of unstressed words in the place of the expected stressed

syllables, or vice versa, as in

Can death be sleep, when life is but a dream. (John Keats) (u 'I U 'I U ' I u u u ') or as in the second line of the extract from A. Pope below:

Her lovely looks a sprightly mind disclose (u ' I u ' 1 u ' l u ' 1 u ' )

Quick as her eyes and as unfixed as those. (A. Pope) ( ' | u u '

IU U U ' I u ') Rhyme (рифма) is created by the repetition of the same

sounds in the last stressed syllable of two (or more) lines in a

stanza {строфа).

By the type of the stressed syllable we distinguish the male

rhyme {мужская рифма), when the stress falls on the last

syllable in the rhymed lines, and the female rhyme {женская

рифма), when it falls on the last but one syllable:

When the lamp is shattered (female rhyme)

The light in the dust lies dead; (male rhyme)

When the cloud is scattered, (female)

The rainbow i glory is shed, (male) (P. B. Shelley)

See also the alternation of male and female rhymes in the

Russian verse in Pushkin’s rhymed novel «Евгений Онегин»:

Мой дядя самых честных правил, (женская рифма) Когда не в

шутку занемог, (мужская)

Он уважать себя заставил (женск.)

И лучше выдумать не мог. (мужск.)

49

There may be paired rhymes {парные, смежные рифмы), when the rhyming pattern is aabb:

The seed ye sow, another reaps] (a) The wealth ye find, another keeps] (a) The robes ye weave, another wears] {b) The arms ye forge, another bears, {b) (Shelley) or alternate

rhymes {перекрестные рифмы), with the pattern abab: A slumber did my spirit seal] {a) I had no human fears: {b) She seemed a thing that could not feel {a) The touch of earthly years, {b) (W. Wordsworth)

or enclosing rhymes {охватные, опоясанные рифмы), with the

pattern abba: Much have I travelTd in the realms of gold, {a) And many goodly states and kingdoms seen] {b) Round many western islands have I been {b) Which bards in fealty (= loyalty) to Apollo hold, (a) (J. Keats)

There may also be more complicated variations of these patterns:

Rough wind, that moanest loud {a) Grief too sad for song] {b)

Wild wind, when sullen cloud {a) Knells all the night long] {b)

Sad storm, whose tears are vain, {c) Bare woods, whose branches stain, (c)

Deep caves and dreary main, — (c ) Wail for the world’s wrong! {b) (Shelley)

Note also the possibility of the so called eye-rhyme

(графическая рифма), when the elements rhymed are similar only in spelling, but not in pronunciation:

Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?

Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find Thee sitting careless on a granary floor. Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind. (J. Keats) For us, even banquets fond regret supply In the red cup that crowns our memory. (Byron)

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Types of Stanza (типы строф, строфика)

The most common stanza, one consisting of four lines, is

called a quatrain (катрен, четверостишие)] the more seldom

one, consisting of two, is called a couplet {двустишие).

There is also a ballad stanza, typical of poetic folklore,

especially that of the 14"’—15"’ centuries. A ballad is a poem

with a plot {сюжет), which tells some story. The ballad stanza

usually has four lines, of which the first and third lines contain

four feet, while the second and fourth — three or two.

The first word that Sir Patrick read, {4 feet)

Sae loud, loud laughed he] {3)

The neist word that Sir Patrick read, {4)

The tear blinded his ее. {3)

This type of stanza is also found in later poetry:

The fairest one shall be my love’s, {4 feet)

The fairest castle of the nine! {3)

Wait only till the stars peep out, {4)

The fairest shall be thine. {3) (Coleridge)

In R. Kipling’s ballad cited below, the quatrains are

combined into couplets, within which, however, is preserved the

alternation of four-foot and three-foot metres:

Oh, East is East, and West is West, {4) and never the twain

shall meet {3)

Till Earth and Sky stand presently {4) at God’s great

Judgement Seat {3).

A specific type of stanza is used in a sonnet. There we usually

find twelve lines (three quatrains, i.e. three stanzas with four

lines), followed by two final lines (a couplet), which contain a

kind of summary of the whole verse:

0, lest the world should ask you to recite

What merit lived in me, that you should love.

After my death, dear love, forget me quite,

Eoryou in me can nothing worthy prove]

Unless you would devise some virtuous lie, To do more for me than mine own desert.

5i

And hang more praise upon deceased / Than niggard truth would willingly impart:

0, lest your true love may seem false in this,

That you for love speak well of me untrue,

My name be buried where my body is.

And live no more to shame nor me nor you.

For I am ashamed by that which I bring forth.

And so should you, to love things nothing worth.

(Shakespeare, Sonnet No. 72)

There may also be blank verse {белый стих), in which there

is no rhyming, but the rhythm and metre are to some extent

preserved; such is, for instance, the verse of Shakespeare’s

tragedies:

To be or not to be, — that is the question: ~

Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer The

slings and arrows of outrageous fortune.

Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,

And by opposing end them ? — To die, — to sleep, —

No more', and by a sleep to say we end The

heart-ache and the thousand natural shocks That

flesh is heir to, — ‘tis a consummation Devoutly

to be wished. To die, — to sleep', —

To sleep! Perchance to dream: — ay, there’s the rub'.

For in that sleep of death what dreams may come.

When we have shuffled off this mortal coil... (Hamlet)

Part 4 Some Practical Assignments for Stylistic

Analysis

I. Stylistic Connotations in Vocabulary

Point out stylistic differences within the groups of synonyms:

face — visage — mug — deadpan

nose — snout — beak — nasal cavity

.52

/ think — / gather — I presume — I take it — / guess —

methinks

Boy — youth — lad — young male person — youngster —

teenager

lass — girl — maiden — wench — young female person

nonsense — absurdity — rot — trash

legs — pins — lower extremities

Silence, please! — Stop talking! — Shut your trap!

Wait! — Hold on! — Stand by!

You are — thou art

breathe in — inhale — gasp

friend — comrade — pal — buddy — acquaintance

Hurr}> up! — Move on! — Hasten your step!

II. Colloquial Vocabulary

Paraphrase so as to show the different uses of the verb ‘to do’:

1) Have you done your homework? 2) I have to do a sum.

3) Will you please do the room? 4) Who does the cooking in your

family? 5) Go and do your teeth! 6) 1 like the way you do your

hair. 7) They do fish very well in this restaurant. 8) What subjects

do you do at your University? 9) I did some music in my

childhood. 10) This car can do 80 miles an hour. 11) What do you

do for a living? 12) You did right to tell me about it. 13) That

won’t do. 14) Will this sum do for you? 15) It did me good. 16) He

is doing well at school. 17) How are you doing? 18) He was up

and doing at five in the morning. 19) What is doing here? 20) If

you say it again, Г11 do you! 21) Can we do Oxford in three days?

22) He does Ronald Reagan very well.

III. Formal Styles

1, Analyse the peculiarities of the style of scientific texts;

paraphrase the marked expressions by more neutral ones a)

The degree of liberty possessed by the citizens of a state has

become the key standard by which liberal democracies are

compared with other forms of government.. However, there is

much less consensus on the meaning of liberty.

53

In political thought liberty is largely synonymous with freedom. But it is as well to recall that liberty or freedom have not always been valued in Western or other forms of political thought. Indeed religious and political authoritarians, and many conservatives and traditionalists, equate liberty with licence, the absence of control, moral chaos. Moreover, many political philosophers, from Plato to Hobbes, have argued that human

beings should sacrifice their freedom to ensure order or stability, in the form of strong and/or enlightened government.

Many political theorists make a distinction between positive liberty (‘freedom to do’, or ‘self-mastery’) and negative liberty (‘freedom from’ or ‘not being obstructed’) although others argue that the distinction is not logically sustainable, that it just confuses matters. The concept of liberty, whether positive or negative, or both, evidently means ‘not being controlled’ or ‘not being obstructed’.

The most notable exponents of positive liberty were Rousseau and Kant. They argued that genuine freedom is possessed only by individuals who are autonomous agents — that is, by those whose power of reason is free from manipulation by others, and are capable of exercising self-determination in their moral and political choices. We are free only when we act rightly, and vice versa: we are free when our ‘real self is in charge. This thesis can, of course, become a means for suggesting that people are not free even when they claim to be.

The idea of negative liberty, by contrast, is derived from the doctrine of natural rights which claims that individuals have certain inalienable rights which should not be transgressed by any individual, group or government. Such rights are ‘liberties’, that is, rights to be free from control, and are most vigorously supported in the doctrine of libertarianism. Negative liberty exists where citizens are free to behave in any way which does not harm another citizen or contravene specific laws. Negative liberty is often tested in societies where governments or pressure groups attempt to define what constitutes harm to others: thus the private sexual activities of consenting adults would appear to be harmful to neither the practitioners nor the general public, yet many states prohibit by law certain types of private sexual expression.

54

b) Such innovations will involve changes to the diet of the

whole populations, including a sharp reduction in consumption of

intensively- reared cattle. An international agreement was reached at the

1992 Earth Summit, although the policies agreed will only reduce the

rate of increase of greenhouse gases. This, coupled with a fear that

American voters regard their right to drive large cars as on a par with

the constitutional right to bear arms, made the administration of

President Bush very obstructive in international negotiations. Given the

economic and political power of the USA, and their consumption of

energy, this stance has reduced other countries ’ readiness to respond.

Finally, it is worth noting that any suggestion that global warming

threatens life on Earth is highly exaggerated. The changes in

atmospheric composition are significant in relation to changes in the

last few million years, but are neglectable compared with the changes

brought about by life.

2. Analyse the peculiarities of publicist style in the following

extract from the First Inaugural speech by Thomas

Jefferson;

paraphrase the bookish expressions by more neutral

ones:

Friends and Fellow Citizens... During the contest of opinion through which we have passed,

the animation of discussion and of exertions has sometimes worn

an aspect which might impose on strangers unused to think freely and to speak and to write what they think; but this being now decided by the voice of the nation, announced according to the rules of the constitution, all will, of course, arrange themselves under the will of the law, and unite in common efforts for the common good. All, too, will bear in mind this sacred principle,

that though the will of the majority is in all cases to prevail, that will, to be rightful, must be reasonable; that the minority possess their equal rights, which equal laws must protect, and to violate which would be oppression. Let us, then, fellow citizens, unite with one heart and one mind. Let us restore to social intercourse that harmony and affection without which liberty and even life

itself are but dreary things. And let us reflect that having banished from our land that religious intolerance under which mankind so long

55

bled and suffered, we have yet gained little if we countenance a

political intolerance as despotic, as wicked, and capable of as bitter

and bloody persecutions. During the throes and convulsions of the

ancient world, during the agonizing spasms of infuriated man,

seeking through blood and slaughter his long- lost liberty, it was

not wonderful that the agitation of the billows should reach even

this distant and peaceful shore; that this should be more felt and

feared by some and less by others; that this should divide opinions

as to measures of safety. But every difference of opinion is not a

difference of principle. We have called by different names

brethren of the same principle. We are all republicans — we are all

federalists. If there be any among us who would wish to dissolve

this Union or to change its republican form, let them stand

undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of

opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it. I

know, indeed, that some honest men fear that a republican

government cannot be strong; that this government is not strong

enough. But would the honest patriot, in the full tide of successful

experiment, abandon a government which has so far kept us free

and firm, on the theoretic and visionaiy fear that this government,

the world’s best hope, may by possibility want energy to preserve

itself? 1 trust not. 1 believe this, on the contrary, the strongest

government on earth. I believe it is the only one where every man,

at the call of the laws, would fly to the standard of the law, and

would meet invasions of the public order as his own personal

concern. Sometimes it is said that man cannot be trusted with the

government of himself. Can he, then, be trusted with the

government of others? Or have we found angels in the forms of

kings to govern him? Let history answer this question.

IV. Figures of Speech

1. State which of the comparative structures represent

metaphors and similes

He has a tongue like a sward and a pen like a dagger. (H.

Caine)

56

You lalk exactly like my lather!

The laugh in her eyes died out... (M. Spillane)

The grin made his large teeth resemble a dazzling miniature

piano keyboard in the green light. (J. Jones)

It was his habit not to jump or leap at anything in life but to

crawl at evetything. (Dickens)

2. Distinguish between metonymy and metaphor

He earns his living by his pen. (S. Maugham)

/ ... came to the place where the Stars and Stripes stood

shoulder to shoulder with the Union Jack. (Steinbeck)

Money burns a hole in my pocket. (T. Capote)

3. State which of the attributes represent epithets

... whispered the spinster aunt with true spinster-aunt-like

envy. (Dickens)

A lock of hair fell over her eye and she pushed it back with a

tired, end-of-the-dayjesture. (J. Braine)

The money she had accepted was РАЮ soft, green, handsome

ten-dollar bills. (Dreiser)

4. Comment on the play upon words:

His arm about her, he led her in and bawled, ‘Ladies and worsen halves, the bride!’(S. Lewis)

Then there were the twin boys, whom the family called “Stars and Stripes”, as they were whipped regularly. (O. Wilde)

There comes a period in every man’s life, but she’s just a semicolon in his. (S. Evans) {period m American English means “ a full stop”)

Did you hit a woman with a child? — No, sir, I hit her with a brick. (Th. Smith)

Isn’t it discouraging when it takes two days to fly a letter from

coast to coast? I get so mad / mark the envelopes “Air-Snail”. (example from the work by С.Ж. Нухов)

5. Point out litotes and hyperbole

She was not without realization already that this thing was

impossible, so far as she was concerned. (Dreiser)

57

Joe Clegg also looked surprised and possibly not too pleased.

(Christie)

Her family is one aunt about a thousand years old.

(Fitzgerald)

6. Comment on the peculiarities of antonomasia

Every Caesar has his Brutus. (O. Henry)

There are three doctors in an illness like yours... Dr. Rest,

Dr. Diet and Dr. Fresh air. (D. Cusack)

7. Explain the meaning of these euphemisms

7 expect you ‘d like a wash, ’ Mrs. Thompson said. ‘The

bathroom’s to the right and the usual offices next to it ’. (J.

Braine) Why, in the name of all the infernal powers, Mrs. Merdle

...? (Dickens)

8. What allusion is made in the extract?

“Christ, it’s so funny! Madame Bovary at Columbia

Extension School!” (Salinger)

9. WTiat device is represented by the marked words?

Break, break, break

On the cold gray stones, О Sea! (A. Tennison)

10. Point out how irony is created below:

To look at Montmorency, you would imagine that he was an

angel sent upon the earth. At first I never thought he wouldsurvive.

I used to sit down and look at him as he sat on the rug and looked

up at me, and think: “Oh, that dog will never live. He will be taken

to the bright skies in a chariot, that’s what will happen to him ”.

But when I had paidfor about a dozen chickens that he had killed...

then I began to think that maybe they would let him remain on

earth a bit longer. (Jerome)

V. Structural Stylistic Devices

1. State the type of inversion:

What the action of the play would have been like if Laertes

had not had the occasion to revenge the death of his father, we

cannot tell. (Literal^ criticism)

58

Had this happened before supper, George would have

expressed wishes and desires concerning Harris’s fate in this

world and the next that would have made a thoughtful man

shudder. (Jerome) Calm and quiet below me in the sun and shade

lay the old house. (Dickens)

2. What structural device is used below?

Л poor boy... No father, no mother, no any one. (Dickens)

3. Comment on the kind of repetition used:

One may see by their footprints that they have not walked arm

in arm; that they have not walked in a straight track, and that they

have walked in a moody humour. (Dickens)

/ looked at the gun, and the gun looked at me. (R. Chandler)

4. Point out the devices of climax and anticlimax:

Of course it’s important. Incredibly, urgently, desperately

important. (D. Cusack)

It was a mistake ...a blunder... lunacy ... (W. Deeping)

He was numbed. He wanted to weep, to vomit, to die, to sink

away. (A. Bennet)

They were absolutely quiet; eating no apples, cutting no

names, inflicting no pinches, and making no grimaces, for full two

minutes afterwards. (Dickens)

5. Explain the meaning of the periphrasis

She was still fat; the destroyer of her figure sat at the head of the

table. (A. Bennet)

The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting products

of the fighting in Africa. (1. Shaw)

6. What device is created by the use of the marked words?

Don’t use big words. They mean so little. (Wilde)

7. What device is represented by the marked part of the

sentence

and what is the implication here?

“But, John, you know Tm notgoingto a doctor. I’ve told you. ”

“You are going — or else... ”(P. Quentin)

59

8. What device is used in the marked parts?

His nei-vousness about it irritated him: she had no business

to make him feel like that. (Galsworthy)

Angela looked at him with swimming eyes. He was really

different from anything she had ever known, young, artistic,

imaginative, ambitious... What a wonderful (Dickens)

9. What ways of connection are used in the extracts below?

And they wore their best and more colourful clothes. Red

shirts and green shirts and yellow shirts and pink shirts. (P.

Abrahams) The pulsating motion at Malay Camp at night was

everywhere. People sang. People cried. People fought. People

loved. People hated. (P. Abrahams)

10. Name the device used below

“The day on which I had to take the happiest and best step of

my life — the day on which I shall be a man more exulting and

more enviable than any other man in the world — the day on

which I give Bleak House its little mistress — shall be next month,

then ”, said my guardian. (Dickens)

VI. Comment on the Phonetic Devices Used Belov/

‘Sh-sh she said. ‘But I’m whispering!’This continual

shushing annoyed him. (A. Huxley)

The moan of doves in immemorial elms,

And murmuring of innumerable bees. (Tennison)

VII. Miscellany: Point Out the Stylistic

Devices Used

1) “You have heard of Jefferson Brick I see, Sir, ” — quoth the

Colotrel with a smile. “England has heard of Jefferson Brick.

Europe has heard of Jefferson Brick”. (Dickens)

2) but who would scor-n the month of June,

Because December, with his breath so hoary.

Must come? { Щ г о п )

60

3)

4) 5)

Не ordered а bottle of the worst possible port wine, at the

highest

possible price. (Dickens)

Stoney smiled the sweet smile of an alligator. (Steinbeck)

And yet will you tell me that I oughtn't to go into .society? I,

who shower money upon it in this way? I, who might be

almost

said to —to — to harness myself to a watering cart full of

money,

and go about, saturating society, every day of my life?

(Dickens)

He already had a car — a large car — an expensive car. In

that car and no other he proposed to continue his journey

back

to town. (Christie)

Mother Nature always blushes before disrobing. (Y. Esar)

It’s only an adopted child. One I have told her of. One I’m

going to give the name to. (Dickens)

Richard said that he would work his fingers to the bone for

Ada, and Ada said that she would work her fingers to the bone

for Richard. (Dickens)

10) The mechanics were underpaid, and underfed, and

overworked. (J. Aldridge)

11) Men’s talk was better than women’s. Never food, never

babies,

never sickness, but people, what happened, the reason. Not

the state of the house, but the state of the Army... Not what

spoilt the washing, but who spilled the beans. (D. du

Maurier)

12) Swan had taught him much. The great kindly Swede had

taken

him under his wing. (E. Ferber)

6)

7) 8)

9)

VIII. Poetic Speech

1. Comment on the peculiarities of the words and forms marked

My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky:

So was it when my life began'.

So is it now I am a man:

So be it when I shall grow old.

Or let me die! (W. Wordsworth)

61

2. Comment on the marked words; find their more up-to-date

synonyms (from J. Byron’s poem “Child Harold”, Canto the

first)

Wliilome in Albion’s isle there dwelt a youth,

Who ne in virtue’s ways did take delight,

But spent his days in riot most uncouth,

And vex’d with mirth the drowsy ear of Night.

Ah, me! In sooth he was a shameless wight.

Sore given to revel and ungodly glee]

Few earthly things found favour in his sight

Save concubines and carnal companie,

And flaunting wassailers of high and low degree.

Childe Harold was he hight: — but whence his

name And lineage long, it suits me not to say.

Suffice it, that perchance they were of fame.

And had been glorious in another day...

Adieu, adieu! My native shore Fades o’er the

waters blue]

The night-winds sigh, the breakers roar.

And shrieks the wild sea-mew.

Yon sun that sets upon the sea We follow in his

flight.

Farewell awhile to him and thee.

My native Land — Good night!

3. Find dialectal and archaic elements in R. Burns’ poem:

Should auld acquaintance be forgot.

And never brought to mind?

Should auld acquaintance be forgot.

And days о ’ lang syne ?

For auld lang syne, my dears,

For auld lang syne.

We ’ll tak a cup о ’kindness yet,

62

Литература

Азнаурова Э.С. Очерки по стилистике слова. Ташкент, 1973. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика. Современный английский язык:

Учебник для вузов. 7-е изд. М., 2005. Баллы Ш. Французская стилистика. М., 1961. Беляева Т.М., Потапова Н.А. Английский язык за пределами

Англии. Л., 1961. Брандес М.П. Стилистика немецкого языка. М., 1990. Ванников Ю.В. Типы научных и технических текстов и их

лингвистические особенности. М., 1984. Васильева А.Н. Газетно-публицистический стиль речи: Курс

лекций по стилистике русского языка. М., 1982. Виноградов В.В. Стилистика, теория поэтической речи.

Поэтика. М., 1963. Квятковский А. Поэтический словарь. М., 1966. Кожина М.Н. К основаниям функциональной стилистики.

Пермь, 1968. Кожинов В.В. Жанр // Литературный энциклопедический

словарь. М., 1997. Кузнец М.Д., Скребнев Ю.М. Стилистика английского языка.

Л., 1960. Наер В.Л. Функциональные стили английского языка. М.,

1981. Пухов С.Ж. Языковая игра в английском словообразовании.

Уфа, 1997. Разинкина Н.М. Функциональная стилистика английского

языка. М., 1989. Розенталь Д.Э. Практическая стилистика русского языка. М.,

1968. Сильман Т.И. Проблемы синтаксической стилистики. Л.,

1967. Солганик Г.Я. Стилистика текста: Учебное пособие. 6-е изд.

М., 2000. Степанов Ю.С. Французская стилистика. М., 1965. Степанов Ю.С. Стилистика //Лингвистический

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терминов. М., 1974. 64

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Содержание

Part 1. On the Notions of‘Style’ and ‘Stylistics’ ..................... 3 Two Types of Stylistic Information ........................................ 4 Stylistic Characteristics of English Vocabulary ...................... 6 Some Characteristics of English That Are

Close to Stylistic Ones a) Territorial Varieties of English ............................. 10 b) English Vocabulary in the Aspect of Time ........... 12

Part 2. Functional Styles of Speech in Greater Detail ............. 13 The Colloquial Style ............................................................... 13 Familiar-Colloquial Style and Slang

(фамильярно-разговорный стиль, жаргоны) ........... 15 The Formal (Lofty, Bookish) Style

(высокий, книжный стиль) ....................................... 17 The Style of Official or Business Documents ......................... 17 The Style of Scientific Works ................................................. 19 Publicist (Oratory) Style ......................................................... 20 Some Particular Genres of Publicist Style .............................. 23

Part 3. Expressive Means of Language (Stylistic Devices) .... 26 Stylistic Devices Making Use of the Meaning

of Language Units (Figures of Speech) ....................... 27 Metaphor (метафора) .................................................. 27 Simile (сравнение) .................................................... 28 Metonymy (метонимия) .............................................. 29 Zeugma (зевгма, каламбур) ...................................... 30 Охуптогоп (оксюморон) ........................................... 31 Hyperbole and Litotes ................................................. 31 Epithet (эпитет) .......................................................... 31 Periphrasis (перифраз, перифраза) ............................ 32 Antonomasia (антономасия, переименование) ........ 33 Euphemisms (эвфемизмы) ......................................... 33

66

Allegory (аллегория) and Personification (олицетворение) ........................................................ 34 Allusion (аллюзия) ..................................................... 35 Irony ............................................................................ 36 Rhetorical Questions ................................................... 36

Stylistic Devices Making Use of the Structure of Language Units ....................................................... 37 Repetition (повтор) ..................................................... 37 Chiasmus (хиазм) ........................................................ 38 Climax (Gradation, градация) and Anticlimax ........... 39 Stylistic Inversion ......................................................... 40 Ellipsis ......................................................................... 41 Asyndeton (асиндетон, бессоюзие) ........................... 41 Polysyndeton (полисиндетон, многосоюзие) ............ 42 Antithesis (антитеза, противопоставление) .............. 43 Suspense (Retardation, ретардация, замедление) ..... 43 А Break in the Narration (Aposiopesis, умолчание) .. 43 Represented Speech (несобственно-прямая речь) .... 44

Phonetic Expressive Means and Devices ................................. 44 Alliteration (аллитерация), Assonance (ассонанс) .................................................. 44 Onomatopoeia (ономатопея, звукоподражание) ...... 45

The Use of Rliythm and Rhyme in Versification (стихосложение) ......................................................... 46 Types of Stanza (типы строф, строфика) .................. 51

Part 4. Some Practical Assignments for Stylistic Analysis ..... 52 I. Stylistic Connotations in Vocabulary ................................ 52 II. Colloquial Vocabulary ...................................................... 53 III. Formal Styles .................................................................. 53 IV. Figures of Speech ............................................................ 56 V. Structural Stylistic Devices ............................................. 58 VI. Comment on the Phonetic Devices Used Below ............. 60 VII. Mi.scellany: Point Out the Stylistic Devices Used ........ 60 VIII. Poetic Speech ............................................................... 61

Литература ............................................................................. 64

67

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ENGLISH STYLISTICS

СТИЛИСТИКА АНГЛИЙСКОЕО ЯЗЫКА

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Терехова Е.В. Политология. Международные отношения: Русско-английский словарь-тезаурус

Терехова Е.В. Двусторонний перевод общественно-политических текстов (с элементами скорописи в английском язьже): Учеб, пособие

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