Investigating student readiness for tertiary

education

BY:

Nuraan Agherdien

207022862

Submitted in complete fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

Magister Technologiae (Human Resource Management)

in the Faculty of Business and Economic Sciences

at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University

December 2014

PROMOTOR: Dr M. Mey

i

DECLARATION

I, Nuraan Agherdien 207022862, hereby declare that the thesis for

Magister Technologiae: Human Resource Management is my own work

and that it has not previously been submitted for assessment or

completion of any postgraduate qualification to another University or for

another qualification.

Nuraan Agherdien

ii

ABSTRACT

Many tertiary institutions are confronted with the challenge of unprepared students.

This epidemic is largely due to factors in and out of individuals‟ control. These factors

include academic proficiency, course-student match, support and integration,

financial stability, preparation, personal circumstances and engagement. The main

objective of this study is therefore threefold: Firstly, to describe what student

readiness entails; secondly to understand why there is a lack of readiness among

first-year Human Resource Management students, and thirdly, to identify and

improve upon interventions that prepare students for tertiary education. For this

study student readiness refers to the ability of students to meet the basic

requirements to successfully enrol for a course without remedial assistance and to

successfully complete their studies in the recommended timeframe.

The target population of this study focussed on students who registered on a full-

time basis for the National Diploma in Human Resource Management for the

academic year 2014 (n=117). A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to

the students and an open-ended questionnaire additionally to the lecturers who

teach first-year Human Resource Management students. The study was subjected to

various statistical techniques such as Cronbach‟s alpha, t-tests, Pearson moment

product correlation and Cohen‟s d. In doing so an improved insight into student

readiness and success was developed. The main findings of the study indicated that

there is a relationship between the type of schooling and readiness factors as

statistical significance was noted. In addition, students who scored high on readiness

factors were more likely to succeed in tertiary education. Moreover the number of

interventions students is exposed to positively influence student readiness and

success.

This study has contributed to the body of knowledge which relates to the broader

educational environment in South Africa and provides recommendations to address

student readiness and success.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to everyone that has

supported and encouraged me throughout this study; I could not have done it without

you.

The Almighty Allah, for keeping me steadfast through the good and bad times.

My loving husband Shakoor and beautiful daughter Nuha, shukran for the

undying love, understanding, support and encouragement. I love you both

dearly, my biggest supporters.

My dear parents, parents in law, brothers and sister in law, shukran for all the

love and on-going support, I appreciate it and love you dearly.

Dr Michelle Mey, for her guidance, encouragement and support every step of

the way. Thank you for believing in me and seeing what I do not see in

myself. You are one of a kind and I am forever grateful.

Professor Paul Poisat, for his valuable insight and guidance, I appreciate it.

My extended family, for motivating me to keep going, shukran, love you all.

My colleagues, Dr Werner, Mrs De Villiers, Dr Ngalo, Elaine, Yonela,

Anthonie, Melissa and Kim for their support and understanding, I appreciate it.

Dr David Conley, for granting me access to his articles, conference papers

and other resources, it is highly appreciated.

Dr Jacques Pietersen for his assistance with the statistical aspects and Ms

Elma de Koker, for assisting with the language editing of this study.

The students and lecturing staff who took the time to complete the

questionnaires, without you this would not be possible.

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CONTENTS PAGE

DECLARATION i

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF FIGURES vi

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF APPENDICES x

CHAPTER ONE: MAIN PROBLEM, SUB-PROBLEMS AND OBJECTIVES

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 MAIN PROBLEM, SUB-PROBLEMS AND OBJECTIVES 5

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 7

1.4 DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS 8

1.5 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY 11

1.6 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 12

1.7 CHAPTER OUTLINE 16

CHAPTER TWO: THE CONCEPT OF READINESS

2.1 INTRODUCTION 19

2.2 THEORIES OF READINESS 21

2.3 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION RELATIVE TO STUDENT READINESS

AND SUCCESS 31

2.4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PREPARED STUDENT 36

2.5 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN READINESS AND SUCCESS 41

2.6 APPLICATION: FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE 49

2.7 CONCLUSION 57

CHAPTER THREE: VARIABLES IMPACTING ON STUDENT READINESS

3.1 INTRODUCTION 61

3.2 STAKEHOLDER GROUPS AND THEIR IMPACT ON STUDENT

READINESS 64

3.3 FACTORS AFFECTING STUDENT READINESS 84

v

3.4 CURRENT INTERVENTIONS USED TO ADDRESS STUDENT

READINESS 93

3.5 APPLICATION: FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE 100

3.6 CONCLUSION 112

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION 116

4.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 116

4.3 RESEARCH METHOD AND DESIGN 117

4.4 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE 120

4.5 DATA COLLECTION 127

4.6 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 139

4.7 ETHICS IN RESEARCH 142

4.8 DATA ANALYSIS 144

4.9 CONCLUSION 146

CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION 149

5.2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 150

5.3 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 170

5.4 CONCLUSION 185

CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARIES, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUDING

REMARKS

6.1 INTRODUCTION 188

6.2 SUMMARY OF MAIN FINDINGS 189

6.3 CHALLENGES AND LIMITATIONS 192

6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 193

6.5 CONCLUSION 197

REFERENCE LIST 198

vi

List of figures

Figure 1.1: Proficiency testing results 3

Figure 1.2: Research framework 13

Figure 2.1: Four dimensions of college and career readiness 21

Figure 2.2: The individual in transition: A detailed look 27

Figure 2.3: Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs 31

Figure 2.4: Expectancy theory 32

Figure 2.5: Summary of motivational theories and student success 35

Figure 2.6: Characteristics of successful students 36

Figure 2.7: South Africa‟s student dropout rate, 2000-2003 47

Figure 3.1: Key stakeholders impacting on students‟ readiness levels 64

Figure 3.2: Use of video‟s in the classroom setting 74

Figure 3.3: A model of the factors impacting on student readiness 85

Figure 4.1: Outline of research framework 118

Figure 4.2: An example of a Likert scale question used in the questionnaire 133

Figure 4.3: An example of an open-ended question used in the questionnaire 133

Figure 4.4: An example of a dichotomous question used in the questionnaire 134

Figure 4.5: An example of a ranking question used in the questionnaire 134

Figure 4.6: Example: Initial question 136

Figure 4.7: Example: After pilot study 136

Figure 4.8: Example: Initial question 136

Figure 4.9: Example: After pilot study 137

Figure 4.10: Example: Initial question 137

Figure 4.11: Example: After pilot study 137

Figure 5.1: Number of males and females in the study 150

Figure 5.2: Person/s responsible for fees 151

Figure 5.3: Type of schooling 151

Figure 5.4: Summary of responses: Readiness factors 155

Figure 5.5: Level of importance as per student response 158

Figure 5.6: Summary of responses: Resources and support 163

Figure 5.7: Exposure to interventions 166

vii

Figure 5.8: Students‟ perception of the extent to which the interventions prepared

them for tertiary education 167

Figure 5.9: Summary of responses: Interventions 168

Figure 5.10: Scatter plots indicating correlation n=117 172

Figure 5.11: Support systems and academic performance 178

Figure 5.12: Integration and academic performance 179

viii

List of tables

Table 1.1: Increase in APS admission scores at various universities 2

Table 2.1: Comparison of grade 12 results from 2009 to 2013 in

South Africa 43

Table 2.2: Differences between secondary and tertiary education 44

Table 2.3: Enrolments in higher education by race, 2006 to 2011 45

Table 2.4: Comparison between CAAR testing results for 2013 and 2014 48

Table 2.5: Summary of lecturer responses 50

Table 3.1: Summary of key roles teachers play 69

Table 3.2: Benefits and challenges of blended learning 75

Table 3.3: Percentage of qualified teachers in South Africa 78

Table 3.4: Summary of lack of infrastructure in South African schools 80

Table 3.5: Summary of lecturer responses 101

Table 4.1: Key differences between research and information gathering 118

Table 4.2: Differences between qualitative and quantitative research 120

Table 4.3: Frequency distribution of biographical data of the sample n=117 122

Table 4.4: Types of sampling methods and techniques 125

Table 4.5: Types of questions 130

Table 4.6: Cronbach‟s Coefficient alpha‟s 140

Table 5.1: Measures of central tendency: Section B: Readiness factors 153

Table 5.2: Scores for registered modules 157

Table 5.3: Factor and percentage of extreme importance 159

Table 5.4: Measures of central tendency: Section C: Resources and support 161

Table 5.5: Measures of central tendency: Section D: Interventions 165

Table 5.6: Pearson moment product correlation n=117 170

Table 5.7: Final mark and hours spent studying n=113 172

Table 5.8: Difference between gender and Business Management

results n=109 173

Table 5.9: Relationship between age and readiness factors n=107 174

Table 5.10: Relationship between ethnicity and readiness n=109 175

Table 5.11: Relationship between the type of schooling and readiness factors

n=104 176

ix

Table 5.12: Relationship between gender and readiness factors n=117 176

Table 5.13: Relationship between readiness and success n=113 177

Table 5.14: Exposure to interventions and readiness levels 180

x

LIST OF APPENDICES

Annexure A: Open-ended questionnaire 210

Annexure B: Oral presentation given to students 213

Annexure C: Questionnaire cover letter 214

Annexure D: Pilot questionnaire 215

Annexure E: Questionnaire 222

Annexure F: Ethics approval 229

CHAPTER ONE: MAIN PROBLEM, SUB-PROBLEMS AND

OBJECTIVES

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.2 Main problem, sub-problems and objectives 5

1.2.1 Main problem 5

1.2.2 Sub-problems and objectives 5

1.3 Significance of the study 7

1.4 Definition of key concepts 8

1.5 Scope and delimitation of the study 11

1.5.1 Hypotheses 11

1.5.2 Geographical delimitation 12

1.5.3 Target group 12

1.6 Research design and methodology 12

1.6.1 Research methodology 12

1.6.1.1 Literature study 13

1.6.1.2 Empirical study 14

1.6.1.3 Data sources 14

1.6.1.4 Data collection method 15

1.6.1.4.1 Questionnaires 15

1.6.1.5 Ethics 16

1.7 Chapter outline 16

1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

As quoted by Trevelyan, a British historian, “Action springs not from thought, but

from a readiness for responsibility”. Readiness therefore refers to the point whereby

an individual has matured sufficiently to benefit from learning experiences, such as

readiness to enter a tertiary institution (Bergh, 2011, p. 83). In today‟s changing

technological environment learners cannot merely possess a grade 12 certificate if

they are considering a successful career in a specific field of study (Bangser, 2008,

p. 4). In previous generations it was not a necessity to obtain a tertiary qualification

or a grade 12 certificate. However, currently to become “employable” a learner

needs to have both the theoretical background and experience to pursue a specific

career. Employability therefore refers to a person who has the value, potential and

the competitive advantage that prospective employers may want (Bergh, 2011, p.

106).

The theoretical background mentioned above refers to the knowledge, skills and

values that are required for a specific career and which can be obtained through

tertiary institutions. In this respect in South Africa students can obtain certificates,

diplomas, and degrees, which are currently on levels five to 10 of the proposed

National Qualifications Framework (Erasmus, Loedolff, Mda and Nel, 2010, p. 71).

To gain admission into a tertiary institution, certain requirements have to be met. In

South Africa, if a learner wishes to obtain a tertiary qualification, the following

requirements must be met:

National Higher Certificate: Pass National Senior Certificate and satisfy

any other university requirements.

Diploma: Pass National Senior Certificate with an average of 40 to 49%

or more in any four subjects, and satisfy any other university

requirements.

Bachelor‟s degree: Pass National Senior Certificate with an average of

50 to 59% or more in four subjects from the list provided and satisfy

any other university requirements (General Prospectus, NMMU, 2012,

p.10).

2

As previously mentioned, there are certain requirements that need to be satisfied

before the learner can be registered as a student. The admission point score (APS),

which is calculated from the matric marks obtained, is an indication of students‟

previous academic performance before entering university. Due to the high failure

and dropout rates among first-year learners, many tertiary institutions have

increased the minimum requirements needed to enrol for a qualification. Table 1.1

indicates how various universities have adjusted their basic entry requirements to

ensure a better quality intake.

Table 1.1: Increase in APS admission scores at various universities

University Previous APS

score

Adjusted APS

score

Subject

adjustments

Course

Nelson Mandela

Metropolitan

University

22 30 National

Diploma:

HRM

University of the

Western Cape

27 34 Maths

Literacy will

not be

accepted if a

student

wishes to

study

science.

Science

degrees

University of the

Free State

28 30 Bachelor of

Education

Rhodes

University

35 40 Across

disciplines

Source: (General prospectus, NMMU, 2012; Govender, 2010)

The increase in admission scores has prompted much debate. The Young

Communist League South Africa and the South African Students‟ Movement are

dissatisfied with the outcome and are of the opinion that the increase in admission

3

scores is an attempt to exclude black or previously disadvantaged students from

tertiary studies (Makoni, 2010).

There are many learners who do not meet these entry requirements to register for a

tertiary qualification. Some of these learners attend FET (Further Education and

Training) colleges in the hope of gaining entry into a university or university of

technology. According to the 2009 Country report (2010) FET colleges play an

important role as they were designed to meet the needs of the economy. The

purpose of FET colleges are to prepare learners to meet the demands of the South

African economy in terms of the practical skills and competencies required for

technical occupations, accounting, engineering and artisans. In terms of the

proposed NQF structure FET colleges are placed between levels two to four

(Erasmus, Loedolff, Mda and Nel, 2010, p. 71).

Universities routinely do proficiency tests to establish whether students meet the

admission requirements. In South Africa proficiency tests were undertaken by

universities between 2008 and 2009. Approximately 12 000 students were selected

across various fields of study and the results concluded that many students needed

support with regard to mathematics, languages and academic skills (Blaine, 2010).

In 2010 the proficiency tests were administered at 11 universities. These tests

measured the capabilities of learners with regard to academic skills, data

interpretation and mathematics literacy. The study covered eight universities and a

total of 12 202 active students. Figure 1.1 shows the extent to which students were

prepared for tertiary education in terms of academic, mathematical and language

ability which were based on the results of the proficiency tests.

Figure1.1: Proficiency testing results

4

Source: (Blaine, 2010)

The findings concluded that 47.60% of learners had the necessary academic skills,

25.32% had the ability to undertake and interpret data and 6.80% were on a

mathematical literacy level that was required to cope with tertiary education (Blaine,

2010).

As a result, the challenge arises when “high school” learners enter tertiary

institutions for the first time. The gap between what students know and what they

need to know becomes evident and this is when learners realise that there are key

differences between secondary and tertiary education.

South Africa is not the only country facing this predicament with regard to

underprepared students. In America the same challenge is evident and due to this

the No child left behind Act (2001) was introduced. The main aim of the act was to

determine and create awareness of the level of underprepared students (Tavakolian

and Howell, 2012). The readiness levels of American students‟ results show that

67% of students are considered to be ready in terms of English, 42% in terms of

Mathematics, 53% in terms of Reading and 28% in terms of Science (Act, 2009).

Taking the above into consideration, one can assume that matriculants on exiting

school were not prepared for the challenges of tertiary education. When analysing

throughput rates, it was evident that most tertiary institutions were facing a challenge

with regard to the readiness of students. In 2008, 133 241 students graduated

across the 23 tertiary institutions in South Africa, while in the same year 799 387

students were enrolled (Govender, 2010). According to Govender (2010) Vice-

Chancellors from various institutions commented on the high dropout rates among

47.60% 25.32%

6.80% Academic Skills

DataInterpretation

Mathematicsliteracy

5

first-year students. These dropout rates were attributed to financial constraints and

the inability to adjust to tertiary life and cope academically.

This study concerns the readiness levels of students at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan

University and students enrolled for the Diploma in Human Resources Management.

In the context of this study, the throughput rate for students doing the Diploma in

Human Resources Management for 2010 was 71% (NMMU, 2010). Based on the

above, certain aspects had to be taken into consideration such as the fact that the

throughput percentage mentioned included students who have been in the system

for an extended period of time, for example, four years or longer. It was therefore

assumed that students were not sufficiently prepared for tertiary education.

Other factors impacting on the readiness levels of students that were considered

included personal, family and social issues. Personal issues include the ability to

self-manage, motivation levels and understanding of the expected standard and

quality of work. In terms of family issues, low readiness levels may be due to a lack

of support, or perhaps being in a dysfunctional family. Social issues included any

aspects from a poor education system to the impact of HIV/Aids.

This discussion forms the basis of this study which was aimed at identifying

interventions to reduce the gap between current and expected readiness levels of

students to ensure a successful transition from school to tertiary education.

1.2 MAIN PROBLEM, SUB-PROBLEMS AND OBJECTIVES

The main problem, sub-problems and objectives relating to this study are discussed

below.

1.2.1 Main problem

Having stated the background, the main objective of this study is to investigate

student readiness and to propose interventions that prepare learners for tertiary

education.

6

1.2.2 Sub-problems and objectives

The following sub-problems derive from the main problem:

Sub-problem 1

What is readiness and why is it a crucial factor in the academic success of students?

This sub-problem was addressed by a literature study on student readiness in

general, and specifically the readiness levels of students enrolled for a Diploma in

Human Resource Management (HRM). In addition to the literature study, the

researcher distributed open-ended questionnaires to lecturers who teach first-year

HRM students to gain insight into what student readiness is and the characteristics

of a student ready for tertiary education and specifically for the Diploma in HRM.

Sub-problem 2

What is the contribution and impact of various stakeholder groups on the readiness

levels of students?

This sub-problem was addressed by a literature study and open-ended

questionnaires which were distributed to the academic staff mentioned above to

identify key stakeholders, such as the government, parents, peers, teachers,

lecturers and the students and to identify and describe the role and impact of these

stakeholder groups in relation to student readiness.

Sub-problem 3

Which are the factors causing a lack of readiness and which interventions can be

used to prepare students for tertiary education?

7

This sub-problem was addressed by a literature study on the factors that impact on

student readiness. In addition to the literature study, the researcher distributed open-

ended questionnaires to lecturers who teach first-year HRM students, to gain insight

into what the factors are that impact on student readiness and the current

interventions in place to address student readiness.

Sub-problem 4

To what extent do the factors, identified in sub-problem 3, apply to first-year male

and female HRM students at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University?

This sub-problem was addressed by means of an empirical study which was

conducted at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU). Questionnaires were

used as the data collection tool.

Sub-problem 5

To what extent have first-year students been exposed to the interventions identified

in sub-problem 3?

This sub-problem was addressed by an empirical study conducted at NMMU as

described above.

The objectives of the study were therefore to:

Provide a critical analysis of student readiness and its impact on student

success.

Investigate the impact of various stakeholders such as the government,

parents, peers, teachers and lecturers on student readiness.

Analyse the factors causing a lack of readiness among South African students

and to identify interventions that will result in preparing students for tertiary

education.

8

Identify to what extent the readiness factors are applicable to first-year HRM

students.

Analyse the extent to which first-year learners have been exposed to the

identified interventions.

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Student readiness refers to whether students have the necessary knowledge, skills,

attitude and values required to successfully complete their qualification in the

minimum amount of time (Conley, 2007).

The aim of this study was to propose interventions that would prepare learners to

ensure a smoother transition from school to university and to maximise their studies

and experience.

As stated in the introduction, most universities experienced a high failure or dropout

rate among first-year students, which was largely due to a lack of readiness on the

part of the learner. This failure rate has dire financial consequences for universities

and students, resulting in the inefficient use of resources.

The results of the study generated the following benefits:

Contributing to the body of knowledge related to the broader educational

environment in South Africa.

Assisting the Department of Education in aligning schools with the

expectations of tertiary education.

Assisting teachers in adequately preparing learners for tertiary education.

Assisting learners across disciplines to prepare themselves for university.

Assisting NMMU and other universities in improving the current interventions

aimed at improving the readiness levels of students.

Enabling students to successfully complete their qualifications and handle the

everyday pressures related to their studies more effectively.

9

Lastly, on a broader spectrum, it was assumed that if the readiness levels of

students were improved, it would generate a more ready, capable and employable

workforce that impacts positively on the South African economy.

1.4 DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS

For this study the following terms will be explained:

Tertiary education - According to the Organisation of Economic Co-operation

and Development (1998, p. 16) tertiary education refers to structures,

programmes and resources aimed at educating students from an

undergraduate to postgraduate level. Tertiary institutions are made up of

different types of learning institutions, namely universities, universities of

technology and colleges.

HRM students - For this study HRM students refer to full-time students

enrolled for the diploma in Human Resources Management at Nelson

Mandela Metropolitan University.

Readiness - Berg (2011, p.83) defines readiness as the point whereby an

individual has matured sufficiently in the cognitive, psychosocial, physical and

career domain, to benefit from learning experiences such as readiness to

enter a tertiary institution. Readiness for tertiary education refers to learners

who possess the required knowledge, skills and behaviours to successfully

complete a tertiary qualification, without the use of remedial classes and

within the minimum period required (Conley, 2007).

According to Pearson Education (2009) readiness is a level of competence

influenced by many factors, such as the ability to understand and interpret

information, and the academic and technical abilities for an individual to

succeed in higher education.

10

According to Conley (2010, p.5) readiness refers to setting standards for all

students at a level where they will be able to proceed on a career pathway

and not just be trained to get a job.

For this study an integrated definition was used. Student readiness therefore

referred to the overall ability of the student to meet basic requirements for

succeeding in higher education without the use of remedial classes and within

the recommended minimum amount of time required to complete the

qualification.

Outcomes-based education - OBE is learner-centred which is quite different

compared to traditional education where learning activities mainly focus on

the trainer/educator (Frederich-Nel, De Jager, Joubert and Nel, 2003).

Spady (1991) states that “outcomes are clear, observable demonstrations of

student learning that occur after a significant set of learning experiences”.

In addition, Spady (1991) states that there are three components to be

considered when establishing an outcome:

What the student already knows?

What the student is able to do with what they already know?

Lastly, the student‟s confidence and motivation during the

demonstration.

For this study when referring to OBE, it will be defined as a learner-centred

approach where outcomes are clear and observable and where learners are

able to demonstrate what they have learned.

Student engagement - People who are engaged want to know what is

expected of them so that they can meet and exceed those expectations.

Engaged individuals are those who are naturally curious, their performance is

constantly of a high standard and they are passionate and driven individuals

(Sanford, 2002).

11

Kuh (2007) states that student engagement occurs when a learner studies for

a particular subject and becomes more acquainted with the content. With

constant feedback and practical application, he or she then gains a deeper

understanding and comprehension of more ambiguous and complex problems

and seeks solutions.

Interventions - According to Bowen, Jenson and Clark (2004, p. 7)

interventions can be defined as a systematic process that is used to change

behaviours by teaching new skills.

Bowen, Jenson and Clark (2004, p. 7) further propose that for the intervention

to be successful four Ps must be evident:

Proven

Practical

Positive

Preventative.

For this study an intervention will refer to a change in behaviour that is

attributed to teaching new coping skills to learners or students in the hope of

assisting them in the transition from secondary to tertiary education.

1.5 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Demarcating the research allows the researcher to focus on the main objectives of

the study. Therefore the main purpose of this study is to determine the level of

preparedness of students, the factors affecting student readiness and identifying

interventions to improve readiness levels.

In this section, the hypotheses, limitations and delimitations of the study will be

highlighted.

1.5.1 Hypotheses

12

The following hypotheses apply to this study:

H1: There is a relationship between age and readiness factors

H2: There is a relationship between ethnicity and readiness factors

H3: There is a relationship between the type of schooling and readiness factors

H4: There is a relationship between gender and readiness

H5: Students who score high on readiness factors are more likely to succeed in

their first year

H6: Students who have adequate support structures in place show better academic

performance.

H7: Students who are well-integrated in the university perform better.

H8: Student exposure to the early interventions improves readiness and success.

1.5.2 Geographical delimitation

The empirical study was conducted at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University‟s

Second Avenue Campus, Nelson Mandela Bay.

1.5.3 Target group

Questionnaires were distributed to 117 full-time first-year students registered for a

National Diploma in Human Resource Management in 2014.

Learners or students who were excluded from this study are:

Students in the second or third year or postgraduate students.

Part-time students

1.6 Research design and methodology

The study is divided into two sections, namely a literature review and an empirical

study.

13

1.6.1 Research methodology

The study was used to identify factors affecting student readiness and to propose

interventions aimed at improving the readiness levels among Human Resource

Management students. Figure 1.2 provides a framework for this study and is

discussed in greater detail below.

Figure 1.2: Research framework

Research Methodology

Pre-reading and

preparation of proposal

Empirical study

Empirical study

begins:

Administer

Questionnaires

Results analysed

Questionnaire

development

Theoretical study

Findings,

Conclusion and

Recommendations

Interviews

Open-ended

questionnaires

14

1.6.1.1 Literature study

The literature study consisted of books, articles and internet sources and focussed

on the theoretical background of student readiness, paying close attention to sub-

objectives one to three. Most of the research in this area is attributed to Dr David

Conley, a professor and Director of the Centre for Educational Policy and Research

at the University of Oregon. Dr Conley has published a number of journal articles,

conference papers and books on the readiness of students. While Dr Conley‟s work

was mostly applied to students in the United States of America, this study is

focussed on South African students, and will incorporate aspects unique to the South

African situation. Contact has been made with Dr David Conley via e-mail and

authoritative sources related to college readiness were recommended which will be

incorporated in this study.

The focus areas of the study are on:

• The concept of student readiness

• The stakeholders and their impact on student readiness

• The factors affecting student readiness

• Interventions suggested for the preparation of students for tertiary institutions

Open-ended questionnaires were used to complement the literature review and

included the lecturers who teach first-year HRM students.

1.6.1.2 Empirical study

For this study a mixed research design was used which included both qualitative and

quantitative approaches. Qualitative research refers to information that cannot be

analysed in numerical value and in this case the use of open-ended questionnaires

(Coldwell and Herbst, 2004, p.14). The quantitative approach refers to information

that can be expressed as numbers and is easy to understand and quantify (Coldwell

and Herbst, 2004, p. 15).

1.6.1.3 Data sources

15

The primary source of data refers to information conducted by the researcher

specifically for the study. Surveys were used in this study as the primary source of

data. Secondary sources of data refer to a variety of printed resources such as

books, journal articles, conference papers and internet sources (Willemse, 2009, p.

13). All these were used in this study.

1.6.1.4 Data collection method

Data collection methods refer to the type of method used to gain the necessary

information for the study (Coldwell and Herbst, 2004, p. 48). In this study both open-

ended questionnaires and questionnaires were used and distributed to staff and

students respectively.

1.6.1.4.1 Questionnaires

As previously mentioned, self-administered questionnaires were used as the primary

data collection method. Furthermore, an open-ended questionnaire was used to gain

lecturer opinions on the topic of student readiness and success.

The advantages of using a questionnaire are that it is less time-consuming than most

other methods and importantly, it is anonymous, so the learners and/or students will

feel more at ease when answering. More advantages include that it is cheaper and a

large number of respondents can be reached (Erasmus et al., 2010, p. 132).

The questionnaire comprised mainly Likert scale type questions which in this regard

were easier to construct, administer and score. The questionnaire was targeted at

students enrolled for the National Diploma in Human Resource Management. The

questions were structured in such a way to enable a comparison between theory and

practice.

16

The questionnaire was based on the factors affecting students and to what extent

they have been exposed to the interventions that prepare them for tertiary education.

The open-ended questionnaires were distributed to the academic staff who assisted

in the development and construction of the questionnaire.

The questionnaire comprised four sections:

SECTION A: Biographical and other details

SECTION B: Readiness factors

SECTION C: Resources and support

SECTION D: Interventions

In addition to the self-administered questionnaires distributed to the respondents,

open-ended questionnaires were used as a data method to gain various lecturers‟

views on readiness as well as their opinions on aspects such as: the characteristics

of a prepared student, the role players involved in education, the factors affecting

student readiness and success and lastly, the current interventions in place to

promote student success.

1.6.1.5 Ethics

Ethics in research ensures that participants are not harmed due to their responses.

Ethical considerations may include fairness, confidentiality and disclosure of

information. Due to the fact that first-year students were the target group for the

study, ethics clearance was needed. Permission was therefore sought from Nelson

Mandela Metropolitan University‟s Research and Ethics Committee for approval to

conduct the study. The students had a right and were not obligated to answer the

survey. The survey remained anonymous and no personal information was required.

1.7 CHAPTER OUTLINE

In Chapter One the main problem and sub-problems relating to student readiness

were introduced.

17

Chapter Two addressed the characteristics of a successful student, the concept of

readiness and the impact readiness has on student success.

The factors that affect student readiness and the impact stakeholders have on

student readiness were investigated in Chapter Three.

In Chapter Four the research design and methodology were presented and

explained.

In Chapter Five the analysis of the empirical findings was presented.

Lastly, in Chapter Six recommendations were made for preparing students for

tertiary education and the study was concluded.

18

18

CHAPTER TWO: THE CONCEPT OF READINESS

2.1 INTRODUCTION 19

2.2 Theories of readiness 21

2.2.1 The four key dimensions of college and career readiness 21

2.2.2 Schlossberg‟s transition theory 26

2.2.3 Tinto‟s model of student retention 30

2.3 Theories of motivation in relation to student readiness and success 31

2.3.1 Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs 32

2.3.2 Expectancy theory 33

2.3.3 Cognitive evaluation theory 34

2.3.4 Self-efficacy 35

2.4 General characteristics of the prepared student 36

2.5 The relationship between readiness and success 41

2.5.1 The apartheid era and current levels of education 41

2.5.2 Difference between secondary and tertiary education 43

2.5.3 Higher education 45

2.6 APPLICATION : From theory to practice 49

2.6.1 Open-ended questionnaires and responses 49

2.6.2 Analysis of results 54

2.7 CONCLUSION 57

19

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In Chapter One the background including the main problem and sub-problems were

introduced and briefly discussed.

This chapter seeks to provide a better understanding of readiness and therefore

focuses on the different theories and models relating to readiness, the characteristics

of the ideal student and the relationship between readiness and success.

As stated in Chapter One, readiness refers to a student‟s overall ability to meet the

basic requirements to succeed in higher education without the use of remedial

classes and within the recommended minimum amount of time required to complete

a qualification.

Taking this into consideration the theories relating to readiness are identified and

critically analysed. They are:

Conley‟s readiness theory

Schlossberg‟s transition theory

Tinto‟s student retention theory

Motivational theories such as the expectancy theory, self-efficacy

theory, cognitive-evaluation theory and Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs

theory.

Conley‟s (2010, p.31) four dimensional model of college and career readiness is

used as it emphasises academic readiness and social integration which include

individuals‟ ability to adapt to their surroundings.

Schlossberg‟s (Schlossberg, Waters and Goodman, 1995) transitional theory was

initially a framework used to understand adults in transitions and assisting them with

the coping mechanisms needed to succeed. Taking this into account, Schlossberg‟s

theory is relevant to this study and could therefore be used as a theory to understand

the readiness levels of first-year students.

Tinto‟s (1975, in Draper 2008) model of student retention indicates that there is a

relationship between readiness and withdrawal behaviour. This model focuses on

20

two key components as with Conley‟s (2010, p.31), namely academic and social

integration.

Motivational theories, including the expectancy and cognitive evaluation theories,

Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs theory and self-efficacy, are used as indicators to

academic success and readiness.

This chapter also takes into account the readiness levels of first-year Human

Resource Management (HRM) students. Information is sourced by including relevant

statistics provided by the Centre for Access Assessment and Research, a

department within Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, which assesses whether

students are adequately prepared for tertiary education.

Secondly, this chapter includes the characteristics of a „prepared‟ student with regard

to the skills, abilities and attitude needed to achieve success at a tertiary institution.

Lecturers who specifically teach first-year HRM students are also included to gain a

better understanding and to determine whether theory and practice are aligned.

Lastly, this chapter seeks to identify the relationship between readiness and success

at a tertiary institution. This takes into account the effects of the apartheid era on the

education levels of the minority, the changing demographics in higher education as

well as the differences between secondary and tertiary institutions.

21

2.2 Theories of readiness

To gain a better understanding of the concept of student readiness, the different

theories applicable to readiness are discussed.

Many tertiary institutions are facing challenges with regard to high school learners

not being adequately prepared for a tertiary qualification (Pearson, 2009). It was

found that large numbers of students have to take remedial courses while in their

first year of studies.

According to Conley (2010, p.5) readiness refers to setting standards for all students

at a level where they will be able to proceed on a career pathway and not just be

trained to get a job.

2.2.1 The four key dimensions of college and career readiness

According to Conley (2010, p.31) there are four key dimensions a student needs to

master to be considered a prepared student. These are key cognitive strategies, key

content knowledge, academic behaviours and contextual skills. These dimensions

are discussed into greater detail which includes relevant examples.

Figure 2.1: Four dimensions of college and career readiness

Source: (Conley, 2010, p. 32)

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Key cognitive strategies

For a student to be successful and adequately prepared for tertiary education, a

strong foundation is necessary. The foundation implied, refers to possessing the

adequate educational level and skills expected of a grade 12 learner. This foundation

forms the basis of key cognitive strategies that allow students to process,

understand, retain, use and apply content to new or existing situations (Conley,

2010, p. 32).

Twenty-first century learners are given the minimum amount of information to pass

high school exit examinations. An exit examination refers to the final examinations

written by learners and the result of these is a deciding factor as to whether the

learner proceeds to the next level. In the case of this study, it refers to the final

examination of grade 12 learners to progress to a higher qualification. This manifests

as a problem when these learners enter higher education. In high school the

cognitive strategies are at a minimal level, whereby learners are taught to simply

answer the question and provide the right answer. At tertiary level, however,

students need to critically analyse, apply and have the knowledge needed to

effectively solve problems.

According to Conley (2010, p. 33) key cognitive strategies can be described as the

intentional behaviours that students are able to apply. The behaviours in question

refer to critically analysing, understanding and applying information which need to be

repeated on a regular basis and in different situations. This provides learners with

opportunities to apply them, where and when possible.

Conley (2010, p. 33) states that these behaviours should not be seen as routine but

rather strategic in nature as students will know how to use and apply them to achieve

the best possible outcome.

The following key cognitive strategies were identified by Conley (2010, p. 34) as

requirements for entry level courses at a tertiary institution:

Problem formulation which refers to the ability to develop and apply different

strategies to formulate problems. This enables students to select a strategy

based on the characteristics of a specific problem to effectively seek a

solution.

23

Research is the ability to identify the resources available that could be used to

solve the problem. These students are able to collect, edit and use relevant

information to address a specific problem. At this point it is expected that the

student learns the rules and, more importantly, ethics when using and

distributing material.

Interpretation includes analysing problems from diverse perspectives while

focusing on the pros and cons and at a later stage forming conclusions based

on factual information. And finally, being able to present the findings both

verbally and/or in writing.

Communication refers to the ability of a student to construct logical and well-

organised arguments and explanations as well as the ability to present orally

and/or in writing.

Precision and accuracy refer to a student‟s ability to understand and use

knowledge where and when appropriate as well as maintaining accuracy

results and which enables the student to reach a conclusion.

To summarise, if students do not possess these capabilities they often

struggle to cope in higher education and miss out on the fundamental

principles that are taught (Conley, 2010, p. 35). In relation to the study, all of

the above are equally important and form the basis for academic success,

especially for those wanting to pursue tertiary education.

Key content knowledge

The second dimension of Conley‟s model (2010, p. 35) emphasises key content

knowledge which refers to the ability of the student to fully understand and master

what is taught and then use the key cognitive strategies to apply the information as

and when required. The strategies include problem formulation, research,

interpretation, communication, precision and accuracy (Conley, 2010, p. 35).

24

Certain skills are necessary when entering a tertiary institution. These skills are

divided into two parts, namely overarching academic skills and core academic

subject knowledge and skills. Overarching academic skills refer to reading and

writing abilities whereas core academic subject knowledge refers to language,

mathematical literacy and science (Conley, 2010, p. 38).

Overarching academic skills

Reading

On entering a tertiary institution, students need to adapt to the different formats,

styles and variety of reading material. These individuals need to be able to read,

interpret, identify and understand textbooks and technical terms or jargon that is

used in the specific discipline or area of study. Unlike high school, tertiary education

requires reading more than just the bare minimum, it requires investigation,

research, assigning meaning and understanding (Conley, 2010, p. 38).

Writing

Students are evaluated and assessed by their writing skills on a regular basis and in

most of their subjects. In tertiary education students are required to write extensively

and in a limited period of time. These students should be able to plan, edit and make

corrections and there should be minimal grammatical and spelling errors (Conley,

2010, p. 36).

Core academic subject knowledge and skills

According to Conley (2010, p. 37) a set of primary academic subject knowledge and

skills are required to proceed and succeed at a tertiary level. These are English,

Mathematics and Science.

The subjects are mere guidelines since there are other subjects that could be a

requirement to be accepted for the course a student has selected.

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Academic behaviours (self-management)

The behaviours exhibited by students form a critical component to their success.

Students are therefore required to effectively manage themselves in terms of self-

awareness, self-monitoring and self-controlling, to obtain academic success (Conley,

2010, p. 39). Self-management refers to effective study skills, which require a

student to prepare, have effective time management skills, and take notes during

class, work in groups and to communicate with academic staff (Conley, 2010, p.40).

Other behaviours include meta-cognition skills which refer to the ability of individuals

to monitor or control their thought processes (Bergh, 2011, p. 134). Students should

therefore be aware of their level of understanding, blind spots and so forth to

improve and make a success of their studies (Conley, 2010, p. 39).

Special attention should be given to the study skills that are needed to master the

subject content. Students need to make use of both tacit and explicit knowledge

which will add value to their overall success. Mankin (2009, p. 296) describes tacit

knowledge as the personal knowledge that resides with an individual. This type of

knowledge is developed and learned through experiences and commonly referred to

as an individual‟s skills and expertise. Explicit knowledge, unlike tacit knowledge,

refers to information that is theoretical and objective in nature and universities or

educational institutions, for example, rely on this type of knowledge as it is easier to

convey to students (Mankin, 2009, p. 297).

To summarise, academic behaviours such as self-management entails that learners

would need to take ownership over their studies by adapting to their new

environment, attending all their lectures and having appropriate mechanisms in place

to cope with the everyday stressors of tertiary life.

Contextual skills and awareness

To obtain tertiary success an individual needs to be aware of academic related

activities as well as social behaviours and activities. These include a conscious

awareness of their environment. Students need knowledge about the institution such

as its norms, culture and traditions which will enable them to easier adapt to the

transition from high school to tertiary institutions (Conley, 2010, p. 40). According to

26

Bergh (2010, p. 238) norms refer to standards of behaviour expected, accepted and

shared by members of a group.

Different types of norms include performance related norms which refer to what

needs to be done and how it will be done. It goes further and looks at the

expectations required from the different members in the group. Appearance related

norms follow which emphasise the dress code and loyalty to the group or place.

Social arrangement norms focus on the interaction between different types of people

as well as who to befriend and who not to. Lastly, the allocation of resources refers

to how resources are distributed to the different members of the group which is

usually done in a specific manner to achieve a specific outcome.

To summarise Conley‟s model, there are four components, which each plays a vital

role in a student‟s success. Conley not only focuses on academic and social

integration but also on the ability of a student to self-manage as well as the skills,

abilities and behaviour needed to obtain success.

2.2.2 Schlossberg’s transition theory

As previously stated the transition theory was designed to understand and assist

adults through transitions and to provide them with the necessary coping skills to

ensure progression from one phase to another (Schlossberg, Waters and Goodman,

1995). This theory can be applied to a learner who progresses from high school to a

tertiary institution.

Schlossberg (1995) states that to adapt, three variables need to be considered: the

individual‟s perception of the transition, the characteristics of both the pre- and post-

transition environments and lastly, the characteristics of the individual who is

experiencing the transition (Schlossberg, Waters and Goodman, 1995).

The basis of this theory seeks to provide a deeper understanding as to why people

adapt so differently to a transition and also why the same person adapts differently at

different times in his or her life (Schlossberg, Waters and Goodman, 1995).

27

In this instance, the term transition refers to any occasion that leads to change,

whether it is a change to relationships, roles or routines. Schlossberg (1995)

maintains that when trying to understand the transition, one needs to look at the

context and the impact of that transition on the individual. The different types of

transitions or changes are explained below:

Anticipated – this type of change refers to one that is planned and

predicted.

Unanticipated – these are unforeseen changes that may occur.

Non-event – these refer to changes that are expected but that do not

occur

Secondly one needs to look at the relationship between the individual and the

transition and lastly, how the transition impacts on the daily life of the individual

(Schlossberg, Waters and Goodman, 1995).

Figure 2.2: The individual in Transition: A detailed look

Source: (Schlossberg, 1984)

28

At a later stage this model was adapted by Schlossberg, Waters and Goodman. This

model also looked at the transition comprising three components, namely

approaching change, taking stock and taking charge (Schlossberg, Waters and

Goodman, 1995). The taking stock component consists of the 4S approach which

emphasises Schlossberg‟s coping mechanisms.

Each of the approaches is answered with the use of questions pertaining to the

transition and is discussed below:

Situation

o Type of transition?

o Is the transition perceived as positive or negative?

o Has the transition arrived at the best or worst of times?

o Was the transition voluntary or involuntary?

o In which part of the transition is the individual i.e. beginning,

middle or end?

Self

o What are the individual‟s strengths and weaknesses?

o What experience does the individual have with similar

transitions?

o Does the individual believe that he or she has certain options or

alternatives?

o Is the individual able to deal with uncertainty?

Support

o Does the individual have support from others?

o How do the „others‟ provide their support?

o What impact do they have on the individual‟s ability to change?

Strategies

o What plan of action does the individual have in place?

o Does the individual use various coping mechanisms?

o Can the individual cope by changing the situation, the meaning

of the situation and managing stress?

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The taking charge approach emphasised the different phases of transitions and

moving in, moving through and moving out are used to describe the approach and is

discussed below:

Moving in

o This concept emphasises the importance of the individual to

become acquainted with the rules, regulations, norms and the

expectations of a new situation.

Moving through

o Moving through refers to when an individual is in survival mode.

Survival mode in this instance refers to their focus,

determination and drive to get through the current demands.

Moving out

o During this phase an individual may experience it to be

overwhelming, as there are more decisions to be made and new

situations arising.

In conclusion, this model was designed to assist individuals with adequate coping

mechanisms to adapt to change. As with Conley (2010) this theory emphasises the

individual‟s role and the support mechanisms as well as the strategies to succeed.

However, an important aspect considered by Schlossberg is to include the type of

situation that is being experienced. In relation to this study, this model can be used

to understand the transition from high school to a tertiary institution and the

mechanisms needed to be adequately prepared, which in turn promotes academic

success.

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2.2.3 Tinto’s model of student retention

As with Conley‟s model Tinto emphasises both academic and social integration.

According to Draper (2008) the success of students in tertiary education is

influenced largely by their degree of commitment to both academic and social

integration.

Academic integration

Academic integration focuses on an individual‟s actual performance, personal

development and engagement, whether or not students identify with their role as a

student, and also whether or not they enjoy their subjects (Draper, 2008).

Social integration

Social integration refers to identifying with the university, its norms, values and

culture. It looks at a student‟s relationship with his or her peers and academic staff

(Draper, 2008).

Based on the above-mentioned, there are certain criticisms of Tinto‟s model. Some

of these criticisms allude to the fact that Tinto‟s focus was on predominantly white

universities (Tempel, 2010, p. 28). However, as with this study, the focus is on all

racial and cultural backgrounds and therefore all the preparation students do before

entering tertiary institutions play a vital role in their success.

Taking these theories into consideration, it is evident that for a student to be

successful in higher education both the academic and social factors need to be

considered.

Tinto‟s theory claims that when students enter tertiary institutions, they bring with

them certain hopes and beliefs. According to Tinto, integration plays an important

role in their success. Tinto further suggested that the decision to persist or withdraw

from higher education takes place only once an individual enters a tertiary institution

(Tempel, 2010, p. 28).

31

2.3. Theories of motivation in relation to academic success

Motivation refers to the actions one takes to achieve a result and to maintain

behaviour (Bergh, 2011, p. 197). Motivational theories in this instance will therefore

be used to explain the reasons why students behave the way that they do.

There are two types of motivation namely intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation

refers to feelings of achievement, accomplishment and satisfaction; whereas

extrinsic motivation results in obtaining an external benefit such as rewards, which

include gifts, monetary benefits, recognition.

For students to succeed in tertiary education, it is important that these individuals as

well as others in their surroundings understand how they are motivated. If, for

example, students are internally motivated, chances are that they will succeed as

they are doing it for themselves. If they are externally motivated, a simple „well done‟

will push them to achieve more.

The following theories of motivation are discussed in further detail which in turn

shows the relationship between readiness and motivation.

2.3.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs‟ theory suggests that individuals are motivated by a set

of needs categorised in a particular order. This theory further states that the basic

needs first need to be satisfied before an individual can move onto the next level.

Figure 2.3: Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs

32

Source: (Eysenck, 2004, p.66)

The model is divided into two parts, namely lower and higher order needs. Lower

order needs include physiological needs such as food, water and shelter; safety and

security needs include an individual‟s physical and psychological security; and social

needs focus on interaction with others.

Higher order needs include the ego which comprises an individual‟s desire for

recognition as a result of achievements and the final need being self-actualisation,

refers to reaching one‟s full potential.

This model provides insight to how the different levels of needs impact on achieving

an individual‟s full potential. In the case of students, for them to reach their full

potential in tertiary education, they need to meet every level. As with the theories of

readiness, this model includes social needs, which refer to the ability of an individual

to interact with others.

To conclude, the theories of motivation have an impact on the success of a student

in tertiary education. Each one of them shows that for students to succeed they need

to be motivated, which will provide them with the drive and the ability to overcome

any obstacles they might face.

2.3.2 Expectancy theory

According to Lunenburg (2011, p. 1) the end result influences the level of motivation

needed to complete a task. The expectancy theory model comprises three variables

which are discussed below.

Self-actualisation

Ego

Social

Safety/security

Physiological

Higher order

needs

Lower order

needs

33

Figure 2.4: Expectancy theory

Source: (Lunenburg, 2011, p.1)

Expectancy: a person‟s estimate that the effort will lead to performance.

Instrumentality: if we achieve the task it will lead to various outcomes.

Valence: how attractive is that reward to the individual?

The rationale behind this model is that people are often motivated by the end result.

If students perceive the end result to be positive they would be inclined to be more

motivated to achieve. This model further investigated the effort (expectancy)

individuals put in which results in expected performance (instrumentality) and

ultimately that performance will lead to the perceived reward (valence). On the

contrary, if the reward is seen as not important or negative, it will have the opposite

effect. In such a case the individual might feel that there is no need to perform

because the reward is not valuable to him or her.

To conclude, this theory of motivation is important when trying to understand

students‟ performance as well as how to motivate them. It is essential to understand

that if students place no value on the end result, their performance will be poor.

However, if they feel the end result is attractive their performance will dramatically

increase which then improves their ability to succeed in higher education. A

recommendation would therefore be to find effective ways that will motivate these

students.

2.3.3 Cognitive evaluation theory

The cognitive evaluation theory postulates that it is not the event itself that has an

impact on the level of motivation but rather the meaning the individual assigns to that

event. This theory hypothesises that external events can be used as incentives or

consequences which control behaviour. This implies that these can be used to either

Expectancy Instrumentality Valence

34

increase or decrease undesirable behaviour as well as inform an individual of his or

her level of competence.

According to Bergh (2010, p. 208) the cognitive evaluation theory consists of four

propositions:

Proposition 1: If individuals perceive an event as being out of their control it weakens

intrinsic motivation, whereas if individuals believe it is under their control it heightens

their level of motivation, increasing their ability to perform.

Proposition 2: If individuals feel that they are knowledgeable, experienced and skilled

at performing a particular task, it increases their level of motivation. Within

proposition two, there are two aspects that need to be considered, the informational

and controlling aspect. The informational aspect (perceived competence) has a

positive impact on motivation levels whereas the controlling aspect (being controlled

by the event) leads to a negative impact on motivation.

Proposition 3: An individual might feel that he or she does not possess the skills

needed to perform a task or that he or she is not competent to do so – this refers to

the demotivating aspect.

Proposition 4: Intrapersonal events differ depending on the person who experiences

it and that will determine the effect it has on that individual‟s level of motivation.

Proposition four looks at two types of events, namely internally controlling and

demotivating events. The one is positive and drives the individual to achieve and the

latter is negative in that it demotivates the individual.

In conclusion, cognitive evaluation theory maintains that external events have both a

controlling as well as an informational aspect. In relation to students, it depends on

the meaning students assign to an event that will determine their level of motivation.

It also enables students to understand their level of competence and where they

need to improve.

2.3.4 Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy refers to individuals‟ ability to perform a specific task in a given situation

and the feeling that they have more or less control over the events affecting their

35

lives. Individuals who possess a high level of self-efficacy believe that they have the

necessary skills, knowledge and abilities, are quick-witted, and are able to overcome

barriers that might impact on their ability to achieve their goals. On the other hand,

individuals who have a low level of self-efficacy believe that irrespective of how hard

they try, they do not possess the level of skills and abilities needed to complete a

task (Bergh, 2010, p. 208).

Based on this theory and taking student readiness into consideration, if students feel

that they do not have the required skills needed to perform, they will not be

motivated which in turn will cause a barrier to their success.

A brief summary in the form of a diagram is used to highlight important aspects in

relation to the motivational theories and their effect on student success.

Figure 2.5: Summary of motivational theories and student success

2.4. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PREPARED STUDENT

The previous section investigated and analysed the theories of readiness and

motivation in relation to student success. This section focuses on the characteristics

of the ideal student. It takes into account the theoretical background including

lecturers‟ points of view and their description of the ideal student. In conclusion,

comparisons will be made between theory and practice.

36

Figure 2.6: Characteristics of successful students

According to Conley (2010, p. 49) students who are able to master the four

dimensions of college and career readiness, namely key cognitive strategies, key

content knowledge, academic behaviours and contextual skills and awareness, are

considered to be adequately prepared.

Conley (2010, p. 49) further elaborates and provides a list of general characteristics

that describe students who are ready and fit for tertiary education. These

characteristics are discussed below:

Consistent intellectual growth and development

Learners are exposed to „secondary school‟ for five years, and in that time it is

expected that on leaving high school and entering a tertiary institution they are able

to engage and challenge themselves and their intellectual ability.

37

Deep understanding and application

This refers to students‟ ability to gain insight and understanding into key concepts

and their ability to apply what they have learned.

Strong knowledge base

When entering a tertiary institution, students need to understand that knowledge

form a very important part of their success. This knowledge learned at the respective

institutions forms the basis of their tertiary career. Having a strong knowledge

foundation enables the student to use the knowledge to not only solve problems, but

to demonstrate a deeper understanding of the subject area.

Key intellectual and cognitive skills

This refers to individuals‟ ability to think profusely, communicate successfully and to

use their intelligence.

Reading and writing skills

The ability to read and write effectively is important when pursuing a certificate,

diploma or degree in higher education. Students will need to understand a wide

range of reading material and texts as well as do multiple written assignments.

Mastery of key concepts

This refers to students‟ ability to become an expert in concepts that will allow them to

succeed in a minimum of one course or subject offered at the institution.

Comfort with numerical concepts and principles

Most tertiary qualifications require some form of mathematics and it is therefore

essential that students are comfortable with numerical concepts and have at least

the basics as a foundation.

Ability to accept criticism

An important part of tertiary education involves being assessed on a regular basis,

whether it is with tests, assignments or presentations. It is therefore important for

38

students to accept constructive criticism as it is to their benefit and to improve where

needed.

Ability to assess objectively one‟s level of competence

Students should be able to factually identify areas of improvement in a particular

subject as well as formulate plans that will enable them to achieve the requirements

of the course in an appropriate amount of time.

Ability to study alone or in a group

There will be times when students would have to work in groups. These assignments

will require students to meet and prepare during as well as outside the normal class

times. It also calls for the ability to work with others and accept their input. Other

times students will be required to work on their own and in these instances they

should have the necessary time management skills needed to succeed.

Ability to interact with a diverse group of people

Students have to interact effectively with a wide range of people from different

backgrounds, the lecturers, students, faculty staff and societies.

Understanding the values and norms of a tertiary institution

It is of the utmost importance that students are aware of and understand the values

and norms which form the culture of the institution. This enables them to identify and

conform to the institution‟s rules and regulations and provides them with a sense of

belonging.

In addition to Conley (2010), Cortina and Elder (2010) suggest that for students to be

successful, there are six underlying characteristics that these individuals need to

possess. Successful students are therefore:

Prepared for class

Unlike in secondary school, tertiary courses require students to prepare the

outcomes, do the homework, and read through the textbook as well as other

additional material. Successful students therefore have a better understanding of the

lecture and are more prepared, participative and engaged during class.

39

Attend every class and pay close attention

Attending all lectures is very important but a successful student also arrives early.

These are students who sit where they can hear and see the lecturer and those who

turn off their cellular phones to remain focussed on the task at hand. These students

constantly engage in their work as well as with their lecturers by asking questions or

by contributing to class discussions.

Perceive instructors as experts

Successful students view their lecturer as an expert and as a resource to excel. As

mentioned previously, these students attend class, are always prepared and are

comfortable approaching their lecturers should there be a need for assistance. A

very important difference between successful students compared to unsuccessful

students is based on the fact that when faced with a problem such as understanding

a difficult concept, the successful student would not wait to fail the module. This

student would rather approach the lecturer at that point of time and ask for

assistance. These students realise that lecturers take heed of their efforts and are

pleased with the fact that they are interested to learn more.

Follow an organised study routine

Organised students are more likely to be successful due to the fact that they think

about what needs to be done and prioritise their work. These students are

consciously aware of the time factor and plan and work ahead of time for the main

purpose of meeting their deadlines which ultimately reduces the amount of stress.

Develop a set of study skills strategies

Successful students are always reflecting on what they have learned. These

students develop creative ways of organising their work. This ensures their success

since to reorganise the work, they need to understand and engage with it. In the end

the concepts are easily remembered.

Take responsibility for their success

Students who do well in higher education understand the importance of time

management. These individuals know when it‟s time to stop socialising and

40

entertaining and to get their priorities in order. These students are willing to make

short term sacrifices to achieve long term success.

According to Maslovaty, Cohen and Furman (2008, p. 165) Bloom‟s taxonomy may

be used to explain the traits of the ideal student. It suggests that for students to

succeed in furthering their education, higher levels of thinking, feeling and acting are

needed.

Bloom‟s taxonomy comprises three domains, namely cognitive, affective and

psychomotor, each discussed below. According to Bloom‟s taxonomy model these

levels form a hierarchy which postulates that the level of difficulty increases when

moving from one domain to the next. It further states that the domains are

interrelated and build on each other.

Bloom‟s taxonomy: Domains

Cognitive – the cognitive domain relates to academic ability and achievement. This

domain is divided into six parts which identify certain characteristics such as the

ability of learners to understand the content, analyse and synthesise information,

evaluate and draw comparisons and conclusions between different materials, and

apply information to contrasting situations. These are all required when entering a

tertiary institution.

Affective – the affective domain focuses on the ability of students to successfully

adapt to their new surroundings and it involves how students deal with different

situations. A very important aspect of this domain encompasses feelings, attitudes,

motivation and level of enthusiasm, which play a vital role in the success of a

student.

Psychomotor – the psychomotor domain focuses on the performance aspect. In this

instance it includes readiness to act and adapt (Erasmus, Loedolff, Mda and Nel,

2013, p.190).

Based on the characteristics of Bloom the ideal student encompasses an individual

who has the academic ability, emotional stability and the ability to adjust to the

environment as well as taking action to succeed.

41

To conclude, the ideal student should encompass a number of characteristics which

includes aspects such as intellectual capabilities, effective reading and writing skills,

the ability to interact and to accept constructive criticism. The considerable lack of

many of these skills gives rise to the high drop-out and poor throughput rates

experienced by many tertiary institutions.

2.5. The relationship between readiness and success

Many tertiary institutions are facing challenges with regard to high school learners

not being adequately prepared for a tertiary qualification (Pearson, 2009). It was

found that large numbers of students have to take remedial courses while in their

first year of studies.

When discussing the relationship between readiness and success, certain matters

need to be included such as the Apartheid era, level of education, demographic

changes, the gap between secondary and tertiary institutions and the change in

higher education. In conclusion, all these will be taken into consideration to show the

relationship between student readiness and success in tertiary education.

2.5.1 The apartheid era and current levels of education

South Africa has suffered during the apartheid era. One of the prevalent problems of

this time was the education system. During apartheid there was a vast difference

between the type and quality of education offered to whites and blacks. When

examining the statistics, it is clear that in 1993 there were discrepancies with regard

to funding. The apartheid regime set aside certain amounts of money which was

unevenly allocated to the different racial groups. A white learner was awarded

approximately R4504 for education; an Indian learner R3625, a coloured learner

R2855 and a black learner received R1532 (Letseka and Maile, 2008).

Stephen, Welman and Jordaan (2004) agree that black high school learners have

received an inferior quality education in comparison to whites and are therefore

unprepared for higher education. Financial resources, such as government

subsidies, are awarded towards learners who have very little chance of succeeding.

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One in every two students drops out of university every year which costs the

government R1.3 billion in subsidies (Stephen et al., 2004).

Numerous initiatives and achievements by government address these past

imbalances and aim to equalize the amount of money spent on issues such as race,

access to schooling, teachers and resources. As previously mentioned a large sum

of money is spent on education. This has dramatically increased from R69 billion in

2005 to R150.5 billion in 2007 (Department of Education). The 2013 speech by

Minister of Finance Pravin Gordhan states that a total of R233 billion will be allocated

to education, sport and culture, and the aim of the education sector will therefore be

to improve literacy and numeracy levels (Gordhan, 2013).

To redress these previous imbalances in education, South Africa, in comparison to

other countries who have decreased their spending on education, has increased

theirs. However, even though most of the budget is utilised for education, the system

itself is not working (Stephen et al., 2004).

Another initiative used to overcome some of the challenges in the education system

was introduced in 1998. The newly elected ANC government replaced traditional

education with outcomes-based education (OBE). This was despite the fact that

OBE has failed in many countries such as the United States and Australia (Renagi,

2010).

Today, more than 20 years after the change in government, there are still differences

in the education system, notably between private, urban and rural schools, which

largely contribute to student readiness and success.

This is due to the fact that even though mechanisms are in place, inequality still

exists. The level of education is yet to improve as currently the system only provides

for a small proportion of learners, but the poor level of education unfortunately still

keeps the majority from furthering their education (Department of Education).

Furthermore, learners in the Eastern Cape particularly remain at a disadvantage and

their performance levels are poor compared to other provinces. Taking into account

the statistics of 2011, the Eastern Cape, together with Mpumalanga and Limpopo

had the worst pass rates across South Africa, averaging 57%, 56% and 58%

respectively (Department of Education, 2011). This considered, many of these

43

learners are unable to gain access to tertiary institutions, such as NMMU due to

either failing grade 12 or not meeting the basic entry requirements needed for tertiary

education. This provides evidence that these learners are therefore not adequately

prepared for secondary education, let alone tertiary education, and the reason why

so many students end up taking remedial classes.

2.5.2 Difference between secondary and tertiary education

To elaborate more on the aforementioned, students encounter numerous challenges

when making the transition from secondary to tertiary education. Many learners are

unsuccessful in passing grade 12 as seen in the statistics. In 2009, nationally, only

60.6% of students passed their grade 12 final examinations. Of those who attained

their senior certificate, very few had the basic requirements to enter a tertiary

institution (Department of Basic Education, 2010, p. 24). A comparison from 2009 to

2012 is depicted in tabular format below:

Table 2.1: Comparison of grade 12 results from 2009 to 2013 in South Africa

Year Pass rate

2009 60.6%

2010 67.8%

2011 70.3%

2012 73.9%

2013 78.2%

Source: (Department of Basic Education, 2014)

The radical increase in percentage has caused many concerns. Even though more

learners are passing grade 12, the lack of preparedness for tertiary education leaves

an objectionable representation of our current education system as these learners try

to cope with tertiary education.

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Other factors also contribute towards student failures, one of these being the gap

between secondary and tertiary education. Table 2.2 indicates the key differences

between secondary school and tertiary education.

Table 2.2: Differences between secondary and tertiary education

Factors Secondary school Tertiary education

Pupil – Teacher relationship Small classrooms and

number of learners.

Large classrooms, bigger class groups,

limited opportunity to get to know all the

students.

Engagement Learners are required to

listen and input is not

necessary

Students are required to engage and reflect

on the learning material.

Pace Slower paced with less

work to cover.

Fast paced and emphasises different aspects

taught, larger content covered.

Preparation Class preparation is not

obligatory

Prior lecture preparation is considered to be

very important as the learner needs to come

to class with an idea of what is to be

expected.

Responsibility

Spoon-fed

Learners are provided

with all the information.

Ownership

Learners need to take ownership over their

studies to succeed. A high level of

responsibility is expected.

Research Limited information

required

Two research

assignments throughout

school

Due dates far apart

In depth information required

Students are required to interpret, analyse,

reach conclusions and make

recommendations

Academic Ability Basic skills Language and mathematical proficiency

Solve complex problems

Source: (Conley, 2008, pp. 5 & 6)

To summarise this section, even though the grade 12 pass rate has increased,

learners continue to struggle throughout their tertiary studies. Many of them require

45

remedial attention to succeed. As seen in the table provided, there are key

differences between secondary and tertiary education such as the level of active

engagement in class, the pace of lectures, the academic ability required, the ability

to undertake research, the shift in responsibility, the relations between educator and

learner and lastly, the amount of preparation required to succeed. The way forward

to close these gaps would be to use an integrative approach, whereby both

secondary schools and tertiary institutions cooperate to bring about the necessary

changes that will allow students to be adequately prepared when entering a tertiary

institution.

2.5.3 Higher education

Higher education has undergone major changes, namely the change in

demographics such as the staff and student profiles, the intake and output of

students, change in type of qualifications studied and the level of academic

preparedness among first-year learners. This section of the chapter compares the

pre- and post-apartheid situation and its impact on higher education.

Change in demographics

The change in demographics of the student population led to many challenges for

tertiary institutions. Demographics refer to the characteristics of a population and

include differences such as race, age and gender. Taking this into account,

institutions have to consider the differing backgrounds of the new demographic

profile in education which means that a new set of needs have to be met (Stephen et

al., 2004).

Table 2.3: Enrolments in higher education by race, 2006 to 2011

Racial group 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

African 451 106 476 768 515 058 547 686 595 963 640 442

Coloured 48 538 49 069 51 647 55 101 58 219 59 312

Indian 54 859 52 596 52 401 53 629 54 537 54 689

White 184 667 180 463 178 140 179 232 178 346 177 365

Source: (Council on Higher Education South Africa, 2011)

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The table is indicative that there has been a change in demographics post apartheid

and this depicts the steady increase of African, Coloured and Indian students. It

should also be noted that the numbers of white students have declined.

As discussed in 6.1 the apartheid era had a significant influence on higher education.

Some of these major changes are discussed in further detail. Apartheid as it was

known had the aim of redesigning society in terms of race and ethnicity. This meant

that social services such as education, health and well-being and social spaces were

unfairly distributed among the different racial groups. Whites received preferential

treatment and were the elite society; blacks on the other hand were used for cheap

labour as they were not awarded the prestige schooling to improve their skills

(Reddy, 2004, p.9).

With regard to higher education, educational teachings and resources were

distributed unequally which was evident in the 1960s when black universities came

into existence. This broadened the gap between blacks and whites, as a black

student could only attend a white university if the Minister allowed it. Taking a further

look at the statistics it is evident that the staff composition of the „black universities‟

was still mostly white.

In the apartheid years the student and staff profile of tertiary institutions consisted

mainly of whites. As stated before the demographics have since changed and

tertiary institutions have to consider the new student population taking into account

the levels and quality of education. In terms of student readiness and based on

Table 5, very few individuals of different race were allowed to further their education.

Due to this so many South Africans today are illiterate and that is why the education

system itself is still attempting to bridge the gap. Moving forward, there has been a

much needed increase in the staff profiles in terms of gender and race. Government

has therefore emphasised that tertiary institutions recruit a more diverse workforce

with the hope that these discrepancies are rectified. According to statistics from the

Council of Higher Education (Higher education monitor, 2009), in 2007, 57% of all

employees were male and 43% female. It can also be noted that there was indeed

an increase in terms of race, where 37% of staff were African and 44% white, which

47

implies that there has been a steady increase in terms of both gender and race in

staff profiles and the gap is being addressed.

Current state of higher education

Once the apartheid regime was abolished, major changes took place, among them

the increase in numbers by racial groups entering higher education. In 1993 and

1995 the percentage of black students entering higher education increased from

32% to 53% whereas for white students this decreased from 55% to 35% (Reddy,

2004, p. 36). Even though an increase in the black student population is evident, due

to a lack of readiness these students are unable to complete their studies as

depicted below.

The differences as discussed between secondary and tertiary education can explain

the reasons for the high dropout rates among so many students.

Figure 2.7: South Africa's student dropout rate, 2000 to 2003

Source: (Letseka and Maile, 2008)

According to Letseka and Maile (2008) tertiary institutions experienced a 50%

dropout rate between 2000 and 2003. In 2003, 28% of students were in the process

of studying but due to certain factors, such as failing of subjects, had not yet

graduated. Only 22% of the original intake graduated between 2002 and 2003. It is

therefore assumed that these students were not adequately prepared which led to

the declining number of students graduating from tertiary institutions.

22%

28%

50%

Graduated in 2002and 2003

Studying in 2003 butnot completing

Dropped out in 2000-2003

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As noted before, this study predominantly focussed on first-year Human Resource

Management (HRM) students studying at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University.

As mentioned in the introduction, statistics from the Centre for Access Assessment

and Research were used. This centre is primarily responsible for assessing whether

students are adequately prepared and identifies through the use of an entry

assessment if and where recommendations are needed (NMMU, 2013). The

following information pertains specifically to first-year HRM students and is

discussed further below.

Table 2.4: Comparison between CAAR testing results for 2013 and 2014

Source: (CAAR NMMU, 2013 & 2014)

On a yearly basis students are assessed to establish what their needs are. The

statistics as tabulated above apply to HRM first-year students registered for the

National Diploma at NMMU. The assessment was written by 150 and 126 HRM

students for the years 2013 and 2014 respectively and recommendations were made

as to how many of these individuals required further attention and in which area. For

this study, the numbers used were converted to percentages. It is evident that 29%

of students registered for the course in Human Resource Management were

adequately prepared as no recommendations were made in 2013. However, when

compared to the 2014 results this percentage dropped significantly to 16%.

Areas assessed

Year 2013 2014

Sample

size

150 126

1 Language recommendations 29% 31%

2 Numeracy and problem-solving 49% 48%

3 Supplemental instruction 55% 72%

Academic succeed strategies 67% 78%

4 Academic monitoring 18% 13%

5 No development 29% 16%

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It is also apparent that many of the students assessed required remedial classes for

language and numeracy, as noted in the table. Other changes that can be eminent

from the table are the number of students enrolled for the qualification, a reduction

from 150 to 126 students. This table is therefore indicative that less students were

able to gain entry into tertiary institutions which in turn shows that grade 12 learners

are not adequately prepared for their tertiary studies and that many do not meet the

entry requirements to further their studies. Furthermore, those who do meet the

required standards are underprepared for their tertiary studies.

In conclusion, due to the previous imbalances of the apartheid era, the differences

between secondary and tertiary education, the statistics with regard to the pass rates

of matric learners, and lastly, the entry level assessment results, it is evident that

students are not adequately prepared for tertiary education which hinders their

overall success.

2.6. APPLICATION: From theory to practice

To establish whether the theories of readiness, the characteristics of the ideal

student as well as the relationship between readiness and success are aligned with

the realities of tertiary education, open-ended questionnaires were distributed to

lecturers who teach first-year Human Resource Management (HRM) students. At the

same time, it could be ascertained whether lecturers‟ views of readiness are aligned

with the theory. Lecturers were drawn from those who lectured first-year HRM

students.

2.6.1 Open-ended questionnaires

All first-year HRM students are registered for the following subjects: Personnel

Management I, Communication in English A/B, Management of Training I,

Accounting for Personnel Practitioners and Business Management I.

The open-ended questions emailed to the respective lecturers are presented below

and the responses outlined verbatim. In this regard, the responses are indicated in

italics and the respondents labeled as Lecturer 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

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Table 2.5: Summary of lecturer responses

Lecturers Student readiness definition as per lecturers’ opinion.

Defining characteristics of a prepared student as per lecturers’ opinion.

Personnel Management I Physically, cognitively and

psychosocially developed

Making the right career

choice

Learn well and enjoy

learning

Focussed

Energised and alert

Cognitive, social and

psychological maturity

Self-disciplined

Accounting for Personnel Practitioners

Physically, mentally and

emotionally ready to learn

Ownership

Committed

Motivated to achieve goals

Work hard

Responsibility

Personnel Management I and Management of Training I

Prepared

Willingness

Right attitude

Goal orientated

Informed about career

Commitment

Eager, proactive and diligent

Business Management I Appropriate and positive

mindset

Active participation

Responsible

Chosen career field aligned with

ability

Positive outlook and motivation

Active participation

Personnel Management I and Management of Training I

Physical, cognitive and

emotional maturity

Access to resources

Support from stakeholders

Communication in English A/B

Mentally and psychologically

prepared

Academically able

Positive attitude

Hard work

Academic proficiency

Time management skills

Personnel Management I Sufficiently mentally matured Conscientiousness

Time management skills

Working in a group

Resilience

Open-ended questions and answers:

1. What does the term student readiness entail to you as a lecturer?

Lecturer 1 (Personnel Management I):

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Taking from the theoretical definition of „readiness‟ in general, it would imply that

students are physically, cognitively and psychosocially developed enough to

maximise their learning and development experiences at NMMU. It also implies that

the student has made the right career choice after developing an understanding of

the field of HR before choosing it as a career. To be ready implies that the student

will learn well and enjoy learning.

Lecturer 2 (Accounting for Personnel Practitioners):

I think student readiness refers to the state of mind of the potential learners in your

class. If a student is not ready to learn it will be very difficult for you as a lecturer to

enforce learning on such students. For students to be ready to learn they must

physically, mentally and emotionally be ready to learn. If students are tired or feeling

sick, or even have personal problems, it is very difficult to convey any information to

them. Also, if students are not motivated or committed to a subject they are not

ready to learn. Although some part of the motivation and gaining the interest of the

students are the job of the lecturer, it is still the responsibility of the student to be

prepared (ready) for the specified subject they are doing.

Lecturer 3 (Personnel Management and Management of Training I):

Student readiness to me means that the student is prepared to take the necessary

actions that will provide a foundation for the building of their career (assuming that

the career path was a first choice and is a field of interest). Willingness is the second

aspect, which will be related to the student being mentally prepared, having the right

attitude (towards their career, tasks and themselves) and future aspirations.

Lecturer 4 (Business Management I):

Student readiness entails a well-groomed student who has the appropriate and

positive mindset toward their studies. It means students‟ should be active in all

aspects of tertiary education, be it in the classroom and outside. Students should be

aware of the importance of their studies and be responsible. And of course students

should be diligent and active participants in the classroom environment. I feel a

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majority of students require career counselling to assist them with choosing the most

beneficial and appropriate career path as many of them, to me at least, seems like

they‟re just going through the motions and filling up seats in the classroom just for

the sake of them having to be there.

Lecturer 5 (Personnel Management I and Management of Training I):

Readiness to me means that the student is at a level, physically, cognitively and

emotionally where they can benefit optimally from learning experiences.

Lecturer 6 (Communication in English A/B):

Student preparedness means that a student is mentally and psychologically

prepared for tertiary study. Secondly, preparedness could also imply that the student

is academically able to deal with the content and nature of tertiary study. In addition,

it could also imply specifically preparing for a particular lecture or test.

Lecturer 7 (Personnel Management I):

The degree to which a student is sufficiently, mentally mature to commence with

tertiary studies.

2. In your opinion, what are the defining characteristics of a prepared student?

Lecturer 1 (Personnel Management I):

In practical terms, physical readiness implies that a student is able to

concentrate/focus, deal with many hours of studying/working, stay alert and

energised – not complain about tasks. Cognitively the student should be able to read

with understanding, be able to dissect academic text to a level of understanding, be

able to reason and debate. The student should also have mastered study skills, such

as using a mind map or identifying main points in a text.

Psychologically, the student must be able to work independently, show confidence,

maintain him/herself in discussions, and apply self-discipline.

Socially, the student should work well in teams and freely interact with students from

different backgrounds.

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In general, students should be able to manage their time, be organised and apply

self-discipline in terms of work progress and deadlines. They need to manage their

own development and solve problems/overcome barriers in the process.

Lecturer 2 (Accounting for Personnel Practitioners):

• Must be committed to the tasks he undertakes

• Must be motivated to achieve goals

• Must be willing to work hard to achieve their goals

• Must be responsible for their actions

Lecturer 3 (Personnel Management and Management of Training I):

Goal-orientated - focus

Informed about career field

Commitment to studies

Eagerness to learn

Proactive

Diligent

Lecturer 4 (Business Management I):

A prepared student is someone who has chosen the most suitable career path for

their particular personality and capabilities. With that being said, these students then

have a positive outlook of their studies and are more motivated to excel. With the

correct mindset and goals then set by the student, we as educators can then send a

well-rounded graduate out into industry. A prepared student is one who is actively

seeking knowledge through participation in class and consulting with lecturers

outside the classroom on a regular basis. A prepared student is also one that gets

involved in and joins membership with various societies within the institution so as to

equip themselves with the human relations and life skills needed to round off a

“perfect” student.

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Lecturer 5 (Personnel Management I and Management of Training I):

A prepared student is one who possesses the resources to assist him or her to make

optimum use of a learning situation or at least has an easy access to such resources

as and when they are needed such as prior learning, learning materials, a support

system in terms of parents and/or relatives and institutional support such as library

services and student counselling services.

Lecturer 6 (Communication in English A/B):

The defining characteristics would be:

• A positive attitude towards studies

• Hard work and endeavour

• Academic proficiency for the subject/course

• Time management

Lecturer 7 (Personnel Management I):

Conscientiousness, ability to plan and manage time effectively, ability to work in a

group/team, resilience.

2.6.2 Interpretation of responses:

1. The meaning of student readiness

While analysing the results, it was found that these views on what constitutes

student readiness are aligned with the theories of Conley, Schlossberg and Tinto.

All the respondents agreed that for students to be considered ready they need to be

mentally or cognitively, physically, emotionally and psychosocially prepared. Other

important aspects noted in understanding readiness include being active, taking

responsibility, being prepared for subjects or tests, and being academically able to

understand the content. Lecturers two and three also included students‟ level of

motivation and willingness and its impact on readiness.

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Taking the above into account and considering Conley, Schlossberg and Tinto‟s

models, it is evident that student readiness encompasses academic and social

integration. This includes the ability of students to self-manage and to be active

participants in their learning. Furthermore, lecturers two and three included the level

of motivation on the student‟s part. This implies and is aligned with the motivational

theories mentioned such as the expectancy theory. It also suggests that the outcome

influences the level of commitment as well as self-efficacy which postulates that

students‟ belief in their ability will affect their level of motivation and therefore their

overall ability to succeed.

2. In your opinion, what are the defining characteristics of a prepared

student?

According to the respondents certain characteristics were highlighted and are

outlined below. These include:

Time management skills

Effective study strategies

The ability to reason and debate

Self-management

Reading with understanding

Working independently and in teams

Positive outlook and attitude

Goal-orientated

Hard working / diligent / conscientious

Academic proficiency

Proactive

Motivated and committed

Using their resources and support

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Prepared for class

Resilience

All these characteristics are aligned with those that the theories suggest and have

therefore been discussed in further detail in the section focusing on the general

characteristics of the prepared student.

However, it should be noted that certain characteristics were mentioned more than

once by the various respondents. Among the academics, time-management,

commitment, self-management and hard work are considered to be important

characteristics of a prepared student.

To understand the relationship between readiness and success, these key questions

can be used as indicators and add value to the study. Taking into consideration the

responses and the theoretical background of this study it is evident that being

prepared or ready influences a student‟s ability to succeed in tertiary education.

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2.7 CONCLUSION

As proposed in Chapter One this chapter endeavoured to understand the concept of

readiness, which refers to a student‟s overall ability to meet the basic requirements

needed to succeed in higher education. The different theories of readiness were

discussed and the main findings will be emphasised.

According to Conley‟s dimension model, a student needs to master all four

dimensions to be prepared and succeed in tertiary education. These include key

cognitive strategies which form the foundation of a students‟ tertiary career, key

content knowledge which focuses on academic skills and knowledge, academic

behaviours which mostly encompass self-management and lastly, contextual skills

that take into account knowledge related to the institution such as its norms, culture

and traditions.

Schlossberg‟s transitional theory was initially designed for adults, but in this instance

the theory was used to understand, assist and provide students with coping

mechanisms when transitioning from one phase to another.

According to Tinto‟s model of student retention, the success of a student largely

depends on both academic and social integration. Academic integration focuses on

students‟ actual performance and their level of engagement. Social integration, as in

Conley‟s model, refers to identifying with the university, its norms and its culture.

Furthermore, and to gain a better understanding, the researcher included certain

theories of motivation such as the expectancy and cognitive evaluation theories, self-

efficacy and Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs. As with many studies, the researcher is of

58

the opinion that motivational theories play an important role in understanding why

students do poorly. A summary of the theories will be provided.

According to Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs there are five sets of needs, namely

physiological, safety and security, love and belonging (lower order needs), and ego

and self-actualisation (higher order needs). Maslow goes further and states that each

need, starting at the lower needs, has to be satisfied to move onto the next need and

resulting in an individual reaching their full potential.

The expectancy theory suggests that people are often influenced by the end result,

and how attractive that end result is to them will determine how much effort they will

use to achieve success.

The cognitive evaluation theory postulates that external events have both a

controlling aspect and an informational aspect, which means that the event in

question controls behaviour and allows individuals to determine their level of

competence.

Self-efficacy refers to individuals‟ ability to complete a task as well as have the belief

that they have control over the events that affect them. To summarise, individuals

with a high level believe they have the knowledge, skills and competencies to solve

problems whereas individuals with a low level believe that irrespective of what they

do, they are not able to succeed.

The second part of this chapter focussed on the defining characteristics of the ideal

student. Conley (2010) devised a list of characteristics of an adequately prepared

student. Aspects such as intellectual growth and development, having a deeper

understanding and ability to apply information, having a strong knowledge base,

possessing key intellectual and cognitive skills, reading and writing skills, the ability

to master key concepts and being comfortable with numerical concepts and

principles were noted.

It was further suggested that additional behaviours of „prepared students‟ include

being prepared for class, attending every class and paying close attention, viewing

their lecturers as experts, following an organised study routine, developing a set of

study strategies and lastly, taking responsibility for their own success (Cortina and

Elder, 2010).

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Bloom‟s taxonomy was also used to determine other characteristics that could be

determinants of readiness. It is divided into three parts namely cognitive, affective

and psychomotor. Cognitive refers to the ability of learners to understand, analyse,

synthesise, evaluate and apply information. Affective states the ability of students to

successfully adapt to their new surroundings. Lastly, the psychomotor component

focuses on the performance aspect of a student.

The third and final part of the chapter was dedicated to the relationship between

readiness and success. It was established that before one could comment on these

aspects, other elements needed to be considered, such as the apartheid era and its

impact on the levels of education, demographic changes with both staff and student

profiles, the difference between secondary and tertiary education and the changes in

higher education.

Open-ended questionnaires were distributed to all academics who teach first-year

HRM students, which added value in determining whether the theories mentioned

such as student readiness and the characteristics of a prepared student are affiliated

with the practice thereof. It was also used to establish the relationship between

readiness and success, as it is assumed that students who do not possess these

skills are unprepared and will struggle to succeed in tertiary education.

Taking all these factors into consideration, it is therefore possible to state that for a

student to succeed in tertiary education certain mechanisms are needed. These

include a good quality education that enables learners to proceed to a tertiary

institution and certain strategies, characteristics and behaviours that enable success

and the level of motivation experienced by the student.

The following chapter focuses on the stakeholders involved in a student‟s education,

the factors affecting student success and the interventions that schools and tertiary

institutions currently have in place to promote success.

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60

CHAPTER THREE: VARIABLES IMPACTING ON STUDENT

READINESS

3.1 INTRODUCTION 61

3.2 Stakeholder groups and their impact on student readiness 64

3.2.1 The role of parents in education 64

3.2.2 The role of friends and family in higher education 67

3.2.3 The role of teachers and lecturers in education 68

3.2.4 The role of the media in higher education 72

3.2.5 The role of government in education 75

3.3. Factors affecting student readiness 84

3.3.1 Preparation 85

3.3.2 Course and student fit 86

3.3.3 Academic factors 87

3.3.4 Psychological and social adjustment 88

3.3.5 Financial support 89

3.3.6 Personal circumstances 91

3.3.7 Student engagement 91

3.3.8 Support mechanisms 92

3.4. Current interventions used to address student readiness 93

3.4.1 Secondary schools 93

3.4.1.1 American secondary schools 94

3.4.1.2 South African secondary schools 96

3.4.2 Tertiary institutions 98

3.5. APPLICATION: From theory to practice 100

3.5.1 Open-ended questionnaires and responses 101

3.5.2 Analysis and interpretation of results 108

3.6. CONCLUSION 112

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3.1 INTRODUCTION

In Chapter One the background including the main problems and sub-problems were

introduced and briefly discussed.

Chapter Two provided an understanding of student readiness through the inclusion

of relevant theories and models such as Conley, Schlossberg and Tinto. It further

suggested that motivational theories such as Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs, the

expectancy and cognitive evaluation theories and self-efficacy, could be used as

indicators for academic success. The chapter provided an overview of the attributes

of a prepared student and focussed on the relationship between readiness and

success.

This chapter attempts to identify the various stakeholders that impact on student

readiness and the factors influencing student readiness. It also aims to identify

interventions currently used by both secondary schools and tertiary institutions to

prepare students for higher education.

Open-ended questionnaires were distributed to the lecturers teaching first-year

Human Resource Management (HRM) students at NMMU to establish whether the

existing theory and practices used, are aligned.

The key stakeholders involved in a student‟s education are the:

Parents

Friends and family

Teachers and lecturers

Media

Government

According to the psychoanalytical school of thought, behaviour and personality are

often influenced by individuals‟ childhood experiences with parents, guardians and/or

other caregivers (Bergh, 2011, p. 35). Therefore, the family has a direct impact upon

a learner‟s career choice. In addition, parents are becoming increasingly involved in

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many of the decisions regarding the future of their children. This is due to the fact

that in most cases the parents are responsible for the funding related to higher

education (Kepic, 2006).

Friendships are formed throughout learners‟ school career and play an important role

in terms of their social and emotional developmental needs. This considered,

learners have a tendency to want to fit in or belong to a certain clique (Louw, 1998,

p. 449). In most cases this has an impact on their career choice as learners are more

inclined to follow their peers.

Teachers play a significant role in preparing learners for education. However, for a

teacher to take on the different roles, the relevant qualifications are needed.

Teachers therefore need the expertise and skills to effectively do their jobs.

According to Harden and Crosby (2000, p. 5) teachers and lecturers have different

roles which include being a role model, information provider, facilitator, planner and

an assessor. These roles will be discussed in further detail in this chapter.

The media which include social media, magazines, films, television and newspapers

impact on the choices individuals make. According to Louw (1998, p. 443) mass

media has an influence on the type of career choice a learner wishes to pursue,

mostly due to the fact that it depicts the desired state of a specific occupation.

All South Africans have the right to basic education and according to the Bill of

Rights, the state is responsible for making education both accessible and available

to all (Education in South Africa, 2012). The state also has an influence on the

policies and frameworks for education in South Africa. This therefore forms the basis

from which education systems are implemented and executed.

The factors affecting student readiness and success will be discussed in further

detail and include aspects such as education, finance, support mechanisms,

personal circumstances and social integration. All these factors and the emphasis

that individuals place on them, determine whether an individual will succeed in

higher education.

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Furthermore, this chapter seeks to identify the current interventions schools and

tertiary institutions have in place to promote student readiness and success. The

interventions included are from a global perspective, followed by a comparison

between South Africa and America. In addition, a discussion will take place to

determine the extent to which these interventions have assisted student success.

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3.2 Stakeholder groups and their impact on student readiness

As stated in sub-problem three stakeholder groups play a significant role in preparing

learners for tertiary education. Figure 3.1 illustrates the relationship between the key

stakeholders involved and the role each plays with regard to the readiness level of

learners.

Figure 3.1: Key stakeholders impacting on students‟ readiness levels

Source: Adapted (Landsberg, Krűger and Nel, 2005, p.1)

3.2.1 The role of parents in education

Parents play a vital role in their adolescents‟ academic career, commencing at

primary level and progressing to tertiary education. As mentioned in the introduction,

parents are becoming increasingly involved in their children‟s future academic

aspirations.

According to Osa-Edoh and Alutu (2011, p.16) a parent largely determines the type

of environment a child grows up in. If, for example, a child was exposed to adequate

65

food, shelter or basic needs as well as a decent education, the child will more than

likely develop and be provided with and exposed to the different occupations and

opportunities that might exist in society.

It also depends on the type of family environment a child is exposed to. If parents are

goal-oriented and demonstrate a strong work ethic, those values are instilled in their

children. However, if parents are more laid back and do not show a keen interest,

there is a possibility that the children will exhibit the same characteristics.

Furthermore, it is pointed out that most adolescents received information with regard

to occupational choices from their parents, and if the parents are, for example,

pharmacists or doctors, the adolescent is likely to be influenced by this and therefore

take a career in medicine (Osa-Edoh and Alutu, 2011, p. 16).

According to Kranstuber, Carr and Hosek (2012, p. 44) student success is influenced

by the communication networks that exist in a family since individuals‟ knowledge,

experiences and understanding of the world come from those that they interact with

on a regular basis. In addition to Osa-Edoh and Alutu (2011), Kranstuber, Carr and

Hosek (2012, p. 45) confirm that parents are highly influential when it comes to

decision-making and attitudes with regard to education.

It is further highlighted that communication within the family environment serves as a

guideline for an individual to make decisions. As previously mentioned the

socialisation that takes place between parents and children shapes their orientation

towards life and work.

When it comes to career choice, learners start thinking about this at a young age and

gradually changes take place throughout their schooling career. Once learners reach

secondary school, some have already established what it is they prefer to study,

while others are undecided as to whether they wish to continue with their studies or if

working would be the better option. This phenomenon leads back to their upbringing

and the role their parents played in this regard.

In addition, parents become more involved in aspects such as the subject choices a

learner pursues. Some parents are forceful when it comes to the profession their

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children decide on, irrespective of the child‟s feelings or academic performance in a

particular subject. Reasons for this include status, following in the family‟s footsteps

or better economic prospects (Osa-Edoh and Alutu, 2011, p.12).

Learners‟ career choice is therefore often influenced by more than just their

preferences. External factors include their parents and the type of environment they

were brought up in (Osa-Edoh and Alutu, 2011, p.11).

Kranstuber, Carr and Hosek (2012, pp. 49 & 50) conducted a study to identify the

amount of influence parents have on the college experience. Four main themes were

identified, namely college satisfaction, student motivation, learner empowerment and

cognitive learning indicators. These predictors are discussed in further detail below.

College satisfaction can be described as positive outcomes which include academic

excellence, being involved and motivated, and which are a key factor in student

retention. In terms of communication between parent and child, the messages

parents send, influence a student‟s logic towards college satisfaction. The example

provided states that if parents convey a positive outlook on their experience at a

tertiary institution, the children might then commence their tertiary careers in a more

positive and eager manner.

As mentioned in Chapter Two student motivation refers to goal-directed behaviour.

In this instance it means that parents‟ behaviour and involvement relate to a child‟s

understanding that there are results linked to one‟s actions.

Learner empowerment is defined as the level of autonomy and motivation a learner

has in making decisions. Parents often give their children advice on how to adapt

and solve problems throughout their lives. This advice provides them with a basis

and empowers them to make informed decisions.

Cognitive learning indicators focus on the types of behaviours students engage in

such as asking questions, discussions with others about subject content and

providing their opinions. When students face uncertainties, many of them turn to their

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parents to make sense of the issue they currently have. This might be with a subject

they are having difficulty with or any other problem they might be experiencing.

In terms of communication, it should be stated that even though parents play a key

role and have a large amount of influence over the decisions students make, their

advice is not always used.

In conclusion, it is evident that from birth, parents have an influence on the decisions

learners make with regard to all facets of their lives, and more especially on their

education. This in turn can be either good or bad on the learner‟s part. If learners are

forced into a specific field of study, it could have a negative effect on their success.

However, involvement and support from parents serve as the drive and enthusiasm

needed to succeed in higher education.

3.2.2 The role of friends and family in higher education

In the previous sub-section of the chapter, the impact of parents in educational and

career decisions was highlighted. In this study family refers to the extended family of

an individual. Family and friends too play an influential role in the type of schools,

subject choices and occupations a learner selects.

In many cultures the extended family plays a significant role in the development of

an individual. According to Saggers and Sims (2005, p.70) decisions with regard to

career aspirations tend to be made by the family, with the intention to benefit the

family as a whole and not only the individual in question. It should also be

considered that within families, different roles and obligations may be assigned to

certain individuals. In some cultures women are traditionally meant to have a more

domestic role whereas men are seen as the breadwinners. This could impact on

whether females choose to further their academic aspirations and careers.

According to Alika (2010) students‟ career choices are often influenced by their

peers. If a group of learners are best friends, it is likely that most of the members will

go to the same school or institution and possibly study the same field, whether it‟s

appropriate or not. This could lead to less successful decisions that could affect the

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overall ability of the student to succeed. Furthermore, peers have an influence on

career decision-making. It could be that belonging to a specific group may enhance

performance but on the contrary it could result in the reverse effect.

To summarise, the relationship between the extended family and peers and

individuals could have a positive or negative effect on the career choices they make.

It often also depends on other factors such as the family‟s cultural beliefs and the

norms of groups they interact with on a regular basis. It is therefore assumed that

some students may not have adequate input and involvement in choosing their field

of study. This could lead to a lack of readiness for tertiary education which may

inhibit success.

3.2.3 The role of teachers and lecturers in education

Learners spend a vast amount of their lives in the company of teachers and for those

who decide to further their studies, in the company of lecturers. According to Harden

and Crosby (2000, p. 4) a good teacher can be defined as an individual who assists

a student to learn and it should be noted that this person must not only be seen as a

source of information. Each subject is unique and has its own set of outcomes that

need to be achieved. The success of these outcomes often depends on the type of

approach that is used, for example, teacher-centred or learner-centred.

According to the Centre for Development and Enterprise report (2011), South Africa

is in need of more qualified teachers and particularly in subjects such as

mathematics and science. Currently the country is only producing a third of the

requirements needed to function accordingly. It must be noted that there has been

an increase in the qualifications of teachers in South Africa, but more is needed.

Many graduates who study teaching leave the country to teach elsewhere or decide

to go into other professions, which has an impact on the quality of education.

The current challenge lies with the shortage of qualified educators in South Africa.

The percentage of qualified teachers has improved from 53% in 1990 to 95,1% in

2010; however, the skills shortage is still evident. In 2009/2010 77% of teachers who

were registered were either under-qualified or were from other countries. The

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Eastern Cape‟s current learner-to-teacher ratio is, for example, 30.1:1 which means

that for every 30 learners there is one teacher (2009 Country report: South Africa,

2010). Taking this into consideration one can assume that class size and teacher

qualifications could have a negative impact on learner success. For teachers or

lecturers to be effective the relevant knowledge and expertise are essential. They

also have certain roles that add value to student success which is explained below.

This section of the chapter is dedicated to the different roles teachers employ in their

jobs. Table 3.1 is used to outline the different roles and this is further expanded

upon.

Table 3.1: Summary of the key roles teachers play

Role Explanation

Information

provider

Resumes the traditional role of instructor and expert.

Role model Serves as role models to students and exhibits the necessary behaviour required and expected.

Facilitator Moving away from traditional teaching to a more student-centred approach, where students are guided

in the right direction.

Assessor Responsible for the drawing up of and evaluating of assessments.

Planner Involvement in both curriculum and course design.

Resource

developer

Planning and implementation of the learning material that will be used by the students.

Harden and Crosby (2000, p. 5) outlined the roles of a teacher and apply these to

the medical field, however for this study it can be used to explain the different roles

that teachers play in general, which is discussed below. There are six main areas

that explain the role of a teacher which include the information provider, role model,

facilitator, assessor, planner and resource developer. These roles are further

subdivided and elaborated upon below.

The teacher as an information provider

The information provider is further divided into two parts, namely the lecturer and the

practical teacher. According to Harden and Crosby (2000, p. 8) the traditional role of

a teacher is to provide information during a lecture. It requires that this individual is

knowledgeable and an expert in the subject matter and assists learners in their

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understanding of the topic, taking into consideration their level of cognitive ability.

The practical teacher is one who chooses, organises and distributes the learning

material to the student and also applies the theory to relevant situations which

enables a student to understand and apply it to real-life scenarios.

The teacher as a role model

The role model comprises the on-the-job role as well as the role model as a teacher.

According to Harden and Crosby (2000, p. 8) teachers have a significant influence

on students in terms of their career choices, their professional attitude as well as the

importance they place on their subjects. A teacher or lecturer should model the

behaviours, attitudes and skills that are expected of the learner. This is important as

individuals learn through observation, imitation and interaction. According to Bandura

(1986, in Harden and Crosby, 2000, p. 9) role modelling is a prevailing resource of

conveying attitudes, values and behaviour of students. Teachers are deemed role

models not only when performing their duties while teaching, but also when they fulfil

their roles as teachers in the classroom. This is irrespective of being in a traditional

lecture, a tutorial or a group discussion. Teachers can use their body of knowledge

to explain and reflect on their approach to problem-solving in a way that illustrates

the importance of a given topic.

The teacher as a facilitator

The facilitator, as with the other areas, is separated into the learning facilitator and

the mentor. Facilitation means moving from a teacher-centred to a student-centred

approach where students take ownership and are granted autonomy and the

responsibility for their own learning. The teacher then takes the form of a facilitator

who guides and manages this process (Harden and Crosby, 2000, p. 10). According

to Jacques (1991, in Harden and Crosby, 2000) many teachers have difficulty with

this which results in them reverting back to their old ways of being the expert,

information provider and in the position of authority. It further states that the

facilitator‟s role is to guide and encourage learners to learn, and not to simply pass a

test but to understand the concept as a whole. The facilitator therefore has the ability

to communicate with all the students and to provide an atmosphere conducive to

learning and where students are able to openly discuss and exchange ideas.

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As stated the teacher may also be considered a mentor. According to Wong and

Premkumar (no date) mentoring can be described as a learning process whereby

supportive and personal relationships are built to achieve personal and professional

goals and where emotional support is vital. It is important that it is understood that a

mentor is someone who provides support to a mentee and that this is not a

dependency relationship. Three emerging models are outlined by Morton-Cooper

and Palmer (2000 in Harden and Crosby, 2000). These are the apprenticeship model

where the mentor is observed performing a task, the competence-based model

where the trainer demonstrates and assists the learner to achieve the set outcomes

and the reflective practitioner, which emphasises collaboration and partnerships. A

teacher therefore takes on the role as both facilitator, which offers students

autonomy, and mentor, who provides the support needed to achieve the outcomes.

The teacher as an assessor

Assessing a student‟s competence is one of the most important tasks of a teacher.

The assessor is shared between two parts, namely the student assessor and the

curriculum assessor. It should be highlighted that an individual can be an expert

teacher, but that same individual might not be an expert examiner (Harden and

Crosby, 2000, p. 11). Teachers therefore require the skills needed to compile

assessments in the form of tests or examinations and to ensure that these

assessments are unbiased, consistent, valid and reliable and marking these

assessments. Unlike with the other roles associated with a good teacher, an

assessor makes judgements on student performance. The curriculum assessor on

the other hand not only plans and implements programmes, or assesses student

performance, but views the course as a whole by monitoring and evaluating each

step to ensure the success of the programme. It is further stated that evaluation

recognises the ability of teachers to monitor and evaluate their own performance. By

doing this they are able to identify areas of improvement (Harden and Crosby, 2000,

p. 12).

The teacher as a planner

The planner is distributed into two parts, the curriculum and the course planner. The

curriculum planner is involved in designing the curriculum which takes into account

the outcomes, content and sequencing of information and the strategies and

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teaching methods used. The curriculum planner should have the knowledge and

expertise required for the curriculum to be aligned with the course (Harden and

Crosby, 2000, p. 13). As mentioned before there needs to be a link between the

curriculum and the course or there will be misalignment in the qualification

outcomes. Courses therefore need to be designed in such a way that the set

outcomes can be achieved and student engagement is promoted (Harden and

Crosby, 2000, p.13).

The teacher as a resource developer

Lastly, there is the resource developer which encompasses the resource material

creator and the learner guide producer. With student-centred learning the teacher

needs to have adequate resources available to guide and assist students. This

includes classroom and online activities where students are engaged and involved in

the learning process. This suggests that teachers need to keep abreast of the

technological changes to enhance learning. The learner guide is a very important

tool that is used to assist students in achieving success. It not only guides students

as to what is important and expected but provides additional information that enables

students to familiarise themselves with the content (Harden and Crosby, 2000, p.

14).

To conclude, teachers or lecturers take on many roles, of which most are

interconnected and take place at the same time in the classroom. One could have a

traditional lecture and then decide to have an open discussion that prompts student

participation or do a learning activity to aid understanding. Irrespective of the role

teachers take on, the time and effort impact on student success.

3.2.4 The role of the media in higher education

There are different types of media used on a daily basis which include television,

newspapers, magazines and radio. The media have a strong influence on society in

the decisions that are made.

Often the media used reveal different career opportunities available in society and

many of these are glorified where only the optimistic aspects are mentioned. This in

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turn has an influence on career choices made as these become the desired career

fields to follow. In addition, Louw (1998, p. 443) further states that advertisements

provide false impressions by only focussing on the positive aspects of a job such as

the benefits, salary and status, which then mislead learners into a specific career.

When choosing a suitable career, students need to consider their skills and abilities

and in doing so there is a greater chance of readiness which leads to success.

Another form of media is the use of social media. According to Boyd and Ellison

(2008, p. 211) social networks can be described as a web-based service that allows

individuals to create a profile, communicate with a list of other users they know and

meet other people. Furthermore, Kelm (2011, p.505) establishes a relationship

between social media and social constructivism whereby both enhance learning.

According to Kelm (2011, p.507) knowledge is constructed by interacting with those

around us, whether it be by lending a helping hand, showing support or connecting

with others. In the classroom setting by using these innovative technologies, the

student can become more engaged; more involved in group activities and possibly

identify more with the learning concepts.

Students are experts when it comes to using social media for personal reasons,

however, when using it for study purposes that form of expertise is not always

evident. Melton and Hicks (2011, p.495) argue that social media are best used in

conjunction with traditional teaching methods.

According to Moran, Seaman and Tinti-Kane (2011, p. 3) higher education teaching

staff are aware of social media sites and over 90% of the staff use this in the

classroom. Many teaching staff members use social media as a form of

communication with their students. This could be in the form of showing a video clip

that further depicts the concept being taught or posting important information that

students are able to view and comment on. The findings of this study further stated

that online videos are by far the most used form of social media and Facebook

among the least used in class (Moran et al., 2011, p. 11). Figure 3.2 highlights the

above-mentioned.

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Figure 3.2: Use of video‟s in the classroom setting.

Source: (Moran et al., 2011, p. 13)

Even though the above highlights the usefulness of social media, Moran et al. (2011,

p. 14) identified barriers to its use in the classroom such as:

Time-consuming

Lacks privacy

Lacks integrity for online submissions

Lack of faculty training using social media

Faculty members not comfortable using social media

Many tertiary institutions have implemented a „blended learning approach‟ as an

integral part of student learning and development. According to Vasileiou (2009)

blended learning incorporates the advantages of traditional teaching and teaching

with different forms of technology.

According to Vaughn (2007) blended learning as with other teaching practices has a

set of benefits and challenges. These are outlined in tabular format below:

47%

33%

20%

Videos and othersites

Video only

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Table 3.2: Benefits and challenges of blended learning

Perspectives Benefits Challenges

Institution Enhancing the institution‟s reputation

Increased access to programmes

Reducing operating costs

Alignment to institutional goals

Resistance to change

Lack of structure with partnerships

Faculty Opportunities for teacher-student interaction

Increase in student engagement

Flexibility in teaching and learning

Opportunities for improvement

Lack of time, support and resources

Lack of technological skills

Student Time flexibility

Increased responsibility

Improving their technological ability

Based on these the benefits identified from both faculty and students are flexibility in

terms of time, teaching and learning as well as improvement and increased

responsibility on the student‟s part. The challenges include a lack of technological

skills from the student and lecturer as well as time and resource availability needed

to ensure success.

In conclusion the use of media in education is twofold; it can assist both students

and staff when used appropriately and together with traditional means in the

classroom such as the blended learning approach. Taking other forms of media into

consideration such as television or magazines, career choices based on these could

result in students being unprepared for further studies.

3.2.5 The role of government in education

Skills development is a priority in most countries to enhancing productivity and the

eradication of poverty. This section of the chapter focuses on the shift in

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government, expenditure on education, resources including qualified educators,

schools and tertiary institutions available and the initiatives the government has put

in place to alleviate illiteracy and poverty (Parliament of the Republic of South Africa,

2006, p.3).

Shift in government – moving towards a democracy

As mentioned in Chapter Two South Africa has a legacy of apartheid. In this era,

inequalities existed among the different racial groups across all services rendered

such as education, health and welfare and residence which resulted in a public and

social divide. This study will focus on education.

During the apartheid period, discrimination based on race, gender and status was

evident, whereby resources were made unavailable or inequitably divided among the

different racial groups. Access to facilities and more importantly to education was

overlooked. A change to a democratically elected government brought about many

changes, all to rectify the previous imbalances. According to Nkomo (no date)

education plays an important role in preparing all South Africans to access and be

part of the new opportunities that democracy has made possible.

New structures were put in place and the key goal of higher education was to

redress the previous inequalities. The main aim was to meet the national needs and

to respond to the opportunities that came about. In addition it is stated that the key

role of higher education is to produce skilled individuals through lifelong learning that

are able to respond to the needs of industry. Furthermore, the new higher education

system ensured the following:

Access to education and training to all, irrespective of race, gender, age or

colour.

Meeting the needs through education opportunities of the economy.

Contributing to the advancement of all forms of knowledge and maintaining

academic quality throughout (Parliament of the Republic of South Africa,

2006).

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Expenditure on education

Funding for education in the apartheid era was distributed according to race. In 1994

the amount spent on black students grew considerably, but the amount spent on a

white pupil was still significantly higher (Fiske and Ladd, 2004, p.40).

In 1995 and 1996 the amount spent on higher education in South Africa was R6.1

billion. This was done with the aim of changing policies and to conform to the goals

of the country which emphasised access, equity, quality, efficiency and the alignment

of higher education to the needs of the country (Parliament of the Republic of South

Africa, 2006, p. 10).

The amount the state allocated to higher institutions decreased from 4% to 2.5% in

2007. This in turn forced higher education institutions to increase their tuition fees

abruptly, as there was an increase in the number of students registering for courses,

but the number of staff remained the same. The three major sources of funding for

universities are the government, student fees and donations. Funding from

government is primarily based on research outputs, performance of these

institutions, national goals, teaching outputs and student numbers. Pressurised by

the government to lower the tuition fees, institutions are considering ways to

generate more income (South African Higher Education: Facts and Figures, no date,

p. 19).

Resource allocation

As previously stated, the government is similarly responsible for the allocation of

resources, which includes funding for school facilities, qualified educators and

infrastructure for both schools and tertiary institutions. South Africa invests more

money in education as compared to other states, the total for 2012/2013 being R207

billion (South Africa spends more on education, 2012). Other countries in Africa

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which spend more on higher education include Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya and

Senegal (Higher Education Monitor, 2009, p. 9).

Textbooks

The South African government has been in the news regarding education-related

issues. The reasons included schools waiting for textbooks six months into the year

and vacant posts yet to be filled with qualified teachers, having an overall effect on

service delivery (Masombuka, Ratsatsi and Chauke, 2012).

Furthermore, only 45% of grade six learners owned their own textbooks and 36.4%

their own mathematics textbooks. The report further stated that many teachers use

these textbooks as their primary source for instruction. This therefore suggests that

learners who do not have their own textbooks are at a disadvantage (South Africa

Country report, 2007).

The reverse applies to higher education, whereby the textbooks are available but

due to financial difficulties students are unable to purchase the required textbooks

needed to adequately prepare for their classes (South African Higher Education:

Facts and Figures no date, p. 16).

Staff profile

Teacher qualifications are an important aspect that needs to be considered as these

contribute to the overall ability of the learner as well as the quality of education.

According to the Country Progress Report: South Africa (2013, p. 54) there have

been improvements in the number of qualified teachers in South African schools.

Table 3.3 depicts the percentage of improved teacher qualifications.

Province 2008 %

2009 %

2010 %

2011 %

2012 %

Eastern Cape 95 95 98 97 99

Free State 91 92 95 96 96

Gauteng 98 98 99 99 99

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Table 3.3: Percentage of qualified teachers in South Africa

Source: (Country Progress Report, 2013, p. 54)

Though improvements have been noted, shortages still exist. Currently 25 000

teachers graduate a year but South Africa requires an additional 15 000 teachers to

meet the requirements. Many of those teaching are ill-equipped and have not been

trained adequately. An additional challenge is that many teachers are poorly utilised.

South Africa struggles with a shortage of mathematics teachers with only 7 090 of

the 16 581 qualified mathematics teachers found to be teaching mathematics. The

shortage can also be attributed to the fact that many education graduates either

emigrate or take up other professions, primarily because of low salaries and the

image attached to a teacher (McCarthy, Bernstein and De Villiers, 2011).

According to the Higher Education Monitor (2009, p. 74) the staff profile remains

racially skewed. However, there have been changes such as an increase in the

percentage of African staff from 33% to 37% in 2007. It is noted that one of the

causes of this slow increase is the inability to source staff in higher education. A

constant challenge for these institutions is the difficulty in retaining talented black

staff, as many of them are lured away from academia to jobs in the corporate world

which offer better salaries and prospects of advancement (South African Higher

Education: Facts and figures, no date, p. 17).

To summarise, a key challenge facing secondary schools and higher education

institutions is the recruitment and retaining of qualified teachers and lecturers. Most

individuals who have the skill and qualification emigrate or prefer to work in industry

as there are better career prospects.

Infrastructure

KwaZulu-Natal 88 87 89 90 92

Limpopo 97 98 99 99 100

Mpumalanga 95 96 98 99 99

North-West 93 94 99 99 99

Northern Cape 92 92 93 94 95

Western Cape 95 94 94 96 97

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According to the Department of Basic Education‟s National Educational infrastructure

report (2011) detailed statistics proved the lack of infrastructure in public schools in

South Africa. A summary of the findings is tabulated below:

Table 3.4: Summary of lack of infrastructure in South African schools

Number of South African schools

State of infrastructure explained:

3544 804

No electricity Unreliable source of electricity

2402 2611

No water supply Unreliable water supply

913 11450

No ablution facilities Using pit latrine toilets

22938 19541

Do not have stocked libraries No space for a library

21021 1231

No laboratory facilities Stocked laboratories

2703 No fencing

19037 3267

No computer centre Have a room for computers but are not stocked with computers

400 Schools in the Eastern Cape classified as mud schools.

Taking the above into consideration, many learners do not have the adequate

resources needed to receive a quality education. As referred to in the table, there are

still schools in the Eastern Cape classified as mud schools, which means that these

schools are made of mud or in the form of shacks. This could affect learner

attendance and require resources for learners to succeed.

During the apartheid rule higher education institutions were racially divided. This

included the allocation of resources and infrastructure. Former white institutions were

located in more favourable locations with all the resources needed. To promote

equality, the newly elected government reduced the amount of institutions from 36 to

23. Many mergers took place and the new setting comprises three types of

institutions, namely traditional research-focussed universities (degree programmes),

universities of technology (higher certificates, diplomas and degrees in technology)

and comprehensive universities (bachelor and technology qualifications) (South

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African Higher Education: Facts and Figures, no date). Higher education institutions

have since been made more accessible to all students and the resources available

ensure that these students are more prepared for tertiary education.

In summary, the allocation of resources was racially skewed with regard to higher

education institutions. The South African government therefore reduced the number

of institutions, through the use of mergers to equalise the resources available. This

meant that facilities and other resources were shared among previously separated

institutions which granted access to all.

Initiatives by government to improve education

To redress these issues, namely the expenditure on education, resources including

qualified educators and available schools and tertiary institutions, the government

implemented initiatives to improve education prospects for all. A number of these

initiatives are outlined below in respect of education which includes higher education.

School initiatives

According to the Country Progress Report: South Africa (2013, p. 55) the South

African government has invested in long term initiatives to redress the inequalities of

the education system.

Safety: Safety is an important factor in any aspect of life. In a study by the

Department of Education it was found that many learners and educators felt unsafe

at school. One of the reasons for feeling unsafe was due to sexual harassment. The

Department of Education issued guidelines for the prevention and management of

sexual violence and distributed this to all schools.

Improving the quality of education: A National Development Plan for 2030 was drawn

up to eliminate poverty and inequality by the year 2030. Furthermore, this plan

envisioned the following with regard to the education system:

By 2030 South Africa‟s education system will provide:

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Quality school education

Global and competitive literacy and numeracy standards

Further and higher education and training

Review of the curriculum: Based on the negative perceptions of OBE, the

Department of Education is in the process of reviewing the curriculum.

Textbooks: In the period of 2011 to 2013, 117 million textbooks, workbooks and

study guides were distributed by the government. Furthermore, national catalogues

were issued for the selection of textbooks and learning material required.

Workbooks: In the state of the nation address in 2010 President Jacob Zuma

committed the government to providing workbooks for learners in the 11 official

languages of South Africa. In 2012, these workbooks were distributed to grades one

to nine in public schools.

Teacher development: Initial teacher education is a priority and bursaries were

introduced in the form of the Funza bursary programme. The introduction of this

programme showed a substantial increase in the number and quality of applicants

that enrolled for teaching programmes at tertiary institutions.

Infrastructure: Emphasis has been placed on improving existing school infrastructure

rather than increasing the number of schools available. The focus is to improve

schools without water, adequate sanitation, electricity, fencing, overcrowding and the

safety of learners.

National school nutrition programme: This programme promotes quality education for

the poorest learners by providing them with a daily meal. This also serves as an

incentive for attending school regularly.

Higher education initiatives

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Although the South African government has limited control over higher education,

there are government initiatives aimed at addressing some of the current challenges

affecting these institutions.

The goals and initiatives for higher education in South Africa are outlined below:

Access: A priority for government is to allow access to disadvantaged groups. This

will be done by converting study loans into bursaries.

ABET: The Department of Higher Education and Training has increased access to

higher education programmes through expanding spaces and options now available

at Further Education and Training (FET) colleges and universities.

Teaching grants: A total budget of R499 million will be distributed among all

universities to be used for teaching grants to improve outputs as well as R194 million

specifically to the foundation phase to improve the success rates of students from

disadvantaged educational backgrounds.

Infrastructure: R3.8 billion has been reserved for 2015 and 2016 to improve

universities‟ infrastructure especially for previously disadvantaged institutions, which

also includes the possibility of two new universities.

FET colleges: The South African government has invested money in public FET

colleges to deliver quality higher education and to become an institution of choice for

the public.

The National Development Plan 2030: The main aim of this plan in terms of higher

education is to:

Increase the number of graduates and research outputs

Build two new universities

Build a medical school in Limpopo and new academic hospitals

Extend the length of first degrees to four years

Provide full funding assistance

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Grant seven-year working permits to foreigners who graduate at one of the

South African universities

(The South African Government online: Key issues – Government Priority:

Education, 2014)

To summarise, the government plays a significant role in education, and is

responsible for among others, funding, allocation and availability of resources,

infrastructure, as well as the quality and quantity of educators. To solve the current

challenges the government has introduced a number of initiatives for education in

general including higher education. These are to provide access, equality and a

quality education system that will produce graduates of a high standard with the

relevant qualifications to meet industry and the national needs of the country.

In conclusion, as previously stated, all these stakeholders have an influence on the

career choice of a learner. However, the onus is still on the student when deciding

on a specific career, to take into account his or her personality traits, abilities,

interests and aptitude, and in doing so there will be a sense of satisfaction.

Alignment between the learners‟ characteristics and the preferred job is therefore

important (Osa-Edoh and Alutu, 2011, p. 11).

The following section of the chapter deals with the factors affecting student

readiness and success in higher education.

3.3 Factors affecting student readiness

Taking into consideration the concept of student readiness, various factors inhibit

students from being adequately prepared for tertiary education. A conceptual model

adapted from Draper (2008) is used as a basis to discuss the factors impacting on

student readiness. Refer to Figure 3.3 below:

Figure 3.3: A model of the factors impacting on student readiness.

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Source: Adapted (Draper, 2008)

The components of this model are explained below.

Preparation

Many factors contribute towards student failures, one of them being the gap between

secondary and tertiary education. This part of the chapter focuses on the preparation

needed from both home and school for learners to be prepared and successful in

their studies.

As a learner transitions to secondary school many changes take place such as

biological growth, cognitive ability and social development in terms of family

relationships. These are all major changes in an individual‟s life. All these take place

simultaneously which could cause a decline in a student‟s academic performance.

The student therefore needs an underlying support system to successfully complete

secondary school and prepare for higher education.

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As previously stated parental involvement is a key factor to student success. This

includes the parents‟ involvement with the school as well as the student. Schools

and parents need to work hand in hand to ensure that learners successfully

complete secondary school and are adequately prepared for higher education.

Assistance in this regard includes on the parents part ensuring that homework is

completed, providing emotional and other means of support as well as attending

school meetings and activities. The school or teachers need to identify improvement

areas, provide support mechanisms and align themselves with tertiary education

institutions to ensure that the student is prepared for further studies.

Course and student fit

According to the REAP Annual Report (2008, p. 49) a key factor to student readiness

and success is course selection. A number of students misguidedly selected a

career path that is not aligned with their interests and abilities which is a leading

factor in the high drop-out rates experienced by tertiary institutions. High school

learners are often forced to make a career decision based on the limited information

they have access to. It was emphasised in the report that many respondents were

uncertain as to what they wished to study, while standing in line at registration.

Furthermore, many of these students chose a field of study based on what their

friends decided, how much money will be made and which course was available

based on their APS score.

Bergh (2011, p. 96) states that successful students have the career maturity needed

to choose a career. These students are independent from their parents while still

maintaining supportive relations. Moreover, these individuals must have a relatively

well-developed identity which will guide a sensible career choice.

For a student to make the right choice in terms of a course, certain requirements

need to be considered such as career orientation, career information and planning,

consistency of career preferences, certainty or crystallisation of concepts and

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wisdom of vocational choices (Bergh, 2011, p. 96). These aspects are outlined

below:

Career orientation: A student‟s active involvement and commitment in the career

choices they make.

Career information and planning: The ability of the student to gain information and

explore the different career options available.

Consistency of career preferences: The choices within the career direction the

student has taken.

Certainty or crystallisation of concepts: A student‟s attitude about work or career.

Wisdom of vocational choices: Taking into account interests and abilities when

choosing a career.

To summarise, selecting the correct course is an important factor in determining the

student‟s level of preparedness. The onus is therefore on the student to make an

informed career decision by taking his or her interests, abilities and information

regarding the different courses on offer into consideration. If this is done, the student

has a better chance of preparedness which leads to overall success.

Academic factors

Academic factors have been repeatedly mentioned throughout this study and remain

an important factor of student preparedness and success. This section includes

study methods, self-management, reading, writing and subject proficiency.

In the study conducted by REAP (2008) it should be noted that a contributing factor

to the lack of preparedness of students is generally poor study methods. Many

students continue to practice the same study method previously used at school, in

their first year of tertiary education. As previously mentioned, at school, students

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were accustomed to memorising theory whereas at a tertiary level understanding is a

key concept which leaves students with the inability to cope and succeed.

Additionally, the lack of preparedness is based on a student‟s ability to self-manage.

On an academic level this entails that students should be able to cope with and

manage their studies. A successful student therefore has the ability to take

ownership of and responsibility for their tertiary career.

Moreover, a student‟s ability to read, think critically, comprehend and write research

assignments are important components of student success. Other components

equally important include language and mathematical ability. Language forms the

basis of a student‟s ability to adequately read, understand and answer questions

during class and when being assessed.

To summarise this section, a prepared student refers to an individual who is able to

take responsibility for their studies, to identify if there is a problem with the study

method being used and adapting these to the current situation. Furthermore, these

students have the necessary abilities such as language, reading and writing that are

needed to make a success of their studies.

Psychological and social adjustment

According to Draper (2008) social integration refers to the interaction between

students and their friends and the academic staff they encounter on a regular basis.

Social integration therefore measures how well students interact with their peers

without being influenced.

A student, who finds it difficult to adapt and interact with others, might find the

transition challenging especially when instructed to work in groups. Successful

students encompass the interpersonal and social skills that allow them to interact

with a diverse set of people and who are comfortable in their surroundings (Conley,

2010, p. 41).

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According to Yau, Sun and Cheng (2011, p. 99) female students generally

outperform male students academically, but they experience more social adjustment

challenges. Furthermore, female students are less involved with on-campus activities

and have fewer opportunities to take up leadership positions in societies. It has been

highlighted that those individuals who stay off-campus experience negative

adjustment as compared to those who reside in on-campus residences or with other

students.

Psychological adjustment refers to mental health aspects such as mood

disturbances, depression and well-being. It is argued that the best means to

investigate psychological adjustment is by taking stress and coping abilities into

consideration. Furthermore, psychological adjustment encompasses both

psychological and emotional well-being. If an individual is able to adapt to new

cultures, positive adjustment will take place and vice versa.

When transitioning into a new environment students are faced with challenges which

lead to stress and anxiety. According to Yau, Sun and Cheng (2011, p. 100) male

students adapt better and faster compared to their female counterparts due to the

manner in which they deal with stress and emotional problems. This indicates that

male students are more satisfied with their image and with the need to fit in.

To summarise, prepared students are mentally, emotionally and physically ready for

the challenges in higher education. These individuals are able to cope with the

complexities of student life and have the capabilities to adapt to the situation.

Financial support

Many financial challenges affect students who enter tertiary institutions. Tertiary

education is costly, whether a grade 12 learner enrols at a college, technikon or

university. According to Wangenge-Ouma (2010, p. 489) due to the cost of higher

education many students are discouraged from attending these institutions.

Furthermore, Letseka and Maile (2008) claim that approximately 40% of students

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registered at these institutions withdraw in their first year of study due to financial

difficulties. Many mechanisms have been implemented to address these financial

issues, however, each of them with their own set of challenges. Government,

companies and universities offer numerous funding opportunities for students

(Manganye, 2008). It should be noted that most of these bursaries, merit awards and

scholarships are for previously disadvantaged “academic achievers”.

To address the challenge, sources of finance are available to students such as the

National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS) and student loans, which are briefly

outlined below.

The government established a bursary scheme called NSFAS which provides

financial aid to students at both FET colleges and university. Loans are provided to

students at all 25 universities and 50 public FET colleges across South Africa

(NSFAS, 2013).

All major banks in South Africa offer student loans to assist students with finance to

pursue education. These loans are subject to certain requirements such as surety,

previous performance and registration for a course or programme and cover tuition

fees, accommodation, textbooks and study material.

However, the external funding provided is not sufficient as according to Vienne and

Slate (2009) the average student leaves university with outstanding debt. This could

be due to student loans which cover academic fees, accommodation including living

expenses and books. In 2004 many undergraduate students started their academic

year with at least one credit card (Vienne and Slate, 2009). Having large amounts of

debt has proved to have a negative psychological effect on students, in terms of their

inability to manage their finances and high stress levels which eventually impact on

academic performance (Vienne and Slate, 2009).

To conclude, there are substantial amounts of money invested in higher education.

The challenge lies in the fact that the number of students requiring financial

assistance exceeds the amount of money available. These financial implications add

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to students‟ psychological and emotional stress which could lead to unpreparedness

when starting university or dropping out of university.

Personal circumstances

Each learner brings unique experiences to the classroom that impact directly on his

or her level of readiness. According to Thomas, Jones and May (no date) personal

circumstances may include anything from physical health problems to childcare. Not

all learners are from surrounding areas as tertiary institutions are made up of both

national and international learners. This therefore has an impact on the readiness

levels and coping abilities of learners.

Additional external factors that need to be considered are parental influence and

economic status as well as physical and mental health. As previously mentioned

parental influence is a key factor in student preparedness as often the values

towards work and learning are a reflection on the parents and how the child was

reared. In terms of economic status many students come from poverty-stricken

homes where resources and exposure to high quality schooling are limited (Rendon,

2006, p.1). Physical and mental health affects a student‟s ability to succeed in

education. Those who are ill or suffer from health problems are often absent and

miss out on important sections of the course which could cause these individuals to

repeat a module. This will have an effect on a student‟s overall ability to successfully

complete his or her qualification in the recommended amount of time.

In conclusion, outside their academic career students have additional stressors and

concerns. These circumstances could have a negative effect on their ability to further

and succeed in their studies. Students therefore have to be aware of the services

offered to assist them to make the transition to higher education.

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Student engagement

Student engagement has become an important predictor of readiness and success.

According to Astin (1975 in Matthews, Andrews and Adams, 2011) the amount of

physical and psychological energy a student spends in the learning experience is a

contributing factor to student success. Student engagement therefore refers to the

ability of the student to become an active participant in his or her studies and the

wholeness of the experience.

Gerber and Mans-Kemp (2011, p. 257) also state that higher levels of engagement

on the students‟ part enhance the learning experience as well as their overall

performance in the respective module.

Furthermore, Gerber and Mans-Kemp (2011, p. 259) identified four types of

engagement which are outlined below:

Cognitive engagement refers to students‟ ability to assess the value of their

affiliation with the institution.

Psychological engagement refers to students‟ association with their peers and

academic material.

Academic engagement refers to the time invested by students on academic

tasks such as homework, assignments and studying for tests and

examinations.

Behavioural engagement refers to the student‟s ability to actively participate in

learning exercises and attend class.

To summarise, students that are actively engaged in their studies attend class,

participate in lectures, do their homework and are involved with fellow peers and

lecturers, achieving more success in higher education.

Support mechanisms

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In addition to Draper (2008), Wilcox, Winn and Fyvie-Gauld (2005) agree that

student success and retention involve both academic and social integration. This

section therefore focuses on the social aspect of student success.

Social support encompasses six functions of personal relationships and includes

attachment (caring and love), social integration (interests, concerns and belonging),

opportunity for nurturance (being a source of support to others), reassurance of

worth (respect for abilities and personal qualities), a sense of reliable alliance

(source of encouragement and assistance) and lastly, obtaining of guidance (seeking

advice and guidance).

Based on these elements there are various components to social support, which all

must be present for students to feel connected to the institution and to the people

they engage with.

Furthermore, there are many support mechanisms in place at higher education

institutions to ensure that the student feels welcome and part of the institution.

According to Sabio and Junio-Sabio (2012) the support services offered at these

institutions are essential as these assist in developing students to reach their full

potential. These services also, if used correctly, enhance student retention, increase

throughput rates and promote excellence.

In conclusion, if students have adequate support from their families, peers and

lecturing and support staff, and make use of the support mechanisms available to

them, their chances of readiness and success will be high. The challenge is that

many of these students are unaware of the support structures in place and are

therefore unprepared for what lies ahead.

3.4. Current interventions used to address student readiness

Many interventions are put in place to assist learners with their transition from

secondary school to tertiary education. As previously mentioned an intervention

refers to a change in behaviour that is largely attributed to teaching coping skills to

students to assist them in their transition from secondary to tertiary education.

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3.4.1 Secondary school

This section of the chapter is divided into two parts, secondary and tertiary

interventions, and further sub-divided into the current interventions in America as

compared to South Africa.

3.4.1.1 American secondary schools

According to Conley (2010, p. 137) some schools in America have adopted the

scaffolding approach which gradually requires learners to work independently. Group

work is also emphasised as it maximises engagement and prepares learners which

is common practive at tertiary level.

A number of interventions aimed at improving college preparation and success have

been developed and implemented. To bridge the gap between high school and

college or university, non-governmental admission testing organisations have proved

to be important. In America, there are two leading organisations, namely the College

Board and ACT Incorporated, which both offer admission-related assessments as

well as developing programmes that facilitate the transition from secondary to tertiary

education. A number of these programmes are highlighted below.

Advanced Placement – this programme was designed to assist high schools by

aligning their courses to a college preparatory curriculum. All the courses offered in

this programme are linked to an examination, which tests a student‟s knowledge and

skills in terms of the requirements needed in the first year of post-secondary studies.

These examinations are a combination of multiple choice questions, comprehensive

writing and problem-solving exercises. Furthermore, the results depict the student‟s

ability to master content and to exhibit the writing skills required and aligned with

those of college courses (Conley, 2005, p. 50).

Springboard is an integrated programme aimed at improving readiness among high

school learners. This programme was designed in a such a way that students and

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teachers alike become aware of what needs to be done from grade seven to grade

12 to be prepared for tertiary education. In addition, it enables these parties to keep

track of the level of preparedness among learners. Moreover, this can be used as a

tool by schools to put learners on the right path in achieving the key knowledge and

skills required for success in their tertiary education (Conley, 2005, p. 54).

The ACT testing sequence is yet another programme that is currently used. This

takes the form of tests with the purpose of assisting students to measure their

readiness and general academic skills. The programme has three tests which are

explore, plan and act. The explore test is issued to grade eight learners and once it

has been assessed, feedback is given on their skills with regard to English,

mathematics, science and reading. In grade ten, the plan test is supplied which is the

predecessor to the act test, an admission test, which is commonly given to students

before furthering their studies. Students are provided with tools to help them reach

their educational goals and teachers are provided with supplementary material to

assist in the transition from high school to college (Conley, 2005, p. 56).

International Baccalaureate emphasises the mastery of basic skills needed at a

university level. This programme is divided into three key parts, namely the extended

essay, the theory of knowledge course and the commitment to creativity, action and

service. Moreover, the curriculum of this course includes languages, history,

geography, philosophy, psychology, biology, physics, chemistry, mathematics,

computer science and art (Conley, 2005, p. 56).

The dual enrolment and postsecondary options allow high school learners to enrol in

both high school and college courses. This can take place at high school, tertiary

institutions or on the internet. According to Conley (2005, p. 59) there are many

reasons for the interest that surrounds this course. These include finance since

taking the course while at high school means a deduction in the amount of fees to be

paid at college. Evidence of successful completion of college courses are also seen

as more favourable when enrolling at a tertiary institution. Learners are also given a

perception of what is to come when reaching college. They are then able to decide

for themselves if they are adequately prepared for college, as they are exposed to

the expectations of attending a tertiary institution.

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A more recent intervention called the early college high school combines the first two

years of college into the last two years of high school which enables learners to

graduate with both a high school diploma and an associate degree. These

programmes are solely focussed on academia and not the social aspects of high

school, such as prom or farewell as it is known in South Africa. The learners who

partake in this programme are therefore motivated to succeed in furthering their

studies as opposed to „fitting in‟ (Conley, 2005, p. 61).

Lastly, the alignment and challenge audit, which was developed by the University of

Oregon‟s Center for Educational Policy Research to establish the extent to which

high schools are aligned with college standards. This further investigates the gap

between what is said is done, and what is actually done. All forms of information are

gathered, such as a learner‟s portfolio, course details, tests, assignments and

assessment tools to provide a better understanding of the learning that takes place

(Conley, 2005, p. 63).

To summarise, American secondary schools have many interventions in place to

address student readiness for college or higher education. It should be noted that not

all American schools have implemented these programmes. Even so, the

programmes that are available, prepare these learners for their future study and

professional careers as they are able to adapt better and have the skills and

knowledge required to make their transition a success.

3.4.1.2 South African secondary schools

Certain schools prepare learners by making use of career counsellors. Career

counselling enables learners to gain all the information regarding a specific career,

the tertiary institution offering the course and helps learners examine their strengths,

interests, likes and dislikes. In doing so learners are able to identify a career that

suits them best.

Furthermore, many additional initiatives in South Africa are aimed at improving

readiness among secondary school learners, but many learners are not able to

benefit from these which are briefly discussed below.

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The Tertiary Education Access Channel – This programme was designed to uplift

disadvantaged matriculants to access further education opportunities through a

bridging programme. This programme includes a soft skills component (time-

management, communication) and a technical component (maths, science). It also

improves readiness of grade 12 learners to gain entry into colleges or universities

(Living through learning, 2013).

Career planet – A web programme designed to connect learners with career

guidance, available bursaries, apprenticeships, skills development opportunities and

possible vacancies. All learners who have access to the internet can register at no

cost and take advantage of the tools and articles available (Career Planet, 2014).

Migration to e-learning – This initiative is in partnership with the University of Cape

Town and is aimed at enhancing teaching and learning by information sharing for

both students and teachers, using a tablet as the learning tool. The school is

required to pay an annual licensing fee to be a part of the programme. Learners

make use of e-books which are uploaded onto their tablets as compared to

traditional text-books, other resources such as videos, a digital library and other

educational resources (Center for education innovations).

Shawco Saturday School –The University of Cape Town also has another initiative

aimed at improving grade 12 learners‟ academic performance in Mathematics,

Sciences, English and Accounting which also includes career guidance.

Secondary School Improvement Programme – This programme was designed to

improve grade 12 learners in Gauteng. The initiative applies to schools that have a

lower than 80% matric pass rate and provides teachers and learners with support

and tuition.

Mindset Learn – An e-learning approach through the use of television and the

internet to improve the learning experience of students by providing up-to-date,

accessible and interactive learning.

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SAEP Bridging Year Programme – This programme assists promising learners from

underprivileged schools to develop the academic and life skills needed to succeed in

higher education.

To summarise, there are initiatives in South Africa to address student readiness. The

challenge lies with accessibility as many of these initiatives are either internet-based

or offered in certain geographical areas. This implies that not all the learners are able

to benefit from these initiatives which have an impact on the readiness levels and

preparedness of these learners for higher education.

3.4.2 Tertiary institutions

Most tertiary institutions have many interventions in place to bridge the gap and

prepare students for higher education. This section of the chapter focuses on the

current interventions used by institutions to enhance student preparedness and

success in higher education.

Orientation programmes: An intervention that has been used by many universities

takes the form of an orientation programme. At Nelson Mandela Metropolitan

University the orientation programme seeks to integrate new students into the

academic and social aspects of the university. The orientation programme focuses

on all aspects related to student success in higher education, such as a meet and

greet with the faculty, short sessions on academic skills, time management,

accessing e-mails, support services and much more (NMMU Orientation, 2012).

At Harvard University there are open days just like any other university but this is

merely the start of their orientation programme. As with other orientation

programmes, it is designed in such a way that students become acquainted with the

university and what it has to offer. The focus, however, is not to prepare students for

different experiences but to provide them with opportunities to explore all the

facilities and resources available to them (Harvard University, 2014).

The extended or bridging programme: The most common intervention at tertiary

institutions to prepare learners for higher education would be through the use of

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„extended‟ programmes, which serve as a bridging course. York University, for

example, has many bridging courses available, each focussing on a different

segment in the student population. These include a bridging course for students who

do meet the admission requirements, a women‟s bridging course for those females

interested in updating certain skills, an accounting bridging programme as well as a

pre-university course (York University, no date).

Centre for Access Assessment and Research (CAAR): CAAR uses a developmental

approach that enables students to reach their full potential. Students who fall short of

the required APS score are required to write an AAB (Access Assessment Battery).

Once the test has been written, feedback and recommendations are provided to the

student, the relevant Dean, Director of School and Head of Department (CAAR,

2014). The focus of this study is on HRM first-year students and in this department

an Academic Advisor takes the role of monitoring these students and organising

programmes that will assist them to further improve and develop in areas of concern.

Peer helping: NMMU uses peer helping as it is the assumption that students prefer

speaking to other students about the problems and challenges experienced. The

„peer helpers‟ are trained and there to provide support and guide students in the right

direction (NMMU, 2014).

Student counselling: Student counselling is another intervention universities currently

have in place to address academic and personal related problems of students. A set

of qualified counsellors provide guidance, counselling, development, career and

psychological assistance to students who require these services to develop these

students to achieve their full potential (NMMU, 2014). At Oxford University,

counselling is offered not only to students but to staff as well. There are a variety of

services on offer which includes individual counselling, workshops, group

counselling, self-help strategies, advice for staff and parents and students supporting

students (University of Oxford, 2014).

Blended Learning: Blended learning is a relatively new form of instruction given to

students. As mentioned before blended learning encompasses both internet and

traditional based learning. In society many students are more focussed on

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technology and for higher education institutions to receive buy-in from these

students, traditional methods had to be adapted to suit this generation. This assists

with readiness as it incorporates learning via the use of the internet which prepares

students and improves their IT skills. Furthermore, in the United States of America,

an initiative called the Next Generation Learning Challenges has been developed to

improve college readiness and success through the use of technology (Transforming

education through technology, 2014).

Tutorials: Most of the subjects offered at NMMU have tutorials used to assist

students in their understanding of the core content. Tutorials are run by either a staff

member, student assistant or a senior level student, who has been through the

course and who has a thorough understanding of what it entails.

Mentoring: Mentoring programmes are used in different departments throughout the

university. This programme was designed with the idea of linking junior students to

senior students. This proves to be effective as students learn through and from other

students and look up to those who have been through the course.

Summer and winter schools: Summer and winter schools are used by various

departments at NMMU. These schools were designed for struggling students who

have not met the required standard for a particular module. The aim of these

programmes is to increase throughput rates as well as improve the success levels of

students. At the University of Sydney, summer and winter schools are used for

various reasons such as accelerating time spent on a degree programme, reducing a

student‟s workload, allowing for the repeat of certain modules and smaller classes.

An important aspect is that they allow high school students to get an early start

(University of Sydney, 2014).

Many of these interventions are in place in various countries around the world. Even

though the interventions might carry the same name, it is important to note that the

interventions differ in certain respects, such as the amount of time, detail, or who the

programmes are aimed at. Compared to South African universities, these

universities invest more time in orientation programmes and other initiatives to

prepare students for tertiary education.

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3.5 APPLICATION: From theory to practice

As in the previous chapter, open-ended questionnaires were distributed to lecturers

who teach first-year Human Resource Management (HRM) students. The purpose of

these interviews was to gain a better understanding and to identify the relationship

between theory and practice. The lecturers are referred to as lecturer 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

and 7. The responses are provided verbatim and in italics.

Table 3.5: Summary of lecturer responses

Lecturers Key stakeholders in student success

Factors influencing student success

Current interventions

Personnel Management I Student

Lecturer

Support groups

Right course

Quality teaching

Self-discipline

Study techniques

Reading and writing

Assertiveness

Affiliation

Support

Selection process

Orientation

Computer training

Study skills

Academic advisor

Accounting for Personnel Practitioners

Parents

School teachers

Friends

Motivation

Support

Willingness

Confidence

Foundation

CAAR

Personnel Management I and Management of Training I

Student

Government

Institution

Parents and siblings

Lecturers

Engagement

Lecturers

Social affiliation

Institutional resources

Orientation

programmes

Peer helping

Winter schools

Health clinic support

Student counselling

Business Management I High school

Student counselling

Lecturers

Students

Interest

Goals and objectives

Lecturer guidance

How2 programme

Supplemental

instruction

Mentoring

programmes

Personnel Management I and Management of Training I

Students

Parents

Lecturers

University

From the student:

Determination

Commitment

Passion

Informed

From the lecturer:

Information

Assistance

Open day

programme

Orientation

Workshops

How2 buddies

Other events

Communication in English A/B

Students

Parents

Lecturers

Academic

Hard work

Balance

Environment

Summer and winter

schools

Lecturer

interventions

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3.5.1 Open-ended questionnaires and responses

1. Who in your opinion are the key stakeholders involved in a student‟s success?

To what extent do they play a role?

Lecturer 1 (Personnel Management I):

The student self by choosing the right career, being self-motivated, self-disciplined

and being accountable for studies and success. Being pro-active when problems are

encountered and utilising existing resources provided at NMMU.

The lecturer by providing quality teaching, advising and counselling with regard to

study techniques, giving proper feedback after assessments and providing

encouragement/building students. Referring students to support resources on the

campus. Adjusting approach to the level of student.

Support groups on the campus: Library, counselling, student services, SRC, AA, the

collective department as a team.

Lecturer 2 (Accounting for Personnel Practitioners):

I think that there are more than one party that plays a role in a student‟s success

• Parents – Parents lay the foundation on which any child‟s upbringing and later on,

their careers, will be based. I‟m not saying that a child cannot rise above their

circumstances if need be, but still believe parents play a vital part

• School teachers – Laying the foundation for their tertiary education

environment Institutional

programmes

Personnel Management I Lecturers

Students

Support structure

Resources

Self-leadership

Healthy family life

Orientation

CAAR

CTLM

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• Friends – Unfortunately, friends have a big influence on the decisions students

make, going forward in live. I am saying unfortunately because often this influence

can be negative, but sometimes friends can be motivation for success as well

Lecturer 3 (Personnel Management and Management of Training I):

The student – with self-motivation and commitment to studies

The government – with financial contributions to institutions to help with the

attainment of vital educational aids and other resources

The institution - provision of education and availing resources such as the health

clinic and student counselling services

The parents and siblings – financial and moral support

The lecturers - support, empathy, guidance

Lecturer 4 (Business Management I):

The high schools from which students obtain their senior certificates are the

grassroots of a student‟s success as these institutions should prepare the student

and create awareness of what their strong points are and how they can use that to

further their careers (indication of what qualification to pursue). Student counselling

also plays an important role as they provide guidance to students not sure on what to

study and creates a sense of willingness and ambition for the student. Lecturers

have an integral role in bringing out the best in students through clear guidance and

understanding in respect of content and application thereof. Then of course the

students themselves are major players in their own success by being diligent,

hardworking and striving for excellence in their studies.

Lecturer 5 (Personnel Management I and Management of Training I):

• The students – need to be committed, passionate, and focussed and driven (goals

that they have set).

• Parents (family) – provide support (moral and financial). Also, provide an

environment conducive to learning and encourage the students to move forward.

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• Lecturers – provide learning material, support and encouragement. Their role is to

challenge the students to use the knowledge and provide the opportunities for them

to use their abilities. Lecturers are not to “spoon-feed” the learners but they ought to

challenge and encourage the learners to discover the information for themselves and

lecturers can also facilitate the process.

• University - provide proper facilities (classes, computer labs, library, academic

assistance).

Lecturer 6 (Communication in English A/B):

The student – personal ambition and future financial and personal security play a

huge role in student success.

The parents (if student is undergraduate straight from school) and partners (married)

- play a huge supporting role to offer the student time and space (and finances?) to

complete studies

The lecturers – adequate preparation, relevant information and all around academic

support will encourage a student greatly.

The academic environment – financial (bursaries, scholarships) structural (adequate

libraries, lecture venues, etc) helps as well

Lecturer 7 (Personnel Management I):

Lecturers, students themselves, family/social support structure. A very large extent.

2. What are the factors, in your opinion that contribute to student success?

Lecturer 1 (Personnel Management I):

Choosing the right course

Quality teaching

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Self-discipline/studying /time management/focus = motivation

Correct study techniques as stipulated in PM1 study guide

Reading and study ability

Student‟s ability to assert him/herself in groups

Feeling of affiliation in the class

Support from family

Lecturer 2 (Accounting for Personnel Practitioners):

• Personal motivation

• Motivation and support from friends and family

• Willingness to work hard

• Confidence

• Will to succeed

• Stable foundation

Lecturer 3 (Personnel Management and Management of Training I):

Student‟s engagement in studies – studying diligently and reflecting in a disciplined

way on each study area and content learnt

Checking up with lecturers for guidance, doing all individual and group assignments,

participating wholesomely in class debates and discussions, participating in societies

and other extra-mural activities when time permits, managing external challenges

and managing personal conflicts and challenges, making optimum use of institutional

resources

Lecturer 4 (Business Management I):

It starts with the student wanting and showing a keen interest in their studies and

knowing and following a career path that they are actually interested in and not just

doing it for the sake of “I have to study”. They then have to set clear goals and

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objectives for their studies. Once goals and objectives have been established then

the student can focus on what needs to be done to achieve them. This removes any

uncertainty, stress and anxiety in my opinion. As mentioned before, the lecturer

should also guide and assist students through quality teaching and learning methods

and techniques and encourage application of knowledge.

Lecturer 5 (Personnel Management I and Management of Training I):

Related to the student:

Determination and focus

Commitment

Hard work and dedication

Passion and enjoyment (subjects and field of study)

Being informed about the field of study (practical application or industry

knowledge)

From the lecturer:

Provide relevant information

Provide assistance and feedback on performance and development

areas

Lecturer 6 (Communication in English A/B):

Hard work and determination are the key factors. Others include planning, time

management and organisation.

Secondary factors are: balance (healthy diet plan and exercise with recreational

activities), good home environment with routine.

Lecturer 7 (Personnel Management I)

Access to specific resources (e.g. financial), self-leadership (student taking charge of

their own success), a healthy family life.

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3. There are many interventions‟ aimed at improving readiness among first-year

students. Please elaborate on some of the current interventions used to

address student readiness?

Lecturer 1 (Personnel Management I):

student selection process

orientation – introduction to expectations and resources

computer training for first years

overview of study skills in study guide

On-going advising/counselling/caring for first years

AA

Lecturer 2 (Accounting for Personnel Practitioners):

I am not really involved in any of these interventions, so I don‟t know too much about

them

I assume some of the testing done by CAAR and the actions they follow might be

some of the interventions you are mentioning here above

Lecturer 3 (Personnel Management and Management of Training I):

Orientation programmes and the linking up of new students to senior students – the

buddy system

Peer-helping – senior students acts as „lecturers‟ to first-year students

Identification of struggling students and referrals to student advisor

Winter schools for struggling students

Health clinic support

Student counselling

Lecturer 4 (Business Management I):

The “How2@NMMU” programme is very useful and effective in inducting students

into the university. This creates readiness through students knowing what the

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services are that are available to them and where to access them. Supplemental

Instruction (SI) also provides additional academic support to students to great effect

as students are able to work through additional case studies and exercises that

otherwise would not have been done in the classroom. This prepares them

adequately for tests and helps them to know what to expect during these

assessments. The mentoring programmes offered by our department also assists

students with in addition to academic support, non-academic related issues such as

time management, stress management among others.

Lecturer 5 (Personnel Management I and Management of Training I):

• Open Day (providing information related to career paths available and details for

application and relevant information).

• First-year orientation programme (introduction to the university and to their specific

courses/ field chosen, including introduction to lecturers).

• Workshops presented by the different departments (CTML, student counselling,

writing centre, computer assessments – HRM department).

• How2 buddies (students are assigned How2 buddies (senior student in the same

field as the first-year student). The How2 buddies assist the students with

information regarding the course, university, varsity life and provide moral support.

• First-year orientation also includes a city bus tour and campus tour (students view

the different campuses).

• Other events include: first-year concerts, sports day, shows, societies day - all

these contribute towards introduction to varsity life and encourages student

engagement.

Lecturer 6 (Communication in English A/B):

Summer and winter schools are good for allowing students to consolidate learning,

or fill the learning gaps that exist.

Lecturer interventions – consultations regarding student progress – are key (where

manageable) to encouraging students to improve.

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Institutional programmes such as SI are important to close the gap between school

and university learning.

Lecturer 7 (Personnel Management I):

Orientation for first years, CAAR, CTLM

3.5.2 Interpretation of results

1. The key stakeholders involved in student success

Once the results of the open-ended questionnaire were analysed, it was found that

there was an overlap between what the theory states and the lecturers‟ responses.

All the respondents indicated that lecturers and teachers are considered one of the

key stakeholders in student success. Furthermore, the responses largely indicated

that the lecturer is not only a source of information to the students but to support,

encourage and provide guidance when needed.

Five of the respondents agreed that parental involvement is of the utmost importance

as parents form the basis from which the students grow and develop. It was also

highlighted that parents provide the students with moral and financial support

throughout their studies. Support from parents is therefore an important aspect of

student preparedness. As with parents, friends were also seen as a stakeholder with

regard to the influence they have on an individual, and based on the responses this

could have a positive or negative effect on the student‟s success.

Other stakeholders highlighted are as follows:

The government in terms of financial contributions,

The institution with regard to resource availability,

Student counselling to provide students with guidance and support, and lastly

The students themselves need to be motivated and have a willingness to

succeed.

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Taking these factors into account and considering the theoretical basis of this

chapter, it is evident that parents, friends and family, educators and government are

key stakeholders in student readiness and success. Furthermore, additional

stakeholders identified were the institution, student counselling and the student.

2. The factors influencing student success

According to the respondents the key factors affecting readiness and success are

outlined below, these include:

Right course

Quality teaching

Academic factors

Engagement

Motivation

Affiliation and support

Resources

Other factors identified were similar in meaning and have therefore been grouped

under one factor. All these factors are aligned with the theoretical aspect of the

chapter and have been discussed in further detail in the section focusing on factors

affecting student readiness.

It should be noted that in this study motivation was discussed in Chapter Two as it is

an important characteristic of a prepared student. Furthermore, many of the factors

identified, relate to academic factors such as study techniques and self-discipline.

Other important factors highlighted more than once were affiliation and support.

3. The current interventions used to address student readiness and

success

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This part of the open-ended questionnaire focussed on NMMU and the interventions

currently in place to address student readiness and success. The interventions

mentioned are as follows:

Orientation programmes

CAAR

Peer helping

Student counselling

Mentoring programmes

Summer and winter schools

Open Day

Health clinic support

Lecturer interventions

CTLM

Six of the respondents mentioned the orientation programme held at the university.

Based on their responses the orientation programme forms an integral part of

welcoming and preparing students for their tertiary studies. This includes a number

of initiatives such as an introduction to the lecturers and course, going on city tours,

expectations and other mini workshops.

Furthermore, most of these have been mentioned as interventions and were

discussed in further detail in the chapter under the section current interventions used

to prepare students for tertiary education.

In conclusion, to establish whether students will be adequately prepared and

successful in tertiary education these questions provided a starting point. The key

stakeholders, the factors and the interventions used to prepare students have been

identified and can be used as indicators of readiness and success.

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3.6 CONCLUSION

As proposed in Chapter One this chapter aimed to identify the key stakeholders and

their role in student readiness and success. These are the parents, family and

friends, teachers and lecturers, media and the government. The main findings will be

elaborated upon below.

Parents play an important role in a student‟s academic career from primary to tertiary

level. Their involvement stems from the values that have been instilled, the

communication networks that exist in the parent-child relationship and their input in

terms of the subject choices and career options a student takes.

As with parents, friends and family also fulfil a significant role in a students‟ life, and

as previously mentioned family in this study refers to the extended family of the

student. Certain cultural factors need to be considered as in many families the career

decisions made, are often to benefit the family as a whole and not only the individual.

Omrod (2004) stated that the career choice students make, are often influenced by

the friends they keep. These can both lead to positive or negative outcomes.

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Students spend most of their time in the company of teachers and lecturers. As

stated by Crosby (2000, p.4) a good teacher is a source of information but also has a

role to play in assisting students where possible. Teachers and lecturers require the

correct qualification and skills to be effective. Furthermore, different roles of teachers

were identified such as information provider, role model, facilitator, assessor, planner

and resource developer, which are all equally important. If the teacher or lecturer

have all these elements in place the quality of teaching and learning improves, which

has an overall effect on student readiness and success.

Students are exposed to different types of media, which each has its own set of

benefits and challenges. The most commonly used form of media in the classroom is

social media which includes the use of video clips and communication via the

internet. Many institutions make use of a blended learning approach which

incorporates the advantages of both traditional and internet-based instruction. The

impact of media on education therefore depends on the student and how the media

is being used. If used effectively and with reason it will have a positive effect on

performance, readiness and success.

In addition, the role of government in education was discussed. The section included

the shift in government from an apartheid regime to a democratically elected

government. Furthermore, expenditure on education was highlighted which included

resource allocation such as textbooks, staff profiles and infrastructure. In addition,

initiatives by government to address the challenges have been highlighted. It should

be noted that even with the initiatives in place readiness levels remain low.

All the stakeholders mentioned, have some or other influence over a student in terms

of readiness and success. However, the onus remains on the students to rise above

their circumstances and make a success of their studies.

The second section of the chapter focussed on the factors affecting student

readiness and success. These included preparation, academic factors, course and

student fit, psychological and student adjustment, financial support, personal

circumstances, student engagement and support mechanisms. It was concluded that

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for a student to be prepared for tertiary education the extent to which the above

factors apply to students had to be considered.

Followed by these factors, the interventions currently used to prepare students in

secondary schools and tertiary institutions were included. In addition, American and

South African secondary schools were compared and South African schools have

fewer and less extensive interventions in place to adequately address student

preparedness. Furthermore, the interventions currently in place in higher education

institutions have been elaborated upon. More or less the same interventions are

used but once more the American institutions have more extensive interventions in

place.

Lastly, the chapter had an empirical component which reflected the various lecturers‟

opinions regarding the stakeholders, factors and interventions with regard to student

readiness. The findings were aligned with the theoretical component of the study and

additional information was brought forward.

The next chapter outlines the research design and methodology used to analyse and

further investigate the impact of readiness on student success.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION 116

4.2 Objectives of the study 116

4.3 Research design and methodology 117

4.4 Sample and sampling technique 120

4.4.1 Description of the sample and biographical factors 121

4.4.2 Sampling method 124

4.4.3 Population size 126

4.4 Data collection 127

4.5.1 Primary data 127

4.5.1.1 Questionnaires 128

4.5.1.2 Self-administered questionnaires 128

4.5.1.3 Open-ended questionnaires 128

4.5.2 Questionnaire development 129

4.5.3 Pilot study 135

4.5.4 Administration of the questionnaire 138

4.6 Reliability and validity 139

4.6.1 Reliability of the method used 139

4.6.2 Validity of the method used 141

4.7 Ethical in research 142

4.7.1 Ethical clearance 142

4.7.2 Voluntary basis 143

4.7.3 Permission 143

4.7.4 Anonymity 144

4.7.5 Confidentiality 144

4.8 Data analysis 144

4.9 CONCLUSION 146

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4.1 INTRODUCTION

An extensive literature review was conducted to explore student readiness and the

impact it has on student success. The previous chapter explored the key

stakeholders involved in students‟ success, the factors influencing student readiness

and success and the interventions currently in place to prepare students for tertiary

education.

This chapter describes the research design and methodology used throughout this

study. A detailed outline of the processes is discussed to validate the quality of the

procedures applied in this study. In addition, this chapter seeks to address the main

problem of the study and in doing so, identify interventions that prepare students for

tertiary education.

Furthermore, the aspects elaborated upon are briefly outlined. The research design

and methodology used are shared. This includes the type of design, the methods to

gain information, sampling, data collection, questionnaire development and

administration, reliability and validity, ethics and the data analysis.

4.2 Objectives of the study

To gain a better understanding of student readiness and success, the following

objectives have been used as a guideline to investigate different variables to enable

the researcher to answer the main research problem.

As discussed in Chapter One the objectives of the study were therefore to:

Provide a critical analysis of student readiness and its impact on student

success.

Investigate the impact of various stakeholders such as the government,

parents, peers, teachers and lecturers on student readiness.

Analyse the factors causing a lack of readiness among South African students

and to identify interventions that will result in preparing students for tertiary

education.

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Identify to what extent the readiness factors are applicable to first-year Human

Resource Management (HRM) students.

Analyse the extent to which first-year learners have been exposed to the

identified interventions.

Taking the above information into consideration the following hypotheses were

developed:

H1: There is a relationship between age and readiness factors

H2: There is a relationship between ethnicity and readiness factors

H3: There is a relationship between the type of schooling and readiness factors

H4: There is a relationship between gender and readiness

H5: Students who score high on readiness factors are more likely to succeed in

their first year

H6: Students who have adequate support structures in place show better academic

performance.

H7: Students who are well-integrated in the university perform better.

H8: Student exposure to the early interventions improves readiness and success.

The next section of this chapter focuses on the research design and methodology

used throughout the study.

4.3 Research method and design

As seen in Chapter One a detailed framework was provided which explained the

research procedures that were to follow. To reflect, the aim of the study was to

identify interventions that prepare students for tertiary education. Taking this into

consideration the study encompassed the following, namely an extensive literature

review, empirical study and data analysis, recommendations and conclusion. Refer

to Figure 4.1: Outline of research framework.

Figure 4.1: Outline of the research framework

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Researchers own construction

According to Struwig and Stead (2004, p. 3) research is not simply information

gathering or decision-making and can be distinguished by the following

characteristics:

Table 4.1 Key differences between research and information gathering

OPEN SYSTEM OF THOUGHT

Research is continuously tested, reviewed and criticised

Research is not about knowing the right answers but asking the

right questions.

CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF DATA

Time-consuming process

Valid, reliable and systematic data

Interpreting and understanding data

GENERALISE AND SPECIFY LIMITS ON GENERALISATIONS

Quantitative research obtains valid generalisations

Explanatory theory and the application thereof underpins research

Source: Adapted (Struwig and Stead, 2004, p. 3)

1. Literature review:

Detailed discussion on student readiness included all major existing theories

2. Empirical study:

Questionnaire to full-time first year HRM students

Open-ended questionnaires to lecturers

who teach the first year HRM students.

3. Data analysis, recommendations and

conclusions

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Furthermore, there are different types of research which include exploratory,

descriptive, explanatory and predictive research. Exploratory research refers to

research that has not been done before, and the purpose is therefore to develop,

clarify and formulate questions (Struwig and Stead, 2004, p. 7 & Collis and Hussey,

2003). Descriptive research relates to describing a phenomenon and providing an

accurate representation of the current situation (Collis and Hussey, 2003). In

comparison, explanatory research focuses on why certain phenomena take place

and lastly, predictive research refers to speculating future possibilities through the

use of available evidence (Struwig and Stead, 2004, p. 7).

In this study a mixture of descriptive, explanatory and predictive approaches were

used to adequately address the main problem. Descriptive research was applied to

describe the current situation regarding student readiness for those who are studying

towards their National Diploma in Human Resource Management (HRM). In addition,

this study also took on an explanatory approach as it attempted to understand why

there is a lack of preparedness among first-year HRM students. Furthermore, the

study was predictive of the fact that future interventions will be developed to address

student readiness which enables success in tertiary education.

To summarise, different approaches to conducting this research project were used.

In doing so the researcher was able to effectively address the sub-problems and

main research problem.

Research is furthermore divided into two components, namely quantitative and

qualitative. According to Patton (1990) and Bryman (1988) there are certain

distinguishing factors to consider in the key differences between qualitative and

quantitative research. These are outlined below:

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Table 4.2: Differences between qualitative and quantitative research

CHARACTERISTICS

Qualitative Quantitative

1 Exploratory research Quantify information

2 Understanding underlying causes Attitudes, behaviours, opinions

measured

3 Provides insight Uncover patterns in research

4 Sample size usually small Sample size can be large

5 Subjective Objective

6 Develops theory Tests theory

7 Uses communication and observation Uses instruments

8 Interpretive Measurable

Source: Adapted (Wyse, 2011 and Anderson, 2006)

To reflect, the key differences between qualitative and quantitative are on the basis

of quality as opposed to quantity, sample size, measurable versus interpretive and

objective in relation to subjective. In this study both these approaches were used, as

it enabled the researcher to quantify information as well as to gain deeper insights

into the causes of unpreparedness.

In addition, other studies that investigated readiness and success used the same or

similar approaches, including both qualitative and quantitative. Furthermore, the use

of questionnaires and interviews were used as research instruments. This study was

therefore aligned with other studies such as Lemmens (2010) and Lemmens, du

Plessis and Maree (2011) as the same instruments and approaches were used.

4.4 Sample and sampling technique

According to Collis and Hussey (2003, p. 155) a sample refers to a smaller group of

people that can be used as a representative of a larger population. In addition, due

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to the lack of availability of resources such as time and money a sample is therefore

used to gain information that adequately addresses an issue.

This research project was undertaken on the basis that there is an increase in the

number of students who do not meet university entry requirements or who fail to

successfully complete their studies. Furthermore, as stated in Chapter Two, there

has been a decline in the number of students enrolled for the National Diploma in

Human Resource Management (HRM) and therefore for this study, first-year HRM

students have been identified as the target population.

4.4.1 Description of the sample and biographical data

The study was conducted at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University in Port

Elizabeth, Eastern Cape. The university is a result of a merger mandated by the

Department of Education between PE Technikon, The University of Port Elizabeth

and Vista University.

NMMU is therefore considered to be a comprehensive university that offers a wide

range of courses available to students, such as certificate, diploma and degree

courses. Furthermore, there are approximately 27 000 students and 2 500 staff

members which includes academic and support staff (NMMU, 2014).

The focus of this study is on students who are registered full-time for their NDip:

Human Resource Management and therefore an introduction to the department is

included. The department comprises 11 staff members, six of whom are academics

and the remaining members, support staff.

It has been noted and reflected in Chapter One that there has been a decline in the

number of students enrolled for the NDip: Human Resource Management. In

addition, the throughput rate has decreased to 71% in 2010, partly due to students

failing at-risk subjects such as Personnel Management One. This module requires

understanding and reflection among other characteristics described in Chapter Two.

Many students do not have these competencies and this therefore gives rise to the

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main research problem, which was to identify interventions that prepare students for

tertiary education.

The target population was therefore first-year Human Resource Management

students who were registered full-time for the academic year, 2014. An analysis of

the target population is tabulated below:

Table 4.3: Frequency distribution of biographical data of the sample (n=117)

GENDER (n=117) FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE (%)

Male 32 27.4

Female 85 72.6

TOTAL 117 100

AGE (n= 107) FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE (%)

18 5 4.3

19 34 29.1

20 23 19.7

21 12 10.3

22 9 7.7

23 9 7.7

24 2 1.7

25 1 0.9

26 3 2.6

27 1 0.9

28 2 1.7

29 4 3.4

31 1 0.9

40 1 0.9

Missing data 10 8.5

TOTAL 117 100

LIVING WITH FAMILY

(n= 117)

FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE %

Yes 55 47.0

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NO 60 51.3

Missing data 2 1.7

TOTAL 117 100

FIRST YEAR OF

REGISTRATION (n=117)

FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE %

2012 3 2.6

2013 40 34.2

2014 70 59.8

Other 4 3.4

TOTAL 117 100

HOME LANGUAGE (n=117) FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE %

English 17 14.5

Afrikaans 15 12.8

isiXhosa 77 65.8

Other 7 6.0

Missing data 1 0.9

TOTAL 117 100

ETHNICITY (n=117) FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE %

African 82 70.1

Asian 1 0.9

Coloured 27 23.1

White 4 3.4

Missing data 3 2.6

Total 117 100

Based on Table 4.3 and in the respective order of the data, a brief analysis of the

biographical data is described below.

According to Table 4.3 there are more female students (72.6%) than male students

(27.4%) enrolled for the NDip in Human Resource Management.

It should be taken into consideration that only 107 of the respondents included their

age when completing the questionnaire. In addition, the age of the students are

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scattered ranging from 18 to 40 years old. It can be noted from Table 4.3 that the

majority of students enrolled for the qualification are between the ages of 19 and 20

years of age (48.8%).

As in the case with the question on age, respondents omitted to answer whether

they currently resided with their family or not. Altogether 47% resided with their

family, while the majority of students (51.3%) who selected no, occupied residence

on or off-campus.

First year of registration refers to the year the students registered for the first time at

the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University. According to Table 4.3, the majority of

students (59.8%), registered in the 2014 academic year. However it should be noted

that 34.2% of students registered in 2013, 2.6% in 2012 and 3.4% selected other.

This could be due to repeating modules from previous years. In addition, some of

those who registered in 2013 are in the extended programme and therefore do their

first year over two years.

One respondent did not specify his or her home language, therefore the value of

n=116. The majority of the respondents (65.8%) indicated that isiXhosa was their

home language, 14.5% indicated English, 12.8% indicated Afrikaans and six per cent

indicated other. Based on these findings, it is evident that English is a second

language to many of these students. This could be a contributing factor to readiness

and success.

In terms of ethnicity, the value of n=114 means that three students did not comment

on ethnicity. The findings were therefore as follows: African (70.11%), Asian (0.9%),

Coloured (23.1%) and White (3.4%). It can be noted that the majority of the students

studying Human Resource Management are African.

4.4.2 The sampling method

Two sampling methods can be used in conducting research, namely probability and

non-probability sampling. Each of these methods is further divided into various types.

These are tabulated below:

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Table 4.4: Types of sampling methods and techniques

Sampling methods and techniques

Explanation

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Convenience sampling Chosen on the basis of availability

Respondents selected based on access

Used where populations are similar

Judgement sampling Based on the researcher’s judgement and preference

Based on the decision that the selected individuals are the experts in a particular field.

Quota sampling Selected according to characteristics

Set criteria that are used to qualify to participate in the study.

Snowball sampling Encompasses the use of a variety of procedures

The use of probability methods to identify participants

Based on referrals

PROBABILTY SAMPLING

Random probability sampling Requires complete and accurate information about the population

Authoritative sources should be consulted

Most accurate method

Stratified random sampling Predetermined numbers are selected

In this instance X number of respondents will be chosen

Each respondent has an equal chance of being selected

Cluster sampling Different to other techniques, focus is on groups of respondents

Respondents are grouped and certain groups are then selected to partake in the study

Systematic sampling Systematic procedure

Random starting point is identified; thereafter, for example, every 50th

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Source: Adapted from (Hair, Money, Samouel and Page, 2007, pp. 175-182)

To summarise, there are two main types of sampling, namely probability and non-

probability. Each of the types comprises various techniques which are briefly

compared. Non-probability sampling is further subdivided into four techniques,

namely convenience sampling based on access and availability, judgement sampling

constructed on the researcher‟s preference, quota sampling based on certain

characteristics and snowball sampling encompassing a variety of probability

approaches. Probability sampling is further divided into five techniques. These are

random probability sampling which is dependent on complete and accurate data,

stratified random sampling whereby predetermined numbers are selected, cluster

sampling which is different to other techniques as respondents are grouped and later

certain groups are chosen, systematic sampling which is an organised and

systematic procedure and lastly, multi-stage sampling which is similar to snowball as

a combination of probability sampling techniques are used.

Therefore, for this study, a non-probability sampling method was used applying the

convenience sampling technique. This method best suited this study as it was

chosen on the basis of availability and accessibility of first-year Human Resource

Management students. The students were therefore requested to complete the

questionnaire while attending class, and those present on that day were included.

4.4.3 Population size

According to Willemse (2009, p. 19) many factors need to be considered that may or

may not have an impact on sample size. These are outlined below:

The size of the population

The size of the population should be taken into consideration as in the case of a

large population the sample size would have to be bigger as the sample needs to

represent the entire population.

Resources available

respondent will be used.

Multi-stage sampling Combination of probability sampling techniques

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Resources refer to time and money among others factors. If resources are limited

the sample size will therefore be smaller.

Error that can be tolerated

There is an increased possibility that accuracy is largely due to the sample size and

therefore the larger the sample, the better the accuracy.

Variation in the population

If the research elements are similar in the population, there is less variance, which

implies that a smaller sample can be used.

Considering these factors the questionnaire in this study was administered to 130

first-year Human Resource Management students, of which 117 participated in the

survey. In quantifiable form, this translates to a response rate of 90%. According to

Collis and Hussey (2009) the larger the sample size the better the population is

represented.

4.5 Data collection

According to Struwig and Stead (2004, p. 80) data collection is made up of two main

types of information, namely primary and secondary data. Primary data refers to new

information collected whereas secondary data involves existing information on the

research topic.

Both forms of data collection were applied in this study. Secondary data was sourced

from existing material in the form of books, journals, articles and theses on student

readiness and success. Primary data was collected through the use of

questionnaires which were administered to first-year Human Resource Management

students as well as open-ended questionnaires to the lecturers teaching these

students.

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These measures addressed the topic of student readiness and success which gave

rise to the main research problem that aimed to identify interventions that adequately

prepare students for tertiary education.

4.5.1 Primary data

As previously mentioned in Section 4.5, primary data refers to new information used

to assist in the research project. The following methods of data collection were used:

4.5.1.1 Questionnaires

As stated in Chapter One self-administered questionnaires and open-ended

questionnaires were used as primary data collection methods.

4.5.1.2 Self-administered questionnaires

Self-administered questionnaires were used as data collection method for the first-

year Human Resource Management students. In comparison to interviews,

questionnaires have few or no open-ended questions which make them easier to

answer. In addition, questionnaires are designed in such a way that the risk of

students omitting questions are minimised. They are also shorter which inhibits

fatigue and boredom (Bryman and Bell, date, p. 192).

Moreover, according to Bryman and Bell (date, pp.192 -193) the advantages of using

questionnaires include that they are cheaper, convenient and faster to administer

and perhaps more importantly, remain anonymous. However, there are

disadvantages of using questionnaires such as the fact that respondents cannot be

prompted, asking open-ended questions is difficult, literacy levels need to be

considered, there is a risk of missing data and low response rates.

To overcome these challenges, certain interventions were put into place. Students

were required to fill out the questionnaire under the guidance of someone present,

which eliminated uncertainty, confusion and missing data. Few open-ended

questions were asked to prevent students from not wanting to complete the

questionnaire. The questions were asked in a manner that corresponded with the

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level of literacy among first years. Lastly, the questionnaires were distributed during

class to those who wanted to participate and were collected at the end of the class.

In doing so, there was a higher response rate.

4.5.1.3 Open-ended questionnaires

To gain a better understanding from the views of the lecturers who teach first-year

Human Resource Management students, open-ended questionnaires were used.

Due to time constraints and other commitments, the open-ended questionnaires

were emailed to the respective lecturers. (Refer to Appendix A).

Unlike the self-administered questionnaire, these responses were submitted at a

slower pace. Taking this into consideration, an email was sent out to the selected

lecturers as a reminder to complete the questionnaire. This strategy ensured prompt

feedback and provided a detailed view of the lecturers‟ opinions on student

readiness and success.

To summarise, both of the above data collection methods yielded valuable

information from the perspective of the students and lecturers. As previously stated

interventions were put in place to eliminate some of the challenges regarding the

instruments used.

4.5.2 Questionnaire development

In any research project where statistical analysis is used, data is gained from

responses to questions. It is therefore important to decide on the types of questions

to be asked and how these questions would be asked (Willemse, 2009, p. 15).

Questionnaires can be divided into many sections. The biographical section could

include details such as name, address and date, classification race, ethnicity, age,

sex and marital status and subject matter which refer to the questions relating to the

research problem.

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In addition, a questionnaire is used to obtain insight into different variables or factors.

According to Willemse (2009, p. 16) the questions used seek to identify the following:

Awareness of the issue

General feelings about the issue

Indicate feelings

Allow for specific detail

Establish reasons

Identify how strong the feelings of respondents are

Different types of questions could be asked to gain information about a topic. Table

4.5 provides a brief summary of the types of questions that could be used when

developing a questionnaire.

Table 4.5: Types of questions

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

Freedom to express feelings and attitudes about the topic

CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS

Specific and based on the research topic.

TYPES OF CLOSED-ENDED QUESTIONS

Multiple choice questions Specific set of answers, respondents select

one.

Dichotomous questions Two options provided, respondents select

one.

Scaled response questions Respondents provided with a statement and

answer based on a point system.

Ranking questions Respondents rank items in order of

importance.

According to Struwig and Stead (2004, p.92) open-ended questions are those

whereby respondents are able to answer in their own words with their understanding

about the topic. These questions are beneficial when the researcher wishes to obtain

or requires clarification. Closed-ended questions are questions that are specific to

the topic. The different types of closed-questions are outlined below.

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Multiple choice questions are an example of closed-ended questions. These provide

respondents with a specific set of answers and the respondent then selects the most

appropriate answer/s. Dichotomous questions are another example of closed-ended

questions. They indicate two possibilities of which the respondent selects one, for

example, yes or no questions.

Scaled-response questions are used to gather information on attitudes and

perceptions regarding the research problem. Two commonly used scaled-response

questions are Likert and semantic differential scales. A Likert scale question has a

number of statements and respondents are required to answer using a point scale,

the most common one being five to seven point scale. A semantic differential scale is

similar in nature, but has only two polar opposites with a seven-eleven point scale.

The last example of closed-ended questions is ranking questions. Respondents are

provided with a list of items and then required to place them in order of importance.

A variety of question types was used (refer to pp. 136-137) in this study to gain a

better empirical understanding of student readiness and success (Refer to Appendix

E). The questionnaire was divided into four sections, namely

Section A: Biographical and other details

Section B: Readiness factors

Section C: Resources and support

Section D: Interventions

Section A: Biographical and other detail

In this section of the questionnaire personal or administrative details of the

respondents were required. These included aspects such as:

Gender

Family background – highest qualification

Current living arrangements

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Age

Person/s responsible for finance

Ethnicity

Home language

School type

Grade 12 APS score, including the subjects and final score

Current marks for the first-year HRM modules

First registration date

Concept of student readiness

The purpose of asking these questions was to enable the researcher to draw

conclusions and make comparisons between biographical data and the other

sections of the questionnaire. It also provided valuable information as well as the

basis of the study, which was a student‟s understanding of student readiness.

Section B: Readiness factors

For this study readiness factors were based on the characteristics needed to be

prepared for tertiary education. The inclusion of this section provided the researcher

with an indication of the attributes first-year Human Resource Management (HRM)

students currently had compared to the findings of the empirical investigation. In

addition, the researcher was able to compare parts from Section A with Section B

and draw conclusions such as whether age, ethnicity, gender and school type had

an impact on the level of readiness of first-year HRM students.

Section C: Resources and support

In many studies conducted on student readiness, student withdrawal and student

success, resources and support have been included as an important factor. This

section focussed on the support students had in place, whether it was in the form of

family, friends or academic and support staff. Furthermore, it took into account the

resources needed to be successful in tertiary education. In this section of the

questionnaire information was obtained for recommendations to be made by

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comparing those students who had the necessary resources and support available to

them to those who did not and whether this did have an impact on readiness and

success in tertiary education.

Section D: Interventions

Section D of the questionnaire focussed on the different strategies currently in place

that attempted to address readiness and success in tertiary education. It further

identified how many responding students were exposed to these interventions and

whether these assisted in their development and success.

In conclusion, this questionnaire was designed for each section to contribute to

answering the main research problem, which was to identify interventions that

adequately addressed student readiness and success.

Within each section of the questionnaire, different types of questions were used. The

most common was the Likert scale. Respondents were required to answer different

statements with regard to readiness factors, resources and support and the

interventions currently in place. These responses would provide valuable insight into

the attitudes and perceptions of first-year Human Resource Management students.

An example is provided below:

Figure 4.2: An example of a Likert scale question used in the questionnaire

Other questions used in the study were open-ended. As previously mentioned if

there are too many open-ended questions, the response rate will be low and there is

a chance that important information will be missed. Taking this into consideration,

SECTION B – READINESS FACTORS

Please indicate to what extent you agree with each of the statements below by circling the appropriate number. Please ensure that there is ONLY one answer per statement.

ST

RO

NG

LY

DIS

AG

RE

E

DIS

AG

RE

E

NE

UT

RA

L

AG

RE

E

ST

RO

NG

LY

A

GR

EE

1 I will pass all my modules. 1 2 3 4 5

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very few open-ended questions were included, and only those that formed an

important part of the study. An example of an open-ended question in the

questionnaire is provided below.

Figure 4.3: An example of an open-ended question used in the questionnaire.

Dichotomous questions were used in Section D where students were required to

answer whether they have been exposed to various interventions. In this instance

the respondents had to answer yes or no. The purpose of using this type of question

was for the researcher to identify how many students were exposed to the identified

interventions and whether those interventions had an impact on their readiness

levels.

Figure 4.4: An example of a dichotomous question used in the questionnaire.

The last type of question used was ranking questions. In Section A students were

required to rank items in order of importance. The items in question related to

academic and social factors. An example is provided below.

In your own words, what is student readiness?

SECTION D – INTERVENTIONS

Please answer YES or NO to the following questions: I have been exposed to the following:

YE

S

NO

1 Career guidance counsellors (school)

Different students approach their studies differently. Please indicate how important each of the following aspects relate to you as an individual Use the scale 1=Not Important to 5=Extremely Important.

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Figure 4.5: An example of a ranking question used in the questionnaire

In conclusion, different types of questions were used to gather information on the

research problem. Firstly, Likert scale questions were used to gain insight into the

perceptions of students with regard to the readiness factors, resources and support

and with the interventions. Secondly, open-ended questions were applied to gain

deeper insight by providing the students with a platform to express their feelings and

opinions about the topic. Thirdly, dichotomous questions were used which enabled

the researcher to identify how many students were exposed to certain interventions

and whether in their opinion it had an impact on their readiness. Lastly, ranking

questions were applied to determine which aspects students found important with

regard to their studies.

4.5.3 Pilot study

According to Van Teijlingen and Hudley (2002) pilot studies are used as a trial run

before the actual study takes place. During this phase the research instrument is

tested and based on the findings changes will occur. In addition, Calitz (2009, p.

260) states that the primary goal of a pilot study is to provide information that will

contribute to the success of the study.

Pilot studies are also conducted for a number of other reasons which include the

following:

Testing instruments

Assessing feasibility

Assess sampling method and technique

Uncover possible problems

(Van Teijlingen and Hudley, 2002).

Participation in class discussions 1 2 3 4 5

Social needs (i.e. friends and family) 1 2 3 4 5

Attending classes 1 2 3 4 5

Preparing for class 1 2 3 4 5

Doing your homework 1 2 3 4 5

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The pilot study for this research project is outlined below:

A sample of the questionnaire (refer to Appendix D) was distributed to six members

of staff in the Human Resource Management department. The aim of the pilot study

was to identify any possible challenges that may occur when completing the

questionnaire, so for this study a pilot study was used to test the research

instrument.

Certain aspects that the participants were required to consider were as follows:

Time to complete the questionnaire

User-friendliness of the questionnaire

Clarity and understanding of concepts and items

Layout and design of the questionnaire

The time allowed was 15 minutes and through observation it was established that

sufficient time was allocated to complete the questionnaire. Based on the feedback

and recommendations received from the pilot study changes were also made to the

questionnaire. These changes included aspects related to layout. Overall the

changes were minimal in nature and the examples are provided below.

Figure 4.6: Example – Initial question

Figure 4.7: Example – After pilot study

Due to the fact that schools no longer make use of higher and standard grades, the

question was changed to adapt to the current situation, as seen above.

List your grade 12 subjects:

Subject: Higher Grade (HG) Standard Grade (SG)

1.

List your grade 12 subjects:

Subject: Final Mark:

1.

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Figure 4.8: Example – Initial question

Figure 4.9: Example – After pilot study

Another suggestion was with regard to the formatting details and changes were

made to allow sufficient space for the respondents to provide answers.

Figure 4.10: Example – Initial question

Figure 4.11: Example – After pilot study

Current marks for the following subjects:

FIRST-YEAR MODULES FIRST-YEAR (EXTENDED)

MODULES

Personnel Management I:

Management of Training I:

Personnel Management I:

Communication in English B:

Current marks for the following subjects:

FIRST-YEAR MODULES FIRST-YEAR (EXTENDED)

MODULES

Personnel Management I:

Management of Training I:

Personnel Management I:

Communication in English B

How many hours do you spend on studying or preparing for classes a day?

0 0-2 3-4 5-6 Other

If other, please explain:

How many hours do you spend on studying a day?

0 1-2 3-4 5-6 Other

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The above question was a double-barrel question and it was therefore changed into

two separate questions.

In conclusion, the changes to the questionnaire were minimal. However, they proved

to be valuable as respondents could have been faced with challenges when

answering the questionnaire.

4.5.4 Administration of the questionnaire

According to NMMU policy (NMMU, 2014) and the Helsinki Accords (Israel and Hay,

2006, p. 30) questionnaires cannot be distributed without ethical clearance.

Aprocedure was therefore followed which is explained into further detail in Section

4.7 of this chapter. On receiving ethics approval with ethics number H14-BES-HRM-

070 from the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, questionnaires could be

printed and distributed to the relevant respondents.

In the week of 6 October 2014 the questionnaires were distributed to the first-year

Human Resource Management students. A cover letter (refer to Appendix C) was

incorporated with every questionnaire, and included the following items:

Brief overview of the study

Time allocated which was 15 minutes

The questionnaire was completed on a voluntary and anonymous basis

Students could opt-out at any given time

No identifying information were to be made available

Some respondents took longer than the anticipated time to complete the survey. The

majority, however, took the allotted time to complete the questionnaire. Furthermore,

anonymity and confidentiality were emphasised as the students were guided by an

How many hours do you spend on preparing for class a day?

0 1-2 3-4 5-6 Other

If you have selected other for the above questions, please explain:

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independent, impartial individual (not the researcher). An oral presentation was read

out to the class (refer to Appendix B). The main points of this letter are outlined

below:

Brief overview of the study

Participation on voluntary basis

Age of respondents (18 years or older)

Ensured confidentiality

As mentioned, students were requested to complete the survey during class and

submit the completed questionnaires at the end of the lecture. In addition, and as

mentioned in Section 4.4.3, there was a 90% response rate as 117 of the 130

students participated in the survey.

4.6 Reliability and validity

When conducting research, reliability and validity of the instruments used should be

considered. Furthermore, if reliability and validity issues are not considered the

findings of the study becomes insignificant (Struwig and Stead, 2004, p. 130).

4.6.1 Reliability of the method used

As previously mentioned the study was both quantitative and qualitative in nature

and therefore reliability had to be measured with each of these components.

Reliability in quantitative research

According to Struwig and Stead (2004, p. 130) reliability refers to accurate,

consistent and stable test scores. It should be noted that before one can measure

validity, reliability of the scores need to be considered. Therefore if reliability is

insufficient then validity will be poor. In addition, Roberts, Priest and Traynor (2006,

p.41) add that the research tools used should at any given time provide the same

score which refers to test-retest reliability. The tool should also provide the same

information when used by different people and this refers to inter-rater reliability.

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Internal consistency refers to the grouping of similar questions that leads to the same

concept. A common means of measuring internal consistency is by using Cronbach‟s

alpha. Cronbach‟s alpha separates the items used in the questionnaire and further

computes relationship values for them. Once computed, the system generates one

number. The closer this number is to one, the greater the reliability and vice versa

(Quantitative Research: Reliability and validity).

Table 4.6: Cronbach‟s coefficient alphas

According to Malhotra (2004) Cronbach‟s alpha is considered acceptable if it is 0.6

or more. This measure was therefore reliable as it measured what it was supposed

to measure. The factors with the strongest internal consistency were academic and

integration factors, with measured 0.77 and 0.75, respectively. In addition, motivation

Factor Statements no: Cronbach‟s α

FA

Academic self-efficacy

SB 2,3,4,6,8,11,12,13,15,17,

18,19

SC 5,6

SD 16

0.79

FS

Support

SB 16

SC 2,3,7,8,9,10,14,15,19,26

0.70

FM

Motivation

SB 1,5,14,20,21,22,23

SC 1,20

0.70

FI

Integration

SC 12,13,16,17,18,

21,22,23,27

SD 12,13,14,17,18,19,20,21

0.75

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and support measured 0.70. All of the factors were above 0.6 and are therefore

considered reliable.

Reliability in qualitative research

According to Roberts, Priest and Traynor (2006, p. 43) reliability in qualitative

research refers to the level of credibility of the procedures used. Furthermore, it

refers to the extent to which the results are repeatable under different conditions. It is

highlighted that a researcher should keep detailed notes as this adds to the reliability

of the method used. In addition, greater reliability can be found if information is

accurate in the reporting and transliterating thereof.

Based on this the reliability of the qualitative methods were maintained as all

information produced from the open-ended questionnaires were kept and included in

the study in Chapters Two and Three.

4.6.2 Validity of the method used

As mentioned under 4.6.1 the study was both quantitative and qualitative in nature

and therefore validity had to be measured with each of these components.

Validity in quantitative research

Validity refers to measuring what the study claims to measure. Moreover it is

subdivided into two major types, namely internal and external validity. Internal

validity reports on the reasons for the results of the study. Three approaches can be

used to assess internal validity which will be outlined below:

Content validity refers to the relevance and representativeness of the questions. This

type of validity is important when if, for example, attitudes are to be measured.

Criterion-related validity, on the other hand, refers to the comparison between the

research instrument and other similar methods that measure the same concepts.

Lastly, construct validity encompasses the ability to demonstrate relationships

between concepts used in the study and theory in relation to the concept (Roberts,

Priest and Traynor, 2006, p. 43).

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This study used content and construct validity. This entails that the questionnaire

required details with regard to the student‟s attitude and insight towards readiness,

support and integration.

Furthermore, the questionnaire was referred to a statistician for further analysis and

any changes suggested, were made and adapted.

Validity in qualitative research

Validity in this regard refers to how well the instrument which was used, measures

the occurrences being examined. It proves to be difficult when using interviews as

possible errors may occur during the analysis and interpretation phase. A method

that can be used to validate information is called low inference descriptors, which

imply using the answers verbatim (Roberts, Priest and Traynor, 2006, p. 43).

For the purpose of validating the study, open-ended questionnaires were emailed to

the lecturers who teach first-year Human Resource Management students. Once

returned the responses were written verbatim, followed by the researcher‟s

interpretation. Refer to Chapter Two and Three for examples of the responses used.

4.7 Ethics in research

As referred to in Section 4.5.4, ethical considerations are very important when

conducting research. This part of the chapter therefore focuses on the ethical

clearance process followed at Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University as well as

aspects related to the questionnaire such as voluntary participation, permission,

anonymity and confidentiality.

4.7.1 Ethical clearance

As with other universities, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University has their own

ethics procedure that needs to be followed to continue with the study. Before this

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procedure is outlined Bryman and Bell (no date, p. 120) outline certain ethical

principles that need to be considered when conducting research. These are:

Is there harm to participants?

Is there a lack of informed consent?

Is there an invasion of privacy?

Are forms of deception involved?

For this reason universities have introduced policies and procedures to eliminate

unethical behaviours. At Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University an extensive

procedure is followed. Firstly the researcher is required to complete and submit the

necessary documentation. The documentation includes details about the study such

as the research design and methodology adopted for the study and how the

information will be distributed, stored, analysed and reported. Furthermore,

annexures had to be attached which included the questionnaires, cover letters, oral

presentation to participants, research design and methodology section from the

proposal and permission letters from the respective heads.

The committee meets on numerous occasions throughout the year to discuss each

recipient and to provide feedback and recommendations. The onus is then on the

researcher to implement the changes brought forward and resubmit the

documentation. Upon reaching consensus the researcher may then distribute the

questionnaires.

4.7.2 Voluntary basis

For this study a cover letter was attached to the questionnaire. This letter explained

the purpose of the study, the time allocated, confidentiality and anonymity (which will

be discussed under the Section 4.7.4 and 4.7.5). An oral presentation was

conducted whereby more detail was provided and students were informed that they

could withdraw at any given time and that the questionnaire would be done on a

voluntary basis. Furthermore, after the presentation and the reading of the cover

letter, students who were participating in the survey were asked to initial as evidence

of informed consent.

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4.7.3 Permission

For the researcher to conduct this study, permission was sought from the relevant

stakeholders. The participants in the study were students registered full-time for their

first-year National Diploma in Human Resource Management (HRM), and therefore

permission was required from the HRM Head of Department, Dr Amanda Werner. In

addition, further authorisation was needed from the Director of the School of

Industrial Psychology and HR, Dr Michelle Mey. These documents were sent with

the ethical clearance documents which included the research design and

methodology to the Deputy Vice-Chancellor: Research, Prof. Thoko Mayekiso. Once

it was approved an ethics number was issued for the study (refer to Appendix F).

4.7.4 Anonymity

According to Clark (2006, p. 4) anonymity refers to not disclosing the identity of the

participants used in the study. No identifying information was used in this study such

as identity number, student numbers, name or surnames. Students were required to

initial, which meant that they were willing to participate in the study. This was

communicated in the cover letter and in the opening presentation.

4.7.5 Confidentiality

Confidentiality refers to not disclosing to other parties the information that was

gathered during the study (Clark, 2006, p.4). Once again in this study confidentiality

was maintained as the information generated was placed into a spread sheet with no

identifying information which was sent to the statistician. Furthermore, none of the

information has been sent out to any other party.

4.8 Data analysis

As previously stated, this study has incorporated quantitative and qualitative

approaches. The purpose of using these approaches was to gain an improved

understanding of student readiness from the lecturers who teach first-year Human

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Resource Management students (qualitative) as well as considering the views of

these students (quantitative). Each of the approaches best suited the audience.

To analyse the quantitative results of the study certain statistical techniques were

used, namely descriptive and inferential statistics. According to Collis (2003, p. 196)

descriptive statistics can be defined as summarising quantitative data whereas

inferential statistics refer to using data collected from a sample and which is then

used to draw inferences based on the total population.

To determine the statistical technique a researcher chooses to use, largely depends

on the following:

If the researcher wishes to use descriptive or inferential statistical analysis

Whether the data has a normal or skewed distribution

The number of variables to be analysed simultaneously, and

The measurement scale (Collis and Hussey, 2003, pp. 196-197).

Both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques were used in this study to

analyse the quantitative data.

As previously stated this study includes a qualitative component. According to Collis

and Hussey (2003, p. 253) the main challenges of analysing qualitative data are the

following:

Reducing the amount of data

Structuring the data

Anticipatory data reduction

Detextualising the data

The findings of this section were therefore analysed through the use of informal

qualitative methods. This implies that the amount of information was reduced by

identifying frequent patterns of behaviour. In addition, a scaling approach was used

whereby it is at the discretion of the researcher to establish which parts of the

information is important or unimportant in the data provided. The unimportant

aspects could therefore be omitted.

146

4.9 Conclusion

As outlined in Chapter One, this chapter aimed to explain the research design and

methodology used throughout the study. This study incorporated different types of

research to answer the main problem which were descriptive, explanatory and

predictive.

The study further used of a non-probability sampling method and more specifically

the convenience sampling technique. This method best suited the study and was

based on availability and accessibility. The study had a sample size of 117

participants.

The data collection methods used were questionnaires to first-year Human Resource

Management students and open-ended questionnaires to the lecturers who teach

them. Due to time constraints these methods best suited the audience. The

questionnaires were also focussed on the different aspects of student readiness

such as academic self-efficacy, resources and support, motivation and integration.

A pilot study was conducted to determine whether the questionnaire was user-

friendly and to test the research instrument. In addition, based on the feedback and

recommendations, changes were made and the questionnaires distributed.

147

In the quantitative method, reliability was tested by means of Cronbach‟s alpha. The

reliability showed that the four factors, namely academic (0.79), integration (0.75),

motivation (0.70) and support (0.70), proved to be reliable as they measured above

the threshold of 0.6. With regard to qualitative data, the detailed notes of the

respondents were kept.

Validity was tested in the quantitative data by content and construct validity as the

questionnaire required details of the various students‟ attitude and insight towards

readiness, support and integration. The questionnaire was also referred to a

statistician for further analysis. Moreover, to test validity of the qualitative research,

answers were used verbatim followed by the researchers‟ view.

Many ethical considerations have to be considered when conducting research.

NMMU further has policies and procedures in place that must be adhered to to

continue with studies. The Helsinki Accords further outline ethical codes and

practices that should be followed when undertaking research, which include

anonymity, voluntary participation, permission and confidentiality.

The quantitative statistical techniques used in this study consisted primarily of

descriptive and inferential statistics. The qualitative aspect of the study was analysed

through an informal method which includes scaling.

The next chapter focuses on the presentation and analysis of the main findings of

the study. Moreover, the chapter includes a discussion and interpretation of the

results.

148

148

CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION 149

5.2 Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the results 150

5.2.1 Section A: Biographical and other detail 150

5.2.2 Section B: Readiness factors 153

5.2.3 Section C: Resources and support 161

5.2.4 Section D: Interventions 165

5.3 Inferential statistics 170

5.4 CONCLUSION 185

149

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The previous chapters namely one, two and three provided an extensive theoretical

component to the study while Chapter Four expanded on the research design and

methodology employed. Moreover, Chapter Four revealed that this study was both

qualitative and quantitative in nature and therefore different techniques were used to

analyse and interpret the data.

This chapter focuses on the analysis, presentation and interpretation of the

information gained from the questionnaires. According to Egger and Carpi (2014)

data analysis allows a researcher to collect, analyse and interpret information to

develop evidence that can be used to address the problem.

As mentioned in Chapter Four descriptive and inferential statistics were used to

analyse the data. Statistica software was applied to analyse the information for the

quantitative aspect of the study. Dr Jacques Pietersen, a statistician at NMMU

assisted in this regard.

In addition, the biographical data was briefly discussed using descriptive statistics. In

this chapter data is presented using descriptive and inferential statistics including

charts and tables. The data is analysed in the order of the questionnaire i.e. Section

A, B, C and D / item 1, 2 and 3.

150

5.2 Quantitative and qualitative results

This section focuses on the descriptive statistics which refer to summarising the

quantitative data.

5.2.1 Descriptive statistics

The biographical data was briefly discussed in Chapter Four. In addition, charts are

used to depict important aspects related to the description of the sample to provide a

general overview of the participants in the study.

Figure 5.1: Number of males and females in the study

As mentioned in the previous chapter and seen in Figure 5.1, there were more

females (73%) than males (27%) who participated in the study. It is evident that

these numbers are correct as the enrolment figures suggest that the majority of

students registered for the National Diploma in Human Resource Management are

female.

Male 27%

Female 73%

Gender

151

Figure 5.2: Person/s responsible for fees

Figure 5.2 reveals that the individuals responsible for the financing of the university

fees were mainly parents (70.7%). In addition, it should be noted that 17.2% of

students used NSFAS loans to finance their studies. As stated in Chapter Three

many students including their parents cannot afford the tuition fees, which results in

loans, withdrawal or failure to continue with their studies. Furthermore, this could

have an impact on the retention of students.

Figure 5.3: Type of schooling attended

70.7

17.2

4.3 7.8

Finance

Parents

NFSAS

Bursary

Other

15

82.2

1.9 1.2

Type of schooling

Private

Public

Township

Other

152

As reflected in Figure 5.3, the majority (82.2%) of the students enrolled for the

National Diploma in Human Resource Management attended public schools.

In addition, 15% of the students attended private schools, few (2%) attended

township schools and 1% indicated other. As stated in Chapter Three, South African

public schools lack the infrastructure which includes the resources needed to ensure

readiness and success.

As part of Section A an open-ended question was used whereby the students were

required to elaborate on what student readiness is. The responses were analysed by

identifying key themes which are outlined below.

The answers provided, are aligned with the theoretical underpinnings of this study as

well as the responses from the academics who lecture first-year Human Resource

Management students (refer to Chapter Two). Many of the students agreed that

student readiness encompasses the ability of students to be cognitively, emotionally

and physically ready for their future academic career. In addition, the responses

indicated that students need to take full responsibility for their studies as well as

have the ability to cope and adapt to the changes that may occur. Motivation was

emphasised in the responses with aspects such as the commitment, desire and

willingness to succeed in reaching their goals. Additional themes identified and

equally important but which were not emphasised as much in the responses were

preparation, understanding, applying skills and knowledge, time management,

balance, participation and the ability to perform at tertiary level.

The following aspect focuses on Section B (readiness factors) of the questionnaire.

A number of items were extracted from the results and are discussed below, with the

emphasis on student readiness and success. Section B1 to 31 reflects the questions

as per the questionnaire (refer to annexure E).

According to Collis and Hussey (2003, p. 212) the measure of central tendency is an

opportune way of classifying a large frequency distribution through the use of a

single value. The most common measures used are the mean, median and mode.

The mean refers to the average of the frequency distribution, the median to the mid-

value frequency distribution and the mode to the most common answer. In addition,

153

the standard deviation refers to how concentrated the data is, the smaller the

standard deviation the more concentrated (Rumsey, 2011). As depicted in Table 5.1,

the standard deviation of SB 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29

and 30 are below one which indicates low-variance between responses compared to

the rest of the statements. Table 5.1 indicates the measures of central tendency for

Section B of the questionnaire which are identified based on these outliers.

Table 5.1: Measures of central tendency: Section B: Readiness factors

Valid N Mean Median Mode Freq StDev

SB1 117 4.28 4 5 58 0.83

SB2 117 3.62 4 4 44 0.95

SB3 117 2.95 3 3 59 0.95

SB4 117 3.63 4 5 36 1.21

SB5 117 4.62 5 5 83 0.67

SB6 117 3.91 4 4 54 0.89

SB7 117 4.18 5 5 59 1.02

SB8 117 3.85 4 5 43 1.15

SB9 117 3.83 4 5 44 1.15

SB10 117 3.40 3 3 43 1.06

SB11 117 3.76 4 4 43 1.01

SB12 117 3.58 3 3 48 1.05

SB13 117 4.13 4 5 53 0.98

SB14 117 4.24 4 5 53 0.81

SB15 117 3.62 4 Multiple 33 1.18

SB16 117 3.79 4 4 46 0.91

SB17 117 4.03 4 4 61 0.76

SB18 117 4.33 4 5 55 0.73

SB19 117 4.17 4 4 52 0.81

SB20 117 4.69 5 5 85 0.53

SB21 117 4.29 5 5 59 0.85

SB22 117 4.23 4 5 51 0.78

SB23 117 4.62 5 5 82 0.65

154

SB24 117 3.05 3 3 39 1.16

SB25 117 2.79 3 1 32 1.52

SB27 116 3.87 4 5 47 1.17

SB28 116 3.85 4 4 42 1.02

SB29 116 4.43 5 5 71 0.84

SB30 116 3.97 4 5 44 1.05

SB31 116 4.32 5 5 65 0.97

155

Figure 5.4: Summary of responses: Readiness factors

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Inability to see things through (13)

Clear goals of my studies (12)

Good grades are important to me (11)

Necessary writing skills required (10)

Necessary reading skills required (9)

Understanding and application (8)

Comfortable with numerical concepts (7)

Self-motivated (6)

Study method that works for me (5)

Good time management skills (4)

Basic computer skills (3)

Responsible for my studies (2)

Attend all my classes (1)

Strongly Disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly Agree

156

Aligned with the theoretical perspectives of this study, and according to Cortina and

Elder (2010) for students to succeed in higher education they need to attend every

class and pay close attention. According to Figure 5.4, only 56.8% of students

attended all their classes. Based on these findings it is assumed that those students

who did not attend class were likely to withdraw or fail to succeed in their studies.

As stated in Chapter Two motivation is an integral part of student readiness and

achievement. It was further claimed by Bergh (2011, p. 208) that students who have

high levels of self-efficacy perform better than those who possess lower levels. In

addition, Conley (2010), Cortina and Elder (2010) and Erasmus et al. (2013, p. 190),

mention that students need to take ownership of their studies and be motivated to be

prepared and to succeed in higher education. Statements 2, 6, 11, 12 and 13 in

Figure 5.4 focus on motivational aspects and are therefore analysed together. Based

on Figure 5.4 it is evident that 70.9% of students felt that they were responsible for

their studies; 45.3% claimed to be self-motivated, to 72.6% good grades were

important, 50.4% had clear goals for the year and lastly, 12.8% of the students did

not see things through until the end.

Computer skills are important when entering tertiary education as many of the

assessments such as presentations, academic assignments and research writing

require knowledge about the various computer programmes. As specified in Figure

5.4, 50.4% of the students indicated that they had the basic skills needed to operate

a computer. This could have an impact upon student readiness and success for

tertiary education.

According to the Holden Leadership Center (2009) time management is important in

general. However, for a student it is pivotal to their readiness and success. Students

are required to manage their classes, do their homework, prepare for class, tests

and examinations, do assignments and socialise. It is evident, based on Figure 5.4

that only 45.3% of students were equipped with time management skills. This factor

is directly linked to student readiness and success as it is a key skill needed to cope

with the transition from secondary school to tertiary education.

157

As previously stated in Chapter Three, many students are unprepared for tertiary

education due to poor study methods. According to a study conducted by REAP

(2008) students often enter university using the same study methods than at school.

This proves to be a barrier to student readiness and success as the methods used

are not appropriate for tertiary education. Figure 5.4 indicates that 75.2% of students

stated that they knew which study method worked for them. However, when

assessing the mean scores (refer to Table 5.2) for the modules the students were

currently registered for, it is evident that the methods used by the students were not

the best method as the mean score depicts average scores of 50 to 67%. Table (5.2)

includes modules that are designated to the extended programme students only, and

as highlighted in red, the scores were high, but it should be noted that these modules

teach basic concepts. Furthermore, it should be mentioned that the study method is

not the only contributing factor to readiness, but it has an impact on the

understanding and reflection of concepts learned.

Table 5.2: Scores for registered modules

Subject Mean Minimum Maximum

Personnel Management I 57.31 29 95

Management of Training I 66.54 40 99

Accounting for Personnel Practitioners 54.22 20 85

Communication in English A 54.87 40 72

Communication in English B 58.62 31 88

Business Management I 60.08 12 92

Life Skills Module A 79.89 50 96

Computer Skills Module B 72.27 40 90

Cost and Estimating I 70.07 35 96

According to Conley (2010, p. 49) it is essential that students have the necessary

reading and writing skills when pursuing a tertiary qualification. As and when

students reach tertiary level, they are required to read extensively on the subject

matter and in addition, familiarise themselves with numerical concepts as most of the

tertiary qualifications have some form of mathematics. Based on Figure 5.4, 56.4%

of the students were comfortable with numerical concepts, 88% stated that they had

158

the necessary reading skills required, 82.9% indicated that they had the required

writing ability and lastly, 78.6% indicated that they were able to understand and

apply what they had been taught at tertiary level. Taking this into consideration and

referring to Table 5.2, there seems to be incongruences between what was stated

and what the scores reflect. Specifically the fact that 43.6% of students were not

comfortable with numerical concepts in their first year of study and that these

students would not be adequately prepared for their second and third years of study

in the subjects that require basic mathematical calculations. If students have the

required reading ability, the scores should be higher. When indivduals read

extensively, they are able to have an improved understanding and application of

knowledge which will be demonstrated in their writing styles.

To summarise, from the readiness factors mentioned in Section A of the

questionnaire, it is evident that the results experienced were based on a variety of

academic and motivational factors. In addition, irregularities were identified between

the responses provided by the students and the evidence of their academic

performance.

As part of Section B in the questionnaire students were asked to indicate the

importance of certain factors on their approach to their studies. A scale from one to

five was used with one being not important to five being extremely important. Figure

5.5 presents the findings.

Figure 5.5: Level of importance as per student response

0

50

100

Not important 2 3 4 Extremelyimportant

Partcipation

Social Support

Attending class

Preparation

Homework

159

According to Figure 5.5 and based on student response the following has been

noted. Table 5.3 is used to indicate the responses of the students who rated the

factors as extremely important and a discussion follows.

Table 5.3: Factor and percentage of extreme importance

Factor Percentage (%)

Class participation 40.5

Social support 31

Attending classes 61.2

Preparation 37.9

Homework 56

Class participation and class discussions are considered important aspects in

student readiness and success. This was noted in the open-ended questionnaires

(refer to Chapter Three) administered to the academics who teach first-year Human

Resource Management students. Based on the responses, only 40.5% of students

agreed that participation was integral to their academic readiness and overall

success.

Social support (31%) as indicated seemed to have the lower score in terms of

extreme importance. Based on the theoretical underpinnings of this study support

from family, friends and lecturers are considered important factors to student

readiness and success.

The above table is indicative that 61.2% of students felt that attending their classes

was extremely important. As previously mentioned, students‟ are required to attend

all their classes if they wish to succeed in tertiary education. Moreover, based on the

mean scores in the previous section, if students valued the importance of attending

classes their academic performance might increase.

Preparation (37.9%) and homework (56%) are discussed jointly. As stated in

Chapter Two, for students to be successful in tertiary education, they need to

prepare for class, tests and examinations. According to Cortina and Elder (2010)

160

successful students prepare in advance, do their homework and pre-read the

chapter and other relevant material to the unit. However, the responses indicated

otherwise with only 37.9% indicating that it was extremely important to prepare for

class and only 56% showing the extreme importance of doing their homework.

Taking this into consideration, if students saw the vital importance of preparing for

class and doing their homework their academic performance might increase.

As with Section A of the questionnaire, Section B included two open-ended

questions. In Section B item 26 students were required to outline the characteristics

needed to succeed in tertiary education. In addition, item SB34 required students‟ to

indicate how many hours they spent on preparation and studying if they selected

„other‟ with item 33. The main findings are discussed below.

The characteristics of a prepared student were discussed in Chapter Two, which

included the responses of lecturers who teach first-year Human Resource

Management students. The alignment between the groundwork in Chapter Two and

the students‟ opinions are evident. Many of the students indicated that motivation

was an important characteristic in student success. Students further specified that a

successful student had the necessary time management skills which included their

ability to form a balance between their social and academic standings. The majority

emphasised hard work and attending all their classes as key characteristics to

overall success. In addition, having the necessary skills which includes

communication, computer, reading, writing, numeracy and listening skills were in

their opinion regarded as important. Attitude, values and behaviour were further

mentioned by the students as important factors to consider. Other characteristics

that were revealed as equally important included self-management, adequate

resources and support, understanding of concepts, engagement and preparation.

Students also commented on the amount of time used to prepare and study. They

reported that the amount of time invested in preparation and studying often

depended on their mood, the amount of work and the content. Some of the

responses included time, for example, 15 to 30 minutes or an hour before the class

was scheduled to start. This is evident in Table 5.2 as the mean scores on their

academic performance proved.

161

The following section focuses on Section C (resources and support) of the

questionnaire. As with the previous section, items were highlighted and are

discussed below. Table 5.4 indicates the measures of central tendency.

Table 5.4: Measures of central tendency: Section C: Resources and support

Valid N Mean Median Mode Freq StDev

SC1 117 3.74 4 5 55 1.49

SC2 117 4.52 5 5 80 0.83

SC3 117 3.89 4 4 43 1.10

SC4 117 3.71 5 5 60 1.61

SC5 117 4.40 5 5 80 1.08

SC6 117 3.89 4 4 54 0.88

SC7 117 4.31 4 5 54 0.75

SC8 117 3.88 4 5 40 1.07

SC9 117 3.62 4 3 35 1.14

SC10 117 3.55 4 5 39 1.39

SC11 117 3.58 4 5 44 1.48

SC12 117 3.07 3 3 37 1.21

SC13 117 3.94 4 5 47 1.15

SC14 117 4.21 5 5 59 1.00

SC15 117 4.46 5 5 75 0.87

SC16 117 2.25 2 1 52 1.41

SC17 117 4.03 4 4 48 0.84

SC18 117 2.37 2 1 37 1.24

SC19 117 4.62 5 5 80 0.60

SC20 117 3.96 4 5 42 1.03

SC21 117 4.28 5 5 61 0.88

SC22 117 4.13 4 4 47 0.85

SC23 117 4.44 5 5 67 0.72

SC24 117 4.86 5 5 104 0.41

SC25 117 1.86 2 1 52 0.95

SC26 117 3.70 4 4 45 0.96

162

SC27 117 4.02 4 4 48 0.97

SC28 117 2.58 3 3 42 1.18

As seen in Table 5.4, the standard deviation of SC 2, 6, 7, 15, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24,

25, 26 and 27 are below one which indicates low-variance between responses

compared to the rest of the statements.

163

Figure 5.6: Summary of responses: Resources and support

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90Avoidance of social groups (15) Involvement in on-campus activities (14)

My family wanted me to go to university (13)

Values of the NMMU (12)

Friends have a positive impact (11)

Get on well with my lecturers (10)

Comfortable discussing important events (9)

Consult with my lecturers out of class (8)

Finances are mostly sorted out (7)

Seek help from academic staff (6)

Text books needed (5)

Access to a personal computer (4)

Favourable environment for studies (3)

Support from parents and family (2)

I chose the field of study I am in (1)

Strongly Disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly Agree

164

As stated in Chapter Three, course and student fit is considered an important factor

in student readiness and success. According to the REAP annual report (2008, p.

49) many students select a career path that is not aligned with their interests and

abilities. Bergh (2011, p. 96) further states that prepared and successful students

have the maturity needed to make career decisions. Based on Figure 5.6, 64.9% of

students agreed that the field of study selected, was based on their personal

choices.

Parental and family support have been mentioned on numerous occasions

throughout this study (refer to Chapter Three, sub-sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2). The

impact of parental involvement in education and on the success of students has

many benefits. These include higher scores in assessments, increased motivation

and class attendance (Department of Education: Michigan, 2002). As claimed by

Osa-Edoh and Alutu (2011, p. 11) some parents become forceful with regard to the

careers students choose, which could lead to a misfit between the interests of

students and the career choice they make. Statements 2, 9, 11 and 13 in Figure 5.6

focussed on the support of family and friends and are therefore analysed together.

Figure 5.6 reveals that 88.1% of students indicated that their parents and family

support them; 80.3% indicated that they were comfortable discussing important

events with their families, 70.9% revealed that their friends have a positive impact on

them and lastly, the majority of students (97.4%) stated that their parents always

wanted them to go to university.

In general, many resources are needed to be adequately prepared and successful

while furthering education. These include textbooks, finances, stationary, computers

and an environment conducive to study. Certain items have been grouped and are

discussed as such which include items 3, 4, 5, and 7. Figure 5.6 reveales that 71%

of students had a favourable environment to study in, 66.7% had a personal

computer; 83.8% had the textbooks needed to continue with their studies and lastly,

only 61.5% indicated that the finances needed for their studies were mostly sorted

out.

According to Draper (2008) social integration refers to the ability of an individual to

identify with the norms, values and culture of the institution. In addition, it

165

encompasses the relations between a student and his or her peers and academic

staff. Based on Figure 5.6 the following items are grouped together and explained

under social integration, namely items 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 and 15. Figure 5.5 is indicative

that 66.7% of students seeked help from academic staff, 37.6% of students

consulted with their lecturers out of class time, 73.5% of students had good

relationships with their lecturers and 79.5% of students claimed to know the values

of NMMU. Only 6% of the students were involved in many on-campus activities and

lastly, 20.5% of them indicated that they avoided being involved with social groups.

To summarise Section C of the questionnaire, career choices were often not made

by the student themselves as indicated in the findings. It should be noted that the

majority of the students answered favourably to having support from their families.

Moreover, a large proportion indicated that their family always wanted them to study.

This section also revealed that many students still lacked the resources such as

textbooks, computers and the financial assistance required for tertiary studies. In

terms of social integration, a gap was identified as the majority of students did not

consult with their lecturers, or involved themselves with on-campus activities.

The following section focuses on Section D (interventions) of the questionnaire. As

with the previous section, certain items were highlighted and are discussed below.

Table 5.5 is used to depict the measures of central tendency of Section D in the

questionnaire.

Table 5.5: Measures of central tendency: Section D: Interventions

Valid N Mean Median Mode Freq StDev

SD7 104 2.21 2 1 43 1.17

SD8 104 2.41 3 3 35 1.15

SD9 103 2.41 3 1 39 1.26

SD10 106 2.50 3 1 33 1.18

SD11 108 2.98 4 4 56 1.24

SD12 114 3.61 4 4 37 1.13

SD13 113 3.42 4 4 38 1.27

SD14 113 3.04 3 3 34 1.22

166

SD15 113 2.69 3 1 37 1.48

SD16 112 2.22 2 1 45 1.36

SD17 113 3.44 4 5 47 1.62

SD18 113 2.83 2 1 41 1.68

SD19 113 3.61 4 5 43 1.40

SD20 113 3.01 3 Multiple 23 1.43

SD21 112 3.51 3 3 40 1.13

As seen in Table 5.5, the standard deviation of all the statements indicates that there

are high-variances between responses.

As part of Section D students were asked to indicate whether they had been

exposed to the mentioned interventions and also the extent to which they felt these

interventions prepared them for tertiary education. Refer to Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.7: Exposure to interventions

The pie chart in Figure 5.7 shows a comparison that indicates the number of

students that were exposed to as opposed to not being exposed to the interventions.

An important aspect identified by this chart is that 54.5% of students were not

exposed to career guidance counsellors at school. According to Lazarus and Ihuoma

(2011, p. 51) guidance counsellors are involved in the academic, career and

personal developmental needs of students. In addition, guidance counsellors assist

students by exposing them to career-related activities that prepare them for their

future careers. That being said, most of the students enrolled for the National

Diploma in Human Resource Management were not exposed to guidance

167

counselling and that could have had an impact on their preparedness for tertiary

education. The following graph depicts the extent to which the students felt that the

interventions had prepared them for tertiary education.

Figure 5.8: Students perception of the extent to which the interventions prepared

them for tertiary education.

As indicated in Figure 5.8, 69.5% of the students indicated that the orientation

programme at NMMU prepared them for tertiary education. However, when

interpreting the other interventions such as career guidance (55.7%), open days

(46.2%), visits from tertiary institutions (49.6%) and aptitude testing (44.3%), a

decline is seen in terms of assistance. The majority of students indicated that these

mechanisms did not adequately prepare them for tertiary education.

Figure 5.8 reveals the responses of the students in Section D in the questionnaire.

As mentioned the data set showed high variances with regard to the responses.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

CareerGuidance

Open days Visits fromtertiary

institutions

Aptitudetesting

Orientation

Not at all

Very little

Somewhat

To a great extent

168

Figure 5.9: Summary of responses of Section D (interventions)

As stated in Chapter Two and according to Conley (2010, p. 40) for students to be

successful, knowledge about the institution is required which includes the norms,

culture and traditions enabling the students to successfully adapt to their new

surroundings. Referring to Figure 5.9, 57.1% of the students indicated that they had

sufficient information about NMMU before enrolling for the course. In addition to

becoming accustomed to the institution, successful students have the necessary

career maturity to select a course aligned with their abilities, interests and attitudes.

Figure 5.8 further depicts that 55.7% of the students sought information regarding

their chosen field of study. As stated in Chapter Three Section 3.4, interventions are

put in place to assist learners when making the transition from secondary to tertiary

institutions. Based on Figure 5.9, 32.8% of students indicated that they were not

exposed to interventions that adequately prepared them for university. As mentioned

on page 167, paragraph two, exposure to guidance counsellors are important to a

student‟s development. Based on the above chart 46.9% of the students indicated

05

1015202530354045

Interventions at NMMUmade my transition

easier (10)

Attended all theAccounting tutorials (9)

Attended all thePersonnel Management

tutorials (8)

Attended open day (7)

Attended the orientationprogramme (6)

Took extra classes forpreparation (5)

My school had a careerguidance counsellor (4)

Exposure tointerventions (3)

Information sought onfield of study (2)

Sufficient information onthe NMMU (1)

StronglyDisagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

StronglyAgree

169

that they did not have guidance counsellors while at school. There are opportunities

granted for students to take preparatory classes before attending university. Figure

5.9 reveals that 67.9% of the students took no additional classes to prepare them for

university. As mentioned in Chapter Three the purpose of the orientation programme

at NMMU is to integrate new students into the academic and social aspects of the

university. Of these students only 57.5% attended the one week orientation

programme for first years. University open days offer prospective students an

opportunity to better acquaint themselves with the university and the qualifications

offered. Furthermore, these students are granted opportunities to interact with the

academic staff. Figure 5.9 reveals that just over half (50.8%) of the students

attended the open day initiative. In Chapter Three, Section 3.4.2, it was mentioned

that tutorials are used to assist students in their understanding of core content.

Referring back to the mean scores of the academic performance (Table 5.2) of the

students, it is surprising that only 58.5% of students attended the tutorials for

Personnel Management I and 40.8% attended the tutorials for Accounting. Lastly,

just under half of the students (49.1%) indicated that the current interventions in

place at NMMU had made the transition from secondary school to tertiary education

easier.

In summary, of the quantitative data in Section D, the majority of students had been

exposed to some of the identified interventions. An important aspect, however, is the

fact that more than half the students indicated that they had not been exposed to

guidance counsellors while at school. Furthermore, with the exception of the

orientation programme at NMMU, many of the students stated that the extent to

which these interventions had assisted in preparing them for tertiary studies were

low. Once again it was evident that guidance counsellors were not a key feature in

their secondary schooling. Lastly, it was highlighted that many of the Human

Resource Management (HRM) students were not attending the Personnel

Management I tutorials and this was evident in the academic performance depicted

in Table 5.2.

As with the other sections in the questionnaire, Section D included an open-ended

question in which the students exposed to these interventions were asked to provide

more detail on their experience. The students who were exposed to guidance

170

counsellors during their high school career emphasised that this assisted them in

making informed career decisions. Many of the students further mentioned that

tertiary institutions visited their schools, and many made mention of two institutions

specifically, NMMU and the CTI Education Group and in doing so provided them with

information about courses on offer. Moreover, all the students who indicated that

they attended the orientation programme at NMMU contended that it assisted them

in familiarising themselves with the different campuses, staff and resources available

to them.

5.3 Inferential statistics

As stated in Chapter Four inferential statistics refer to using data collected from a

sample with the purpose of drawing inferences based on the total population. This

section of the chapter therefore uses inferential statistics to generalise the findings of

this study to the larger population.

A number of statistical techniques are used to test the hypotheses which include

univariate, bivariate and multivariate techniques. Due to the size of the sample

(n=117) a factor analysis was not possible. It should be noted that, irrespective of the

sample size, there are an insufficient total number of first-year students registered for

the National Diploma in Human Resources Management. This entails that even if all

the students were to complete the questionnaire a factor analysis would still not be

possible. However, taking this into consideration, correlations between the factors

mentioned in Chapter Four were made and the hypotheses were tested. The findings

are provided below.

Table 5.6: Pearson Moment product correlations n=117

Factor A Factor S Factor M Factor I

Factor A 1.000

Factor S 0.492 1.000

Factor M 0.670 0.479 1.000

Factor I 0.621 0.526 0.526 1.000

171

A correlation indicates whether there is a relationship between two or more

variables. Moreover, it provides the researcher with evidence of either a positive

(closer to +0.1) or a negative (closer to -0.1) relationship. The Pearson Moment

product correlation test was used in this study to indicate the relationships that may

exist.

Table 5.6 indicates that there are statistically significant correlations between all the

factors mentioned above. A further discussion follows below. As perceived in Table

5.6, moderate correlations exist between factors S (support) and A (academic

proficiency) at 0.492 as well as between factors M (motivation) and S (support) at

0.479. This entails that there is a reasonable relationship between having support

structures in place and a student‟s academic proficiency for tertiary education. In

addition, the same applies for the relationship between a student‟s level of motivation

and the support structures in place. Stronger correlations are noted between factors

A (academic proficiency) and M (motivation) at 0.670 as well as with factors A

(academic proficiency) and I (integration) 0.621. This correlation is indicative that a

stronger relationship exists between students‟ academic proficiency and their level of

motivation. Furthermore, it shows that academic proficiency and social integration

have a tendency to impact upon each other. Factors S (support) and I (integration)

including factors M (motivation) and I (integration) have the same values at 0.526,

which establishes that a relationship between these variables do exist.

For further understanding and referring to Figure 5. 10 scatter plot graphs are

depicted below. These graphs indicate the relationships between the various

variables, namely, academic proficiency, support, motivation and social integration.

172

Figure 5.10: Scatter plots indicating correlation n=117

Source: Extracted from Statistica programme (Pietersen, 2014)

The final marks of the students and the number of hours used for studying were

taken into consideration for this study. This was done to determine whether the

amount of time students spent on studying influenced their final mark. The hours

spent were combined to form four categories tabulated below.

Table 5.7: Final mark and hours spent studying n=113

SB32 Final mark Final mark Final mark

Means N Std.Dev.

0-2 hrs 62.27 39 8.39

3-4 hrs 61.31 52 12.01

5-6 hrs 62.49 12 11.56

Other 63.51 10 10.08

All Groups 61.96 113 10.55

Analysis of Variance

173

To summarise, Table 5.7 indicates that there were no significant differences between

the final mark and the hours spent on studying as p>0.05.

In addition to this a t-test was used to determine if there was a significant difference

between gender and the Business Management I final marks. The Business

Management I module was selected as it is a major for students studying Human

Resource Management and it generally makes use of calculations. Most of the

qualifications offered at tertiary institutions include numeracy modules and as stated

in Chapter Two, numerical skills are an important characteristic of student readiness.

Table 5.8 indicates the findings.

Table 5.8: Difference between gender and Business Management results n=109

Mean Mean t-

value

df p Valid N Valid

N

Std.Dev. Std.Dev.

Female Male Female Male Female Male

Business

Management I

60.23

59.64

0.17

107

0.8649

81

28

15.77

15.98

As depicted in the above table, there were no significant differences between gender

and final Business Management I final marks.

Due to the various age categories, the researcher wished to establish whether there

was in fact a relationship between age and the various factors used in the study. It is

assumed that the more matured the student, the higher the readiness level would be.

Table 5.9 specifies the findings.

F P

Final mark 0.16 0.9258

174

175

Table 5.9: Relationship between age and readiness factors n=107

Age FA FA FA FS FS FS FM FM FM FI FI FI

Means N Std.Dev. Means N Std.Dev. Means N Std.Dev. Means N Std.Dev.

19 or

younger

3.74 39 0.46 4.09 39 0.53 4.33 39 0.41 3.36 39 0.52

20-21

years

3.64 35 0.46 4.03 35 0.44 4.22 35 0.51 3.47 35 0.50

22 or

older

3.81 33 0.50 4.10 33 0.37 4.38 33 0.49 3.61 33 0.53

All

Groups

3.73 107 0.47 4.07 107 0.45 4.31 107 0.47 3.48 107 0.52

Analysis of variance

F P

Factor A 1.18 0.3127

Factor S 0.26 0.7742

Factor M 0.98 0.3782

Factor I 2.09 0.1288

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To conclude the above table, there were no significant differences between the age

of the students and the variables used in the study as the p values are all >0.05.

Considering the above table, H1 is therefore rejected.

Table 5.10: Relationship between ethnicity and readiness n=109

Mean Mean t-

value

df p Valid N Valid N Std.Dev. Std.Dev. Cohen's

d

Practical

Coloured African Coloured African Coloured African Signif.

FA 3.56 3.76 -2.00 107 0.0484 27 82 0.51 0.46 0.44 Small

FS 3.89 4.08 -1.82 107 0.0721 27 82 0.61 0.43 0.40 Small

FM 4.07 4.37 -2.84 107 0.0053 27 82 0.48 0.46 0.63 Medium

FI 3.18 3.58 -3.55 107 0.0006 27 82 0.45 0.53 0.79 Medium

Table 5.10 indicates statistically significant differences between ethnicity and

readiness between African and Coloured students as p<0.05. It should be noted that

H2 indicated that there is a relationship between ethnicity and readiness among all

racial groups. It should be taken into consideration that two of the five groups, Asians

(one) and Whites (four), were too small to conduct a decent representation of the

population. However, based on the above table, it can be deduced that significant

differences would apply across all racial groups if these were included in the study.

It was evident earlier on in the study that the majority (Section 5.1) of the students

came from public schools. To establish whether the type of schooling influenced any

of the variables, Cohen‟s d was used to measure the practical significance in a

statistically significant result. In addition, if Cohen‟s d measures 0.50 or more it is

said to be practically significant. Only public and private schools were used in this

analysis as the students who indicated township and other accounted for too few

responses to include.

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Table 5.11: Relationship between the type of schooling and readiness factors n=104

Mean Mean t-

value

df P Valid

N

Valid

N

Std.Dev. Std.Dev. Cohen's

d

Practical

Public Private Public Private Public Private Signif.

FA 3.70 3.95 -1.89 102 0.0615 88 16 0.47 0.47 0.51 Medium

FS 4.02 4.28 -1.94 102 0.0555 88 16 0.51 0.42 0.53 Medium

FM 4.28 4.38 -0.74 102 0.4589 88 16 0.49 0.47

FI 3.42 3.77 -2.38 102 0.0191 88 16 0.54 0.48 0.65 Medium

As depicted in Table 5.10 the Cohen‟s d measures are 0.50 and above in all the

factors. Factor I which refers to social integration should be noted as it is also

statistically and practically significant. Taking into consideration H3 which states that

there is a relationship between the type of schooling and readiness factors, and

based on Table 5.10, the hypothesis is therefore accepted.

Table 5.12: Relationship between gender and readiness factors n=117

Table 5.12 is indicative that there were no significant differences with factors A

(academic proficiency), M (motivation) and I (integration) and gender. However,

based on the findings factor S (support) showed a fairly strong significance between

gender and support as p<0.10. Readiness encompasses academic proficiency,

support, motivation and social integration. Considering this H4 states that there is a

relationship between gender and readiness and based on Table 5.11, the hypothesis

is therefore rejected. It should be noted that a relationship exists between gender

and support only.

Mean Mean t-

value

df p Valid N Valid

N

Std.Dev. Std.Dev. Cohen's

d

Practical

Female Male Female Male Female Male Signif.

FA 3.74 3.67 0.70 115 0.4869 85 32 0.51 0.46

FS 4.10 3.92 1.77 115 0.0790 85 32 0.43 0.62 0.37 Small

FM 4.34 4.18 1.66 115 0.1002 85 32 0.47 0.50

FI 3.50 3.39 1.01 115 0.3143 85 32 0.53 0.56

178

To establish the relationship between readiness and success, the final mark will be

used in conjunction with the readiness factors (A, S, M and I). In this study a

successful student was determined by having a final mark of 60% and above.

Table 5.13: Relationship between readiness and success n= 113

It is evident based on Table 5.13 that statistically significant differences exist

between the readiness factors A, S, M and I and the success of students in tertiary

education. Moreover, motivational variables indicate the highest level of significance.

H5 states that students who score high on the readiness factors are more likely to

succeed. Based on Table 5.13 this H5 is therefore accepted.

Support and social integration formed an important aspect to this study and have

therefore been included in the analysis of readiness and success. Scatter plots are

used to show whether there are any differences between student support systems

and success, as well as those who are well-integrated, and their success in tertiary

education. Figures 5.10 and 5.11 highlight the findings.

Mean Mean t-

value

df P Valid

N

Valid

N

Std.Dev. Std.Dev. Cohen's

d

Practical

<60 >60 <60 >60 <60 >60 Signif.

FA 3.61 3.80 -2.07 111 0.0204 49 64 0.55 0.43 0.39 Small

FS 3.95 4.13 -1.93 111 0.0279 49 64 0.47 0.48 0.37 Small

FM 4.11 4.44 -3.89 111 0.0001 49 64 0.50 0.41 0.74 Medium

FI 3.37 3.56 -1.87 111 0.0319 49 64 0.53 0.53 0.36 Small

179

Figure 5.11: Support systems and academic performance

Source: Extracted from Statistica programme (Pietersen, 2014)

The above scatter plot used the final marks of the students together with factor S

(support) to establish if there is a significant difference in support and academic

performance. Based on Figure 5.11 no significant differences have been noted. H6

indicates that students who have adequate support structures in place show better

academic performance. Taking Figure 5.11 into consideration H6 is therefore

rejected.

180

Figure 5.12: Integration and academic performance

Extracted from Statistica programme (Pietersen, 2014)

As in Figure 5.11, Figure 5.12 used the final mark and compared it to factor I

(integration). Once again no significant differences between integration and success

were noted. H7 indicated that students who are well integrated perform better, based

on Figure 5.12, H7 is therefore rejected.

Lastly, this study took into account the degree of exposure to the identified

interventions, namely career guidance, open days, visits from tertiary institutions,

aptitude testing and orientation. For this analysis the interventions were grouped into

exposure to the number of interventions and student readiness. Table 5.13 depicts

the findings.

181

Table 5.14: Exposure to interventions and readiness levels

Analysis of variance

F P

Final mark 0.42 0.6583

FA 4.46 0.0137

FS 6.14 0.0029

FM 3.23 0.0433

FI 6.94 0.0014

Exposure to

number of

interventions

Final

mark

Final

mark

Final

mark

FA FA FA FS FS FS FM FM FM FI FI FI

Means N Std.Dev. Means N Std.Dev. Means N Std.Dev. Means N Std.Dev. Means N Std.Dev.

0 or 1 60.28 19 11.06 3.50 20 0.49 3.73 20 0.68 4.12 20 0.53 3.21 20 0.49

2 or 3 61.77 49 11.35 3.68 50 0.55 4.07 50 0.43 4.25 50 0.48 3.38 50 0.54

4 or 5 62.89 45 9.52 3.86 47 0.39 4.16 47 0.41 4.42 47 0.43 3.67 47 0.48

All Groups 61.96 113 10.55 3.72 117 0.49 4.05 117 0.49 4.30 117 0.48 3.47 117 0.54

182

Table 5.14 indicates statistically significant differences between the exposure to the

number of interventions and the readiness levels of first-year students studying

towards their NDip in Human Resource Management. H8 states that exposure to

early interventions improves readiness and success and based on Table 5.14, H8 is

accepted.

To conclude, various statistical techniques were used to establish whether any

significant relationships were evident. The next section of this chapter analyses,

discusses and links the hypotheses and sub-problems outlined in Chapter One.

H1: THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE AND READINESS FACTORS

Hypothesis one, two, three and four consider demographic variables as predictors of

student success. According to Boero, Laurenti and Naylor (2005) age has a

significant positive effect on student success. In addition, Gibson, Ice, Mitchell and

Kupczynski (2012) state that many literature reviews such as Astin 1993, Kuh 2007

and Tinto 1993 suggest that demographic factors influence student success and

retention. It should be noted that the most important factors are age, gender and

ethnicity.

A disparity exists between these studies and the empirical foundations of this study.

H1 is therefore rejected in reference to Table 5.9 since no significant differences were

revealed in the study as all the p values reflected >0.05.

H2: THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ETHNICITY AND READINESS

FACTORS

As stated above demographic factors are considered to be predictors of student

success and retention. According to Lemmens et al. (2011) race has a direct

relationship on student success and achievement.

H2 indicates that there is a relationship between ethnicity and readiness among all

racial groups. Taking into consideration that two of the five groups were too small to

conduct a decent representation of the population, an analysis was therefore done

183

on the two largest groups, African (71.9%) and Coloured (23.7%). Based on Table

5.10 it can be deduced that significant differences would apply across all racial

groups if these were included in the study as p<0.05.

H3: THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TYPE OF SCHOOLING AND

READINESS FACTORS

As stated in Chapter Three Section 3.4.2 and according to the Department of Basic

Education‟s National Educational Infrastructure report (2011) there is a lack of

infrastructure in public schools around South Africa. It is evident, based on Table 3.4,

that many learners therefore do not have the adequate resources needed to achieve

a quality education.

Furthermore, the questionnaire (refer to Section A: Biographical information)

required the respondents to indicate the type of school attended. The findings

reflected that 82.2% of the students who enrolled for the National Diploma in Human

Resource Management attended public schools.

Furthermore, Table 5.11 revealed that all the factors measures above 0.50 using

Cohen‟s d and moreover social integration were both statistically and practically

significant. For this reason, H3 is accepted.

H4: THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER AND READINESS

Chapter Three focussed on the stakeholders involved in and the factors impacting on

student success and the current interventions in place to prepare students for tertiary

education. According to Yau, Sun and Cheng (2011, p.99) it was found that female

students perform better than male students academically, however, they experience

more social adjustment challenges.

Contrary to this Table 5.12 indicated that no significant differences were noted

between gender and the readiness factors A (academic proficiency), M (motivation)

and I (integration). However, fairly strong significance was reflected between gender

184

and support (0.37) as p<0.10. Based on the above-mentioned, H4 was therefore

rejected.

H5: STUDENTS WHO SCORE HIGH ON READINESS FACTORS ARE MORE

LIKELY TO SUCCEED IN THEIR FIRST YEAR

To answer hypothesis five, the term success had to be quantified. For this study it

was determined that 60% and above will be considered successful. Based on Table

5.13 the findings indicate that statistically significant relationships exist between the

readiness factors and the success of the students in tertiary education. H5 is

therefore accepted.

This section also addressed sub-problem four which was aimed at identifying the

factors applicable to the success of first-year Human Resource Management

students.

H6: STUDENTS WHO HAVE ADEQUATE SUPPORT STRUCTURES IN PLACE

SHOW BETTER ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

As stated in Chapter Three for students to be successful, support structures such as

parents, family and friends should be in place. According to Kranstuber, Carr and

Hosek (2012, p. 44) and Osa-Edoh and Alutu (2011) the success of students are

largely influenced by the degree of support from family, especially the parents.

Furthermore, as stated in Chapter Three, parents play a key role in the degree of

college satisfaction, student motivation, learner empowerment and cognitive learning

indicators.

In this study the final marks of the students (using the 60% benchmark for success)

together with factor S was used to determine if there were any significant findings

and based on Figure 5.11, no significant differences were noted. For this reason H6

is rejected.

H7: STUDENTS WHO ARE WELL-INTEGRATED IN THE UNIVERSITY PERFORM

BETTER

185

According to Conley (2010), contextual skills and awareness form part of student

readiness and success. Conley (2010) and Draper (2008) further state that students

require key knowledge of the institution, its values, norms and culture which will

enable successful adaption to the new environment. In addition, Schlossberg,

Waters and Goodman (1995) indicate that coping mechanisms are needed to ensure

that students adapt to their new surroundings which will influence their level of

success.

Figure 5.12 used the final mark (60%) and compared it to FI (integration). The

findings suggested that no significant differences were seen between integration and

success, contrary to what the theory proposes. For this reason H7 is rejected.

H8: STUDENT EXPOSURE TO THE EARLY INTERVENTIONS IMPROVES

READINESS AND SUCCESS

Many interventions are currently in place to prepare students for tertiary education.

These were highlighted in Chapter Three. For this study the interventions identified

in the questionnaire included career guidance counsellors, open days, visits from

tertiary institutions, aptitude testing and orientation.

Based on Table 5.14 statistically significant differences were noted between

exposure to the interventions and overall success. For this reason H8 is accepted.

In addition, this section addressed sub-problem five, the extent to which the Human

Resource Management students have been exposed to the identified interventions.

186

5.4 CONCLUSION

The findings of the empirical study were analysed and presented in this chapter. In

addition, descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data.

Furthermore, it forms the basis together with the theoretical underpinnings of this

study to conclude and provide recommendations.

Hypotheses one to seven of the study were analysed and either accepted or rejected

and an overview is provided below:

H1: There is a relationship between age and readiness factors

Rejected

H2: There is a relationship between ethnicity and readiness factors

Rejected due to insufficient numbers of certain racial groups; however based

on the two groups used namely; African and Coloured, signifant differences

were noted.

H3: There is a relationship between the type of schooling and readiness factors

Accepted

H4: There is a relationship between gender and readiness

Rejected

H5: Students who score high on readiness factors are more likely to succeed in

their first year

Accepted

H6: Students who have adequate support structures in place show better

academic performance.

Rejected

H7: Students who are well integrated in the university perform better.

Rejected

H8: Student exposure to the early interventions improves readiness and success.

Accepted

It should be noted that the empirical findings of H1, H4, H6 and H7 are contrary to

what the theoretical underpinnings suggest. Furthermore, H2 could not be analysed

due to the small percentage of two groups.

187

The next chapter provides a summary of the main findings, the research limitations,

and possibilities for future research in this field and lastly, recommendations are

made to assist in the preparation of first-year students in general.

188

CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARIES, RECOMMENDATIONS AND

CONCLUDING REMARKS

6.1 INTRODUCTION 188

6.2 Summary of the chapters 188

6.3 Summary of the main findings of the study 189

6.4 Challenges and limitations 192

6.5 Recommendations 193

6.6 CONCLUSION 197

189

6.1 INTRODUCTION

An extensive literature review was followed throughout this study. This chapter

provides an outline of the research conducted. It includes the results from the open-

ended questionnaires (refer to annexure A) completed by lecturers who teach first-

year HRM students and results from the students who completed the questionnaire

(refer to annexure B).

In addition, this chapter provides recommendations for future research practices on

student readiness and success. The main findings from this study is summarised

and interventions are recommended to improve readiness among first-year students.

6.2 Summary of chapters

The purpose of this study was to identify interventions that adequately prepare

students for tertiary education. Chapter One introduced the research topic, sub-

problems and objectives of the study. Furthermore, it provided the research

framework that was used to answer the main problem.

Chapters Two and Three provided extensive literature reviews on sub-problems one,

two and three. In Chapter Two, the concept of student readiness was addressed

which included motivational theories aligned with student success. The

characteristics of the ideal student were elaborated upon as well as the relationship

between readiness and success. Furthermore, this chapter had an empirical

component where lecturers who teach first-year HRM students provided insight into

these aspects with emphasis placed on student readiness and success. Based on

the main findings in Chapter Two, it could be stated that for students to succeed in

tertiary education, the quality of education, the student‟s characteristics and the

strategies and interventions in place should be considered.

As previously mentioned Chapter Three provided an extensive literature review

which included the role of the key stakeholders involved in student success. These

are parents, friends and family, teachers or lecturers, media and government.

Moreover, the chapter identified factors that may inhibit student readiness and

190

success, such as preparation, academic factors, course and student fit,

psychological and social adjustment, financial support, personal circumstances,

student engagement and support mechanisms. Additionally in this chapter, the

current interventions used at secondary and tertiary institutions to address readiness

and success were discussed. An empirical component to this chapter once more

considered the views of the lecturers who teach first-year HRM students. The main

findings in Chapter Three indicated that due to the factors identified many students

withdraw from university.

Chapter Four provided a detailed synopsis of the research design and methodology

used in this study. In this chapter the sampling method (non-probability), data

collection methods (questionnaires), pilot study, validity and reliability, ethical

considerations and the statistical techniques used were discussed. The study

employed a mixed research design approach that combined qualitative and

quantitative methods. Before commencing with the distribution of the questionnaires,

approval was sought from the ethics committee and a reference number was issued,

H14-BES-HRM-070. Once issued the questionnaires were distributed to first-year

Human Resource Management students. To test reliability Cronbach‟s alpha was

used and considered to be acceptable as all the factors measured above 0.5.

Furthermore, the data was analysed with the assistance of Dr Jacques Pietersen, a

statistician employed at NMMU.

The purpose of Chapter Five was therefore to analyse, interpret and present the

main findings of the study. The chapter was further sub-divided into two sections,

namely descriptive and inferential statistics. The hypotheses of the study were

discussed under inferential statistics. A summary of the main findings is provided

below.

6.3 Summary of the main findings in this study

The main problem of the study was to investigate student readiness and to propose

interventions that adequately prepare students for tertiary education.

191

The study was prompted due to the lack of readiness of first-year students across

disciplines and universities. There has been an increase in admission requirements

by most of the universities in South Africa due to the declining numbers of student

throughput rates. These factors formed the foundation of the study.

To answer the main research question, five sub-problems were developed and a

brief analysis of each is discussed below. Sub-problems one, two and three were

analysed by means of a theoretical and empirical component. The empirical

component in this instance included open-ended questionnaires distributed to the

academic staff who teach first-year Human Resource Management students.

Sub-problem 1: What is readiness and why is it a crucial factor in the academic

success of students?

This sub-problem was addressed by an extensive literature review on the applicable

student readiness theories and concepts. For this study an integrated definition was

used which incorporated theories of Conley (2007), Conley (2010) and Berg (2011).

Student readiness therefore refers to the overall ability of a student to meet the basic

requirements to succeed in higher education without the use of remedial classes and

within the recommended timeframe required to complete a qualification.

In addition to the literature study an empirical component was used whereby open-

ended questionnaires were distributed to the lecturers who teach first-year Human

Resource Management students. The purpose was to gain an improved

understanding of what readiness is and the characteristics of prepared students. The

responses of the academic staff were aligned with the theoretical underpinnings of

this study.

Sub-problem 2: What is the contribution and impact of various stakeholder

groups on the readiness levels of students?

This sub-problem was addressed by a broad literature review on who the key

stakeholders are and their influence on student readiness and success. The

192

stakeholders identified, included parents, family and friends, teachers and/or

lecturers, media and government.

Furthermore, as with sub-problem one, an empirical component was used in the

form of an open-ended questionnaire which was distributed to the academic staff.

This was done to gain an improved understanding of the key stakeholders and their

impact on student readiness and success. Once again the responses from the

academic staff were aligned with the theoretical underpinnings of the study.

Additional stakeholders identified, included the institution, student counselling and

the student.

Sub-problem 3: Which factors impact on student readiness and which

interventions can be used to prepare students for tertiary education?

Corresponding with sub-problems one and two, sub-problem three was addressed

by both a detailed literature review with an empirical component concerning the

factors that impact on student readiness and success. The literature review identified

factors such as preparation, course and student fit, academic factors, psychological

and social adjustment, financial support, personal circumstances, student

engagement and support. Based on the literature review, it was concluded that for

students to be prepared for tertiary education the extent to which the factors apply to

students should be considered.

The empirical component consisted of open-ended questionnaires distributed to the

academic staff who teach first-year Human Resource Management students to gain

an improved understanding of the factors impacting on student readiness and

success and also the current interventions in place to address student readiness.

The responses were aligned with the theoretical component of the study.

Sub-problem 4: To what extent do the factors identified in sub-problem three

apply to first-year Human Resource Management students?

This sub-problem was addressed solely by an empirical study. Questionnaires were

distributed to 117 registered full-time first-year Human Resource Management

193

students. This sub-problem further relates to hypothesis five and was analysed and

discussed in the previous chapter.

It was found that based on the hypothesis students who score high on the readiness

factors are more likely to succeed in tertiary education. The hypothesis was

accepted as there were significant differences noted.

Sub-problem 5: To what extent have the first-year Human Resource

Management students been exposed to the identified interventions?

This sub-problem, as with sub-problem four, was addressed solely by an empirical

study. Questionnaires were distributed to 117 registered full-time first-year Human

Resource Management students. This sub-problem further relates to hypothesis

eight and was analysed and discussed in the previous chapter.

The hypothesis stated that student exposure to the early interventions improves

readiness and success. The study revealed significant differences and the

hypothesis was therefore accepted.

6.3 Challenges and limitations of the study

As with any research study a few challenges were encountered. These are

discussed below and the way in which challenges were addressed, is included in the

analysis.

To gain deeper insights into student readiness and success an empirical

component was used. This included emailing the academic staff an

open-ended questionnaire relating to the different aspects of student

readiness. Initially, the responses were provided sooner than expected.

Due to time constraints and other commitments, however, the response

rate slowed down. A reminder was sent to the academic staff and within

a day or two all the respondents provided their input.

194

The questionnaires were distributed to the Human Resource

Management students during their Personnel Management I lecture as

agreed to by all the lecturers. The students were provided with

information regarding the study and participated on a voluntary basis.

After the first group completed the questionnaire and while inputting the

data, the researcher realised that many of the students left out the open-

ended questions. The researcher then decided to have someone else

explain and guide the students through the questionnaire. This proved to

be very effective as the questionnaires were more valid.

Section A of the questionnaire required students to indicate their grade

12 subjects and results. This proved to be problematic as some of the

students indicated their grade 12 scores using percentages, others used

numerical values ranging from one to five and the rest used symbols.

The researcher and the statistician decided to convert all the final results

into percentages using the Department of Education‟s guideline with

regard to symbols, percentages and numerical values which solved the

dilemma.

Another important challenge faced, includes the fact that there are not

adequate sources of information in the South African context on student

readiness and success. This was overcome by adapting models such as

Conley (2010) and aligning them to the South African context.

A few limitations exist with this study which will provide opportunities for future

research prospects. This study was limited to the Human Resource Management

students registered for the National Diploma only. If the study included the different

campuses, disciplines and all first-year students enrolled at NMMU, valuable insights

could have been gained in addressing overall student and staff perception,

understanding and level of readiness. Due to the sample size key factors such as

gender and ethnicity were not addressed when analysing readiness. This limitation is

discussed in further detail in Section 6.4.

195

6.4 Recommendations

As stated in Chapter Four, the goal of this research project was threefold. The

purpose of this study was therefore to:

1) Describe what student readiness entails,

2) Understand why there is a lack of preparedness among first-year Human

Resource Management students, and

3) Identify and improve upon the interventions that address student readiness

and success for tertiary education.

Taking the theoretical underpinnings of this study into consideration,

recommendations will be made for both secondary and tertiary institutions to assist

in addressing these phenomena. Based on the above-mentioned, the following

recommendations emerged from this study:

Secondary schools

The study identified that many students were not exposed to guidance

counsellors at school. This proves to be detrimental to their overall success.

Therefore guidance counselling should form part of the curriculum or at least

be available for student consultation at secondary school level.

A more integrated approach should be used in teaching where the teacher is

a source of information but also a facilitator and students are required to take

ownership of their studies. This will enhance critical thinking, understanding

and reflection which are attributes of successful students.

196

Research and writing opportunities should be done on a regular basis to

assist students with reading, writing, analysing, interpreting and evaluating

information.

The curriculum should be aligned to the expectations of tertiary institutions.

Tertiary institutions

Based on the student and staff responses, the open day programme assists

the students by providing them with valuable information. However, the

current orientation programme should be extended over a longer period of

time and more appropriate sessions and it should be made compulsory for all

students to attend.

The scope of student counselling on all campuses should be broader as the

current system cannot cope with the number of students who require

assistance.

Academic advisors should be employed to oversee at risk students. This

requires the person to interact and correspond with students and staff alike

and take sole responsibility of that function.

Apart from the orientation week, tutorials on academic writing and basic

computer sessions should be compulsory for all students across various

disciplines.

It is not enough to have a mere guideline on class attendance. Attendance

should therefore be closely monitored as many students repeat modules due

to poor attendance and this should be applied across disciplines.

Lecturers, similar to teachers, should provide students with the relevant

knowledge and competencies required to succeed in tertiary education. This

197

means that lecturers should ever so often take on the role of a facilitator and

guide students in the right direction without giving them all the information.

The university should attempt to reach as many schools as possible and

provide these students with information about the courses on offer as well as

psychometric tests to determine where they would fit best.

As stated in Chapter One, many of the universities lowered their scores. This

is not enough; instead developmental programmes should be put into place to

assist students who do not meet the criteria.

The following opportunities have been identified for future research purposes:

As previously stated the empirical study was limited to Human Resource

Management students enrolled for the National Diploma only. Similar studies

could be conducted across all disciplines at the university. This will provide a

more diverse sample and further testing can be done which will result in

recommendations of improvement at the university.

A study could be conducted on motivation and student readiness and its link

to success in tertiary education. This study identified significant differences

between motivation and student readiness.

A longitudinal study could be conducted on student readiness across the

institution from the time a student enters university until such a time that the

student graduates.

A study could be conducted comparing highly ranked universities and lower

ranked universities to determine the interventions used that affect the

throughput rates.

198

6.5 Conclusion

Student readiness for tertiary education has increasingly become a much debated

topic in most universities among executives and academics alike. Many universities

have attempted to address this phenomenon by implementing different initiatives and

interventions.

The previous chapter focussed on the interpretation, presentation and analysis of the

data. This chapter provided the challenges and limitations experienced during the

study. Furthermore, recommendations for both secondary and tertiary institutions

were made in an attempt to address readiness and success. In addition, further

recommendations were made for future research prospects.

Chapters One, Two and Three provided the basis of the study and explained the

concept of student readiness, the characteristics of the ideal student, the relationship

between readiness and success, the key stakeholders involved in student success,

the factors influencing student readiness, and lastly, the current interventions in

place to address student readiness. The empirical findings in Chapters One, Two

and Three showed the alignment of what theory states and what is practiced.

This study aimed to identify and improve upon interventions to assist all parties

involved in adequately preparing students for tertiary education, which will increase

throughput rates, student success and give rise to financial aid.

199

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APPENDICES

212

APPENDIX A: Open-ended questionnaire

In order to gain an understanding from an educator‟s point of view on the topic of

student readiness, an open-ended questionnaire will be emailed to the lecturers

who teach the first year Human Resource Management students. The purpose

of using open-ended questionnaires are to establish whether the theory and practice

are aligned in terms of what constitutes student readiness, the factors influencing

student readiness, the key stakeholders involved in a student‟s education and the

current interventions that are in place in order to make a smooth transition from

secondary to tertiary education.

The questions are outlined below: 1. What does the term student readiness entail, to you as a lecturer?

2. In your opinion, what are the defining characteristics of a prepared

student?

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3. Who in your opinion are the key stakeholders involved in a student‟s

success?

To what extent do they play a role?

4. What are the factors, in your opinion, that contributes to student success?

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5. There are many interventions‟ aimed at improving readiness amongst first

year students, please elaborate on some of the current interventions‟ used

to address student readiness? How effective are they in preparing

students for tertiary education?

Thank you for your time, it is much appreciated!

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APPENDIX B: Oral presentation

ORAL INFORMATION GIVEN TO PARTICIPANT BEFORE CONSENT PROVIDED

TO PARTICIPATE

The following oral announcement will be made to the students prior to administration

of the questionnaire:

I am currently undertaking a Masters Research project in Human Resource

Management that seeks to identify the factors influencing student readiness, and

based on the findings, to propose interventions that prepare students for tertiary

education.

You will be able to assist me by completing the questionnaire I am going to hand out

to you. Your participation in this study is on a voluntary basis and by completing the

questionnaire you are giving your consent to participate in the study. Please note

that only students who are 18 years and older may participate in this study. Are

there any students here today who are under the age of 18?

I want to assure you that your responses will be confidential and you will not be

identified in this study nor in any other publications (journals, presentations, etc. that

may originate from this study. Are there any questions?

I will now hand out the questionnaire for you to complete. This questionnaire should

take you no longer than 15 minutes to complete. Please answer all the questions.

Please remain quiet while completing the questionnaire.

Once I have completed my Masters I will give you some feedback in the form of a

presentation during class on the results of my study.

Thank you very much for your cooperation. It is much appreciated!

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APPENDIX C: Questionnaire cover letter

Dear Student

2014

SURVEY ON STUDENT READINESS AMONGST FIRST YEAR HRM NMMU STUDENTS

I am currently undertaking a Masters Research project in Human Resource

Management that seeks to identify the factors influencing student readiness, and

based on the findings, to propose interventions that prepare students for tertiary

education.

To this end, I kindly request that you complete this questionnaire. It will take no

longer than 15 minutes of your time. Participation is very important to this study;

however, it is completed on a voluntary basis. Respondents can opt out at any stage

during the research study. Furthermore this questionnaire will not affect your class

marks.

This questionnaire remains anonymous and all the information provided remains

confidential and will be reported in the form of a summarised version based on all

respondents. Please do not write any personal/identifying information on the

questionnaire (i.e. name, surname, student number, etc.).

Yours sincerely

___________________ ___________________

Nuraan Agherdien Michelle Mey RESEARCHER PROMOTER

INFORMED CONSENT FORM

By signing this consent form I certify that I agree to participate in this research study.

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___________________ ___________________

Initial Date

APPENDIX D: Pilot questionnaire

SECTION A – BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

Gender: Male Female

Are you the first person in your family to further your school studies?

Yes No

Do you live with your family? Yes No

If no, where are you residing?

Age in full years

Who is responsible for your fees and textbooks?

Parents NFSAS Bursary Other

If other, please specify:

Ethnicity: African Asian Coloured Indian White

Home language:

English Afrikaans isiXhosa Other

(Specify)

School type:

Private Public Township Other

(Specify)

Grade 12 APS score:

List your grade 12 subjects:

Subject: Higher Grade (HG) Standard Grade (SG)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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7.

8.

Predict, based on all your past assessments in 2014, your class mark (DP) for each of the following subjects:

Current marks for the following subjects:

FIRST YEAR MODULES

FIRST YEAR (EXTENDED) MODULES

Personnel Management I:

Management of Training I:

Accounting for Personnel Practitioners:

Communication in English A:

Communication in English B:

Business Management I:

Personnel Management I:

Communication in English B:

Life Skills (Module A):

Cost and Estimating I:

Computer Skills (Module B):

Business Management I:

When did you first register as a student:

2012 2013 2014 Other

In your own words, what is student readiness?

219

220

SECTION B – READINESS FACTORS

Please indicate to what extent you agree with each of the statements below by circling the appropriate number. Please ensure that there is ONLY one answer per statement.

ST

RO

NG

LY

DIS

AG

RE

E

DIS

AG

RE

E

NE

UT

RA

L

AG

RE

E

ST

RO

NG

LY

AG

RE

E

1 I will pass all my modules. 1 2 3 4 5

2 I attend all my classes. 1 2 3 4 5

3 I prepare my work before going to class. 1 2 3 4 5

4 I received 50+ for my research writing assignments. 1 2 3 4 5

5 I believe that I am responsible for my studies. 1 2 3 4 5

6 I am able to manage with the amount of work given. 1 2 3 4 5

7 I have basic computer skills. 1 2 3 4 5

8 I work well in a group. 1 2 3 4 5

9 I prefer to work on my own. 1 2 3 4 5

10 I have good time management skills. 1 2 3 4 5

11 I prepare in advance for tests or examinations. 1 2 3 4 5

12 If I do not understand something, I feel free to ask

questions. 1 2 3 4 5

13 I know what study method works for me. 1 2 3 4 5

14 I am self-motivated. 1 2 3 4 5

15 I am comfortable with numerical concepts. 1 2 3 4 5

16 I am able to accept constructive criticism. 1 2 3 4 5

17 I am able to understand and apply the information I am

taught in class. 1 2 3 4 5

18 I have the necessary reading skills required to complete

my studies. 1 2 3 4 5

19 I have the necessary writing skills required to complete

my studies. 1 2 3 4 5

21 Getting good grades are important to me. 1 2 3 4 5

22 I have clear goals of my studies for this year. 1 2 3 4 5

23 I expect that I will excel in my studies this year. 1 2 3 4 5

24 Getting good marks is determined by how much I invest in

my studies. 1 2 3 4 5

25.

I often don’t see things through until the end. 1 2 3 4 5

26 I need to work to pay for my studies. 1 2 3 4 5

27

What in your opinion are the important characteristics needed in order to succeed in

tertiary education?

221

Different students approach their studies differently. Please indicate how important each of the following aspects relate to you as an individual Use the scale 1=Not Important to 5=Extremely Important.

1 Participation in class discussions 1 2 3 4 5

2 Social needs (i.e. friends and family) 1 2 3 4 5

3 Attending classes 1 2 3 4 5

4 Preparing for class 1 2 3 4 5

5 Doing your homework 1 2 3 4 5

How many hours do you spend on studying or preparing for classes a day?

0 0-2 3-4 5-6 Other

If other, please explain:

SECTION C – RESOURCES AND SUPPORT

Please indicate to what extent you agree with each of the statements below by circling the appropriate number. Please ensure that there is ONLY one answer per statement.

ST

RO

NG

LY

DIS

AG

RE

E

DIS

AG

RE

E

NE

UT

RA

L

AG

RE

E

ST

RO

NG

LY

AG

RE

E

1 I chose the field of study I am in.

1 2 3 4 5

2 My parents and family supports me with my studies.

1 2 3 4 5

3 I have a favourable environment to study in. 1 2 3 4 5

222

4 I have access to a personal computer.

1 2 3 4 5

5 I have all the text books needed to continue with my studies.

1 2 3 4 5

6 I have adequate time to study.

1 2 3 4 5

7 My lecturers assist me where possible.

1 2 3 4 5

8 I am able to seek help from academic and support staff if I do not understand something. 1 2 3 4 5

9 I have access to support services such as counselling.

1 2 3 4 5

10 The finances needed for my studies are mostly sorted out.

1 2 3 4 5

11 I consult with my lecturers out of class time to clarify concepts I do not understand.

1 2 3 4 5

12 I made friends easily when coming to university.

1 2 3 4 5

13 I feel comfortable discussing important events related to my studies with my family.

1 2 3 4 5

14 My family is a source of encouragement.

1 2 3 4 5

15 I am involved in societies on campus.

1 2 3 4 5

16 I get on well with my lecturers.

1 2 3 4 5

17 I am comfortable discussing any personal problems with my lecturers.

1 2 3 4 5

18 I am aware that there are services available for me to utilise such as a library.

1 2 3 4 5

19 My friends have a positive impact on my studies.

1 2 3 4 5

20 I know the values of the NMMU.

1 2 3 4 5

21 I can identify with the values of the NMMU.

1 2 3 4 5

22 I am happy to be part of the NMMU community.

1 2 3 4 5

23 My family has always wanted me to go to university.

1 2 3 4 5

24 I am involved in many on-campus activities.

1 2 3 4 5

25 My friends are very important to me.

1 2 3 4 5

26 I am comfortable interacting with others.

1 2 3 4 5

223

27 I try to avoid being involved with social groups.

1 2 3 4 5

SECTION D – INTERVENTIONS

Please answer YES or NO to the following questions: I have been exposed to the following:

YE

S

NO

1 Career Guidance Counsellors (School) 2 Open days at tertiary institutions

3 Visits from tertiary institutions

4 Aptitude testing

5 Orientation before starting the academic year

If you have answered yes to one or more of the following, please elaborate in the space

provided below.

Indicate using a (✓) in the appropriate column to what extent

has the following interventions assisted in preparing you for tertiary education:

NO

T A

T A

LL

VE

RY

LIT

TL

E

SO

ME

WH

AT

TO

A G

RE

AT

EX

TE

NT

1 Career Guidance Counsellors (School) 1 2 3 4

2 Open days at tertiary institutions 1 2 3 4

3 Visits from tertiary institutions 1 2 3 4

4 Aptitude testing 1 2 3 4

5 Orientation before starting the academic year 1 2 3 4

224

Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey, it is highly appreciated!

Please indicate to what extent you agree with each of the statements below by circling the appropriate number. Please ensure that there is ONLY one answer per statement.

ST

RO

NG

LY

DIS

AG

RE

E

DIS

AG

RE

E

NE

UT

RA

L

AG

RE

E

ST

RO

NG

LY

AG

RE

E

1 I had sufficient information about the NMMU when I enrolled.

1 2 3 4 5

2 I found out about the field I have chosen before I applied. 1 2 3 4 5

3 I have been exposed to interventions that prepared me for university.

1 2 3 4 5

4 My school had a career guidance counsellor. 1 2 3 4 5

5 I took extra classes to prepare me for university. 1 2 3 4 5

6 I attended the one week orientation programme at the beginning of the year.

1 2 3 4 5

7 I attended the open day initiative at NMMU. 1 2 3 4 5

8 I attended all the Personnel Management tutorials. 1 2 3 4 5

9 I attended all the Accounting tutorials. 1 2 3 4 5

10 The current interventions at the NMMU have made the transition to university easier for me.

1 2 3 4 5

225

APPENDIX E: Questionnaire

SECTION A – BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

Gender: Male Female

Are you the first person in your family to further your school studies?

Yes No

Do you live with your family? Yes No

If no, where are you residing?

Age in full years

Who is responsible for your fees and textbooks?

Parents NFSAS Bursary Other

If other, please specify:

Ethnicity: African Asian Coloured Indian White

Home language:

English Afrikaans isiXhosa Other

(Specify)

School type:

Private Public Township Other

(Specify)

Grade 12 APS score:

List your grade 12 subjects:

Subject: Final Mark:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

226

Predict, based on all your past assessments in 2014, your class mark (DP) for each of the following subjects:

Current marks for the following subjects:

FIRST YEAR MODULES

FIRST YEAR (EXTENDED) MODULES

Personnel Management I:

Management of Training I:

Accounting for Personnel Practitioners:

Communication in English A:

Communication in English B:

Business Management I:

Personnel Management I:

Communication in English B:

Life Skills (Module A):

Cost and Estimating I:

Computer Skills (Module B):

Business Management I:

When did you first register as a student:

2012 2013 2014 Other

In your own words, what is student readiness?

227

SECTION B – READINESS FACTORS

Please indicate to what extent you agree with each of the statements below by circling the appropriate number. Please ensure that there is ONLY one answer per statement.

ST

RO

NG

LY

DIS

AG

RE

E

DIS

AG

RE

E

NE

UT

RA

L

AG

RE

E

ST

RO

NG

LY

AG

RE

E

1 I will pass all my modules. 1 2 3 4 5

2 I attend all my classes. 1 2 3 4 5

3 I prepare my work before going to class. 1 2 3 4 5

4 I received 50+ for my research writing assignments. 1 2 3 4 5

5 I believe that I am responsible for my studies. 1 2 3 4 5

6 I am able to manage with the amount of work given. 1 2 3 4 5

7 I have basic computer skills. 1 2 3 4 5

8 I work well in a group. 1 2 3 4 5

9 I prefer to work on my own. 1 2 3 4 5

10 I have good time management skills. 1 2 3 4 5

11 I prepare in advance for tests or examinations. 1 2 3 4 5

12 If I do not understand something, I feel free to ask

questions. 1 2 3 4 5

13 I know what study method works for me. 1 2 3 4 5

14 I am self-motivated. 1 2 3 4 5

15 I am comfortable with numerical concepts. 1 2 3 4 5

16 I am able to accept constructive criticism. 1 2 3 4 5

17 I am able to understand and apply the information I am

taught in class. 1 2 3 4 5

18 I have the necessary reading skills required to complete

my studies. 1 2 3 4 5

19 I have the necessary writing skills required to complete

my studies. 1 2 3 4 5

20 Getting good grades are important to me. 1 2 3 4 5

21 I have clear goals of my studies for this year. 1 2 3 4 5

22 I expect that I will excel in my studies this year. 1 2 3 4 5

23 Getting good marks is determined by how much I invest in

my studies. 1 2 3 4 5

24 I often don’t see things through until the end. 1 2 3 4 5

25 I need to work to pay for my studies. 1 2 3 4 5

26

What in your opinion are the important characteristics needed in order to succeed in

tertiary education?

228

Different students approach their studies differently. Please indicate how important each of the following aspects relate to you as an individual Use the scale 1=Not Important to 5=Extremely Important.

1 Participation in class discussions 1 2 3 4 5

2 Having social support 1 2 3 4 5

3 Attending classes 1 2 3 4 5

4 Preparing for class 1 2 3 4 5

5 Doing your homework 1 2 3 4 5

How many hours do you spend on studying a day?

0 1-2 3-4 5-6 Other

How many hours do you spend on preparing for class a day?

0 1-2 3-4 5-6 Other

If you have selected other for the above questions, please explain:

SECTION C – RESOURCES AND SUPPORT

Please indicate to what extent you agree with each of the statements below by circling the appropriate number. Please ensure that there is ONLY one answer per statement.

ST

RO

NG

LY

DIS

AG

RE

E

DIS

AG

RE

E

NE

UT

RA

L

AG

RE

E

ST

RO

NG

LY

AG

RE

E

1 I chose the field of study I am in.

1 2 3 4 5

2 My parents and family supports me with my studies.

1 2 3 4 5

3 I have a favourable environment to study in.

1 2 3 4 5

229

4 I have access to a personal computer.

1 2 3 4 5

5 I have all the text books needed to continue with my studies.

1 2 3 4 5

6 I have adequate time to study.

1 2 3 4 5

7 My lecturers assist me where possible.

1 2 3 4 5

8 I am able to seek help from academic staff if I do not understand something. 1 2 3 4 5

9 I am able to seek assistance from support staff if I do not understand something. 1 2 3 4 5

10 I have access to support services such as counselling.

1 2 3 4 5

11 The finances needed for my studies are mostly sorted out.

1 2 3 4 5

12 I consult with my lecturers out of class time to clarify concepts I do not understand.

1 2 3 4 5

13 I made friends easily when coming to university.

1 2 3 4 5

14 I feel comfortable discussing important events related to my studies with my family.

1 2 3 4 5

15 My family is a source of encouragement.

1 2 3 4 5

16 I am involved in societies on campus.

1 2 3 4 5

17 I get on well with my lecturers.

1 2 3 4 5

18 I am comfortable discussing any personal problems with my lecturers.

1 2 3 4 5

19 I am aware that there are services available for me to utilise such as a library.

1 2 3 4 5

20 My friends have a positive impact on my studies.

1 2 3 4 5

21 I know the values of the NMMU.

1 2 3 4 5

22 I can identify with the values of the NMMU.

1 2 3 4 5

23 I am happy to be part of the NMMU community.

1 2 3 4 5

24 My family has always wanted me to go to university.

1 2 3 4 5

25 I am involved in many on-campus activities.

1 2 3 4 5

26 My friends are very important to me.

1 2 3 4 5

27 I am comfortable interacting with others. 1 2 3 4 5

230

28 I try to avoid being involved with social groups.

1 2 3 4 5

SECTION D – INTERVENTIONS

Please answer YES or NO to the following questions: I have been exposed to the following:

YE

S

NO

1 Career Guidance Counsellors (School) 2 Open days at tertiary institutions

3 Visits from tertiary institutions

4 Aptitude testing

5 Orientation before starting the academic year

If you have answered yes to one or more of the following, please elaborate in the space

provided below.

Indicate using a (✓) in the appropriate column to what extent

has the following interventions assisted in preparing you for tertiary education:

NO

T A

T A

LL

VE

RY

LIT

TL

E

SO

ME

WH

AT

TO

A G

RE

AT

EX

TE

NT

1 Career Guidance Counsellors (School) 1 2 3 4

2 Open days at tertiary institutions 1 2 3 4

3 Visits from tertiary institutions 1 2 3 4

4 Aptitude testing 1 2 3 4

5 Orientation before starting the academic year 1 2 3 4

231

Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey, it is highly appreciated!

Please indicate to what extent you agree with each of the statements below by circling the appropriate number. Please ensure that there is ONLY one answer per statement.

ST

RO

NG

LY

DIS

AG

RE

E

DIS

AG

RE

E

NE

UT

RA

L

AG

RE

E

ST

RO

NG

LY

AG

RE

E

1 I had sufficient information about the NMMU when I enrolled.

1 2 3 4 5

2 I found out about the field I have chosen before I applied. 1 2 3 4 5

3 I have been exposed to interventions that prepared me for university.

1 2 3 4 5

4 My school had a career guidance counsellor. 1 2 3 4 5

5 I took extra classes to prepare me for university. 1 2 3 4 5

6 I attended the one week orientation programme at the beginning of the year.

1 2 3 4 5

7 I attended the open day initiative at NMMU. 1 2 3 4 5

8 I attended all the Personnel Management tutorials. 1 2 3 4 5

9 I attended all the Accounting tutorials. 1 2 3 4 5

10 The current interventions at the NMMU have made the transition to university easier for me.

1 2 3 4 5

232

APPENDIX F: Ethics approval