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CONTENTS

Power Electronics Europe Issue 7 2009

3

Editor Achim Scharf

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Circulation and subscription: Power ElectronicsEurope is available for the following subscriptioncharges. Power Electronics Europe: annual chargeUK/NI £60, overseas $130, EUR 120; single copiesUK/NI £10, overseas US$32, EUR 25. Contact:Techmedia International Ltd, Kildonan, St Mary’sRoad, Wrotham, Kent TN15 7AP, Great Britain. Tel: +44 (0)1732 886495. Fax: +44 (0)1732886149. Refunds on cancelled subscriptions willonly be provided at the Publisher’s discretion, unlessspecifically guaranteed within the terms ofsubscription offer.

Editorial information should be sent to The Editor,Power Electronics Europe, PO Box 340131, 80098Munich, Germany.

The contents of Power Electronics Europe aresubject to reproduction in information storage andretrieval systems. All rights reserved. No part of thispublication may be reproduced in any form or by anymeans, electronic or mechanical includingphotocopying, recording or any information storageor retrieval system without the express prior writtenconsent of the publisher.Origination: Elaine GladwellPrinted by: Wyndeham Heron Limited.ISSN 1748-3530

PAGE 15

ECPE SiC Forum 2009 - On the Roadto Higher Efficiency After the Silicon Carbide User Forums organised by ECPE in 2006 and 2007, thetime had come to continue the exchange between experts involved in converterand device development. The third User Forum (September 11-12, Barcelona,Spain) also considered other wide bandgap devices for the first time, in particularGallium Nitride (GaN).

PAGE 17

Parameter Sensing in PowerElectronic ModulesModern inverter applications and electrical drive control algorithms depend onaccurate measurements regarding key parameters. New power modules likeInfineon’s MIPAQ family integrate proper sensors, as well as adapted electronics,to provide highly accurate readings and ease the design and improvement ofcompact high performance drives. Dr. Martin Schulz, Dr. Ulrich Schwarzer,Infineon Technologies, Warstein, Germany

PAGE 24

Novel 3.5kV Low Loss Rectifier Diode IXYS introduces a 600A 3 to 3.5kV diode with a low forward voltage drop, lowleakage current and with an extremely high surge current rating. The experimentalfindings are consistent with numerical modelling results and show that by usingAluminium isolation diffusion, it is possible to get an ideal plane parallelbreakdown voltage of 3500V. J.V. Subhas Chandra Bose and Peter Ingram,IXYS Semiconductor, Lampertheim, Germany

PAGE 27

Beyond Derating – Modern ReliabilityConcepts Reliability means various things to various people, but the bottom line is cost, in abroad sense. Engineers must abide by the ethical standard of their employers, yet,as moral individuals, they must continually subordinate economic benefits tomoral imperatives. Sabin Lupan, International Rectifier, El Segundo, USA

PAGE 31

Intelligent Power Modules DrivePublic Transport Power electronic systems are used in day-to-day applications. The sophisticatedtechnology behind the scenes, however, often goes unnoticed. The utmost care,therefore, has been taken to guarantee the reliability of the power electronicsdriving the vehicle. This article outlines the cooperation between twomanufacturers that fulfil the demands for public transport. Dr. Ladislav Sobotka,ŠKODA ELECTRIC, Pilsen, Czech Republic and Ralf Herrmann, SEMIKRON,Nuremberg, Germany

PAGE 35

Automotive Applications Benefit fromMultiphase BoostersMultiphase operation results in lower component stresses, smaller input and outputcapacitance, smaller solution size, better thermal management, and lower outputnoise. The new LTC3862 serves the needs of step-up power supplies from 100 to1000W in automotive fuel injection systems and high power audio amplifiers.Bruce Haug and Tick Houk, Linear Technology, Milpitas, USA

PAGE 38

Product Update A digest of the latest innovations and new product launches

PAGE 41

Website Product Locator

Shunt Current Measuringup to 800A in the Inverter In 2005, Siemens Drive Technologies introduced thefirst large inverter using shunts for phase currentmeasuring and brought it into series production. Itwasn’t until recently that the power output wasextended to 132kW with the new SINAMICS G120series. Back then, the joint development betweenSiemens, Semikron and Isabellenhütte laid thefoundations for being able to measure currents of upto 800A today. This article looks back at past eventsand takes a glimpse into the future: how was thistechnological change successful and what possibilitiesdo future developments have to offer? Full story on page 20.

Cover supplied by Isabellenhütte, Germany

COVER STORY

PAGE 6

Market NewsPEE looks at the latest Market News and company

developments

PAGE 11

EPE 2009 - Progress inHigh and MediumPower SemiconductorsEPE 2009 from September 8-10 in Barcelonaattracted around 1000 delegates, making it thelargest Power Electronics Conference in Europe. Inour first EPE report (see PEE 6/2009, pages 12-13)we focused on the keynotes covering SiC and PVinverters. The second report illustrates the progressin high and medium power semiconductors overrecent years.

p03 Contents.qxd_p03 Contents 14/10/2009 09:47

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OPINION 5


A suitablequote as alead in to

the editors

Achim ScharfPEE Editor

The fast progress in IGBT cell designs (planar, trench, enhancementlayers) and bulk technologies (Punch-Through PT, Non-Punch-Through NPT, Soft-Punch-Through SPT or Field Stop FS) whichstarted from a low current and low voltage origin has resulted in thedevice’s wide employment in many high voltage applications. Today,high power IGBT press-pack and insulated modules havevoltage/current ratings ranging from 1700V/3600A to 6500V/750A.The most recent low loss and high SOA (safe operating area)improvements for high voltage IGBTs were mainly due to theintroduction of the SPT or FS thinner silicon concepts, combinedwith advanced enhanced planar or trench emitter structures. Similaradvances were also achieved for the anti-parallel freewheeling diodeto match the continuously improving IGBT, said ABB’s MunafRahimo in his presentation on ‘High Voltage SemiconductorTechnologies’ at EPE 2009. Currently, it could appear that the development of high voltage

silicon power devices has reached a limit with regards to furtherreductions in the device total losses. The state-of-the-art SPT/FSstructures are close to the so-called ‘Silicon Design Limits’ from thethickness point of view, and the emitter plasma enhancement willonly provide smaller steps with fine optimisation of the IGBT celldesigns. In addition, the extremely robust modern IGBT designsalready provide the necessary SOA performance with adequatemargins. Hence, one can conclude that the possibility for achievingmajor leaps in increased power densities for silicon is becomingmore restricted. Although, increasing the device total areamonolithically or equally through device paralleling can provide thehigher power solution for some applications, this approach willremain selective due to its negative impact on the cost, size andcomplexity of the overall system. Therefore, the quest for moreadvance device concepts will remain as the trend continues for nextgeneration megawatt systems with increased efficiencies.Today, by carrying out a standard performance study of state-of-

the-art high power IGBT modules, one can clearly see that the mainlimiting factor in terms of maximum output current capability is thediode in both inverter and rectifier mode operation. In addition, thediode also presents another major restriction with regard to its surgecurrent capability. Both limits are clearly a result of the limited diodearea available in a given package footprint design which has a typicalIGBT to diode area ratio of around 2:1. This limit in the diodecurrent capability was fundamentally established after theintroduction of modern low-loss IGBT designs. This leads to the conclusion that the development effort must

target an improved diode performance to match at least the currentIGBT designs. In other words, there is currently no need forimproved switch generations for many VSI applications, unless thediode experiences a major revolution in terms of reduced lossesand thus, higher power capabilities. In order to increase the powerdensity of high voltage IGBT modules while also solving the reallimiting factors due to the diode performance, an IGBT and diodeintegration solution is needed, or what has been normally referredto as a Reverse Conducting RC-IGBT. The practical realisation of asingle-chip technology will provide an ideal solution for nextgeneration high voltage applications demanding compact systemswith higher power levels, which is proving to be beyond the

capability of the standard two-chip approach. Similar to powerMOSFETs, the traditional goal for a reverse conducting device havingan integral diode is to obtain higher power for a given footprintpackage area by eliminating the need for a separate anti-paralleldiode. Recent development efforts in the direction of solving theabove aspects have resulted in an advanced high voltage RC-IGBTconcept referred to as the Bi-mode Insulated Gate Transistor.Furthermore, there are continuous developments in Wide Band-

Gap (WBG) materials such as Silicon Carbide and Gallium Nitridefor power semiconductors, due to its ten-fold thinner base regionstructures having substantial loss reduction potentials and the highoperating temperature capability when compared to silicon. SiCSchottky diodes with voltage ratings of typically 600 and 1200V arecommercially available from various vendors such as Cree,Infineon/SiCED or ST Microelectronics and are used in differentkinds of converters, often together with Silicon transistors; thiscombination permits to significantly reduce switching losses, thus todownsize the transistors or to increase efficiency. At the 3rd ECPESiC Forum SiCED’s Peter Friedrichs pointed out that for the nearfuture a displacement of Silicon in power electronics is not visibletoday and thus, smart Si/SiC combinations will be promoted first.Japan is obviously on the forefront with research and industrialactivities, from crystal growth and wafer processing up to systemdesign, as illustrated by Hajime Okumura from the National Instituteof Advanced Industrial Science and technology (AIST). Rohm is oneof the first to offer trench SiC MOSFETs, a SiC-SBD/MOSFETcdombination and a SiC inverter circuit rated at 280kW(1200V/230A).Nevertheless, Silicon Carbide and Gallium Nitride will have to wait

for a breakthrough in higher power applications, though incrementalimprovements have been reported at EPE 2009 and the 3rd SiCForum (see also the following pages).Enjoy reading!

Achim ScharfPEE Editor

The IGBT Remains the Workhorse ofPower Electronics

p05 Opinion.qxd_p05 Opinion 14/10/2009 10:21

6 MARKET NEWS

Issue 7 2009 Power Electronics Europe

The market researcher now predictsglobal chip sales will decline by16.5% in 2009, compared to thepublicly announced forecastpreviously of a 23% drop. “Lack ofvisibility from the end market andthrough the electronics supply chainwas a major problem forsemiconductor suppliers in the firstquarter”, said analyst Dale Ford.“However, due to a stabilisingeconomic environment in thesecond quarter and improving supplychain visibility, semiconductorshipments rebounded as inventorieswere replenished and modestforward-looking purchases weremade. In the history of thesemiconductor industry, the markethas never had a cycle like this one.Semiconductor sales have alwaysbeen subject to a cyclical growthpattern that sees a move from a lowpoint, through one or more supply-chain balancing periods and then toan eventual peak in revenue.However, the most recent cycle,starting in February 2006, wasrobbed of its peak. Just as theindustry had achieved a balancedsupply chain and was starting tomove toward a peak, the globaleconomic crisis drove the industrydown“, Ford said.For the semiconductor industry,

this means a both a long and painfuldownturn. While revenue begangrowing on a sequential basis in thesecond quarter of 2009, sales willnot begin to increase on a year-to-year basis until May 2010. This

means the industry will endure 20months without year-over-yearrevenue growth, compared to the17-month downturn that the industryexperienced during the 2001-2002decline. While 2010 will bring areturn to growth in thesemiconductor industry with a 14%rise compared to 2009, the marketwon’t return to its 2007, pre-downturn level until 2012. Globalsemiconductor revenue will rise to$283 billion in 2012, compared to$273 billion in 2007.Revenue from sales of

semiconductors to the consumerelectronics industry is estimated tohave surged by 28% in the thirdquarter 2009 compared to thesecond. This was the biggest

increase of the largest-sizedapplication markets for chips. Chipsales to the smaller automotivesector grew by an even moreimpressive 30%, boosted by theCash for Clunkers program in theUnited States and stimulus efforts inChina.

Digital power market getscharged upIn contrast, having overcome

some fundamental hurdles, suppliersof digital power semiconductorshave aligned behind DigitalControllers of Power (DCPs), settingthe stage for a nearly sevenfold risein revenue by 2013. Global sales ofdigital power semiconductors are setto increase to $821 million in 2013,

up from $127 million in 2008. The digital power semiconductor

market consists of two types ofproducts: Digital Power Managers(DPMs) and DCPs. While DPMscurrently dominate the market,DCPs will experience more rapidgrowth in the coming years. Globalrevenue from shipments of DCPsare set to rise to $236 million in2013, up from just $16 million in2008. The biggest growth indemand for digital powersemiconductors will be driven byhigh-end servers, as well as datacomand telecom equipment. By the year2011, growth is expected to pick upin the lower-end compute marketssuch as notebook PCs and graphiccards. “Over the past five years, the

Visibility Improves for GlobalSemiconductor Market

iSuppli’s current forecast of global semiconductor revenue

iSuppli’s forecast of global power-management revenue for DCPs and DPMs

Strong second-quarter sequential growth along with improving supply chain visibility and semiconductordemand trends has prompted iSuppli to upgrade its forecast of 2009 chip sales.

p06-10 Market News.qxd_New Market News Template 14/10/2009 10:27

07_PEE_Is0709_07_PEE_Is0709 14/10/2009 12:13 Page 1

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Motor ControlMitsubishi, a leading manufacturer of Power Modules, offers avariety of products like IGBT Module, Intelligent Power Module(IPM), DIPCIB and DIPIPM for a wide range of Industrial MotorControl applications. Covering a drive range from 0.4 kW toseveral 100 kW, the RoHS compliant modules with the latest

chip and production technologies ensure the best efficiencyand the highest reliability. The easy to use features, compactsize and mechanical compatibility with previous generationsmake the offered products more attractive on the market.

08_PEE_Is0709_08_PEE_Is0709 14/10/2009 12:15 Page 1


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MARKET NEWS 9


digital power chip market has madeextraordinary advances”, commentedanalyst Marijana Vukicevic. “Theseinclude power-stage integration, themixing of digital circuitry with analogand the arrival of bus communicationcapabilities in the form of PMBusand I²C. All these developmentshave established the path for DCP”.DPMs are devices that use digital

information to manage the overallfunctioning of the power system andthe power supplies within it. WithDPMs, digital signals are used forcommunication to and from the

power supplies, in order to monitorand manage a number of tasks,including power-up, sequencing, loadsharing and balancing, faultconditions, hot-swapping andmaintenance issues. DCPs arecontrollers that use digital techniquesto control the power-switchingfunctions within a power supply unit.In its most theoretical form, thismeans performing the analog-to-digital conversion as early as possible,so that all feedback and controlfunctions in the supply are processedin the digital domain.

Some major players in thesemiconductor industry are jockeyingfor position in the DCP market via theacquisition and purchase of assets.Infineon Technologies in 2008purchased Primarion, which offersDCP products. Also in 2008, Exarpurchased Fyrestorm IP related toDCP. In the same year, Intersilacquired Zilker Labs, which offersDCP products as well. In early 2009,Texas Instruments acquired CICLONSemiconductor Device, which offers afast and efficient power MOSFETproduct line that could be integrated

with TI’s DCP products and improvesystem efficiency tremendously. Inother developments, LinearTechnology, Infineon, TexasInstruments and Powervationlicensed Power-One’s digital powerpatents, which relate to digital powertechnology for use in DCP products.Power-One’s position in DCP wassolidified by its patent litigation victoryover Emerson Network Power in thearea of systems-level communicationin point-of-load applications.

www.isuppli.com

New Power ElectronicseCommerce PortalThe B2B eCommerce Portal ofSindoPower, a holding companyof the SEMIKRON Group, wentlive in September 2009. Theunique feature of this portal isthe comprehensivetechnological support serviceand information pool throughtechnology chatroom andforum, E-mail and telephoneservice. This provides users withpersonal online and telephonesupport in all matters relatingto power electronics.The SindoPower range boasts

very good stock availability forIGBT modules, diode/thyristormodules, bridge rectifiers, CIBmodules, as well as for discretediodes and thyristors. Specialtypes and modules of lowerdemand are available on request.Orders may also be split uponline for delivery at differenttimes to enable customers tobenefit from scaled discounts.

“We are undertaking to meet thetypical challenges that arise inrelation to purchasing demandsand inquiries”, states Dr. WalterDemmelhuber, CEO ofSindoPower. “The slogan ‘Powerelectronics in the web’ is notintended to simply reflect thepresence of power electronicson the internet, but is alsohoped to set new standards inB2B order procedures, access toinformation and usernetworking. We analyse thecontents of customer inquiriesregularly and put the answers tofrequently asked questionsonline”. SindoPower also offers a

number of additional services,such as express shipping, faxorder placement, electronicinvoicing, online consignmenttracking and connection to anEDI interface. In the future,presentations and web

seminars containing audiorecordings on a variety of topicsrelating to power electronicswill also be available. Toregister, all users have to do iscomplete the online registrationform. Products can be easilyfound, either using the full-textsearch option with name,

number or productabbreviation, via the search bycategory feature or parametersearch mask (search by current,voltage, topology and design) orby performing a thermalsimulation.

www.sindopower.com

UPS Market Grows Modestly in Second QuarterThe global market for uninterruptiblepower supply hardware (UPS) grewby just 5% in Q2 from the previousquarter according to IMS Research’slatest analysis of the market. Thesmall quarterly increase highlights theUPS market’s turmoil, and meansthat year-on-year revenues in 2Q09plummeted over 25% from therecord levels seen in early 2008.However, this humble sequential

growth is in contrast to 1Q09 whenrevenues sank by over 20% from4Q08. “Historically, the UPS markethas exhibited seasonal behaviourwith the second half of the yearoutperforming the first”, commentedanalyst Jason dePreaux. “Thoughthis pattern looks to continue for therest of 2009, the market has a deephole to climb out of”. IMS Researchprojects that the global UPS market

will be down nearly 20% in 2009,followed by a slow recovery due toweakened demand for IT hardwareand the long project lead times ofthree-phase systems. In spite of thesequential market increase, theworld UPS market lost nearly $1billion in the first-half of this yearcompared to the first-half of 2008,with all regions and powersegments performing poorly. Sub-

100kVA UPS is forecast to recoverearly in 2010, followed later in theyear by higher power segments.Greatest long-term growth ispredicted for >100kVA UPS, as out-sourced commercial computingdrives the need for robust andreliable back-up power solutions atlarge facilities.

www.imsresearch.com


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10 MARKET NEWS


Teaming in (Hybrid) Electric VehiclesItaly-based Magneti Marelli andSTMicroelectronics have signeda memorandum ofunderstanding that lays thefoundations for an agreement inthe sector of power electronicsmodules and components forenergy conversion electronicsystems (inverter) to be fitted onhybrid and electric vehicles. The future agreement is

geared towards extending tomass-produced vehicles theexisting collaboration betweenMagneti Marelli andSTMicroelectronics in Formula 1,with regards to the energyconversion system (inverter) forthe KERS (Kinetic EnergyRecovery System) used inFormula 1 racing. The goal is todevelop and produce inverters

for hybrid and electricengines in mass-producedvehicles that combine highperformance with low costand compact size. “In theperspective of building a strongposition as supplier ofstrategic components andsystems for hybrid and electricengines, this memorandum ofunderstanding paves the way

toward a second crucial piece ofour offer, after our recentagreement with FAAMconcerning lithium tractionbatteries“, stated CEOEugenio Razelli. MagnetiMarelli's is part of the FiatGroup,its turnover was 5.4billion Euros in 2008.

www.magnetimarelli.com

Microsemi Helps Power Belgian Bid toWin Solar Challenge

Nanocrystalline Chokes in Record-breaking Solar Inverter

Microsemi acts as sponsor of theUmicore Belgian Solar Team in thetenth World Solar Challenge event inAustralia from 24to 31 October 2009.Participants will compete on a 3000-kilometer course from Darwin toAdelaide, in cars fueled only by solarenergy.A bronze-level sponsor of the

Umicore Belgian team, Microsemi wasselected to provide critical solar bypassdiodes for power-generation panels inthe team’s car, an application notunlike how the company’s products areused in satellite solar panels. Thebypass diodes are part of energy-management products for applicationsin alternative energy, oil and gasexploration, electric vehicles, energysaving (including intelligent lightingcontrol), and plasma generation forsemiconductor, solar cell, LCD panel,

and industrial glass manufacturing. Inaddition to its bypass diodes forsatellite solar panels, Microsemi alsooffers a variety of other solar products,including bypass integrated circuits andpower modules for solar inverters.“Microsemi is pleased to be supportingthe Belgian Solar Vehicle Team in itsbid to better its impressive secondplace finish in the 2007championships”, said Bertho Simons,director of Microsemi’s European solarprogram. “We share the team’s goal ofdemonstrating innovation excellencewhile raising energy awareness, andwe appreciate this opportunity tohighlight our commitment to deliveringhigh-quality, high-performance solarand other energy products andtechnologies for a cleaner, greenerworld”.The biennial World Solar Challenge is

part of the Global Green Challenge,which is an evolution of the historic andvery successful World Solar Challengethat has been staged since 1987. TheGlobal Green Challenge combines thetechnical brilliance of the Solar Carswith the practical results of lowemission vehicles destined to themarketplace and individually testedagainst the harshness of the Australian

Environment. In recent years the eventhas featured a demonstration ofpractical technology. The practicaltechnologies aspect has come of ageand will be presented as a competitionwith measurable results as an EcoChallenge for a range of low emissionand alternative fuel supply vehicles.

www.globalgreenchallenge.com.au

The German Fraunhofer Institute forSolar Energy Systems (ISE) hasestablished a new world record for theefficiency of inverters in photovoltaicsystems, a remarkable 99.03% (seePEE 6/2009, page 12-13). Losseshave been slashed by one thirdcompared to their previous best result,by employing SiC components andimproved circuit technology. One ofthe new components helping them toachieve this comes from VAC’scommon mode filter chokes. Thanks to the high permeability of

VITROPERM 500F, the nanocrystalline

material used for the choke cores, onlya very low number of turns is requiredto achieve the required filtercharacteristics. Because of this, thewire diameter can be increased for apredefined construction volume, thusreducing the resistive copper losses ofthe choke and improving the overallsystem efficiency. In comparison toconventional materials for chokes, thiscore material generally enables theoverall volume of the choke to bereduced or, for a given volume, thecross-sectional area of the windings tobe increased for maximum efficiency,

as demonstrated by the inverterdesign. The material is mainlycomposed of inexpensive iron (Fecontent about 75%), thus the chokesare less susceptible to the significantfluctuations in raw material price ofother common metals such as copperand nickel as have been recently seen. Other benefits of nanocrystalline

common mode chokes are theirbroadband damping properties, thanksto the optimum blend of high materialpermeability in the low-frequencyrange and a low winding capacitancefor good high frequency properties.

Thanks to these properties, in manycases, the value of EMI filter capacitorscan be reduced or which may reducethe number of passive componentsnecessary. In other cases, it is evenpossible to reduce two stage filters tosingle stage designs. Another majoradvantage of VITROPERM commonmode chokes is the virtuallytemperature-independent performanceup to 150°C and beyond, assuringstable filter characteristics in highambient temperature applications.

www.vacuumschmelze.com


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High voltage semiconductor devicescontinue to play a major role inmodern megawatt power systems,especially in the fields of traction,transmission and distribution (T&D)and industrial applications. The maindevelopment trend of power deviceshas always been focused onincreasing the powerratings, whileimproving the overall deviceperformance in terms of reducedlosses, increased robustness, bettercontrollability and reliable behaviourunder normal and fault conditions.ABB’s Munaf Rahimo introducedsome recent device developmentsand future trends to illustrate what canbe expected in the coming years fromthe power device performanceviewpoint.

IGCTs and IGBTsModern high power systems in

the megawatt range such as traction,transmission and distribution (T&D)and industrial drives continue to seekimprovements at the powersemiconductor device level. Despitethe fact that a wide range of highvoltage devices with attractiveelectrical characteristics exist, higherpower and superior overallperformance remain as the maintargets for satisfying the demands of

new high power system designs.In the megawatt range, three types

of switching devices are dominant;the Phase Controlled Thyrsitor (PCT),the Integrated Gate CommutatedThyristor (IGCT) and the InsulatedGate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT). Onemust also not forget the companionFast Recovery Diode (FRD)

employed in such applications as asnubber and/or freewheeling rectifier.The PCT has been the main power

semiconductor for High-Voltage-Direct-Current (HVDC) classicsystems due to its exceptional low on-state losses and very high powerhandling capability. With an increaseddemand for even higher power

ratings, larger area 150mm PCTs(125mm being state-of-the-art) withrating up to 8.5kV and 4000A weredeveloped for employment in thelatest Ultra HVDC systems with thetotal transmission power exceeding7GW. Nevertheless, due to the betteravailability of asymmetric powersemiconductors compared to

Progress in High and MediumPower Semiconductors

EPE Chairmen Prof. Enrique Dede (right) and Prof. Juan Peracaula were proud to announce the yet most successful EPE Conference Photo: AS

EPE 2009 11

EPE 2009 from September 8-10 in Barcelona attracted around 1000 delegates, making it the largest PowerElectronics Conference in Europe. In our first EPE report (see PEE 6/2009, pages 12-13) we focused onthe keynotes covering SiC and PV inverters. The second report illustrates the progress in high and mediumpower semiconductors over recent years.

TOSHIBA’S COMPACT SUPER JUNCTIONPOWER MOSFETS - LOWEST RDS(ON) x QgAND RUGGED CHIPSToshiba’s innovative new family of DTMOS II power MOSFETs are now available not only witha maximum VDSS rating of 600V but also with 650V. The range makes your solutions moreefficient, thanks to faster switching speed, linked with lowest RDS(ON) x Q(g) performance.

Our compact smart isolation TO220SIS package combined with the copper connectortechnology, have made the new Toshiba DTMOS II MOSFETs hard to resist. And, if youneed higher power, our TO-3P(N) package are available too.

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12 EPE 2009


symmetrical devices, the VSI-topology(Voltage Source Inverter) has achieveda dominant position in the field offrequency conversion in many highpower applications including HVDC inthe lower power range (<1GW). Inaddition, to achieve the requiredcontrol levels in such applications,turn-off devices are almost mandatoryand the choice available today isbetween the IGCT and the IGBT.Since its introduction in the mid

1990s, the IGCT has establisheditself as the device of choice forMedium Voltage Drives (MVD),mainly for industrial applications, andhas also been used in many othersystems such as wind-powerconversion, STATCOMs, and intertiesto name a few. Due to theintegration with a low inductive gateunit, this GTO-based device conductslike a thyristor (i.e low on-statelosses) and turns off like a transistor(i.e. hard switching). Compared withthe GTO, the IGCT concept allows forthe commutation of high currentswithout the need of snubbers, thussimplifying the circuit compared witha GTO-solution significantly. The IGCTis available as asymmetric andreverse conducting devices wherethe latter has an integrated free-wheel diode, having been optimisedfor VSI applications. Today, IGCTshave voltage ratings ranging from 4.5up to 6.5kV for enabling three-levelVSI inverters beyond 4.16 kV. Therecently introduced High PowerTechnology HPT-IGCT gives anincrease in the IGCT-SOA (SafeOperating Area) of up to 50%, thusproviding new perspectives forcontrol and fault handling, comparedto the standard devices.A wide range of IGBT products

continue to provide megawattapplications such as traction, industrialdrives and transmission anddistribution with optimum componentswhich have enabled a clear leap inpower levels with each improvedgeneration. The IGBT, with its inherentadvantages including a controlled lowpower driving requirement and short-circuit self-limiting capability, hasexperienced many performancebreakthroughs in the past two decades.The fast progress in IGBT cell designs

(planar, trench, enhancement layers)and bulk technologies (Punch-ThroughPT, Non-Punch-Through NPT, Soft-Punch-Through SPT or Field Stop FS),which started from a low current andlow voltage origin, has resulted in thedevice’s wide employment in many

high voltage applications. Today, highpower IGBT press-pack and insulatedmodules have voltage/current ratingsranging from 1700V/3600A to6500V/750A. The most recent low lossand high SOA improvements for highvoltage IGBTs were mainly due to theintroduction of the SPT or FS thinnersilicon concepts, combined withadvanced enhanced planar or trenchemitter structures. Similar advanceswere also achieved for the anti-parallelfreewheeling diode to match thecontinuously improving IGBT.Currently, it could appear that the

development of high voltage siliconpower devices has reached a limitwith regards to further reductions inthe device total losses. The state-of-the-art SPT/FS structures are closeto the so-called ‘Silicon DesignLimits’ from the thickness point ofview, and the emitter plasmaenhancement will only providesmaller steps with fine optimisationof the IGBT cell designs. In addition,the extremely robust modern IGBTdesigns already provide thenecessary SOA performance withadequate margins. Hence, one canconclude that the possibility forachieving major leaps in increasedpower densities for silicon isbecoming more restricted. Although,increasing the device total areamonolithically or equally throughdevice paralleling can provide thehigher power solution for someapplications, this approach willremain selective due to its negativeimpact on the cost, size andcomplexity of the overall system.Therefore, the quest for moreadvance device concepts will remain as the trend continues fornext generation megawatt systems

with increased efficiencies.The assumed technological barrier

or silicon limit has led to the recenttrend towards increased operatingtemperatures compared to thetraditional 125°C maximum junctiontemperatures operation limit. The lowlosses and high SOA of modernIGBTs and diodes has enabled thisstep to be taken while also focusingon reduced leakage currents andimproved package reliability as themajor limiting factors. An increase ofaround 10 to 15% in total outputcurrent capability can be predictedwith this approach. Today, by carrying out a standard

performance study of state-of-the-arthigh power IGBT modules, one canclearly see that the main limitingfactor in terms of maximum outputcurrent capability (i.e. power density)is the diode in both inverter andrectifier mode operation. In addition,the diode also presents anothermajor restriction with regard to itssurge current capability. Both limitsare clearly a result of the limiteddiode area available in a givenpackage footprint design which has atypical IGBT to diode area ratio ofaround 2:1. This limit in the diodecurrent capability was fundamentallyestablished after the introduction ofmodern low-loss IGBT designs. This leads to the conclusion that

the development effort must targetan improved diode performance tomatch at least the current IGBTdesigns. In other words, there iscurrently no need for improvedswitch generations for many VSIapplications, unless the diodeexperiences a major revolution interms of reduced losses and thus,higher power capabilities.

Using the internal diodeIn order to increase the power

density of high voltage IGBTmodules, while also solving the reallimiting factors due to the diodeperformance, an IGBT and diodeintegration solution is needed, orwhat has been normally referred toas a Reverse Conducting RC-IGBT.The practical realisation of a single-chip technology will provide an idealsolution for next generation highvoltage applications demandingcompact systems with higher powerlevels, which is proving to bebeyond the capability of thestandard two-chip approach. Similarto power MOSFETs, the traditionalgoal for a reverse conducting devicehaving an integral diode is to obtainhigher power for a given footprintpackage area by eliminating theneed for a separate anti-paralleldiode. Recent development effortsin the direction of solving the aboveaspects have resulted in anadvanced high voltage RC-IGBTconcept referred to as the Bi-modeInsulated Gate Transistor (BIGT, seealso PEE 5/2009, pages 28-30).The BIGT exhibits low losses in both

modes of operation with, no typicalsnap-back behaviour in the transistoron-state mode when compared to astandard RC-IGBT, while alsomaintaining high levels of SOAperformance. In addition, the BIGToffers a number of device performanceadvantages such a soft switchingbehaviour under extreme conditionsand better diode mode surge currentcapability. The initial BIGT technologydemonstrators were mainly developedfor high voltage devices rated at3300V. High current 3.3kV BIGTHiPak1 modules were then fabricated

ABB’s BIGTcombines an IGBTand freewheelingdiode on one chip


EPE 2009 13


and tested under conditions similar to those applied tostate-of-the-art IGBT modules. The BIGT module contained24 BIGT chips for the estimated current rating of 1500A.This module can practically replace a similarly rated largerHiPak2 module which normally contains 24 IGBTs and 12diodes.Furthermore, there are continuous developments in

Wide Band-Gap (WBG) materials such as SiC and GaNfor power semiconductors, due to its ten-fold thinnerbase region structures having substantial loss reductionpotentials and the high operating temperaturecapability when compared to silicon. With the clearprogress achieved for ultra-fast unipolar power diodesrated up to 1700V and the many switch conceptsdemonstrated recently, WBG power devices are nowbeing regarded as the next major performance leap.Nevertheless, the current cost of such devices andsome technological and performance aspects yet to befully resolved, especially for higher voltage/currentdevices, will continue to seriously delay the introductionof WBG components in megawatt applications. This,while also taking into account that silicon powerdevices, could still provide another major breakthroughin performance.

SiC MOSFETs aheadCree’s Anant Agarwal described and compared the

characteristics of Silicon Carbide, 1200V/20A MOSFETsfrom a user’s perspective with Si 900V Super JunctionMOSFET (SJMOSFET), Si 1200V MOSFET and IGBTs. Theadvantages of SiC MOSFETs are their lower turn-offlosses, lower conduction losses and lower gate charge(see also ‘Pros and Cons for Silicon Carbide MOSFETs,JFETs and BJTs’, PEE 5/2009, pages 19-22). However,they have low output impedance, low transconductanceand low threshold voltage. These factors should be takeninto account when designing the gate drive and faultdetection circuits. The use of the internal body diode isnot recommended for SiC MOSFETs, due to its highvoltage drop and therefore, an external SiC Schottky diodeis recommended. The absence of turn-off current tailresults in voltage overshoot and ringing and therefore,careful minimisation of parasitics in the gate drive andload circuits is required.The SiC MOSFET has unique capabilities that make it a

superior switch when compared to its siliconcounterparts. However, there are some unique operatingcharacteristics that need to be understood so that thedevice can be used to its full potential.In typical silicon (Si) vertical MOSFETs, the total on-

resistance of the device is the sum of the MOSFET channel,JFET region, and drift region. As the voltage rating of thedevice increases, the overall on-resistance of the siliconMOSFET becomes dominated by the drift region resistance.Therefore, the variation in on-resistance with temperature isdominated by the drift region resistance, resulting in thecustomary doubling of on-resistance from room tomaximum junction temperature. The transconductance ofthe silicon MOSFET is usually quite high.In a SiC MOSFET, the order of magnitude higher

breakdown field of silicon carbide over with silicon affords amuch thinner drift region and higher doping for a givenvoltage rating. This minimises the resistance of the driftregion. The net result is that for SiC 1.2kV MOSFETs, thetotal device on-resistance is not dominated by the drift layerresistance. Hence, the variation of on-resistance with

temperature is determined by a combination ofthe MOSFET channel and drift/JFFET regions. Theresistance of the MOSFET channel and drift/JFETregions tend to cancel over temperature, resultingin much reduced temperature dependence of thetotal on-resistance of the SiC MOSSFET. Lastly, thechannel mobility of the SiC MOSFEET is not ashigh as the silicon MOSFET. Therefore, a shorterchannel length is required to maximisetransconductance.The modest transconductance and short-

channel effects are important to consider whenusing the device. First, the lowtransconductance illustrates the need for a high

amount of gate drive voltage. Second, therather large triode region will have impacts oncertain types of fault detection schemes, chieflythe active de-saturation circuits. Some of thesedesigns assume that the switching deviceenters a fairly high impedance constant currentand/or transconductance saturation regionduring over-current faults. A usual method of detecting an over-currrent

is to coordinate the switch gate drive andtransconductance characteristics, so that theswitch enters a constant current mode whenthis type of fault occurs. This causes the switchvoltage to rise quickly when the fault occurs,


14 EPE 2009


providing a very robust and easy todetect signal to trip the active de-saturation detector. In the SiCMOSFET case, the outputimmpedance is lower and the devicedoes not go into a clean constantcurrent region during this type ofover-current fault, especially undermoderate over-currents. Therefore,the drain to source voltage will notincrease as much. Thesecharacteristics of the SiC MOSFETneed to be carefully considered infault protection schemes.

In summary: The modesttransconductance along with thelow threshold voltage require highergate voltage with fast rise and falltimes. Fidelity of the gate signalneeds to be carefully managed toprevent unintentional turn-on orturn-off. This needs to be carefullyconsidered when attempting toreplace a Si switch with a SiCMOSFET in an existing system. Thelower gate charge mitigates theeffects of higher gate swing,resulting in low gate drive powerrequirements. The turn-off voltageovershoot and ringing are morepronounced when compared to anIGBT, due to the lack of a currenttail. Careful management of gatedrive and load parasitics arerequired. The anti-parallel diode hasa 2.5 to 2.7V forward voltage, but asubstantially lower reverse recoverycharge when compared to a SiSJMOSFET. Use of this diode is notrecommended due to its highforward drop. An external SiC JBSdiode is suggested. Selection of theanti-parallel SiC JBS diode must becarefully done to ensure that thebody diode does not conduct. SiCMOSFETs have passed preliminaryreliability tests and thus, will becommercially available soon.

Progress in SuperjunctionMOSFETs

Infineon’s Holger Kapels illustratedthe progress in Superjunction MOSdevices – from device developmenttowards system optimisation. Sincetheir market introduction in 1998,Superjunction devices haveconquered a steadily rising portion ofthe market for high-voltage MOSFETssuch as computer and telecompower supplies, lighting, consumerapplications and some industrialareas as photovoltaic converters.

The C6 series is Infineon’s fifthCoolMOS generation of MOSFETs.With the predecessor CoolMOS C3

and CoolMOS CP series, thecompany has continuously increasedthe switching speed and reduced theon-resistance. While the CoolMOS C3devices are quite universal, the CPfamily addresses dedicatedapplications requiring highestswitching speed and lowest on-resistance related to the package.

Superjunction devices are enablingvery fast switching performance anddriving the market, especially inapplications where efficiency andpower densities are keyrequirements. Two main technologyconcepts – multiple EPI layers andtrench filling – are known. Over theyears, a continuous reduction of thearea specific on-resistance can beobserved, leading to smaller devicecapacitances and inherent increasingswitching speed. To widen the marketposition, even in applications wherefast switching transients are critical, asystematic approach is necessary tofind an optimum trade-off betweenEMI and efficiency requirements.

For many years, the competition inthis range of devices was mainlymarked by the goal of achieving thelowest on-resistance per silicon area.By the continuous reduction of thisarea-specific on-resistance, theswitching speed increased due to theaccompanying reduction of all devicecapacitances, but as consequence,the design-in difficulties increased. In

today’s switched mode powersupplies, the switching speed ofpower semiconductors is no longerthe limiting factor to achieving betterefficiencies and more compactdesigns. Moreover, the switchingMOSFET has to be regarded as a partof the overall system and not beoptimised for itself only. It is,therefore, a challenge to thesemiconductor industry to providesolutions which allow the utilisationof the full chip shrink and hence, costdown potential together with fullcontrol of the switchingcharacteristics.

By optimising all relevant deviceparameters such as gate charge,threshold voltage, transfercharacteristic and gate resistivity, it ispossible to optimise the switchingbehaviour in such a way that evenwith 0Ω gate resistance excessivecurrent or voltage slopes are avoided.Doing so, the potential of SJ devicesto even better area specific on-stateresistance can be fully exploitedwithout losing control of the deviceduring critical switching transitions.The new CoolMOS C6 family isdesigned in this manner, combiningease-of-use and high applicationefficiency.

With the 600V CoolMOS C6series, energy conversionapplications such as PFC (PowerFactor Correction) or PWM (Pulse

Width Modulation) stages can bemade significantly more energyefficient. The new C6 technologycombines the advantages of modernsuperjunction or compensationdevices including ultra-low areaspecific on-resistance (for example,only 99mΩ in a TO-220 package),and reduced capacitive switchinglosses, while offering easy control ofthe switching behaviour, as well ashigh body diode ruggedness.

To verify the system efficiency andthe reduced tendency towardscurrent and voltage oscillations, thenew SJ device family was tested in a300W power factor correction (PFC)circuit and in parallel in acommercially available 500W PCSilver box. The 300W PFC circuit isswitching at 130kHz and alwaysdriven in continuous current mode.Three different 600V 190mΩSuperjunction devices are used forcomparison. Especially at 20 and50% load, the C6 device shows anefficiency improvement compared toother SJ devices. This light loadefficiency gain supports the usage ofthe C6 family in new circuit designsto comply with the new green powerefficiency standards.

www.epe2009.comwww.abb.com/semiconductorswww.cree.comwww.infineon.com

Infineon’s new Superjunction MOSFET generation competes with SiC MOSFETs


http://www.epe2009.com

http://www.abb.com/semiconductors

http://www.cree.com

http://www.infineon.com

Starting at the beginning of thesupply chain, the SiC materialsituation is no longer a concern:while cost has decreased overthe course of time, wafer qualityhas increased, permittingdevices to be produced with anarea of some 25mm² at75/100mm diameter wafers withappropriate yield. This is suitablefor a nominal power in theKilowatt range and can beextended by parallel connectionof devices.According to Cree’s Marketing

Manager Gregory Mills, asignificant downward cost trendon unit area basis can beobserved, i.e. current Schottky-like EPI wafers cost $15/cm².Three years ago, pricing was$25/cm² and eight years, ago40/cm², a 60% decrease. Andthis trend will continue with theintroduction of 150mm wafers inthe year 2011 at $5/cm². SiC

epitaxial capability will bedeveloped simultaneously.Regarding defect density, yieldon wafer level improvescontinously and reaches 98% for2mm² chips such as diodes.Larger chips of 8.1 x 8.1mm for a10kV/10A SiC MOSFET have a88% yield. Nevertheless, SiCstarting material is around tentimes more expensive thanSilicon. Schottky diodes with voltage

ratings of typically 600 and1200V are commerciallyavailable from various vendorssuch as Cree, Infineon/SiCED, orST Microelectronics, and areused in different kinds ofconverters, often together withSilicon transistors; thiscombination permits significantreduction of switching losses,thus to downsize the transistorsor to increase efficiency. SiCED’sPeter Friedrichs pointed out that

the solderless method withoptimised leadframe, highercurrent density and multichipmounting option, efficientlyutilises the high thermalconductivity of SiC in Infineon’s3rd generation of SiC diodes(see also PEE 3/2009, pages 24-27). SiCED is also working on6.5kV SiC switches, but for thenear future, a displacement ofSilicon in power electronics isnot yet visible today and thus,smart Si/SiC combinations willbe promoted first.SiC transistors are currently

sampled as JFETs, MOSFETs orBJTs, typically with voltageratings of 1200V or above: JFETsare quite mature unipolardevices; normally-on JFETs,however, require some measure— like a cascode circuit — toavoid short-circuit during power-up in voltage source converters.Alternatively, MOSFETs can be

used as unipolar SiC switches,also providing a significantlylower on-state resistance thancomparable high-voltage Silicondevices; conduction of bipolarbody diode can be deactivatedconnecting a SiC Schottky diodeantiparallel. Although channelmobility and oxide stability stilllead to some concern, SiCMOSFETs have already proven topass at least most reliabilitytests. Bipolar junction transistors

can serve as an alternative,requiring current-source insteadof voltage-source drivers.Devices for higher voltageratings — including bipolar pin-diodes for blocking voltagesabove 4500V — have been builtand tested in specialapplications, proving theirfeasability. However, obviouslythe high-power segment suffersfrom a kind of chicken and egg

On the Road to Higher Efficiency

Characteristics of 10kV/10A SiC MOSFETSource: Cree

ECPE SIC FORUM 2009 15


After the Silicon Carbide User Forums organised by ECPE in 2006 and 2007, the time hadcome to continue the exchange between experts involved in converter and device development. Thethird User Forum (September 11-12, Barcelona, Spain) also considered other wide bandgap devices forthe first time, in particular Gallium Nitride (GaN). Again, it has focused on typical power electronicsystems. The use of wide bandgap is highly promising for electric drives, converters in transportation andpower supplies. Additionally, an insight in recent material and device technology, which is the base forfuture system development, has been given.

p15-16 SiC Forum Report.qxd_New Market News Template 14/10/2009 10:45

16 ECPE SIC FORUM 2009


problem: system manufacturerswould need to calculate the billof materials of a novel systemwith SiC converter; howeverextrapolation of high-voltagedevice cost today will still end upwith quite inaccurate numbers. Itis obviously easier to takeevolutionary steps, graduallyincreasing device voltage andcurrent capability.

GaN devices will always be oflateral type which facilitatesintegration. According toAzzuro’s Armin Dagda, GaN is acompetitor to SiC and can bemuch cheaper in the end. A100mm GaN on Sapphire wafercosts $500 compared to $800 fora 100mm SiC wafer. Limitationsare the lateral structuresallowing 3µm deep trenchesonly. Conventional and cost-effective processing is e.g.possible on Silicon wafers. Thefirst power devices — such as600V diodes — have beenintroduced already by Ulm-based(Germany) MicroGaN.

The aforementionedcomponents and samples arestill packaged in a conventionalway, i.e., as modules, transfermoulded discretes or, in somecases, with hermetic packages.Research aims at progressregarding parasitics — ofparticular importance withrespect to fast switching ofunipolar devices — and alsoreliability when elevatedtemperature is applied.

Japan is obviously at theforefront with research andindustrial activities, from crystalgrowth and wafer processing upto system design, as illustrated byHajime Okumura from theNational Institute of AdvancedIndustrial Science and technology(AIST). Within AIST, around 50research units are working onwide bandgap electronics. SiCwafer companies such as NipponSteel and Showa Denko offer upto 4in wafers, whereas Rohm isone of the first to offer trench SiCMOSFETs and a SiC-SBD/MOSFETand a SiC inverter circuit 280kW

(1200V/230A). Mitsubishi hasalso introduced a SiC invertercircuit.

Generally speaking, theavailability of wide bandgapdevices has not set an end to theart of circuit design — still, thephilosophy of circuit designersmay be to follow differentapproaches: The most simplesolution can be preferred, butalso a technically more complexcircuit eventually reducing cost.The former, in many cases,happens when SiC Schottkydiodes replace bipolar Silicondiodes such as in power supplies

with high switching frequency;however — as an example for thelatter — some snubber circuittogether with a reduced switchingfrequency may be a workaroundtoo. Obviously, well-establishedSilicon- competes with emergingSiC- and, in the future, GaN-technology. In the case that thefunctions of active and passiveswitch can be decoupled, often acoexistence will be the optimum,combining a Silicon transistor —such as a charge-compensatedMOSFET — with a wide bandgap— i.e., SiC — diode.

While this is already cost-effective for many applications,special requirements enablemore comprehensive use of widebandgap devices: SiC devicespermit an up to now unrivalledefficiency of more than 99% tobe achieved for photovoltaicinverters; increased device costwill pay back rather soonthrough the compensation forelectricity fed into the grid. Forthis reason, converters forrenewable energy can beexpected to contribute to thecontinuous introduction of widebandgap devices in powerelectronics. Other applicationareas — possibly also related tohigh voltage or high temperature— may follow in the future.

www.ecpe.org

Characteristics of 600V GaN Schottky Barrier Diode Source: MicroGaN

Research activities in Japan from crystal growth to power converter design Source: AIST

p15-16 SiC Forum Report.qxd_New Market News Template 14/10/2009 10:45

http://www.ecpe.org

Parameter Sensing in PowerElectronic ModulesModern inverter applications and electrical drive control algorithms depend on accurate measurementsregarding key parameters. For the application and the inverter two parameters are of special interest. Theline current driving the application and the power module’s temperature provide the necessary informationon the state of operation. New power modules like Infineon’s MIPAQ family integrate proper sensors, aswell as adapted electronics, to provide highly accurate readings and ease the design and improvement ofcompact high performance drives. Dr. Martin Schulz, Dr. Ulrich Schwarzer, Infineon Technologies,Warstein, Germany

As a voltage across a resistor isproportional to the current flowing,utilising resistors as current sensors isamong the most basic ideas to measureelectric currents. Despite the losses thatinherently appear, the method has acertain appeal as shunts as a single partare reliable, stable across a widetemperature range, costefficient androbust. Shunts do not suffer fromovercurrents and have neither hysteresisnor offset effects. Additionally, shunts canbe mounted using well- establishedprocesses. Positioning the shunt closer tothe heatsink and into the power electronicmodule provides an excellent thermalinterface, and even allows for largecurrents to be handled. Infineon’s MIPAQbase series features specially designedshunts to precisely measure theapplication current. Figure 1 displays theoutstanding linearity of these sensors onthe example of moduleIFS150B12N3T4_B31.

Though other methods of capturing the

current exist, dimensions, EMI andtemperature development inside thedemanding environment of a powermodule make shunts the predestinedsolution for the integration. It was shownthat other methods like on-chip currentsensing using specially designed IGBT chips

cannot provide an equally sophisticatedmeasurement [1].

Current measurementIt seems to be a small step from current

sensing to current measurement. In detailhowever, current and temperature range as

Figure 1: Measured voltage across a 1mΩ Shunt with in the MIPAQ base

Figure 2: MIPAQ sense featuring a 100A sixpack, shunts and integrated Σ/Δ-Converter

www.infineon.com POWER MODULES 17


p17-18 Feature Infineon.qxd_Layout 1 14/10/2009 10:50


well as accuracy demands and the needfor galvanic isolation are challengingtargets. To minimise part numbers andspace requirements, Infineon hasexpanded the coreless transformertechnology (CLT) to form an analog todigital converter based on the wellestablished Sigma/Delta (/) method.This converter achieves an accuratereading and, at the same time, providesgalvanic isolation. Built into the MIPAQsense as displayed in Figure 2, this devicein conjunction with the also integratedshunts can be used to form a highlyaccurate measurement system. As the /-converter forms an

integrating method, a decimator is neededto get the information on the instantaneouscurrent. If a common sinc³-decimator withvarying oversampling rate (OSR) isprogrammed into a FPGA, the trade-offbetween speed and accuracy can bedemonstrated [2]. Comparing this costefficient solution with a Pearson currentprobe reveals the potential of this set-up asdepicted in Figure 3.With an oversampling rate of OSR = 16,

a result with 14bit of resolution is achieved,showing only marginal differencescompared to the Pearson probe. As theresult of the decimator already is digitalinformation, no further conversion isnecessary to apply it to a microcontroller forcontrol purpose.

Temperature measurementThe baseplate’s temperature as a further

parameter is sensed in a variety of powerelectronic modules. Materials with welldefined thermal dependencies are widelyused as a temperature sensor. Modernpower modules contain a resistor with

negative temperature coefficient (NTC) tocapture the baseplate’s temperature.As the NTC is a passive component,

additional electronics is needed totransform the NTC’s temperaturedepending resistance into a signal that canbe used by a microcontroller. One methodto do so would be to apply a constantcurrent to the NTC and capture thevoltage across the device. As theresistance is a function of temperature,the voltage at constant current resemblesthe same characteristics. As for the currentmeasurement, digital information wouldbe the preferred solution. Theimplementation within the MIPAQ servemodules therefore transforms thetemperature dependency RNTC(T) into atemperature dependent frequency f(T).Here too, the isolation barrier formed byCLT is used to provide a signal that isgalvanically separated from the powerelectronic section. Simply counting pulsesfor a predetermined time is sufficient to

get an accurate reading of the baseplate’stemperature. Due to the large thermalcapacitances involved, the time taken forthe conversion is of secondaryimportance. Counting pulses for 50ms oreven 100ms leads to proper information,as displayed in Figure 4.As a consequence of the NTC’s

characteristics, the relationship betweenpulses and temperature is not perfectlylinear. Nevertheless, an approximationeither piecewise linear polygonal or ofhigher order will provide a temperatureinformation with an accuracy of ±1K.

The trend in developmentToday, power electronics modules

already contain basic sensors like shuntsor NTC-resistors. New developmentssupport designers in coping with theongoing demands of higher powerdensities by adding necessaryfunctionalities into the power electronicssection, saving space, time anddevelopment effort. This integration isconsidered to be an ongoing trend, sofuture products are expected to combineeven more powerful sensors ormeasurement technology.

Literature[1] Domes, Daniel; Schwarzer Ulrich:

IGBT-Module integrated Current andTemperature Sense Features based onSigma-Delta Converter, PCIM 2009,Nürnberg, Germany[2] Hogenauer, E. B.: An Economial

Class of Digital Filters for Decimationand Interpolation, IEEE Transactions onAcoustics, Speech and SignalProcessing, Volume 29, Issue 2, Apr1981 pp. 155 – 162

18 POWER MODULES www.infineon.com


Figure 3: Current measured with Pearson probe and Σ/Δ-Converter

Figure 4: Relationship of temperature and pulses counted

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p17-18 Feature Infineon.qxd_Layout 1 14/10/2009 10:51


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20 INVERTER DESIGN www.isabellenhuette.de


Shunt Current Measuring up to800A in the Inverter In 2005, Siemens Drive Technologies introduced the first large inverter using shunts for phase currentmeasuring and brought it into series production. It wasn’t until recently that the power output was extended to 132kW with the new inverter SINAMICS G120 series. Back then, the joint developmentbetween Siemens, Semikron and Isabellenhütte laid the foundations for being able to measure currents of up to 800A today. This article looks back at past events and takes a glimpse into the future: how was this technological change successful and what possibilities do future developments have to offer? Kurt Göpfrich, Hardware Manager for Power Electronics, Siemens Drive Technologies, Erlangen;Reinhard Stark, Sales Engineer, Semikron Elektronik, Nuremberg; and Ullrich Hetzler, Head ofResearch & Development, Isabellenhütte, Dillenburg, Germany

There is nothing revolutionary about thecurrent sensing principle using a low valueresistor and an isolation amplifier. It wasused for the first time by the first isolationamplifiers from HP and Siemens in electricdrive systems 15 years ago. Now, there aresystems available from numerousproviders, which represent interestingalternatives in terms of both technicalrequirements and cost, and that offersignificantly better cost performance ratiothan conventional solutions with currenttransformers. Demand for more power as well as

increased accuracy, lower constructionand mounting space, cost reductions andtechnological innovation led us to focusagain on alternatives to conventionalcurrent transformers and develop anintegrated and modular concept. Thisconcept can be adapted to all inverters inthe entire power range from 100W to100KW, both electrically andmechanically. The aim was to maketechnical improvements to the newSINAMICS G120, while at the same timeincreasing market acceptance by reducingprices.Figure 2 shows the principle of isolated

current sensing using a shunt. The voltagedrop on the shunt is converted insideSigma/Delta (/) transformers into aserial 1 bit data stream. It is transferred byoptical, capacitive or magnetical couplersvia isolation paths and is integrated into adigital filter (ASIC or µC). A shunt (or anumber of shunts running parallel) and a/ transformer are required for eachoutput phase that has to be measured. Thecomparable solution with a currenttransformer requires the currenttransformer itself, an A/D converter, as well

as an ASIC for each phase. At the time, the main development goals

and demands on the new solution were asfollows:• Cutting costs in phase current measuringand with a simpler mechanical construction• Reduced mounting space and weightreduction • Accounting for power dissipation in theshunt

• Developing a suitable shunt module forhigh currents • Increasing the accuracy of the entiresystem

Cost analysisComparing the costs of conventional

current measuring (compensationtransformer + U/f transformer) to those forshunt measuring, it is evident that shunt

Figure 1: Isabellenhütte and Semikron act as main suppliers for Siemens Drive Technologies

Figure 2: Basic diagram of currentmeasurement using ashunt

p20-23 Feature Isabellenhutte.qxd_Layout 1 14/10/2009 11:05

http://www.isabellenhuette.de

www.semikron.com INVERTER DESIGN 21


measuring is considerably more costeffective with the same or even increasedperformance. 90% of modules demandedby the market are in the lower powerranges up to 100A, where the greatest costsavings can be made. Costs can primarily be saved due to the

first step being less sophisticated(transforming current into voltage). Thedownstream digitisation of themeasurement voltage is associated with theavailability of new transformers at almostthe same cost. Galvanic isolation is not asignificant cost factor thanks to the serialtransfer of digitised data and is therefore nolonger the significant advantage for thecompensation transformer that it used to be(see Figure 3).

Lower construction volumeIn the power range up to 50A, current

can still be carried via the printed circuitboard. This means that all measurementvalue logging from SMD shunts is incomparison to transformers extremelycompact and cost-effective. For highercurrents, the current has to be carried viabus bars and the higher power lossrespective heat generation in the shuntrequires adapted construction forms. The fourth generation of IGBTs has a

permissible junction temperature of 175°C.

All of its predecessors were rated at 150°Cor below. The trend towards highertemperatures – with increased packingdensity – benefits the shunt sensingprocess.

Power dissipationFor the current transformers, losses arise

in the compensation circuit, load resistorand in the subsequent U/f transformer. Thelosses in the compensation circuit aremainly independent of the measuredcurrent. However, losses in the load resistorand the output stage of the compensationcircuit are current dependent.When measuring with shunts, the power

losses in the shunt for a given maximumsensing voltage are directly proportional tothe current according to the followingequation:

The maximum power dissipation isdetermined by the voltage range of the/ converter, which is at 0.2V for mostexisting current systems. At 10A, thiscorresponds to power dissipation of only2W, which can be handled easily byavailable SMD resistors. This is different forcurrents of 300A for instance. A full voltagerange of 200mV would already generate

60W per phase, which is the reason thatdesign engineers try to use only half of theconverters voltage. Nevertheless, the stillconsiderable output of 30 to 100W canonly be handled insufficiently withconventional shunts, which is why thepower modules mentioned above weredeveloped based on proven high powermodules.Overall, it is evident that the heat

generation in the shunts for low currents isno problem, whereas at the upper end ofthe current range it needs new solution toget rid of the heat. But nevertheless, thelosses in the shunt are only less than 2%of total inverter losses at maximumcurrent. Figure 4 shows a comparisonbetween losses of the old (transformers)and the new measuring method withshunts.

Shunt module The shunt modules developed by

Semikron (module housing) andIsabellenhütte (shunts) for high currentsare optimised in terms of TCE (thermalcoefficient of expansion), offset, long-termstability and capacity, and therefore meetthe above-mentioned requirements almostperfectly. They contain a parallel circuit ofup to four precision SMD resistors (seeFigure 5) for each phase, which aremounted onto a DCB substrate for betterheat dissipation. By using optimumresistors and modified geometry for theDCB layout, a TK of 30ppm/K will bemaintained for all modules. The shunt modules are used by Siemens

in all new SINAMICS inverters in thecorresponding performance class. Sincetheir introduction, over 100,000 moduleshave been deployed in industrialapplications with big success. Table 1 givesan overview of available Semikronmodules.These RoHS conforming modules are

limited to a nominal voltage of up to690VAC. However, the current load limit forthis module form has been reached withthe SKKR 800/0.1 model, in spite ofadaptations to the plate geometry of thecurrent supplies. The altered plategeometry helped improve the module’srobustness and reliability, and the exteriorshape remained the same, makingintegration in the device possible with thesame rails. Since 2005, the sensing limit has

increased from 400 to 600A. A higherpowered module would require thefollowing:• Adapting the resistance value of the shuntto higher currents• New module housing for higher currents• Stronger power rails• Reducing lead losses

Figure 3: Costcomparison betweencurrent measuringmethod usingtransformers andshunts

Figure 4: Losscomparison betweencurrent measuringmethod usingtransformers andshunts

Figure 5: Paralleledcircuit with up to fourBVR resistors usedfor each phase


http://www.semikron.com

22 INVERTER DESIGN www.siemens.com/sinamics-g120


• Potential parallel circuiting of modules• Reducing the voltage output of thetransformer.Additional advantages of these modules

include:• Familiar housing• It is easier for the construction to integratethe module into an existing concept andpotentially add available materials (rails,insulator supports, etc.) • Customised solutions can be producedrelatively quickly.

Measuring accuracy requirementsThe quality of any measuring system is

determined by the resolution, offset, noise,gain and linearity errors, as well as bytemperature and long-term drift. Theabsolute accuracy of the actual current

values has a direct impact on theperformance of an inverter or the drive.Using these types of inverters in machinetools permits machining of a surface with aquality better than 0.2µm due to a very lowtorque ripple.The resolution is primarily determined by

digitisation and is less dependent on theanalogous path, as a result of which thisissue is not discussed here any further.Siemens’ target for offset errors was

<0.1%. Both current measuring methodswere able to meet this requirement. Withshunt sensing, it is extremely important toselect the right resistance value, materialsand resistance model. A material that is notadapted thermoelectrically to copper (e.g.constantan) produces a thermoelectricvoltage and an offset voltage, which makes

it impossible to meet the offsetrequirement in the temperature range. Thiserror can be avoided completely by usingIsa-Weld resistors made from Manganin orIsaohm, where only the offset of the /converter remains. The requirement for gain errors

(deviation between phases) is <0.9%. Inaddition to the accuracy of load resistors,the exact number of turns ofcompensation winding in a currenttransformer is critical, while for shuntmeasuring, the accuracy of the shunt andthat of the / transformer plays asignificant role. However, when comparingthese errors in a performance test,temperature and resistance drift over timeis more important than completeaccuracy. The Isa-Weld resistors deliver

Table 1: Overview of available Semikron shuntmodules

Figure 6: IMC calibrated sensor module

Figure 7: IHC measuring module with galvanicisolation for currents up to 2000A


http://www.siemens.com/sinamics-g120

www.isabellenhuette.de 23


optimum values for thesemeasurements and comfortablymeet the requirements.

Both methods can meet therequirements for linearity withoutany special measures being taken.However, shunt measuring still has alot of unused potential in thisrespect.

New developments and outlookIn spite of the advantages shunt

current sensing has to offer versuscurrent transformers and othermagnetic measuring methods,there are still limitations in thepower output over 600A as aresult of extremely high powergeneration within the shunt.Parallel connection of numerousmodules may solve the heatingproblem, thanks to the lineardependency of power dissipationon the current output. However,this solution is not ideal becauseof the space requirement and costaspects. Power dissipation of 30 to100W just for the measurementcannot be justified in the long-term, particularly as the trendtowards using electric energyeconomically is becomingcontinuously stronger.

That is why further considerableimprovement and innovation inmeasuring technology areinevitable for shunt measuringapplications in other sectors, suchas automotive technology or solartechnology. The interesting marketvolume and the achievablemargins have triggered a real flowof ideas in the area of isolated /converters. In addition to galvanicisolation via optocouplers,transformers based on magnetic orcapacitive couplings are nowavailable from severalmanufacturers. This competitionhas led to a significant reduction inprices and an improvement in theproduct’s characteristics. The nextaim will be to reduce the inputvoltage range (200mV = >50mV =>20mV) while maintaining thesame accuracy. This would offerthe advantage that powerdissipation could be reduced by upto one order of magnitude, whilethe solutions be even morecompact with lower cost. Anexample of a solution fromIsabellenhütte: the calibratedsensor module for directmeasurement of +/-300A current,voltage and temperature with a

communication via an isolateddigital interface (see Figure 6).

The number of semiconductormanufacturers for / converters willcontinue to increase if therequirement for isolation is dropped,and costs will come down due toreduced complexity of the productand increased sales. Galvanicisolation of the digital signals via justa single coupler can be very cost-effective if the clock and data aretransferred together in Manchestercode.

It goes without saying that therequirements on the overall designwill also increase. In an effort toeliminate interferences from thestrong alternating magnet fields, the/ converter will have to bemounted right next to the shunt, oreven together with the shunt, whichin turn, also reduces size and cost.These types of modules with anintegrated current sensing (200mVconverter) have already beenintroduced. In this case, high powerdissipation results in unnecessarilylarge and expensive solutions. Figure7 shows the IHC measuring modulewith galvanic isolation for currentsup to 2000A.

It is likely that newsemiconductor developments indownstream electronics will alsocontribute to this technologybecoming more widely used in thedrive technology and solartechnology sectors. Motorcontrollers are currently beingprepared, which are able to directlyprocess the data streams of allthree shunts (three phases) andconvert them into a digital 12 to14bit signal with a higher samplingrate. The measurements can betriggered at a given time after theswitching edge of the powertransistors and a rapid over-currentsignal is generated.

Given the lower power dissipationin the shunt, the module will becomeconsiderably smaller in the long-term(possibly even be separated for eachphase) and will directly contain the/ converter and additionalelectronics. Furthermore, directlymounting the transformer or thecircuit board onto the shunt is apractical way of avoidinginterferences.

Isabellenhütte has launched anumber of preliminary developmentsin this direction. Prototypes for thesetypes of solutions are available onrequest.

Ready formass production

Taking open loop technology to the next level: introducing a surface mount device.

HMS

Automatic assemblyDedicated LEM ASIC insideCompatible with the microcontroller or A/D

converter, reference provided outside or forced by external reference, 5 V power supply

Improved offset and gain drifts and enhanced linearity over traditional open loop designs

VRef IN/OUT on the same pin8 mm creepage and clearance distances

+ CTI: 600No insertion lossesSeveral current ranges from 5 to 20 ARMS

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24 POWER SEMICONDUCTORS www.ixys.com


Novel 3.5kV Low Loss RectifierDiodeIXYS introduces a 600A 3 to 3.5kV diode with a low forward voltage drop, low leakage current and with anextremely high surge current rating. The experimental findings are consistent with numerical modellingresults and show that by using Aluminium isolation diffusion, it is possible to get an ideal plane parallelbreakdown voltage of 3500V. The diode utilises standard glass passivation and demonstrates stableblocking characteristics with low reverse current after High Temperature Reverse Bias (HTRB) andHumidity testing. J.V. Subhas Chandra Bose and Peter Ingram, IXYS Semiconductor, Lampertheim,Germany

The new diode is manufactured on 5indiameter silicon wafers and is available inchip (DWN344-35) and also in moduleform (MDD175-28/34), having amaximum voltage rating of 3.5kV and acurrent rating of 600A, with a maximumoperating junction temperature of 150°C.

These devices have specially designedinternal construction to prevent plasmaescape under catastrophic failureconditions. The robust high reliabilityconstruction and the option for enhancedrupture capability, make these deviceswell suited for demanding applicationssuch as the chemical industry, powersupplies or track-side equipment for railsystems, supplies for DC powerequipment, DC supply for PWM inverter,field supply for DC motors, battery DCpower supplies, industrial drives, windpower converters and all rectifier andpower conversion in the multi 100kWrange. Futhermore, the devices are suitedto any rectifier application which requiresa diode with the combination of both highvoltage and current rating, reducing cost inthe mechanical sub-assembly oversolutions using multiple lower powerdevices.

High-voltage diode technologiesIn a planar diode, the use of guard rings

as edge termination are used to increasethe avalanche breakdown voltage, and toimprove the reliability of a diode it isnecessary to shift the maximum electricfield from the surface to the semiconductorinterior [1-10]. The blocking voltage islimited by the region of junction curvaturewhere maximum electric field occurs. Theblocking voltage of a diode can beincreased by reducing the curvature effecteither by using floating field limiting rings(FLRs), metal field plates or a combinationof both. It has been shown that the FLRtechnique is sensitive to oxide charges and

process variations. Optimal field platedesigns involve multiple dielectric layersand gaps between metal field plates.Furthermore, using a forward diode it is

possible to obtain 85 to 90% of planeparallel breakdown voltage.

In an Aluminium or Boron isolationdiode, it is possible to obtain 100% plane

Figure 1: Schematicof novel 3500V diode

Table 1: Parameters used forDWN344-35 diode

Figure 2: MDD175-34module and internalchip assembly ofMDD175-34 module

p24-26 Feature IXYS.qxd_Layout 1 14/10/2009 11:24

http://www.ixys.com

www.ixys.com POWER SEMICONDUCTORS 25


parallel breakdown voltage because ofabsence of junction curvature. The diodeconsists of an N- type Si region with lowdoping concentration. The backside isdeep diffused boron wafers in contact withthe anode metal, and the front side has aphosphorus-doped region which is incontact with a cathode metal. The finalpassivation layer can be glass or metalfield plate passivation. However, we usedIXYS standard glass passivation for thereverse diode.

3500V diodes have been investigatedwhich are insensitive to surface chargeduring processing and after HighTemperature Reverse Bias (HTRB) andhumidity test. Optimisation of the structureand analysis of the breakdown voltagecharacteristics is carried out using ISE TCADsoftware [11].

Numerical computations andexperimental results

The cross-section of the 3500V diode isshown in Figure 1, and the diodeparameters used for simulation as well asfor processing are shown in Table 1.Figure 2(a, b) shows the MDD175module and internal chip assembly. Figure3(a, b) shows simulation results of impactionisation and the potential contour of adiode at breakdown voltage. Impactionisation occurs at the main junction andthe device breaks down at 3500V, whichis 100% of plane parallel breakdownvoltage.

A diode with chip size of 12.5 x 12.5mmwas designed and fabricated using 5instarting Si wafers. For isolation diffusionaluminium is used as a source, becausesolid solubility of Al to the Si is higher thanboron. Influence of forward voltage drop ontemperature is shown in Figure 4 andleakage current can be seen duringreliability test results. Practical results clearlyshow that devices have less negativetemperature coefficent with respect totemperature. Therefore, more devices canbe connected in parallel.

Surge current tests were conducted onfive chips with an increase in steps of

200A. Devices passed till 8.8kA and from9kA chips began getting destroyed.

Reliability Reliability is defined as the ability of a

device to conform to its electrical andvisual/mechanical specifications over aspecified period of time, under specifiedconditions, at a specified confidence level.

Prior to the official release of a newdevice for mass manufacturing, it mustundergo full qualification test. New devicequalification most often requires severalsets of samples for different reliability tests.The actual reliability of a device cannot beaccurately determined with standard visualand electrical measurement techniques.The most important reliability tests for theelectrical stability of the chip are HighTemperature Reverse Bias (HTRB) andHumidity test.

HTRB: This test checks the ability of thesamples to withstand a reverse bias, whilebeing subjected to the maximum ambienttemperature that the parts are rated towithstand.

Humidity: This test checks the ability ofthe package and chip to resist moisturepenetration. The sample is loaded into anenvironmental chamber. The relativehumidity is then increased from 85 to

100%, and the temperature is also elevated. HTRB and Humidity test samples are

randomly selected from 25 processedwafers. The condition used for HTRB test is80% of rated voltage at 125°C. Thebreakdown voltage and leakage currentwere measured before starting the test.Devices were assembled into the plasticpackage with Sylgard 567. The test wasconducted for up to 168hr and readingswere taken once every 4hr. Figure 5 clearlyshows that leakage currents are below500µA. Furthermore, there is no increase inleakage current between pre and postmeasurement results.

The device characteristics are measuredbefore starting the test. The humidity testwas conducted at 85°C and at 85%relative humidity for 168hr. The devicecharacteristics are re-measured aftercooling down for two to three hours.

Pre and post measurement results showthat there is no increase in leakage current.The maximum leakage current at roomtemperature is 200µA, and at 125°C it is450µA.

ConclusionSimulation analysis and practical results

show that by using aluminium isolationdiffusion and glass passivation for 3500V

Figure 4: Forward voltage drop with respect to temperature

Figure 3: Forward diode impact ionisation (left) and reverse diode potential contour at a breakdown voltage of 3500V

p24-26 Feature IXYS.qxd_Layout 1 14/10/2009 11:25

http://www.ixys.com

26 POWER SEMICONDUCTORS www.ixys.com


diodes, it is possible to obtain ideal planeparallel breakdown voltage. Experimentalresults show that the device guarantees lowleakage current at 25 to 125°C conditions,plus long-term stability of the blockingcharacteristics, even in plastic packages.

Literature[1] H. Yilmaz, ‘Optimization and

surface charge sensitivity of high-voltage blocking structures with shallowjunctions’. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices,Vol. ED-38, pp. 1666-1675, 1991.[2] D. Jaume et al., ‘High-voltage

planar devices using field-plate andsemiresistive layers,’ IEEE Trans. ElectronDev., Vol.9, 1993.[3] T. Stockmeier, P. Roggwiller, ‘Novel

Planar junction termination techniquefor high voltage power devices,’ pp.236-239, ISPAD 1990.[4] S.Yasuda and T. Yonezawa, ‘High

voltage planar junction with a fieldlimiting ring,’ Solid State Electron., Vol.25, p. 423, 1982.[5] V. Anatharam and K.N. Bhat,

‘Analytic solution for the breakdownvoltage of punchthrough diodes havingcurved junction boundaries at theedges,’ IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, Vol.ED-27, p. 939, 1980.[6] M.M. De Souza, J.V. Subhas

Chandra Bose, M. Sweet, O. Spulber andE.M. Sankara Narayanan, ‘A Novel, AreaEfficient Floating Field Limited Ring edgetermination technique,’ Solid StateElectronics, Vol. 44, pp. 1381-1386,2000.[7] J.V. Subhas Chandra Bose, M.M.

De Souza, E.M Sankara Narayanan, G.Ensell, T.J. Pease, J. Humphrey, ‘A novelmetal field plate edge termination forpower devices’, Microelectronics Journal,Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 323-326, 2001

[8] F. Conti and M. Conti, ‘Surfacebreakdown in Silicon planar diodesequipped with field plates’, Solid StateElectron., 15, pp. 93-105, 1972.[9] Yuming Bai, Alex Q. Huang and

Xuening Li, ‘Junction TerminationTechnique for Super Junction Devices’,ISPSD 2000., pp. 257-261.[10] B.J. Baliga, Power Semiconductor

Devices, PWS publishing, 1996.[11] ISE TCAD Release 10.0, Zurich,

Switzerland, 2004.

Figure 5: HTRB test results

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Beyond Derating – ModernReliability ConceptsReliability means various things to various people, but the bottom line is cost, in a broad sense. Reliabilitymay address expectations built upon advertising, technical specifications or contracts, and may involvemany stakeholders beyond engineers. Taken in a socio-economical context, we are dealing with anecosystem that also requires moral and ethical foundations. Engineers must abide by the ethical standard oftheir employers, yet, as moral individuals, they must continually subordinate economic benefits to moralimperatives. History tells us that civilizations cannot be preserved solely on economic grounds, and theoverall concept of reliability must be considered in this light. Sabin Lupan, International Rectifier, El Segundo, USA

www.irf.com POWER DEVICE RELIABIILITY 27


Concerns about the environmentalimpact of product manufacturing, anddisposal at end of life, are factors shiftingconsumers’ focus away from lowestacquisition cost in favour of lowestownership cost. The throwaway society thatreplaces poor-quality products frequently,with no financial or environmental penalty,is ending, and design for reliability is aboutto become much more important in thevalue ecosystem.

Failure modes and failure mechanisms Maintaining reliability at a desirable level

requires understanding of failure modesand mechanisms. Failure modes representhow a part fails; the ‘stress’ that leads tofailure, while failure mechanisms representhow the part’s ‘strength’ wears out undervarious stresses. Failure mode analysis

enables us to determine the cause(s) offailure and improve product reliability, whileunderstanding failure mechanisms allowsus to choose the proper qualification teststo validate reliability for a given application. Failure modes are classified as:

Electrical Catastrophic (destructive) Functional - failure of a device to delivercorrect output data or signals Parametric - out-of-tolerance current or voltage levels Programming - failure of a non-volatilememory device to respond properly Timing – e.g. malfunction caused bypropagation delays, read/write times, riseand fall times, set-up times not meetingspecifications Mechanical – e.g. damaged leads, cracksin the package, contamination

Visual – e.g. illegible markings Administrative – e.g. wrong product,quantity, packing, orientation, date, code.Failure mechanisms are classified as

follows: Physical Failure Time Dependent Dielectric Breakdown(TDDB) Negative Bias Temperature Instability(NBTI) Electromigration (EM) Hot Carrier Injection (HCI) Radiation Failure (Reactors, Space) Neutron Beta Gamma.

Analysis and predictionOne challenge to reliability engineering

is that available information estimates

Figure 1: Activationenergy as a function of voltage andtemperature ofElectromigration (a),Hot Carrier Injection(b), Time DependentDielectric Breakdown(c), and Negative Bias TemperatureInstability (d)

p27-29 Feature IR.qxd_Layout 1 14/10/2009 11:37

http://www.irf.com

the failure probability, rather thanproviding actual failure data. It is usuallynot practicable to test units for thousandsof hours; hence real lifetime-test data fora component or system is generally notavailable. Quite often, reliability data fornew products indicates ‘0’ failures, whichcertainly doesn’t mean that therespective product will never fail.Although accelerated lifetime testing atelevated temperatures providesexperimental data, the assumption is thatactivation energy is constant, whereas, inpractice, it is a function of voltage andtemperature (Figure 1). This limitsaccelerated lifetime testing reliabilityprediction accuracy, so monitoring andfeedback from field failures come to

enhance the product reliability prediction. Figure 2 illustrates the concept of

cumulative failures over time – a conceptthat is further illustrated through thecommonly used bathtub curve (Figure 3).The curve has three distinct zones. In eachzone, a certain set of factors contribute tofailure, and a certain set of stakeholdersare involved and can, by their actions,influence customers’ perceptions ofreliability.The first zone describes early mortality

of units. Applying certain tests toproduction units brings the failure ratedown to a level deemed acceptable foruse in the field. The second zonedescribes random failures occurring duringuseful operating life. These have no

correlation with time; units may bereplaced in the event of failure, althoughgenerally not replaced pre-emptively. Thethird zone indicates the onset of wear-out,as the units approach end of life.Statistically, half of the product populationwill fail, up to the median life, if noreplacements are made.

The reliability mixFailure rates (one measure of reliability)

are no longer related to electrical orthermal stress only, but to interplay ofhardware, software/logic and transmissionmedia. And derating - the practice ofstressing a component below themanufacturer’s specified maximum limitsfor environmental or operational useconditions - is no longer a panacea toreliability improvement, but one element ina systemic approach to product quality inthe broadest sense.The challenge for derating is that it can

only be applied to one component at atime and, as manufacturers’ datasheetsare becoming liability documentsproviding only a ‘minimum definition’,there is a need for designers to build-inextra buffers – these not only add cost,

28 POWER DEVICE RELIABIILITY www.irf.com


Figure 2: Concept ofcumulative failuresover a time

Figure 3: Bathtub curve as further illustration ofcumulative failures over a time

Figure 4: Reliability growth throughout theproduct lifecycle


http://www.irf.com

but can deteriorate productperformance.

High reliability products (defenceand aerospace) used to utiliseindividually qualified parts at anever-increasing cost and time tomarket. A more cost-effectiveapproach is to design for reliabilityand qualify the product. Designingfor reliability involves understandingfailure modes and selecting thelowest cost mix of hardwareredundancy, software control, andtransmission media thatmeets/exceeds the reliability target.Qualifying the product involvesunderstanding the failuremechanisms and designing aqualification plan that validates thereliability prediction within a givencost and time frame.

Design for reliabilityDesigning for reliability means

achieving the desired reliability at thelowest cost, by balancing thehardware/firmware/softwareallocation. Engineers should also bearin mind that, whereas hardwarereliability is a function of time ascomponents reach end of life,software reliability is a function ofcost; there is no wear-outmechanism for software.

Using information from designanalysis and failure modelling,engineering judgement is importantto meet the desired reliability cost-effectively and within the shortesttime. Powerful design techniquesinclude implementing redundancy for

vulnerable components; while at thesame time recognising that reliabilityis a product of individualcomponents’ reliabilities. Monitoringand controls may also be designed-in, using hardware or software asappropriate, to protect componentsagainst stress.

Astute engineering will alsoconsider design decisions in thecontext of the end application; thedemands placed on a missile will bedifferent from those placed on awashing machine, for example. Themissile must achieve very highperformance for a relatively shortlifetime. In contrast, the washingmachine must be optimised for highendurance over many hundreds ofuse cycles.

Reliability growthBetween major transitions

throughout the product lifecycle,from prototype to development, andsubsequently from development toproduction, reliability tends to growin each phase, as illustrated inFigure 4. During the lifetime of adesign, its reliability may increasewhile, at the same time, cost isreduced. This illustration shows thatreliability growth is not solely theresponsibility of design engineers.

Indeed, with increasing importanceof reliability within the valueecosystem, staff including technical,management, logistics and customer-facing roles will all come to have astake in ensuring ongoing reliabilitygrowth (Figure 5).

29


Figure 5: Divisions in charge ensuring ongoing reliability growth

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Intelligent Power Modules DrivePublic TransportPower electronic systems are used in day-to-day applications. The sophisticated technology behind thescenes, however, often goes unnoticed. Take, for instance, public transport vehicles such as theunderground, trams or trolley buses: the only time the systems that run these vehicles are noticed is whenthey fail to work properly, for example, if people get trapped in a stalled metro train. The utmost care,therefore, has been taken to guarantee the reliability of the power electronics driving the vehicle. This articleoutlines the cooperation between two manufacturers that fulfil the demands for public transport. Dr. Ladislav Sobotka, ŠKODA ELECTRIC, Pilsen, Czech Republic and Ralf Herrmann, SEMIKRON,Nuremberg, Germany

The environmental requirements fortraction applications are very demanding interms of ambient temperature, power andtemperature cycling, as well as size.Ambient temperatures under operationnormally exceed 100°C, but could alsodrop at night during standstill to belowzero centigrade. This passive temperatureswing shows the need for extremetemperature cycling capability. Equallyimportant is the need for a compactoverall package, a high power density and

a robust design in terms of vibration andshock. These somewhat conflictingrequirements have to be taken intoconsideration when designing a new IGBTtraction converter. The need for highpower density at high coolanttemperatures often goes at the expense ofthe power cycling capability.

IPM for tractionMany conventional power modules

with copper baseplate are available for

traction applications. These modulesthen still have to be matched with driverboards and heatsinks from severalsuppliers. The user is responsible formatching the components and ensuringthe proper functioning of the individualcomponents in interplay. A SKiiPintelligent power module comprisesthree matched components: heatsink,IGBT half-bridges and driver withintegrated protective functions. Highpower density, load and temperature

www.semikron.com POWER FOR TRACTION 31


Figure 1: ŠKODA ForCity, 15T, featuring 1700VSKiiPs. The robustness and resistance to thermalcycles of the SKiiP IPM are particularly crucialselection factors

p31-33 Feature Semikron.qxd_Layout 1 14/10/2009 11:41


cycling capability are ensured, thanks tothe patented SKiiP pressure contacttechnology.ŠKODAs more than ten years of

experience with challenging applicationssuch as trolley buses, trams and metrocars is a confirmation of the highreliability of the intelligent power moduleSkiiP. When developing uniquetechnologies for public transport vehicles,there are applications where the use ofintelligent IGBT modules is the onlypossible option, e.g. the 100% low-floortram ŠKODA ForCity (firm designation15T, Figure 1) with rotary bogies. Themodules (Figures 2/3) are used forasynchronous traction drives for voltagesof up to 1000VDC on a direct currentintermediate link. Almost twenty years ofexperience with pressure contacttechnology has gone into this powermodule. The principle behind the technology is

a mechanical pressure system thatpresses the DBC (direct bonded copper)onto the heatsink without soldering. Thisresults in homogenous pressuredistribution with a thermal connectionbetween the ceramic substrates carryingthe semiconductor chips and theheatsink. A 40% improvement in thermalresistance (Rth(j-s)) compared to standardmodules is achieved. SKiiP has nobaseplate and fewer solder layers,resulting in lower thermal-mechanical

stress inside the module. The thermalcycling capability is five times higher thanthat of a standard module withbaseplate, is reached even under theharsh climatic conditions common to theelectric traction industry, and brings anumber of crucial advantages for thisfield of application. High load andtemperature cycling capability is ensuredthanks to the use of patented SKiiPpressure contact technology. Thepressure contact technology has beenoptimised to provide low thermalresistance and high load cycle capability.Well-matched materials with carefulconsideration of the coefficients ofthermal expansion (CTE), state-of-the-artpackaging and bonding technologiesmake this module the fitting choice forthis area of application.For lower outputs, ŠKODA uses

modules with air-cooled heatsinks. Fortraction drives in metro cars, especially inthe electro-dynamic brake mode, liquid-cooled modules are preferred, therebyutilising the maximum current load of theIPM. The low thermal resistance is usedto provide high load capability. Thismeans that the dynamic behaviour of thesemiconductor structure is optimised toachieve maximum reliability andminimum switching losses. Thermal andover-current protection elements arealready integrated in SKiiP. Thecorresponding sensors can be used for

traction converter semiconductordiagnostics and for automatic interventionwhen admissible limits are exceeded. Thecurrent sensors are used for tractionmotor control.

High reliability and long service lifeThe IGBT converters have become

standard for power supply inasynchronous traction motors and aresubject to considerable price pressure.This is why the technologies used inintelligent IGBT power modules arecompared to conventional IGBTtransistors in every new project. Thegood price-performance ratio, minimumfailure rate and long service life of IGBTtraction converters are important for endapplications. Every year, ŠKODAELECTRIC manufactures more than 300SKiiP-based converters for publictransport vehicles and prefers the IPM,especially in light of its extensive positiveexperience in operating these vehicles.The robustness and resistance to thermalcycles are particularly crucial selectionfactors.The tram car consists of four fully

rotating traction bogies which bear 16synchronous low-speed traction motorswith permanent magnets. Each of thetraction motors is supplied separatelyfrom a voltage converter comprisingSKiiP modules. The roof containerhouses the entire traction equipment forone bogie, including an isolated brakeresistor. Traction converters work with5kHz pulse modulation, which is theoptimum modulation for this type ofvehicle. Given the limited space and theparameters requirements forsynchronous motors with permanentmagnets, this constitutes the onlypossible design solution, owing to thecompactness and thermal properties ofSKiiP modules.All SKiiP IPMs used are 1700V

modules. The current parameters of themodules in the traction converters are500A, and the modules of the brakeconverters and input recuperation circuitsare 1000A. The traction container can

32 POWER FOR TRACTION www.semikron.com


Figure 2: SKiiP pressure contact technologywithout baseplate. The thermal cyclingcapability is five times higher than that of astandard module with baseplate

Figure 3: SKiiP3power module onheatsink



withstand harsh type tests. The designmeets the challenging demands of thefast IGBT technology, in respect of thevery low inductance between the DC linkcapacitance filter and the IGBT modules.Easy access to these modules formeasurement or service reasons is afurther important factor.Contracts for ForCity trams constituting

a production volume of more than 1000traction containers have already beensigned, i.e. 4000 traction inverterscomprising the proven SKiiP modules.Another application featuring the

liquid-cooled SKiiP modules is currentlyunder development: traction equipmentfor the underground system in St.Petersburg, Russia. Here, the modulesmust be able to work for a short time inthe electro-dynamic brake mode at anoutput that reaches almost 1MW. Achallenging requirement is the -40°Ctemperature level required by thecustomer. Traction drives for metro carsare among the most demandingapplications for thermal cycles, which iswhy all operating states were simulatedcarefully and the traction converterssubjected to worst case dynamic loadtests. The SKiiP module passed thesetests, thus guaranteeing the highreliability and long service life of thesemodules for the future. SKiiP has alsobeen used in the first ever hydrogen-fuelled bus; the official presentation andfirst road tests have already taken place.In addition, ŠKODA ELECTRIC employsthese modules in converters for auxiliarydrives in the rail industry; electric

locomotives and electric multiple units(EMUs).

Fully tested power moduleThe power module is 100% tested to

meet the requirements of tractionapplications. Once the IGBT half-bridges,driver and all other components havebeen tested, the overall systemqualification is carried out. If modules arebought separately and used incombination with the customer’s owndriver or drivers from other suppliers, theoverall system test has to be done by thecustomer. SKiiP guarantees lower costs(development of driver electronics andtest plus the corresponding testequipment) and no time wasted on in-house development. An optional burn-in test for SKiiP

modules is available, in which themodules are operated for approximatelytwo hours under worst case real inverterconditions at elevated temperature andelevated voltage. All root causes of earlyfailures are identified and eliminated.SKiiP undergoes one of two burn-incycles. The modules are tested withcooling water at 80°C and cycling at aconstant chip temperature. The junctiontemperature of the silicon reachestemperatures up to 140° (IGBT3) toensure high stress levels for the module.High power densities at coolanttemperatures of 105°C can only beachieved at a maximum junctiontemperature above 150°C. For comparable conditions and

module sizes, the SKiiP4, which was

introduced this year, provides 33% morepower than the current version of thismodule (Figure 4). On the one hand, thisallows for the development of morepowerful or more compact frequencyconverters, thus reducing costs. Thisincrease in power is due to the use of aninnovative pressure contact system, animproved heatsink and IGBT4, CAL4diode chip technology. In addition, sixparallel half-bridges have been used forthe first time at the upper power endinstead of four, as was the case up tillnow (Figure 5). Like its predecessors,SKiiP 4 is based on well-matchedcomponents such as heat sink, powermodule, driver and protectivesensors/functions. Here, the mountingand connecting technology, which isbased on the pressure system, still playsa crucial role. For a reliable and smooth switching

behaviour, a new driver was developedwith digital signal transmission, fullygalvanic insulated switching and sensorsignals, a diagnosis channel (based onCAN open protocol) and a multi-outputstage.

Conclusion This article outlines the cooperation

between ŠKODA ELECTRIC as a supplier oftraction vehicles, and SEMIKRON as amanufacturer of power semiconductormodules. Together, both companies areplanning further projects. For SKODA, SKiiPIPMs are the first choice for applicationssuch as traction, renewable energies,elevator and high-power industrial drives.

www.semikron.com POWER FOR TRACTION 33


Figure 4: Product portfolio SKiiP IPM

Figure 5: SKiiP4 power module featuring sixparallel half bridges



Name:

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There are now 6 handy reference books available at only £4.99 each from the publishers of Drives & Controlsand Hydraulics & Pneumatics magazines.

Published in an easily readable style and designed to helpanswer basic questions and everyday problems withoutthe need to refer to weighty textbooks, we believe you’llfind them invaluable items to have within arms reach.

From the publishers of

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34_PEE_Is0709_34_PEE_Is0709 14/10/2009 12:05 Page 1

Automotive Applications Benefitfrom Multiphase BoostersMultiphase operation results in lower component stresses, smaller input and output capacitance, smallersolution size, better thermal management, and lower output noise. With its programmability up to 12phases using multiple daisy-chained controllers, the new LTC3862 serves the needs of step-up powersupplies from 100 to 1000W in automotive fuel injection systems and high power audio amplifiers. Thereduced ripple currents and multiphase operation reduces EMI and provides higher efficiency, fastertransient response, and a wider selection of off-the-shelf components and increase power density whencompared to single phase alternatives. Bruce Haug and Tick Houk, Linear Technology, Milpitas, USA

High power step-down DC/DC converters have long benefited frommultiphase operation. But all theadvantages of multiphase operation, suchas reduced input and output ripplecurrents, lower output noise and lowercomponent stresses, can also be realised instep-up applications. Many of thecontrollers used in step-down applicationscan also be used in step-up applicationsand generally have two phases, which maynot provide enough output power or havethe ability to keep the phase currentsbalanced. They also usually need extrasupport components, like gate drivers, extrabias voltage and an external error amplifierto complete the circuit.

Until recently, most high power step-up

converters have utilised non-optimisedsolutions due to the lack of an availablemultiphase boost controller. The mostcommon non-synchronous two-phase step-up converter solution has been to use thetop-side drivers of a two-phasesynchronous step-down controllerconfigured to drive two low-side powerMOSFETs 180° out-of-phase. Anothersolution has been to use two or moresingle-phase step-up controllers and anexternal clock circuit to achieve the requiredchannel-to-channel phase relationship.Other non-optimised solutions have usedeither push-pull or dual interleaved forwardcontrollers in a non-isolated step-upconfiguration. However, all of thesesolutions suffer from significant drawbacks

which limit their utilisation in many oftoday’s demanding applications.

In the automotive environment, the nextgeneration of low emissions diesel fuelinjection systems requires up to 2A ofoutput current at an output voltage in the70 to 110V range, and delivered from a12V battery that can vary from 9 to 28V.This input-to-output voltage conversionrequires a boost converter capable ofgreater than 92% duty cycle with constantfrequency operation.

Furthermore, high power car audioamplifiers often need a main supply rail inthe 25 to 35V range with the ability tosupply peak power levels approaching1000W, making multiphase operationessential. By splitting the power stage into

Figure 1: A two-phase, 72V output, low emissions automotive fuel injection boost converter using the LTC3862-1

www.linear.com AUTOMOTIVE POWER 35


p35-37 Feature Linear.qxd_Layout 1 14/10/2009 11:44

http://www.linear.com

multiple paralleled phases, thermal stress isreduced on the power components,thereby reducing output voltage ripple andnoise, allowing the use of smaller outputcapacitors, and improving system efficiency.As power densities continue to rise,

multiphase boost designs become anecessary option to keep input currentsmanageable, increase efficiency andincrease power density. With mandates onautomotive energy savings more common,a multiphase converter topology may be theonly way to achieve these design objectives.A two-phase or higher phase converter builtaround LTC3862, can demonstrate thebenefits of this type of approach.

A multiphase solutionThe LTC3862 is a non-synchronous

multiphase controller capable of operating inboost, SEPIC and flyback topologies. Thiscontroller utilises a constant frequency, peakcurrent mode control scheme with its twopower stages operating 180° out-of-phase.Each power stage is comprised of a singleinductor, MOSFET, Schottky diode and currentsense resistor. The two phases are balancedclosely with a tight current limit threshold anda highly accurate transfer function from theITH pin (the output of the error amplifier) tothe current comparator sense inputs, bothfrom channel-to-channel and chip-to-chip.Because of this, the peak inductor currentmatching is kept accurate, forcing a balancedcurrent in multiphase applications.In a two-phase converter, only one IC is

required, and the two output stages aredriven 180° out-of-phase. In a three-phaseconverter, two chips are needed (twochannels from the master and one channelfrom the slave) and the output stages aredriven 120° out-of-phase. Similarly, a four-phase converter utilises two ICs with eachchannel running 90° out-of-phase. And soon, until a 12 phase application, where sixchips would be used, with each channeloperating 30° out-of-phase. By splitting thecurrent into multiple power paths,conduction losses can be reduced andthermal stresses can be balanced betweena larger number of components and over alarger area on the board, and output noisecan be significantly reduced. Conversely, fora given output voltage ripple, multiphase

operation will result in a smaller total outputcapacitance, which is especially important inhigh voltage applications where the voltagecoefficient of the output capacitor typicallyreduces the effective capacitance. The LTC3862 contains two PMOS output

stage low dropout (LDO) voltageregulators, one for the powerful on-boardgate drivers (which contain 2.1Ω PMOSsource transistors and 0.7Ω NMOS sinktransistors) and one LDO for the lowvoltage analog and digital control circuitry.Low dropout operation allows the inputvoltage to dip to a lower value beforecircuit operation is affected. This isespecially important in automotiveapplications, where the cold cranking of anengine can result in a battery voltage droopto as low as 4V. The LTC3862 provides a5V gate drive for logic level MOSFETs andthe LTC3862-1 provides a 10V gate drivenormally required for higher output voltageapplications.

A low emissions diesel fuel injectionpower supplyFigure 1 illustrates a boost converter

designed for low emissions diesel fuelinjection systems. This converter operatesover a wide input voltage range toaccommodate the variation of an automotivebattery, from a cold crank condition to adouble battery connection for jump starts.Because of the wide input voltage range (8.5to 36V), the converter must be able tooperate at very high duty cycles and stillmaintain constant frequency operation. The

LTC3862 has a minimum on-time ofapproximately 180ns and a maximum dutycycle of 96%, with both of these parametersbeing user programmable. The operatingfrequency can be programmed from 75 to500kHz using a single resistor, and a phaselock loop can be used to synchronise theoperating frequency to an external clocksource. For the example, the power MOSFETsused in Figure 1 are the HAT2267H fromRenesas, a 57μH inductor with a saturationcurrent rating of 5A, and a total outputcapacitance of only 107μF is necessary. Theoutput capacitance consists of two 47μFaluminum electrolytic bulk capacitorsconnected in parallel with six low ESR 2.2μFceramic capacitors, in order to meet theoutput voltage ripple and RMS currentrequirements. This configuration also limitsthe output voltage ripple to only 500mV.This circuit operates with a peak

efficiency of 96% at an input voltage of32V. Because a single-ended boostconverter regulates the current in thesource of the low-side switch, themaximum current that can be delivered tothe load is a function of the input voltage.As a result, this converter is capable ofdelivering 0.5A to the load at an input of8.5V, 1.5A at an input of 24V, and 2A at aninput of 32 to 36V. The LTC3862 features two pins, CLKOUT

and PHASEMODE that allow multiple ICs tobe daisy-chained together for higher currentmultiphase applications. For a three- orfour-phase design, the CLKOUT signal ofthe master controller is connected to theSYNC input of the slave controller in orderto synchronize additional power stages fora single high current output. ThePHASEMODE pin is used to adjust thephase relationship between channel 1 andCLKOUT, as summarised in Table 1. Thephases are calculated relative to the zerodegrees, defined as the rising edge of theGATE1 output. In a six-phase application,the CLKOUT pin of the master controllerconnects to the SYNC input of the 2ndcontroller and the CLKOUT pin of the 2nd

36 AUTOMOTIVE POWER www.linear.com


Table 1: Programming the phase relationship between channels

Figure 2: LTC 3862current sense circuit



controller connects to the SYNC input ofthe 3rd controller.

Additional featuresThe LTC3862 error amplifier is a

transconductance amplifier, meaning that ithas high DC gain and high outputimpedance. This style of error amplifiergreatly eases the task of implementing amulti-phase solution, because theamplifiers from two or more controllers canbe connected in parallel. In a multiphaseapplication requiring more than one IC, allof the FB pins should be connectedtogether and all of the ITH pins should beconnected together. The compositetransconductance of the error amplifier issimply the sum of the number of ICsconnected together, multiplied by the660μs of each amplifier. This parallelconnection of error amplifiers is notpossible with control ICs that use a trueoperational amplifier, since this amplifiertype has a very low output impedance.In addition to using parallelable error

amplifiers, the transfer function from theITH pin to the current sense comparators isvery accurate, in order to provide the bestchannel-to-channel and chip-to-chip currentsense threshold matching possible. Thisphase-to-phase current matching isespecially important in high currentapplications, where resistive losses areproportional to the square of the current.Minimising the mismatch betweenchannels results in a balanced thermaldesign, which prevents hot spots on thePCB and possible thermal runaway.The LTC3862 has a maximum current

sense threshold of each phase of 75mV,which allows for a relatively lower powersense resistor, reducing the circuit size,

increasing efficiency and eliminating theneed for a current sense transformer. It alsoincludes leading edge blanking for thecurrent sense inputs, so an external RC filteris not required. Nevertheless, some usersmay benefit from adding an external filter,as shown in Figure 2. If external RC filtersare used on the current sense inputs, thefilter components should be placed as closeas possible to the SENSE pins, and theconnections to the sense resistor should runparallel to each other and kelvin-connect tothe resistor in order to avoid parasitic IRdrops. The SENSE+ and SENSE- pins arehigh impedance inputs to the CMOS currentcomparators for each channel.

Programmable blankingThe Blank pin on the LTC3862 allows the

user to program the amount of leadingedge blanking at the SENSE pins. Thepurpose of leading edge blanking is to filterout noise on the SENSE at the leading edgeof the power MOSFETs at turn-on. Duringthe turn-on of the power MOSFET the gatedrive current, the discharge of any parasiticcapacitance on the SW node, the recoveryof the boost diode charge, and the parasiticseries inductance in the high di/dt path allcontribute to overshoot and high frequencynoise that could cause false-tripping of thecurrent comparator. Providing a means toprogram the blank time allows users tooptimise the SENSE pin filtering for severalapplications and can be set to a minimumon-time of 180, 260 or 340ns.

An audio amplifier boost convertersupplyFigure 3 illustrates a two-phase car

audio power supply that operates from a5 to 24V input and produces a 24V/5A

output. The wide input voltage rangecovers an automotive input voltage range,and the efficiency curves are also shownreaching up to 96.5%. This circuit can beeasily extended to three-, four-, six- or 12-phase operation for higher powerapplications, with minimal modificationsto the basic design. This multiphase boostconverter protects the load from mildoverload conditions by imposing a currentlimit on each phase (boost converters aretypically not short-circuit proof due to thediode and inductor connection from inputto output). Audio applications have short-duration peak power demands that aremuch higher than the average outputpower. Therefore, the current limit mustbe set high enough to satisfy these peakpower requirements.In order to maintain constant

frequency operation and a low outputripple voltage, a single-ended boostconverter is required to turn off thepower MOSFET switch every cycle forsome minimum amount of time. Thisoff-time allows the transfer of energyfrom the inductor to the output capacitorand load. Having a high maximum dutycycle is desirable, especially in low VIN tohigh VOUT applications. The maximumduty cycle for the LTC3862 is 96% withthe DMAX pin connected to ground. Forother topologies, such as a non-isolatedflyback converter, it is desirable to limitthe maximum duty cycle in order tobalance the volt-sec of the transformer.The LTC3862 has a maximum duty cyclethat is user-programmable. By floatingthe DMAX pin, the duty cycle is limitedto 84%. Connecting the DMAX pin tothe 3V8 supply pin limits the duty cycleto 75%.

www.linear.com AUTOMOTIVE POWER 37


Figure 3: A 12V input,24V/5A output two-phase car audiopower supply usingthe LTC3862



38 PRODUCT UPDATE


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www.ne1.com Enquiry No: 000

Prod head 2

Cree’s new Z-Rec 600V SiC Junction Barrier Schottky (JBS)diodes provide improved device power efficiency andenhanced surge current capability, allowing system optimisationfor performance and cost in power conversion applicationsranging from 250 to 1500W. Primarily used for boost diodeapplications in power factor correction (PFC) circuits, Z-Rec SiCJBS diodes, through their inherent lack of reverse-recoverycurrents, will reduce AC/DC power supply losses by up to10%. Zero reverse-recovery current has been an advantage forswitch-mode power supplies to reach and exceed ENERGYSTAR 80 Plus certification levels.

The new Z-Rec devices add to already impressive SiC-diodepower savings through device junction capacitance values,which are up to 10% lower than Cree’s first generation devices.The lower junction capacitance reduces switching losses andextends the power savings to systems operating at higherswitching frequencies.

Each new device, of a given current rating, maintains the lowforward voltage (<1.8V) of previous Cree SiC diodes at ratedcurrent and temperature. Z-Rec 600V devices are available in2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 20A ratings in TO-220-2, TO-220-2 fullymolded (Full-Pack), TO-247-3, TO-252-2 (D-Pak), and TO-263-2 (D2Pak) packages.www.cree.com/power

NEC Electronics Europeintroduces a new IGBT gate driveoptocoupler series which isbased on a modified output formaiming at improvedcharacteristics. The output haschanged from Bipolar/MOSFET toMOSFET/MOSFET form, with theresult of improved switchingspeed and a reduced outputvoltage drop, achieving moreefficient IGBT drive. The new IGBT gate drivers are

designed for 2.5A maximum peak output current and will be released in twopackage versions: The PS9505 comes in a conventional 8pin dual inline package(DIP) and the PS9305 is offered in a 8pin shrunk dual inline package (S-DIP) witha pin to pin distance of 1.27mm (5000Vrms isolation voltage), reducing the on-board footprint to half of a conventional 8pin DIP. The PS9505 and PS9305 series incorporate a GaAlAs LED at the input side and

a photo diode with signal processing circuit and power stage at the output side.The isolated drivers feature the combination of a high speed optocouplerproviding high isolation voltage, as well as IGBT/MOSFET driving characteristicssupplying high output voltage and current. The PS9505 and PS9305 optocouplersare suited for industrial inverter and motor control applications where amicrocontroller unit needs to be electrically isolated from the high voltage side. www.eu.necel.com/opto

The THJ 200C SMD tantalum capacitor from AVX delivers 1000 hourscontinuous operation at 200°C. Based on a unique design, distinct manufacturing processes and special

ageing techniques, these capacitors guarantee high temperatureperformance for a variety of harsh applications such as oil drilling,aerospace/defense and automotive. The capacitors are initially available in two E-case sizes: E 220µF rated at

10V for 3V rail application at 200°C and E 100µF rated at 16V for 5V railapplication at 200°C. Key features of the THJ 200C SMD tantalum capacitors include a small

surface mount package that lends itself to fast pick and place assemblytechniques and a negative temperature coefficient that ensures no localised heating occurs in the capacitor, thus avoiding thermal runaway and ultimately destruction or operational degradation of the device. Gold plated termination for hybrid assembly is provided as

conventional tin/tin-lead finished terminations have melting points that are too low for reliable operation at 200°C. Long life is also a key attribute with leakage current after 1000 hours operation at 200°C still lessthan 1mA. www.avx.com

Z-Rec 600V SiliconCarbide PowerDiodes

SMD Tantalum CapacitorsTarget Environments up to 200°C

IGBT/MOSFET Gate DriveOptocoupler

p38-40 Products.qxd_Products - 1 page 14/10/2009 11:48

http://www.ne1.com

http://www.cree.com/power

http://www.avx.com

http://www.eu.necel.com/opto

“Tuesday and Wednesday wereboth very busy days with a goodcalibre of enquiries and a goodresponse. We had 12 peoplemanning the stand and theywere all very busy.”

Patrick O’Neill – WEG

“Initial indicators on the decisionto go back to Drives and Controlswere well founded. Quality leadsfrom a busy 3 days.”

Bradley McEwan – Rockwell Automation

“The Drives and Controlsexhibition has resulted on 40%increase enquiries taken over thethree days from the 2006exhibition.”

Tony Pickering – Danfoss

“Wow! As a first time exhibitorwe will certainly be back in2010.”

Mark Cooper – Wittenstein( formerly Alpha Gearheads)

“We are very pleased with theshow, it is one of the best showswe have ever exhibited at.”David Higham – Habasit Rossi

“Excellent visitor numbers eachday including blue chipcompanies.”

Nick Cadby – Ideas in Automation

“The show looked great and thesupport facilities were second tonone. The quantity and quality ofvisitor was excellent.”

John Attenborough –Marelli

“The leads we had surpassed ourexpectations and we need to talkabout booking a larger stand forthe 2010 event.”

Nigel Evenett – Lafert

“We think Drives and Controls isnow firmly established as the UK’snumber one exhibition forautomation and drives.”Dave Baston – Control Techniques

“Drives and Controls is the bestshow that we have exhibited at for8 years. We had more enquiries onthe first day than ever before.”

Carl Krajewski – HMK Technical Services

“Compared to 2006 we’ve seen anoticeable increase in visitors. Theco-location with the other showsmakes it a must see event forengineers.”

John Wilkins – Rittal Ltd

“A superb show. By the end of theTuesday we already knew that wewould be back in 2010.”

Dave Proud – KTR

www.drives2010.com

For further information and your FREE exhibition pack contact:Doug Devlin | T: 01922 644766 |M:07803 624471 | E: [email protected] Langston | T: 01353 863383 |M: 07962 402454 | E: [email protected]

DFA Media Ltd | Cape House | 60a Priory Road | Tonbridge | Kent TN9 2BL | Tel: 01732 370340 | Fax: 01732 360034

The Drives and Controls Exhibition & Conference 20108-10 June 2010 NEC, Birmingham

Contact us now for your FREE exhibition pack and become part of the UK’s largest and mostsuccessful manufacturing event

Don’t miss out

2010BROCHUREAVAILABLE

NOW!

39_PEE_Is0709_39_PEE_Is0709 14/10/2009 12:08 Page 1

http://www.drives2010.com



40 PRODUCT UPDATE


New Generationof Super JunctionMOSFETs

Chip ResistorsCapable to 200°C

Fairchild Semiconductor brings designersof power supplies, lighting, display andindustrial applications a new generation of600V SJ MOSFETs designated SupreMOS.

The combination of their low on-resistance and total gate charge brings a40% lower figure of merit (FOM)compared to Fairchild’s 600V SuperFETMOSFETs, resulting in 20% less switchingand conduction losses. These devices, the165mΩ FCP22N60N, FCPF22N60NT andFCA22N60N, and the 199mΩFCP16N60N and FCPF16N60NT offerhigh reverse recovery characteristicsdi/dt and dv/dt bringing higher reliabilityfor resonant converter, LLC and phase-shifted full-bridge topologies found inswitch mode power supply (SMPS)designs. These features enable powersupplies to meet ENERGY STAR 80 PLUSGold classification for desktop PCs andPlatinum classification for servers.www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/FC/FCP22N60N.pdf

TT electronics IRC has developed a series ofhigh temperature thick-film chip resistors.Designated the HTC Series, the chip resistorsfeature an operating temperature to 200°Cand are available in standard chip sizesincluding 1206, 2010 and 2512 packages.The thick-film chip resistors feature Pb-freewraparound terminations with a leach-resistant nickel barrier. The resistors meet MIL-STD-202 specifications for load life, moistureresistance and thermal shock. The HTC Seriesresistors feature a resistance range from 1.0Ωto 10MΩ. Maximum voltage ratings for the1206, 2010 and 2512 chip sizes are 200,400 and 500V, respectively. Tolerances are to±0.5, ±1 and ±5%, with absolute TCRs of±100ppm/°C. Operating temperature rangesfrom -55 to 200°C.

IRC will also produce devices outsidethese specifications to meet customerrequirements. These electrical characteristicsmake the HTC Series resistors ideal for avariety of harsh environments includingautomotive underhood, aerospace, down-hole instrumentation, oil and gasequipment, motor controls, power supplyand circuit-protection applications.www.irctt.com

High-temperature PWMControllerBelgium-based CISSOID has unveiledMAGMA, a PWM controller that operatesreliably over the temperature range of -55to 225°C. The device targets DC/DCconverters and Switching Mode PowerSupplies, where it brings maximumefficiency above 90% throughout thewhole temperature range. It can operatewith input voltages from 6 to 30V anddelivers a PWM signal at constantfrequency and duty cycles up to 90%. Thechip can be forced to a stand-by mode,with a typical consumption under 150µA at 225°C. The threshold for the ‘Power Good’ signal can beadjusted. A Sync pin can be driven by an external clock for synchronisation purposes while theinternal clock is available on a Ckout pin. MAGMA also features an internal reference, input voltagefeed forward, and a soft start activated whenever it comes out of stand-by or the output is enabled.Associated with Silicon Carbide power transistors or high reliability IGBTs, MAGMA and their recentlyannounced HYPERION driver enable smaller and more reliable battery chargers and bootstrapconverters in aeronautics, oil and gas, train and automotive applications, with reduced cooling andbetter overall cost efficiency. MAGMA is available in ceramic DIL28 package. Pricing starts at €231.63for up to 200 units.www.cissoid.com

Low-Loss 1200V IGBT SeriesThe IGBTs STGW30N120KD andthe STGW40N120KD fromSTMicroelectronics have lowenergy loss when conducting,like an ordinary IGBT, and alsoreduce losses while switching.

These IGBTs achieve powersavings using ST’s PowerMESHprocess, and deliver greater all-round energy efficiency. Lowerswitching losses allow a higheroperating frequency, which, inturn, permits smaller and lower-cost components in power-control circuits. In addition, theIGBTs’ compact industry-standardTO-247 package savescomponent count by alsointegrating the ultra-fastfreewheeling diode required bymost circuits. The 1200V IGBTsare capable of surviving shortcircuits lasting up to 10µs, making them resistant to common causes of motor-controller failures,such as an error in the gate drive signal, shorting at grounding, and breakdown of motor phase-to-phase insulation. The new series is rated for 1200V operation, which allows use at higher AC line voltages such as

440 or 480V for applications up to 30 and 40A, respectively. They are available $2.50 and $2.80 eachrespectively in quantities of 5000 pieces.www.st.com/igbt

p38-40 Products.qxd_Products - 1 page 14/10/2009 11:49

http://www.irctt.com

http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/FC/FCP22

http://www.cissoid.com

http://www.st.com/igbt

WEBSITE LOCATOR 41


AC/DC Connverters

www.irf.comInternational Rectifier Co. (GB) LtdTel: +44 (0)1737 227200

Diodes

Discrete Semiconductors

Drivers ICS

www.microsemi.comMicrosemiTel: 001 541 382 8028

Fuses

GTO/Triacs

Hall Current Sensors

IGBTs

DC/DC Connverters

DC/DC Connverters


www.power.ti.comTexas InstrumentsTel: +44 (0)1604 663399


www.neutronltd.co.ukNeutron LtdTel: +44 (0)1460 242200

Harmonic Filters

www.murata-europe.comMurata Electronics (UK) LtdTel: +44 (0)1252 811666

Direct Bonded Copper (DPC Substrates)

www.curamik.co.ukcuramik electronics GmbHTel: +49 9645 9222 0


www.mark5.comMark 5 LtdTel: +44 (0)2392 618616


www.dgseals.comdgseals.comTel: 972 931 8463



www.digikey.com/europeDigi-KeyTel: +31 (0)53 484 9584




www.protocol-power.comProtocol Power ProductsTel: +44 (0)1582 477737

Busbars

www.auxel.comAuxel FTGTel: +44 (0)7714 699967

Capacitors

Certification

www.powersemiconductors.co.ukPower Semiconductors LtdTel: +44 (0)1727 811110

www.powersemiconductors.co.ukPower Semiconductors LtdTel: +44 (0)1727 811110

Connectors & Terminal Blocks


www.productapprovals.co.ukProduct Approvals LtdTel: +44 (0)1588 620192 www.hvca.com

HV Component AssociatesTel: +49 (0) 89/891 374 80

www.hvca.comHV Component AssociatesTel: +49 (0) 89/891 374 80

p41-42 Website Locator.qxd_p41-42 Website Locator 14/10/2009 12:02

http://www.irf.com

http://www.auxel.com

http://www.irf.com

http://www.power.ti.com

http://www.protocol-power.com

http://www.irf.com

http://www.mark5.com

http://www.microsemi.com

http://www.neutronltd.co.uk

http://www.curamik.co.uk


http://www.irf.com


http://www.powersemiconductors.co.uk


http://www.dgseals.com

http://www.murata-europe.com

http://www.digikey.com/europe

http://www.irf.com


http://www.irf.com


http://www.hvca.com

http://www.powersemiconductors.co.uk

http://www.productapprovals.co.uk

http://www.hvca.com

Power Modules

Power Protection Products

Power Substrates

Resistors & Potentiometers

Simulation Software

Thyristors

Smartpower Devices

Voltage References

Power ICs

Suppressors

Switches & Relays

Switched Mode PowerSupplies

Thermal Management &Heatsinks




www.irf.comInternational Rectifier Co. (GB) LtdTel: +44 (0)1737 227200www.hvca.com

HV Component AssociatesTel: +49 (0) 89/891 374 80












www.power.ti.comTexas InstrummentsTel: +44 (0)1604 663399


www.power.ti.comTexas InstrummentsTel: +44 (0)1604 663399


www.dau-at.comDau GmbH & Co KGTel: +43 3143 23510

www.denka.co.jpDenka Chemicals GmbHTel: +49 (0)211 13099 50

www.lairdtech.comLaird Technologies LtdTel: 00 44 1342 315044

www.universal-science.comUniversal Science LtdTel: +44 (0)1908 222211



www.isabellenhuette.deIsabellenhütte Heusler GmbH KGTel: +49/(27 71) 9 34 2 82

42 WEBSITE LOCATOR


ADVERTISERS INDEX

ADVERTISER RES

ABB IFC

Coilcraft 4

CT Concepts IBC

Danfoss 29

DAU 26

DFA Media Ltd 34

Digi-Key 7

Drives and Controls 2010 39

HKR 18

ADVERTISER RES

International Rectifier OBC

Isabellenhutte 13

Ixys 19

LEM 23

Microsemi Power 26

Mitsubishi 8

PCIM 2010 30

Toshiba 11

Linear Converters

Mosfets

Optoelectronic Devices



Packaging & Packaging Materials






www.biaspower.comBias Power, LLCTel: 001 847 215 2427






p41-42 Website Locator.qxd_p41-42 Website Locator 14/10/2009 12:02




http://www.irf.com




http://www.dau-at.com

http://www.denka.co.jp

http://www.lairdtech.com


http://www.irf.com

http://www.irf.com

http://www.hvca.com

http://www.irf.com




http://www.irf.com


http://www.irf.com

http://www.irf.com

http://www.irf.com









http://www.universal-science.com



http://www.biaspower.com






A Good catch!

SAMPLES AVAILABLE!

Features50A gate drive current2 x 6W output power+15V/-10V gate voltageSeparated gate paths (on/off)150kHz switching frequency80ns delay time±1ns jitter3.3V to 15V logic compatibleIntegrated DC/DC converterShort-circuit protectionEmbedded paralleling capabilitySuperior EMC (dv/dt > 100V/ns)

The new SCALE-2 dual driver core 2SC0650P combines highest power density with broad applicability. The driver is designed for both high-power and high-fre-quency applications. It is suit-able for IGBTs with reverse voltages up to 1700V and also features a dedicated MOSFET mode. Intelligent paralleling allows all forms of parallel connection of high-power modules. Multi-level topologies are also supported. The 2SC0650P offers all

ultra-short signal delay times. CONCEPT’s patented

the highest requirements.

2SC0650P Dual Gate Driver

CT-Concept Technologie AG, Renferstrasse 15, CH-2504 Biel, Switzerland, Phone +41-32-344 47 47 www.IGBT-Driver.com

43_PEE_Is0710_43_PEE_Is0710 14/10/2009 10:01 Page 1

http://www.IGBT-Driver.com

Part NumberVDS

(V)ID

(A)

RDS(on) MaxVGS=10V

(mΩ)

Qg(nC)

Package

IRFH7921PBF 30 14 8.5 8.3 PQFN (5x6)IRFH7932PBF 30 25 3.3 34 PQFNIRFH3702TRPBF 30 16 7.1 9.6 PQFN (3x3)IRFH3707TRPBF 30 12 12.4 5.4 PQFN (3x3)IRF8721PBF 30 14 8.5 8.3 SO-8IRF8788PBF 30 24 2.8 44 SO-8

Part NumberVDS

(V)ID

(A)

RDS(on) MaxVGS=10V

(mΩ)

Qg(nC)

Package

IRFB(S)3004PBF 40 330 1.75 160 TO-220(D2-PAK)IRFB(S)3006PBF 60 270 2.5 200 TO-220(D2-PAK)IRFB3077PBF 75 210 3.3 160 TO-220IRFB4110PBF 100 180 4.5 150 TO-220IRF7853PBF 100 8.3 18 28 SO-8

Part NumberVDS

(V)ID

(A)

RDS(on) MaxVGS=10V

(mΩ)

Qg(nC)

Package

IRF3205Z(S)PBF 55 110 6.5 76 TO-220(D2-PAK)IRFB(S)3806PBF 60 43 15.8 22 TO-220(D2-PAK)IRF1018E(S)PBF 60 79 8.4 46 TO-220(D2-PAK)IRFB(S)3607PBF 75 80 9.0 56 TO-220(D2-PAK)IRFB(S)3307ZPBF 75 120 5.8 79 TO-220(D2-PAK)

IR’s latest MOSFETs offer benchmark performance and are tailored for DC/DC conversion, AC/DC synchronous rectifi cation, and Industrial Battery applications such as E-Bike and UPS systems.

IR’s latest Trench technology in a wide range of packages up to 250V enables low RDS(on), low gate charge, and high switching

capability for today’s demanding designs.

Your FIRST CHOICEfor Performance

Benchmark Point of Load: VRM, Buck Regulation

Benchmark Power Supply: Synchronous Rectifi cation

Benchmark Industrial: Industrial Battery, UPS

Benchmark Power MOSFETs forHigh Performance Applications

THE POWER MANAGEMENT LEADER For more information call +33 (0) 1 64 86 49 53 or +49 (0) 6102 884 311

or visit us at www.irf.com THE POWER MANAGEMENT LEADER

44_PEE_Is0710_44_PEE_Is0710 14/10/2009 09:58 Page 1

http://www.irf.com

inverter design shunt current measuring up to 800a … · inverter design shunt current measuring...

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