inventing games, inventing democracy: co-constructed constraints enabling learning in games...
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Inventing Games, Inventing Games, Inventing Democracy: Inventing Democracy:
Co-constructed constraints Co-constructed constraints enabling learning in games educationenabling learning in games education
Dr Joy Butler (UBC) – March Dr Joy Butler (UBC) – March 44thth, 2010, 2010
Sponsored by the:Health, Leisure and Human Performance Research Institute
& Manitoba Physical Education Supervisors Association
Manitoba Physical Education Teachers Association
Inventing Games, Inventing Inventing Games, Inventing Democracy: Democracy:
Co-constructed constraints enabling Co-constructed constraints enabling learning in games educationlearning in games education
Outline of presentationTGfU outlineInventing games and democratic learning
Understanding rules through descriptive, prescriptive and proscriptive constraints
Inventing games research project
Second order constraints as they relate to democracy in action and student example
Aporia and ethical behavior
TGfUTGfUBrief overview of TGfU as an Brief overview of TGfU as an approach to teaching & approach to teaching & learning gameslearning games
Constraints of game Constraints of game structures in TGfU structures in TGfU
Classification of GamesClassification of Games
Clustered by category intent(primary rule)
Creates sub-components of concept, strategies, and tactics.
Classification of games
TEACHING GAMES FOR UNDERSTANDING: CONCEPT BASED APPROACH
START PLAYING
GAMES STAGE 3/4
Modifications: rules, equipment, players, boundaries
GAME APPRECIATION
CONCEPTS (transfer, exaggeration techniques)
STAGE 3 TACTICAL
AWARENESS (Beginning
offensive and defensive strategies)
Spiral Curriculum
Sampling
Techniques
ELEVATING
PERFORMANCE
? Developing control of the object (sending, receiving and carrying / propelling actions)
? Complex control and combinations of skills
STAGE 1 & 2 SKILL EXECUTION
DECISION MAKING WHAT TO DO HOW TO DO Selective attention Skills in Perception context Anticipation
LEARNER
UNDERSTANDING AND FUN
TEACHING GAMES FOR UNDERSTANDING (TGFU) TEACHING GAMES FOR UNDERSTANDING (TGFU)
Adapted from Thorpe & Bunker (1983)
To place the ball away from fielders in order
to run the bases and score more runs than the
opponents.
Striking/Fielding GamesBaseball, Cricket, Danish LB, Kickball, Rounders, Softball, T-Ball
Get onto 1st base
Defending basesPosition
fielders to anticipate placement
of batter’s ball
Aiding Runners to
get tonext base
Getting on bases beyond first
Base
Concept/Strategies Tactics Skills & Techniques
Hit low & hard into open space away fromfirst base
Stealing, forcing play
Hitting, hard & beyond infield
Consideration of game play
Field & throw to Base of nearest
runner
Field & throw to 1st base immediately
Reading, decision-making, base, sending,
Receiving, cover skills
Observation Of fielders,
Striking, bodyPositioning, grip, etc.
Reading, decision-making,
Base (ready position),Locomotor skills
Receiving & sending skills
Reading, decision-making,
sprinting
Striking & placement strikes
To send objects back to opponents so that they
are unable to return it or are forced to make an error. Serving is
the only time the object is held.
Net GamesBadminton, racquet ball, squash, volleyball, etc.
Spatial Awareness
Throwing, catching on
bounce and volley serving and receiving
serve
Positioning on court
Running, stopping, changing directions
Positioning of body
Balance, footwork, hitting the ball in relation
to the body
Trajectory
Throwing and catching
Depth
Hitting with a specific force, lob, drop, spin, volley,
drives dig shots
Angles
Control of racquet, angle of racquet, volley, forehand
& backhand
Concept/Strategies
Skill
Emotions
To invade the opponents defending
area to score a goal while simultaneously protecting
own goal
Maintaining possession
Zoning, defending players
in area
Control of object
Transposition
Territorial Games Basketball, rugby, hockey,
football, soccer, etc
Spatial awareness
Penetration /invasion
Sending, receiving, traveling
Accurate passing & receiving,
dodging, changes of speeds
Shuffle, change of speed,
running in different directions
Peripheral vision, footwork, running,quick
changes of directions
Tactics: Intercepting ball,
pressurizing opponents, closing down
distribution options.
Rapid change from offense to
defenseObtaining possessionSkills
Concepts/ Strategies
Tactics
GPAI – Offensive GPAI – Offensive AssessmentAssessment
GPAI – Peer Defensive GPAI – Peer Defensive AssessmentAssessment
A = Appropriate, I = Inappropriate
An early example of An early example of Inventing GamesInventing Games
Dr. Gulick- Dean of PE at Springfield YMCA Training School Dec, 1891
James Naismith given the task of finding an indoor game to keep students active between football and baseball seasons.
Not to include gymnastics or barbells
Naismith considered the constraints of the gym, so no bats or racquets. He decided on using a ball but with no running or tackling.
Response to constraints Response to constraints
Constraint – men saw roughness as a means to an end in winning. Mostly around the goal area. Needed to change for the gym environment
Response - Naismith considered a different style of play for winning – by placing the goal beyond reach required accuracy and arc of the goal more important than brute strength.
He established the first rules “no shouldering, holding, pushing, tripping or striking…”
Any number of men could play at once with size of the team depending on the size of the floor space.
Inventing GamesInventing Games
Learners work together to Learners work together to create their own gamescreate their own games Making decisions is part of Making decisions is part of
the processthe process
Learners progress through Learners progress through games concepts involved at games concepts involved at their own levels of their own levels of understanding and abilityunderstanding and ability
Learners resolve conflicts Learners resolve conflicts and learn from disagreementsand learn from disagreements
Teachers help learners to Teachers help learners to work together democratically, work together democratically, sharing ideas, and valuing sharing ideas, and valuing and honoring everyone’s and honoring everyone’s contributionscontributions
13
The impossible The impossible invention – opens up invention – opens up
creativitycreativityAs learners invent games, their creativity is reinforced.
Democracy is based upon the conviction Democracy is based upon the conviction that there are extraordinary that there are extraordinary possibilitiespossibilities in ordinary people. in ordinary people. ~ Harry Emerson Fosdick~ Harry Emerson Fosdick
Democracy depends upon human creativity, and conversely, creativity thrives in an atmosphere of freedom and openness. What is good in people – and consequently the world, is their insistence on creation.
E. M. Forster
Inventing Games: Inventing Games: Democracy in actionDemocracy in action
Civics classes often teach by precept
Learners learn by engaging in debate, struggle and conflict
Schools aim to be conflict- free
TGfU/ Inventing Games can make engagement and conflict part of education
How Inventing Games How Inventing Games promotes democracy in promotes democracy in
actionaction1. Learners make their own choices and decisions.
They solve consequent problems and regulate their own behaviors
2. As they design games that others will find interesting, learners employ invention, creativity, and imagination
3. Learners teach the games to others in order to: experience mentoring/coaching understand intent by explaining it to others
4. Learners work on the smaller details of the game in order to : become more effective in game play develop skills at their own pace improve the game
How Inventing Games How Inventing Games promotes democracy in promotes democracy in
actionaction
5. Game Invention integrates all areas of the curriculum, developing well rounded citizens
6.6. Helps children learn to make good rules for Helps children learn to make good rules for themselves and others to regulate behaviorthemselves and others to regulate behavior
7.7. Helps children learn to consider others’ Helps children learn to consider others’ points of view, to compromise and to points of view, to compromise and to negotiate conflict constructivelynegotiate conflict constructively
8.8. Helps children learn why rules are Helps children learn why rules are meaningful within the social context of meaningful within the social context of game playinggame playing
Re-evaluation cycle in Re-evaluation cycle in Inventing GamesInventing Games
Students re-evaluate their games through answering the following questions and then modifying the rules
Does the game flow? Is the game structured? Is it safe for
everyone? Is the game fair for
everyone? Is everyone involved? Is it fun?
Group decisionsGroup decisions
Int: What did you learn from this unit about group decisions?
S1: Everyone has to get a chance to talk.
S2: Like Samantha? She didn’t really talk much. But when we all asked her she kind of talked a little and we kind of communicated how she thinks about the game. Well first the girls didn’t like the game but then we started playing. We had more rules coming along and we talked a little more about stuff that they didn’t know before so then they started liking the game.
Int: Is it important to include everybody in the group?
S3: Yes.
Int: Why?
S3: Because if one person is left out then the group wouldn’t be a group anymore.
Decision-making Decision-making about rulesabout rules
how did you decide on which rules to be changed?
S1: First we voted. S2: We voted. Then we see if everybody likes it and if they don’t… then we see if they have ideas that we can mix into the ideas we have..
UNDERSTANDING RULESUNDERSTANDING RULES
Constraints:Constraints:
DescriptiveDescriptive
PrescriptivePrescriptive
ProscriptiveProscriptive
Descriptive Descriptive rulesrules
Descriptive rules or regulations, which control space and time of the game:o Equipment o Size of playing areao Goal type & dimension
o Boundaries o Number of playerso Scoring system.
Change of descriptive Change of descriptive rules or regulations (exp. rules or regulations (exp.
group)group) S1: We used two balls because of the bigger area.
Before when we were in the corner of the gym we couldn’t
put two balls in because they’d fly everywhere. So then now that we have a bigger area we think we should have two balls.
T: Why though?
S1: Because uh everybody gets a chance to play cause if there’s only one ball there’s too many people. Everybody will whack uh the ball.
S2: If one ball goes out of bounds everybody has to wait. But if
there’s two balls they can continue with the other ball.
Prescriptive vs. Prescriptive vs. proscriptive proscriptive constraintsconstraints
Prescription - dictates what must be done:you must take medical prescriptions to get well
Ten Commandments – Thou shalt
Proscriptive - indicates what must not be done in that they do not dictate what must be done, but limit options, offering considerable freedom inside set constraints or rules.
Prescriptive rulesPrescriptive rules
These are restrictive rules – These are restrictive rules – theythey dictate dictate what what mustmust be donebe done
You must use a golf club to You must use a golf club to manipulate the ball on the manipulate the ball on the golf course. (You cannot throw golf course. (You cannot throw it for example)it for example)
You must use your stick (field You must use your stick (field hockey- unless aerial) to stop hockey- unless aerial) to stop the ball and on one side.the ball and on one side. Different in ice hockey where Different in ice hockey where
you can use your feet or any you can use your feet or any other body part to stop the other body part to stop the puck & both sides of stickpuck & both sides of stick
Prescriptive rules shapes Prescriptive rules shapes the inherent nature of the the inherent nature of the
gamegameNet games (badminton,
pickleball, tennis, volleyball):
serve, volley, drop, forehand, backhand smash
oTerritorial games (Basketball, football, hockey, lacrosse, rugby, Soccer, water-polo)
o passing, receiving, dribbling, shooting
Proscriptive rules Proscriptive rules
Proscriptive rules are expansive by indicating what must not be done – (but then opens up possibilities of what could be done). o E.g. you cannot throw the ball into a golf hole.
o You cannot touch the net on a serve
Understanding the purpose of rules
(& limitations of teacher understanding)T:How many groups who have started their games have
rules? (Hands go up.) Okay? Somebody tell me what a RULE is. Because everybody says yeah we got those we got those but I wonder if you think that a rule is the same thing I do.
S:Well… a RULE is something you can’t do in the game.T:Something you can’t do?S:Or can.T:Or can do. Okay. And what’s THE POINT of having rules?
Why would a game need rules? S:To keep order and also to keep people from cheating.T:That’s a really good answer. To keep order to the game
and maybe to keep them from cheating. Are people CHEATING if they break the rules? Is that kind of what you’re saying?
S:Yeah.
Constraints in Constraints in TeachingTeaching
As with proscriptive rules, we try to place limitations on tasks and we modify the descriptive rules or regulations
Knowing what constraints to place on learning process that both delimits possibilities and allows choice at the same time – defines enabling constraints (Davis et al, 2006)
Enabling Constraint
sOxymoron?Or a necessary tension for complex unities that are: simultaneously rule- bound (constraining) capable of flexible, unanticipated possibilities (enabling). Davis et al, 2006
Enabling constraintsEnabling constraintsin teaching and in teaching and
learninglearningThe pedagogical intents of enabling constraints are to:
Open possibilities by limiting choices
Investigate established knowledge while engaging in a process of establishing knowledge
Support tasks that encourage both individual and collective learning
INVENTING GAMES INVENTING GAMES RESEARCH WITH RESEARCH WITH 66THTH GRADERS GRADERSResearch questions: Does playing experience Research questions: Does playing experience have any impact on students’ ability in have any impact on students’ ability in inventing games? What are the observable inventing games? What are the observable group dynamics around decision-making?group dynamics around decision-making?
Research methodologyResearch methodology
Sixth grade class divided Sixth grade class divided into groups of 6 (3 girls, 3 into groups of 6 (3 girls, 3 boys).boys).
One groups of 6 was One groups of 6 was identified as having most identified as having most games experience and one as games experience and one as having least experience (in having least experience (in and out of school).and out of school).
Each group was asked to Each group was asked to create a game using create a game using territorial game structuresterritorial game structures
Video-taped 3 times Video-taped 3 times
Audio-taped in groups Audio-taped in groups observing their video tapes. observing their video tapes. Questions centered around Questions centered around decision-making processes and decision-making processes and games learning.games learning.
Co-constructs Co-constructs in Inventing Games in Inventing Games
(Teacher)(Teacher)Prescriptive
Constraints (must do)
Teacher designates the category to be used – territorial games (primary rule)
Limits games structures to goal at each end etc.
Pre-existing knowledge explored
Proscriptive Constraints (must not do)
Cannot create game already established
Creative Writing example – cannot write “Then I went home.”
New knowledge is created
Co-constructs Co-constructs in Inventing Games in Inventing Games
(Learners)(Learners)Prescriptive
Constraints (must do)
Learners create secondary rules to set parameters of actions
Influenced by past experiences developmental stages of players – what they can do
Proscriptive Constraints (must not do)
As they play, adjustments are made to the prescriptive rules to:Create more playHelp game to flowInclude all playersMake it fairMake it saferMake it fun
Most experienced Most experienced groupgroup
Prescriptive rules Purpose: to throw ball into soccer type
net Combination of dodgeball and capture
the flag 2 steps with the ball Tagged player in jail until a team-mate
could
free him/her.
Proscriptive rules Group 1 allowed all players anywhere Group 1 allowed all players anywhere
except in the goalie’s semi-circle except in the goalie’s semi-circle with no bodily checkingwith no bodily checking
This constraint added more challenge in This constraint added more challenge in terms of time, space, and agility terms of time, space, and agility (except for the goalie – who was afforded (except for the goalie – who was afforded more safety considerationsmore safety considerations
Least experienced Least experienced groupgroupPrescriptive constraintsPurpose: to knock down 8 pins on opponents back line
Floor hockey sticks were used to move the ball
No limit on moving with ball or passing
Proscriptive constraints•Restricted opponents from crossing the half way line, thus limiting defenders choices
Opened up more possibilities for offensive players to observe team mates passing and to prepare for their shot on target
Psychomotor Psychomotor development development differencesdifferences
The environment created The environment created was open and movement was open and movement sequences were mostly sequences were mostly continuouscontinuous
Interactions with Interactions with opponents (tagging or opponents (tagging or dodging) were frequentdodging) were frequent
Some contact with Some contact with opposition was requiredopposition was required
game was in constant motion game was in constant motion
Little passing occurredLittle passing occurred
Some positions (offense Some positions (offense and defense) became and defense) became apparentapparent
Least ExperiencedLeast Experienced The environment created The environment created
was partly closed and was partly closed and partly openpartly open
Interactions with Interactions with opposition were minimal opposition were minimal and not directand not direct
Skill action (shooting) Skill action (shooting) was discrete; was discrete; occasionally a pass was occasionally a pass was addedadded
Game was in constant motionGame was in constant motion
Some passing occurredSome passing occurred
Goalie was the only Goalie was the only position createdposition created
Affective Affective developmental developmental differencesdifferences
Least ExperiencedLeast Experienced
appointed a leader right away, appointed a leader right away, coed teamscoed teams
shared ideas cooperativelyshared ideas cooperatively
used voting system to make used voting system to make decisions by putting heads decisions by putting heads down and voting anonymouslydown and voting anonymously
listened to each others’ ideaslistened to each others’ ideas
players encouraged each players encouraged each otherother
helped each other get helped each other get involvedinvolved
Cognitive Cognitive developmental developmental differencesdifferencesMost ExperiencedMost Experienced
Players worked primarily as Players worked primarily as individuals in order to score goalsindividuals in order to score goals
Decisions were made quickly as Decisions were made quickly as were skills executedwere skills executed
8-12 balls of varying size were used 8-12 balls of varying size were used with differing purposeswith differing purposes
Defenders were allowed to interfere Defenders were allowed to interfere with opponents throwing by with opponents throwing by tagging them and moving them to tagging them and moving them to jailjail
Difficult time creating a unique Difficult time creating a unique game. Came back to dodge ball game. Came back to dodge ball oftenoften
Group changed rules as they Group changed rules as they playedplayed
Least ExperiencedLeast Experienced
Defenders were only allowed to the Defenders were only allowed to the half-way line, allowing defensive half-way line, allowing defensive players to aim and shoot at players to aim and shoot at targets.targets.
Turns were taken shooting at target Turns were taken shooting at target with limited distractionwith limited distraction
Maintaining possession was Maintaining possession was not an objectivenot an objective
Lots of time for decisions and skill Lots of time for decisions and skill executionexecution
Some strategy was evident in “secret Some strategy was evident in “secret huddles” prior to playhuddles” prior to play
One ball was used until showcaseOne ball was used until showcase
Group changed the rules as they Group changed the rules as they playedplayed
Emerging learning of Emerging learning of democratic process (week democratic process (week
5)5)Q. So what were you
discussing right now? Is this when you were deciding who the referee was?
S. Yea. Yep.
Q. And you were deciding to be fair. Is this how you make most of your decisions?
S.Yea. We asked for opinions and the best for the game.
Q. The best for the game? That’s how you make your decisions?
S. Yea.
Q. And what if somebody doesn’t agree?
S. Then we… it changes. If there’s only one person that doesn’t agree then… and we have to have a reason why she doesn’t why she doesn’t agree. And we keep on agree. And we keep on going.going.
Emergent learning of Emergent learning of democratic process democratic process (week 5 (week 5
continued)continued)
Q. So one person doesn’t like it..
A. And they have a good reason, we’ll change it. But if it’s not that good, we won’t change it.
Q. OK. But if 2 people don’t like something?
A. We’ll change it. It has to be three.
Q. It has to be half?
A. Yes.
Q. OK. So if it’s 50%, people don’t agree, then you’ll change that?
A. Yea. It happened before.
Show-casing gamesShow-casing games
Both groups had the opportunity to:
Show-case their game to the whole class
Coach their class members in playing the game
Second order Second order constraintsconstraints
First order constraints may be generated by the system itself, as it responds to its environment (creativity, thinking)
These are ‘bottom up’ constraints (inventing games rules)
Once these become an integral part of the system’s organization, however, they are known as ‘second order’ constraints (part of institutionalized rules)
These are ‘top-down’ constraints (transmission of knowledge)
Individuals begin to work together as a system, Juarrero (1999)
Group differences in Group differences in showcasing (end of showcasing (end of
unit)unit)There was much excitement, cheering There was much excitement, cheering and fun with the least experienced and fun with the least experienced group.group.
The experienced group had no unified The experienced group had no unified front. The girls took on the role of front. The girls took on the role of coaching while one boy stood to the coaching while one boy stood to the side with arms folded looking side with arms folded looking thunderous and the other two were thunderous and the other two were disengaged.disengaged.
In the debriefing after the lesson, the experienced In the debriefing after the lesson, the experienced group exploded with hostile accusations and shouting group exploded with hostile accusations and shouting before the interviewer was able to intervene with before the interviewer was able to intervene with questions.questions.
Q. There seemed to be some disagreement amongst you Q. There seemed to be some disagreement amongst you when it came to the presentation. What was the when it came to the presentation. What was the problem?problem?
A. Boy 1 “The game stank. I hated it. No one listened A. Boy 1 “The game stank. I hated it. No one listened to me from week 1.to me from week 1.
A.A.Girl 2 “You just sulked just cos we didn’t take Girl 2 “You just sulked just cos we didn’t take your idea one time. … you had plenty of times to your idea one time. … you had plenty of times to make other suggestions. But you didn’t. If you don’t make other suggestions. But you didn’t. If you don’t join in, then you have to suck it up and do what join in, then you have to suck it up and do what everyone else has decided.”everyone else has decided.”
B.B.Girl 1. You just sulked cos you didn’t get your own Girl 1. You just sulked cos you didn’t get your own way as you usually do. This game rocked!way as you usually do. This game rocked!
What was learned?What was learned?
What did each of the students learn? What did each of the students learn? The sulking boy and the outspoken The sulking boy and the outspoken girl.girl.
Need to go back and ask these students Need to go back and ask these students what they remember about the unit!what they remember about the unit!
Morality, politics, responsibility, Morality, politics, responsibility, if there are any, will only have if there are any, will only have begun with the experience of the begun with the experience of the aporia. When the path is given… the aporia. When the path is given… the decision is already made… The decision is already made… The condition of possibility of the condition of possibility of the impossible: the trial of the aporia impossible: the trial of the aporia from which one may invent the only from which one may invent the only possible invention: the impossible possible invention: the impossible invention.invention.
Derrida, 1992 in Patti Lather’s Getting Lost Derrida, 1992 in Patti Lather’s Getting Lost (2007).(2007).
ETHICAL BEHAVIORETHICAL BEHAVIORMencius (in Varela’s Ethical know-how) Mencius (in Varela’s Ethical know-how) identifies four kinds of human action, of identifies four kinds of human action, of which only one manifests truly ethical which only one manifests truly ethical behavior, the other are semblances at best or behavior, the other are semblances at best or downright counterfeits. These four, in downright counterfeits. These four, in ascending order of excellence, are actions ascending order of excellence, are actions that arise from:that arise from:1.1.a desire to gaina desire to gain2.2.habitual response patternshabitual response patterns3.3.following rulesfollowing rules4.4.extensionextension
From adherence to From adherence to rules to embodiment rules to embodiment
of ethicsof ethicsThose people whose actions are Those people whose actions are generated by adherence to rules generated by adherence to rules are like beginners learning a are like beginners learning a motor skill. Such rules will motor skill. Such rules will always remain external to the always remain external to the agent, for they will always agent, for they will always differ at least in some ways differ at least in some ways form the agent’s internal form the agent’s internal inclination. (Varela, p.30)inclination. (Varela, p.30)
Our taskOur task: is to situate the : is to situate the experience of impossibility as an experience of impossibility as an enabling site for working through enabling site for working through aporias. Ellsworth calls this aporias. Ellsworth calls this “coming up against stuck place “coming up against stuck place after stuck place” as a way to after stuck place” as a way to keep moving in order to produce keep moving in order to produce and learn from ruptures, and learn from ruptures, failures, breaks, refusals (1997, failures, breaks, refusals (1997, pp. xi, 9)pp. xi, 9)
FINAL NOTE FROM THE FINAL NOTE FROM THE STUDENTSSTUDENTS
I: I: What advice do you have for the next group that tries this?
S: To tell them to express their imagination with another group. For instance if there’s a guy and a girl and if they didn’t really get along and if they were in a group together maybe they would get along well? [mm-hmm?] When they are playing the game they would have fun and forget their differences.