introduction to neuroscience: the basal ganglia · role of basal ganglia bg dysfunction has been...
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Introduction to Neuroscience: The Basal Ganglia
Michal Rivlin
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BasalGanglia– agroupofsubcorticalnuclei
• Striatum:caudate&putamen• Globuspallidus (external&
internalsegments)• Subthalamic nucleus• Substantia nigra (parscompacta
&parsreticulata)
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Basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop
• BasalGangliareceivesrobustinputfromthecortex
• PrincipalprojectionoftheBG– viathethalamusbacktocorticaltargets
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Overview of BG organization• Input:
– Caudateandputamen(together,thestriatum)
• Intrinsic:– Subthalamicnucleus(STN)– Externalsegmentofglobuspallidus
(GPe)
Output:Substantianigraparsreticulata(SNr)Internalsegmentofglobuspallidus(GPi)
Neuromodulator:Substantianigraparscompacta(SNc)
SNc
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Striatum: Medium spiny neurons
• Caudateandputamen
• Mediumspinyneurons– 95%ofneurons;primaryprojectionneurons
– GABAergic;inhibitory
– Verylittlespontaneousactivity
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Striatum: Intrinsic interneurons
2principletypes
– 3GABAergicinterneurons
– Tonicallyactiveneurons(TANs)• Cholinergic• Largecellbodies
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Globus pallidus
Two segmentsInternal (GPi): Principle output nucleusExternal (GPe): intrinsic circuitry
GABAergic; inhibitory
high tonic firing rates
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Globus pallidus
Elias et al. J. Neurosci. 2007
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Subthalamic nucleus
Glutamatergic; excitatory
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Substantia nigra
• Midbrain
• SNparsreticulata(SNr)– GABAergic– hightonicfiringrates– OutputofBG
• SNparscompacta (SNc)– Neuromelanin-containingcells
– Dopaminergic– Tonic/phasicfiring
SNc
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Directandindirectpathways
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Directpathwaypromotesaction
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Indirectpathwaysuppressesaction
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Hyperdirect pathway
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RoleofBasalGangliaBGdysfunctionhasbeenassociatedwithnumerousconditionsincludingParkinson'sdisease,Huntington'sdisease,Tourette'ssyndrome,schizophrenia,attention-deficitdisorder,obsessive-compulsivedisorder,andmanyoftheaddictions.
• Motorcontrol• Learning• Motivationandreward• Cognitivetasks
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Reinforcementlearning
• Supervisedlearning–Allknowingteacher,detailedfeedback
• Reinforcementlearning–Learnandrelearnbasedonactionsandtheireffects(rewards)
• Unsupervisedlearning–Selforganization
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Rescorla-Wagnerrule(1972)
• Theidea:error-drivenlearning• Changeinvalueisproportionaltothedifferencebetweenactualandpredictedoutcome
Outcome:Rewardvalue
RewardpredictedLearningrate
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TDlearning
Vt =Estimatedvalueofcurrentstatebasedonpredictedfuturereward
η =Learningrate
rt =rewardgivenattimet
‘truer’valueofcurrentstate:Rewardatpresentstate+Estimatedvalueofnextstate
Estimatedvalueofcurrentstate
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ThecomputationalmachineryoftheBasalGanglia
The basal ganglia networks are built as Actor-Critic network and employ temporal difference algorithms.
Dopamine provides the pleasure prediction error
EnvironmentSTATE
ACTION
REWARD
Ctx
SNc
Dop
amin
eST
N, S
tr
GP
Fron
tct
x
EnvironmentSTATE
ACTION
REWARD
ACTOR
CRITIC
TD
err
or
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Dopaminematchsurprisesignal
Schultzetal.,1997
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Dopaminematchsurprisesignal
Dopaminesignal=rewardoccurred– rewardpredicted
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Dopamineneuronsencodethe(positive)mismatchbetweenpredictionsandreality
Cue Reward NoReward
Rwr
DA
Cue No-RwrCueD
AP=1.00P=0.75P=0.50P=0.25
Genela Morrisetal.,Neuron,2004
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Effectsofdopamine
• Learning=plasticity• Teaching=modulatingsynapticplasticity• Cortico-striatalsynapsesareknowntoundergolong-termchangesinsynapticefficacy.– Long-termpotentiation(LTP)ismediatedbyactivationofdopamineD1receptors
– Long-termdepression(LTD)ismediatedbyactivationofdopamineD2receptors
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D1D2
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Thestriveforthedopaminergicreward
• Cocaineandamphetaminesincreaseamountofdopaminebyinhibitingitsreuptakeintothesynapticterminals.
• Opiatenarcoticsincreasedopaminereleasebydisinhibitingdopaminergicneurons.
• Nicotineincreasesstriataldopamine.• Aprolongedincreaseindopaminelevelsmayaffectsynapticplasticityand
providetheneuralbasisfordrugaddiction.
Electricalself-stimulationinneuronalpathwaysassociatedwithdopamine.OldsandMilner,1954
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It’snotallaboutdopamine:balancebetweenneurotransmitters
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Parkinson’sdisease(PD)
Clinicalsymptoms• Akinesia/bradykinesia,• Tremor,• Muscularrigidity,• Posturaldeficits• Emotionalandcognitivedeficits
Epidemiology• 3/1000oftotalpopulation• Meanageofonset– 60years• 1/100of>60years
JamesParkinson,1817
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Parkinson’sdisease:depletionofdopamine
Parkinson Normal
Substantia nigra
Striatum
TyrosinehydroxylasecatalyzesL-DOPA,aprecursorfordopamine
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D1D2
Effectsofdopaminedepletionondirectandindirectpathways
DirectpathwaypromotesactionIndirectpathwaysuppressesaction
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DopaminereplacementtherapyofParkinson’sdisease
1967-9, George C. Cotzias: L-DOPA (a precursor of dopamine that cross the blood brain barrier) is established as the gold-standard therapeutic agent for Parkinson's disease.
1970 – today: Dopamine replacement therapy (L-DOPA, post synaptic agonists, etc)
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Thelimitsofdopaminereplacementtherapy
Time
Bra
in D
A le
vel Best
Typical
S
Levodopa-induceddyskinesiaDystonia
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TheMPTPmodelofParkinson’sdisease
From: Understanding Parkinson's Disease, Youdim and Riederer, Sci. American 276: 38 (1997)
MPPP (1-methyl-4-propionoxypiperidine)- a reverse ester of meperidine and a potent narcotic- easy to synthesize- synthesis typically results in MPTP as byproduct.
1976: A college student synthesized and abused MPPP for 6 months. - made a 'sloppy batch', and became severely Parkinsonian. - Pathology: severe cell loss limited to the SN (Davis et al. 1979).
1982: MPPP was distributed en-mass in California as 'synthetic heroin'- young drug abusers arriving in ER with advanced Parkinsonism.
- typical Parkinsonian rest tremor in about half (3-4/7) of MPTP patients (Langston et al. 1983, 1987, 1995).
MPTP: 1- methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine
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TheMPTPmodelofParkinson’sdisease
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Appearanceofneuronaloscillations
• Theparkinsonian braindemonstratesoscillatoryactivity:– PDpatientsduringbrain
surgery– MPTPprimates
Nor
mal
GP
park
inso
nian
GP
o Neuraloscillations(5-15Hz)
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Spontaneousactivity
• NeuronaloscillationsappearintheGPaswellasinMI
¨ Tremorfrequencydiffersfromcorticalfrequency
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D1D2
Inactivationofthesubthalamic nucleusamelioratesParkinsonsymptomsoftheMPTPmonkey
Norm
MPTP
-STN
-STN
-STN
MPTP
MPTP
Norm
Norm
0
4 0 0
N o r m a lM P T P
Tre
mo
r T
ime
(s
)
S T N l e s i o n0
8
N o r m a lM P T PS T N l e s i o n0
6 0 0
N o r m a lM P T P
Mo
v.
Tim
e (
s)
Dis
pla
ce
me
nt
(de
g)
S T N l e s i o n
A. Movement B. Rigidity C. Tremor
Bergman,Wichmann andDeLong,1990
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Deepbrainstimulation(DBS)
• Deepbrainstimulation(DBS)isusedasatreatmentforadvancedPD.
• AnelectrodeislocatedintheSTN/GPi andhighfrequencystimulation(~130Hz)isgiventhroughtheelectrode.
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BGhyperkineticdisorders
• Huntington’sdisease– striatalprojectionneuronsbecomedysfunctionalanddegenerate
– causesdefectsinbehavioranduncontrolledmovements.
– hereditarydisease• Hemiballismus
– Reducedactivityinthesubthalamic nucleus– Repetitive,largeamplitudeinvoluntarymovementsofthelimbs
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BGnon-motordisorders
• Tourettesyndrome• Obsessive-compulsivedisorder• Attention-deficithyperactivitydisorder(ADHD)• Addiction