introduction to language study 4-year program junior students spring semestertopics: groupings of...

Introduction to Language Study4-year programJunior students

Spring Semester

TOPICS:TOPICS:Groupings of Words Groupings of Words (pp. 146 – 150), slides 6 – 60

Nature of Semantic Change Nature of Semantic Change (pp. 135 – 138), slides 61 – 75Phraseological Units (pp. 152 – 154), slides 76 – 92

Functional Styles”(Functional Styles”(pp. 151 – 161), slides 93 – 53

TextbookTextbook: Exploring the System of the English LanguageISBN 986-7688-42-2

Professor: Ludmila Kudrevatykh

Learning Activities

Preview the material of a chapter at homeLearn linguistic terminologyListen to the teacher’s explanationsDo practical in classCorrect the mistakes under the supervision of the

teacher

Preview of a chapter Discuss definitions and

classifications Do practical

Mistakes correction

Controlling tests

Individual home work

Teacher’s explanations and presentations

Individual or pair-work in class

Regularly1. Quizzes2. Practical tests

Course Methods

Lesson plan (in weeks)

1. Preview;2.2. Groupings of WordsGroupings of Words: Synonyms;3.3. Groupings of WordsGroupings of Words: Synonyms (cont);4.4. Groupings of WordsGroupings of Words: Antonyms;5.5. Groupings of WordsGroupings of Words: Hyponyms;6.6. Groupings of WordsGroupings of Words: Homonyms;7.7. Groupings of WordsGroupings of Words: Homonyms (cont);8. Review;9. Midterm.

Lesson plan (continued)

1.1. Nature of Semantic ChangeNature of Semantic Change: Metaphor;2.2. Nature of Semantic ChangeNature of Semantic Change: Metonymy;3.3. Phraseological UnitsPhraseological Units: Phraseological Collocations and

Unities; 4.4. Phraseological UnitsPhraseological Units: Phraseological Fusions; Proverbs; 5.5. Functional StylesFunctional Styles: Formal and Informal Styles; Basic

Vocabulary;6.6. Functional StylesFunctional Styles: Morphological Expressive Means;

Lexical Expressive Means;7.7. Functional StylesFunctional Styles: Lexical Expressive Means (cont);

Syntactic Expressive Means;8. Review;9. Final Test.

Groupings of Words Groupings of Words (pp. 146 – 150)

Words can be grouped together into lexico-lexico-semantic fields semantic fields on the basis of their shared meanings that can be of the following types:

similar opposite includeddifferent

Groupings of Words Groupings of Words (pp. 146 – 150)

Synonymic, antonymic, hyponymic and homonymic lexico-semantic fields or groups of words should be distinguished.

Synonymy Synonymy deals with sameness of meaning. AntonymyAntonymy deals with oppositeness of meaning. HyponymyHyponymy refers to the words in which the

meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word.

HomonymyHomonymy deals with different words that are pronounced and/or spelled in the same way.

Groupings of Words: Synonymy (pp. 146 – 148)

Synonymy Synonymy deals with sameness of meaning.

SynonymsSynonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing either in shades (elements) of meaning or in stylistic characteristics .

Synonyms may belong to the same part of speech (cf., ridiculous, absurd, inane)

or formed by words of different word-classes (cf.,; sleeping, sleep time, to sleep).

Groupings of Words:

Synonymy (pp. 146 – 148)

Examples:

to begin – to start – to – commence (bookish) – synonyms differ in stylistic reference as belong to different styles of a language

to tremble - to shiver (from cold) - to shudder (from disgust) – synonyms differ in shades of their meanings

Groupings of Words:

Synonymy (pp. 146 – 148)

Synonyms may differ in the way of building word-combinations:

to answer (a question) – to reply to (a question); to finish (school) – to graduate from (University); to offer (a concrete thing) – to suggest (an idea).

Groupings of Words: Synonymy . Synonymic Dominant (pp. 146 – 148)

Each synonymic group has a dominant element called the synonymic dominantthe synonymic dominant - the most general term potentially containing the specific features rendered by all the other members of the group, e.g.: to tremble – to shiver – to shudder.

Groupings of Words: Synonymy . Synonymic Dominant (pp. 146 – 148)

The synonymic dominant has the following features:

1. high frequency of usage;2. broad combinability, i.e., an ability of a

word to be used in combinations with various classes of words;

3. broad general meaning;4. lack of connotations

(to ask – to inquire – to question – to interrogate )

Groupings of Words: Synonymy . Types of Synonyms (pp. 146 – 147)

V. Vinogradov (1953) established the following classification of synonyms:

ideographic,stylistic, ideographic-stylistic, contextual, absolute (total) synonyms.


Ideographic Ideographic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing in denotations, cf.:

a piece – a lump – a slice,to tremble – to shiver – to shudder, anger – fury.


StylisticStylistic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing in stylistic connotations, cf.:

to try – to endeavor (bookish), to see – to behold (archaic), sky – heaven (poetic), a horse – a steed (poetic).


Ideographic-stylisticIdeographic-stylistic synonyms differdiffer in 3 aspects:

a)Semanticsb)emotional coloring and c)stylistic references

to say – to pronounce, a head – an onion, money – cabbage.


Contextual Contextual synonyms are similarsimilar only under some specific conditions.

In negative forms the following words might become synonyms: can’t stand it – can’t suffer it – can’t bear it.


AbsoluteAbsolute (totaltotal) synonyms are words coincidingcoinciding inin their semantics and stylistic characteristics (terms) cf.,

a noun – a substantive; an inflection – an ending; an oculist – an eye-specialist.

Groupings of Words: Synonymy . Sources of Synonymy (pp. 146 – 147)

Borrowings from different languages (Latin, French, Italian, etc.), cf.,

beautiful (Fr) – fair (E); to begin (E) – to commence (Fr) – to initiate (Lat).


Variants in American and British English:elevator - liftsidewalk – pavementsweets – candycookie – biscuitapartment – flatbutty – sandwichheartsome – cheeringsnap – packed lunch


Different styles, technical terms, slang: cordial – heartoptic – eye lexeme – wordorthography – spellingphoneme – sound


Euphemistic and dysphemistic expressions

Euphemisms Euphemisms are synonymic words used to avoid direct unpleasant, improper or offensive things – politepolite vocabulary:(to die = to pass away)

DysphemismsDysphemisms are offensive words and expressions that are substituted for inoffensive words - offensiveoffensive vocabulary:

(to die = to kick the bucket)

Groupings of Words: Euphemisms, Dysphemisms

SourcesSources of euphemisms and dysphemisms are various religious and social taboos, examples:

1. The God and similar ideas: Lord; the Maker; Goodness! Good Lord! the Prince of darkness, Old Nick; to depart this life, to be taken, to go to a better world, etc.

2. Lavatory, toilet: W.C., gentlemen’s room, ladies’ room; to wash one’s hands, etc.

3. Drunk: merry, tipsy, fresh, full, drunk as a Lord, soaked, stewed, boiled, pickled, canned, half-seas-over, intoxicated,

4. A liar – an untruthful man; 5. A stupid man - not exactly brilliant; 6. Naked – in one’s birthday shirt; 7. Sweat - perspiration, etc.

Questions and AssignmentsWhat is synonymy of a word?What is understood by a synonym of a word?What is a synonymic dominant?Give classification of synonyms.What is meant by ideographic synonyms? Define and give

examples.What is meant by stylistic synonyms? Define and give

examples. What is meant by ideographic-stylistic synonyms? Define and

give examples.What is meant by contextual synonyms? Define and give

examples.What is meant by absolute synonyms? Define and give

examples.Name sources of synonymy of Modern English.What is meant by euphemisms? Define and give examples.What is meant by dysphemisms? Define and give examples.Name sources of euphemisms and dysphemisms in English.

PracticalDefine the differences of the following synonyms; find a synonymic dominant:

Adjectives:Adjectives:Spacious, big, roomy Big, large, vast, immense, great, huge,

tremendousFamous, illustrious, notorious High, tall Plump, fat, stoutPretty, handsome, beautiful

Dictionary.com


Nouns:Nouns: Dress, a frock, a one-piecerFaux pas, miss, blunderFear, terror, horror, fright, alarm, dismay Nonsense, twaddle, bosh, flimflamPiece, lump, slice Reverie, dreams, daydreams, air castle

Dictionary.com


Verbs:Verbs:to claim, to demand, to require, to pretend to elucidate, to explain to exert, to exercise, to use, to employ, to put to

work to hide, to disguise to leave, depart, withdraw, retire, clear off (out)to like, to love, to admire, to adore, to worship, to

relish, to enjoyto reckon, to think, to guess to walk, to stroll, to saunter,

PracticalGive as many synonyms for the following words as you can; define their differences:

to look, to begin, to leave, to desire, to jump to shout, to try, to cry

big, quick, beautiful, angry, alonecare, pain, shout, hate, love

Groupings of Words:Antonymy (p. 148)

AntonymyAntonymy deals with oppositeness of meaning.

Antonyms Antonyms (oppositesopposites) are words that possess contrasting meanings.

Antonymy is very typical of adjectives because qualitative characteristics are easily compared, while verbs and nouns are not rich in antonyms.

Groupings of Words:Antonymy (p. 148)

Like synonymsLike synonyms they are interchangeable in the context, they have the same functions and grammatical meaning and are mostly found within one word-class.

Unlike synonymsUnlike synonyms they do not differ in style, dialect and emotional coloring.

Groupings of Words:Antonyms. Morphological Characteristics (p. 128)

Most of the antonyms have unrelated morphological forms:

good or bad, big or small,tall or short, etc.

Groupings of Words:Antonyms. Morphological Characteristics (p. 128)

There also exist words that form morphologically related pairs with negativenegative affixes, e.g.:

pleasant - unpleasant,logical - illogical, rational - irrational, hopeful - hopeless, etc.

Groupings of Words:Antonyms. Types of antonyms (p. 128)

4 types of antonyms:

1.gradable2.complementary3.conversive4.directional

Groupings of Words:Antonyms. Types of antonyms (cont)

Gradable antonyms Gradable antonyms are predominantly adjectives that denote qualities subject to classification : (narrow – narrower – narrowest)

high – low hot – cold narrow – wide

Gradable antonyms describe properties in comparison to other properties:

short – tall (in comparison to other people)


Complementary (contradictory) antonyms Complementary (contradictory) antonyms appear when the denial, negation of one of the members of the pair applies the assessment (are equivalent) of the other one:

male – female dead – aliveaunt – uncle

Complementary antonyms do not allow middle values, any logical middle term:

clean – dirty dry – wet


Conversive antonyms Conversive antonyms appear in a set of words when one member of the pair is referred to the other member:

to send - to receiveto take – to giveto buy – to sell

Conversives (converses; relational opposites) represent opposite perspectives of the same relations:

husband – wifeaunt – niece, nephew father - son

　　


In most of the cases they express the following phenomena:

social roles (a teacher – a student) or kinship relations (a father – a mother).


Directional antonymsDirectional antonyms, generally adverbs and prepositions, that indicate opposite spatial directions:

up – down in – out

A subtype of directional opposites is called “reversive” opposites – words that describe two phenomena indicated by opposite directions of development:

marry – divorce enter – leave appear – disappear


Attention: Any polysemantic word may have several antonyms several antonyms for each of its meanings:

dulldull – interesting lightlight – heavydulldull - clever lightlight - strongdull dull – active lightlight – dark

,,

Practical Give antonyms to the following words and define their types:

gradable, complementary, conversive and directional antonyms.

Wife, right, wide, shallow, feminine, to send, to give, to laugh, to open, to accept, quickly, old, merry, optimist, stranger, talkative, clever, empty, enemy

Questions and Assignments

1. What is meant by “antonymy” of a word?2. What kind of words are called antonyms?3. Comment on the main types of antonyms. Define and

give examples.4. Define and give examples of gradable antonyms.5. Define and give examples of complementary

antonyms.6. Define and give examples of conversive antonyms.7. Define and give examples of directional antonyms.8. Why do polysemantic words have several antonyms?9. What part of speech is antonymy typical of? Why?

Groupings of Words:Hyponymy (p. 148 – 149)

Hyponymy Hyponymy refers to the semantic relations of generality generality and inclusioninclusion, cf.:

flowerflower: rose, tulip, carnation, forget-me-not.

A more specific term is included in the member of a more general meaning:

meatmeat: pork, mutton, beef; birdbird: swallow, sparrow, blue tit, blackbird, sea-

gull, stork 　


A word with a general meaning is called a super-a super-ordinate ordinate term or hyperonym hyperonym (flower, meat, bird).

A word with a specific meaning is called a hyponym, e.g.,hyponym, e.g.,

rose, tulip, carnation, forget-me-not; pork, mutton, beef; swallow, sparrow, blue tit, blackbird, sea-gull, stork


Words that are in equal relations are called equanyms equanyms (pork – mutton – beef).

e.g., in a word set star – sun – nova starstar is a super-ordinate,sunsun and novanova are hyponyms hyponyms to the super-ordinate star and equanymsequanyms to each other.

PracticalGive as many hyponyms to the following words as possible:

hyperonyms, hyponyms, equanyms

a flowerfurniturea birda mammalan insecta bug


1. What is meant by “hyponymy “of a word?

2. What is meant by the super-ordinate term? Define and give examples.

3. How are the word with the specific meanings called? Define and give examples.

4. How are the words with equal relations called? Define and give examples.

5. What is the difference between a generic term and a collective term? Define and give examples.

Groupings of Words:Homonyms (pp.149 – 150)

HomonymyHomonymy deals with different words that are pronounced and/or spelled in the same way.the same way.

Homonyms Homonyms are words that are identicalidentical in their sound form and spelling, but are different different in their meanings, cf.,

bank 1 – “an artificial embankment”, bank 2 – “a business establishment authorized to

perform financial transactions”, bank 3 – “a set of similar things arranged in a row”; band 1 – “a thin strip of flexible material”, band 2 – “a group of musicians who play together”.


Homonyms are accidental creations;accidental creations;their existence leads to confusion and misunderstanding.

Sometimes homonyms are used to create humorous situations that are called “a puna pun” - a a joke joke based upon the play of words:

- “What’s this, waiter?” - – “It’s bean soup, sir” - – “Never mind what it has been. I want to know

what it is now (G.B. Antrushina, 1985).


Homonyms have specific morphological and lexico-grammatical features.

MorphologicallyMorphologically, homonyms may be subdivided into several groups:

homonyms proper homophones homographs

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Morphological features (p.149)

homonyms proper, homophones, and homographs

　　Homonyms proper Homonyms proper are words that are the same the same

in sound and spelling:in sound and spelling: fit 1 – perfectly fitting clothes, fit 2 – a nervous spasm.

　　 Homophones Homophones are identical identical in a sound form in a sound form but differ differ in spellingin spelling: night - knight piece - peacescent – cent - sent sea – see – C

bee – B

　　 Homographs Homographs are words that are iidentical dentical in in spelling spelling but differdiffer in their sound in their sound form: bow [bau] – [bou] lead [li:d] – [led]　　

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Lexico-grammatical features (p.149)

Some of the homonyms belong to belong to the same the same part of speech, part of speech, others - to to different different word classesword classes, cf.: a match 1 – “a game” (noun) and a match 2 – “a narrow strip of flammable material” (noun);

to tear 1 - “to pull apart or into pieces” (verb) and a tear 2 - “a drop of the clear salty liquid” (noun);

staunch 1 – “loyal, firm, dependable” (adjective) and staunch 2 – “to stop flowing” (verb). 　

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Lexico-grammatical features (p. 149)

Lexico-grammatically,Lexico-grammatically, homonyms proper may be classified into two classes:

1. full homonyms 2. partial homonyms

1.

Groupings of Words:

Homonyms. Full homonyms (p. 149)

Lexico-grammatically: full homonyms and partial homonyms. 　　 Full homonyms Full homonyms have the same category of parts of the same category of parts of

speech speech and identical paradigm:identical paradigm:

a bay 1 – “a body of water partly enclosed by land” (noun) a bay 2 – “a deep prolonged barking” (noun) a bay 3 – “a laurel with stiff, aromatic leaves” (noun)

　　

Groupings of Words:Partial homonyms (pp. 149 – 150)

Partial homonyms Partial homonyms split into 2 types:

1. Partial lexical homonyms and 2. Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms.


partial lexical and partial lexico-grammatical homonyms.

Partial lexical homonyms Partial lexical homonyms are words that belong to the same word class the same word class but are identical identical only in their only in their corresponding formscorresponding forms:

to lie (lay, lain) – to lie (lied, lied) (V, Infinitive)to can (canned, canned) – can (could) (V, Infinitive)to hang (hung, hung) – to hang (hanged, hanged) (V, Infinitive form)


partial lexical and partial lexico-grammatical homonyms.

Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms may be of 2 types:

simple simple and complex complex


Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms: simple and complex.

SimpleSimple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words that belong to the same word class and have one identical one identical form in their paradigms, but it is not the but it is not the same formsame form:

to foundto found 1 (founded, founded)- “to establish” (V, InfinitiveInfinitive)found 2 (to find, foundfound, found)– (V, Past Indefinite Past Indefinite )


Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms: simple and complex.

Complex Complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words that belong to different parts of speech and have one identical form in their paradigms: a rose 1 (noun) – rose 2 (Verb, Past Indefinite, to rise)left 1 (adjective) – left 2 (Verb, Past Indefinite, to leave)

Groupings of Words:Homonyms. Full Classification (pp. 149 – 150)

MorphologicallyMorphologically, homonyms may be subdivided into 3 groups:

1. Homonyms proper (bank – bank – bank)2. Homophones (sea – see – C)3. Homographs (lead [i: – e])


Lexico-grammatically, Lexico-grammatically, homonyms proper may be classified into 2 classes:

1. full homonyms (bay – bay – bay) 2. partial homonyms:

1) Partial lexical homonyms (to lie – to lie)2) Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms:

a) a) simple ppartial lexico-grammatical homonyms (to found – found)

b) b) complex ppartial lexico-grammatical homonyms (a rose – rose)


MorphologicallyMorphologically, homonyms may be subdivided into 3 groups:1. homonyms proper (bank – bank – bank)2. Homophones (sea – see – C)3. Homographs (lead [i: – e])

Lexico-grammatically, Lexico-grammatically, homonyms proper may be classified into 2 classes: 1. full homonyms (bay – bay – bay) 2. partial homonyms:

1) Partial lexical homonyms (to lie – to lie)2) Partial lexico-grammatical homonyms:

a) a) simple ppartial lexico-grammatical homonyms (to found – found)b) b) complex ppartial lexico-grammatical homonyms (a rose – rose)

Practical Give homonyms to the following words:

Dock, pelt, alight, foil, tense, peer, spit, hack, patter, bound, pip, castor, fast, toll, pat, bank, tend, bow, pet, tick, snub, pawn, hawk, one, can, tip, bean, snuff, peak, fob, husky, tender, peep, tenor, brake, fawn, hatch, pound, nail, plump, ear, eye, saw, bar, ray, low, lower, post, hold, hull, scale, shock, shot

Mews (he) – mews, surf – serf, tear – tear, currant – current, hail – hail - hale, rich – to retch, buyer – byre, wind – wind, tale – tail, die – dye, left –left, piece – peace, match – match, knight – night, bow – bough, thought – thought, see – sea – C, shower – shower, week – weak, write – right – rite, bay – bay – bay, buy – by – bye, temple – temple, shy – shy, made – maid, ball – ball, coco – cocoa, navel – naval, bow – bow, husky – husky, toll – toll, slough – slough, sound – sound, pole – pole, paw – pour – pore, a tow – to tow – a toe, main – mane, bound – bound, shock – shock, eye – I, found – found, lie – lie, fast – fast, post – post

Practical Define types of the following homonyms:


1. What is “homonymy” of a word?2. What kind of words are called homonyms?3. Why are homonyms so numerous in the English

language?4. What is understood by a morphological

classification of homonyms?5. Comment on the morphological types of

homonyms. Define and give examples.6. What is understood by a lexico-grammatical

classification of homonyms?7. Comment on the lexico-grammatical types of

homonyms. Define and give examples.

Nature of Semantic Change:Development of Meaning (p. 135)

Meanings of words are never stable. They change.

The change of meaning has 3 aspects:1.1.causescauses of semantic change 2.2.naturenature of semantic change3.3.results results of semantic change

Nature of Semantic Change:Development of Meaning (p. 135)

Causes of semantic change answer the question why the word changed its meaning;

Nature of semantic change explains how different changes of meaning took place;

Results of semantic change show what has changed.

Nature of Semantic Change:Transference of Meanings (p.136 – 138)

Semantic changes are based on associations between 2 meanings: the old meaning and a new one.

The process of development of a new meaning is called “transference of meaning”.

There exist 2 types of transference of meanings:

similaritysimilarity of meaning and

contiguitycontiguity of meaning

Nature of Semantic Change: Similarity of Meanings. Metaphor. (p.136 – 137)

Metaphor is a transference of meanings based on their resemblance or similarity.

It’s association of 2 objects, one of which in some way resembles the other, e.g., a fox – about a sly woman

a snake – about a treacherous person


various kinds of similarities:

1. physical properties of human beings and objects (or vise versa): an arm of a tree

2. specific features of character or behavior of animals and birds to denote human qualities: He is a real bear

3. resemblance of properties of a concrete object and an abstract notion: wings of joy


appearance or formappearance or form: bridge (of the human nose), nut (head);

temperaturetemperature: boiling hot (about a man);positionposition: the head and the foot of a page;colorcolor (of some flowers and shrubs); lilac,

violet;function of usefunction of use: hand (of watches and clocks);movementmovement: caterpillar tractor, foxtrot,

albatross (airplane).

Practical Explain transference of meanings in the following metaphors:

a green bush – a green apple – a green man – green with envy

a fruitful tree – a fruitful work a blooming flower – a blooming health wings of a bird – wings of an airplane – wings of a

mill – wings of joy a leg of a table – a leg of a man bitter cucumbers – bitter thoughtssour milk – a sour smile warm weather – warm sympathy hot temperature – a hot forehead – hot words – hot

jobs

Nature of Semantic Change: Contiguity of Meanings. Metonymy. (p.137 – 138)

Metonymy is based on the contiguity of meanings.

It is an association of different relations of objects, e.g., china – a translucent ceramic material; any porcelain wear: plates, cups, saucers


The simplest case of metonymy is called synecdochesynecdoche1. a part is made to stand for the whole or the whole

for a part: a gray beard – “an old man”, a motor – “a motor-car”, a big-wig -“an important person”

2.names of different animals are used to mean their furs: fox, sable, hare

3.names of different organs are used to characterize some phenomena: a head –“a leader”, a brain – “an intellectual person”

4.names of containers are used to denote things contained: The pot is boiling. Have another glass.

5.names of things contained are used instead of the containers: a school - for “a school building”, University - for “a University building”


6. names of places are used to denote what is going on in these places or people who are there:The whole city supported him;

7. names of the material may be used instead of the product: iron - “a metal/ an appliance used to press fabric”, glass - “a material/ objects made of glass”;

8. names of the author is used for his works: Show me Shakespeare, please;

9. name of passion is used for its object: My love!10. names of inventors are used instead of what they have

invented: mackintosh – “a waterproof overcoat” after Mackintosh, sandwich (a lord’s name), cf., watt, colt, etc;


11. names of countries, cities and towns, islands, and mountains are used to denote products manufactured there:

1. China - porcelain 2. Holland – a cotton cloth for window shades3. Morocco – a fine leather 4. Havana – a cigar made in Cuba5. Tokay – an aromatic wine produced in Hungary 6. Pembroke – a name of a Welsh corgi (dog) 7. Canary – a sweet white wine of the Canary islands 8. Sardines – the pilchard (fish) preserved in oil 9. Cheviot – a woolen fabric for coats

Practical Find cases of metonymy and explain the transference of meanings in the following sentences:1. A well-known soprano was singing “Annie Laurie” (A.

Christie)2. Pint of bitter, please.3. His son was away at Cambridge.4. A blue china was standing on the table.5. He married a good inheritance and was quite satisfied.6. A thin elderly woman came out of number 14 (A. Christie)7. The Rolls Royce is waiting for you to take you to the yacht.8. I had some silver in my purse.9. School began in September.10. Use your eyes, use your ears, use you brain – if you’ve got

any. And if necessary – act. (A. Christie)11. Voices, voices. Everywhere you looked were eyes, hands,

mouths… (E. Courtney)

Practical: Metaphor vs Metonymy: Pick out cases of metaphor and metonymy in the following sentences and define types of transference of their meanings:

1. Guests can be introduced to our table.2. I noticed a bright steak of sun on the wall.3. At dinner he saw a new face.4. He dived under the bed and fished out another

bottle. (S. Maugham)5. His heart danced with him. (S. Maugham)6. Phillip was all ears. (S. Maugham)7. I told him that sherry, hock and burgundy were

being served. (A. Christie)

Practical: Metaphor vs Metonymy: Pick out cases of metaphor and metonymy in the following sentences and define types of transference of their meanings:

1. We, Englishmen, do not parade our emotions. (A. Christie)

2. At eye level on the white wall facing the desk was a small Renoir (M. Miller).

3. Silk suits you.4. Suddenly, her eyes danced (A. Christie).5. The porter can’t throw any fresh light upon the

matter.6. All is so dark to us in this matter.7. I froze there to listen to those old hats.8. I have another plane to catch (D. Brown)


1. What is understood by “transference of meaning”?2. Name the two types of the transference of meaning.3. What is the similarity of meaning based on?4. What is “metaphor”?5. What is understood by “a simple metaphor”?6. What semantic patterns are simple metaphors based

on?7. Comment on the metaphorical use of names of

animals.8. What is metonymy? 9. What words are called metonyms?10. What transference of meaning is metonymy based

on? 11. What is understood by synecdoche?12. What semantic patterns is metonymy based on?

Phraseology: Phraseological Units (pp. 152 – 154)

A lexical meaning of a word-group is defined as the combined lexical meaning of its components. Lexical meanings are mutually dependent.

The meaning of a word-group naturally predominates over the lexical meaning of its components.

The grammatical structure of phraseological units is stable: e.g., to go to bed – to go to the bed / prison, University.


From the point of view of their motivationmotivation, word-groups may be of the following types:

completely motivated,partially motivated and non-motivated


Word-groups are completely motivated if their combined lexical meaning is deduced from the meanings of their components:

all free phrases are completely motivated:a low table, a beautiful girl


Partially motivated (partially non-motivated) groups are marked by a metaphorical use of metaphorical use of the whole pthe whole phrase,

e.g., to skate on thin ice – “to run a risk”.


Non-motivated word-groups are phraseological units or idiomsidioms are reproduced as ready-made units.

They are stable in their lexical components and grammatical structure: e.g., a red flower (a free word group)

red tape (“bureaucracy” – an idiom)


Lack of motivation (idiomaticity) is a typical feature of a phraseological unit.

Semantic motivation of word-groups is based on the coexistence coexistence of direct and figurative meanings.

Phraseology: Types of Phraseological Units (pp. 152 – 154)

According to the degree of idiomaticity, phraseological units may be classified into 3 groups:

- phraseological fusionsfusions- phraseological unitiesunities- phraseological collocationscollocations

(A.V. Kounin, 1972)


Phraseological fusions Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated word-groups. The meanings of the components of phraseological fusions have no connections with the meaning of a whole group.

Complete stability of the lexical components and the grammatical structure of a fusion:

to kick the bucket to see the elephantat sixes and sevenswhite elephant


Phraseological unities Phraseological unities are partially non-motivated.Their meaning can be understood through the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit, cf.:

to wash one’s dirty linen in public to turn over a new leafgreen light as cool as a cucumber as busy as a bee


Phraseological collocations Phraseological collocations are partially motivated .They are marked by a certain degree of stability. Variability of components is strictly limited.

One of the components is used in its direct meaning, the other – in indirect meaning.

to pay a visit / tribute, attention, respectto break a promise / a rule, news, necessity to make money / journey to fall ill / in love

Phraseology: Structure of Phraseological Units (pp. 152 – 154)

Structurally, phraseological units function as word-equivalents:

nominal phrasesnominal phrases, functioning like nouns: skeleton in the cupboard; ways and means;

verbal phrasesverbal phrases, functioning like verbs: to take the bull by the horn; to put the finger into every pie;

adjectival phrasesadjectival phrases, functioning like adjectives: as cool as a cucumber; as poor as a church mouse; as good as gold;

adverbial phrasesadverbial phrases, functioning like adverbs: at sixes and sevens; by hook or by crook;

prepositional and conjunctional phrasesprepositional and conjunctional phrases: as long as; as well as; in spite of;

interjectional phrasesinterjectional phrases: Well, I never! My foot! My George! My aunt!

Phraseology: Etymological Roots (pp. 152 – 154)

Etymology of phraseological units lies in different spheres of life:

sea lifesea life: in deep waters; in low waters; to see land;sportssports: to hit below the belt; the ball is with you;huntinghunting: to turn tail; as hungry as a wolf:zoosemyzoosemy: crocodile tears; lion’s share;theatretheatre: to play to the gallery;medicinemedicine: to sweeten the draught;techniquestechniques: to get up steam; with full steam on;agricultureagriculture: to sow one’s wild oats; to put the plough

before the oxen;tradetrade: to talk shop; best seller.

Proverbs (p. 154)

Proverbs represent a cultural fund of folk knowledge and wisdom.

You can’t win them all. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. A new broom sweeps clean. Too many cooks spoil the broth. People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw

stones. A stitch in time saves nine, etc.

Practical 1Define types of the following set-expressions:(phraseological fusions, unities or collocations)

to play the first fiddle to put on airsto shred crocodile tears to be in low

waterby hooks or by crooks to fall in loveto lose one’s head to run a riskat sixes or sevens to read

between linesto ride the high horse to catch at a strawto pull oneself together to see landto wash dirty linen in public

Practical 2Pick out phraseological units from the following sentencesand define their types:

1. Let us see what we can do by putting our heads together (A. Christie).

2. It was going to be a pretty kettle of fish (A. Christie).3. I was head over heels in love with her (A. Christie).4. I wondered if he was pulling my leg, but he wasn’t, he

was sincere (E. Courtney).5. It wasn’t until yesterday when Horace finally laid his

cards on the table that we really understood what his intentions were (McCallum).

6. He shouldn’t bet on the races: every time he does he loses his shirt (McCallum).

7. I depend upon him for my bread and cheese.

Practical 2 (cont) Pick out phraseological units from the following sentencesand define their types:

8. I was at my wits end when suddenly a happy thought occurred to me (A.C. Doyle).

9. This scandal will throw a cloud on his reputation.10. Suddenly she burst into tears.11. Be that as it may.12. Over time truth wins out.13. Too many cooks spoil the broth.14. Do in Rome as Romans do.15. As you make your bed so you must lie in it.16. Where there is a will there is a way.17. As you sow you shall mow.


1. What is a phraseological unit?2. How is a lexical meaning of a phraseological unit defined?3. Classify phraseological units from the point of view of the

degree of their motivation.4. Classify phraseological units from the point of view of the

degree of their idiomaticity?5. What is a phraseological fusion? Define and give examples.6. What is a phraseological unity? Define and give examples.7. What is a phraseological collocation? Define and give

examples.8. What parts of speech do phraseological unit correlate

with?9. Name the sources of phraseological units in Modern

English?10. What is meant by a proverb?11. In which way do proverbs reflect life?

Functional Styles (pp. 155 – 161)

Functional style Functional style is understood as a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication

(I.V. Arnold, 1974)

All the circumstancescircumstances may be divided into 2 types: 1. formal and 2. informal.

Accordingly, 2 Functional styles 2 Functional styles are distinguished: Formal Formal Functional style, andInformal Informal Functional styles.

Functional Styles: Informal FS (pp. 155 – 156)

InformalInformal words are divided into the following types:

colloquial words cant jargonargotvulgarismsslangdialect words 　　

Functional Styles: Informal FS. Colloquial Words (pp. 155 – 156)

　 Colloquialisms Colloquialisms are familiar words and idioms used in informal informal speech and writing.They are notnot common for polite conversation or business correspondence.

They are used to emphasize informality and familiarity of a social situation.

shortenings: an exam, a fridge, a flu;phrasal verbs: to make up, to pick up, to go on;colloquial equivalents of common words: a girl (a woman of any age), to kick the bucket (to

die). 　　

Functional Styles: Informal FS. Colloquial Words (pp. 155 – 156)

There are three layers three layers of colloquial words:

1.1. literaryliterary colloquial2.2. familiarfamiliar colloquial 3.3. low colloquial low colloquial words

Functional Styles: Informal FS. Colloquial Words (cont) (pp. 155 – 156)

Literary colloquial words Literary colloquial words are used in everyday speech and do not have negative connotations.　　

Familiar colloquial words Familiar colloquial words are used by the young and the semi-educated. They possess negative coarse connotations: ta-ta (goodbye) shut up (keep silent)


Low colloquial words Low colloquial words are typical of uncultivated people.

They are of three types:cant jargonargot

G.P. Krapp, 1953


CanCant is the conversational vocabulary used by members of a specific occupation, profession, sect, class, age group, and interest groups.

Jargon Jargon is the secret vocabulary of such sub-groups.

Argot Argot is bothboth the cant and the jargon of any criminal group.

Functional Styles: Informal FS. Slang (p. 156)

Slang Slang comes mostly from cant, jargon and argot words

　　 Slang has a tendency to be vulgarvulgar and offensive.offensive.　　 Slang is more common in speechspeech than in writing. 　　 Slang prefers short words, especially

monosyllables. Slang is predominantly a language of males.

Many types of slang words, including the taboo, refer primarily to male interests: work money politics sports women

Functional Styles: Informal FS. Slang (cont) (p. 156)

Spheres of communication Spheres of communication where slang is used:

- moneymoney: cabbage, lettuce, kale;- parts of the bodyparts of the body: cabbage, cauliflower;- peoplepeople: apple, cold fish, frog, honey;- drunk person: boiled, fried, pickled;- sexually attractive peoplesexually attractive people: cookie, honey, tomato,

peach;- some situations and attitudessome situations and attitudes: to swallow a story,

to ask what’s cooking;- nonsensenonsense: apple-sauce, banana oil, spinach.

　

Functional Styles: Informal FS. Slang (cont) (p.156)

Student’s slang Student’s slang is very various:

to cram (to study diligently), a bear (a difficult college course), to cut (to miss class), a shotgun (an unexpected exam), to crib (to cheat during an exam), to flunk (to fail to pass an exam), a brain (a smart student), a clod (a stupid student), a bore (a dull lecture), a drag (a boring social evening) (E. Chaika, 1994).


1. What is a Functional style?2.Name the two types of Functional style.4.What are the three types of informal words? Define them

and give examples.5.What is meant by “a colloquialism”? Define and give

examples.6.What is meant by “a dialectal word”? Define and give

examples.7.What is cant? Define and give examples.8.What is jargon? Define and give examples.9.What is argot? Define and give examples.10.What is meant by “slang”? Define and give examples.11. In what spheres of communication is slang mostly used?12. Why is slang so popular in colloquial language?

Functional Styles: Formal FS (pp. 156 – 157)

Formal words Formal words are typical of a formal style and are restricted to formal situations.

Formal words are associated with learned words: words of scientific prose officialese literary learned words words of poetic diction archaisms obsolete words neologisms professionalisms (or terms)

Functional Styles: Formal FS. Learned Words (pp. 156 – 157)

　　 Learned words Learned words are sometimes called bookish words bookish words as they are quite often met in written speech.

Words of scientific prose Words of scientific prose are characterized by their dry and matter-of-fact connotations, e.g.,

recant postulate compileexperimental conclusive, etc. 　　


OfficialeseOfficialese are words of a bureaucratic and pedantic language:

to proceed (to go) to inquire (to ask)sufficient (enough)attired (dressed)to obtain (to get), etc.


Literary learned words Literary learned words are typical of fiction, they are described as refined words, e.g., to bechance to felicitateelusivefascination, etc.

　


Words of poetic diction Words of poetic diction are used in poetry, obtain high-flown, sometimes archaic, connotations:

a clarion (an ancient trumpet), a brow (a forehead), to behold (to see), Alas!

Functional Styles: Formal FS. Learned Words (cont) (pp. 156 – 157)

Archaic words Archaic words are met in books, in written speech: they are rare in present usage:

betwixt (before), save (except), a woe (sorrow), hapless (unlucky), a damsel (a girl), nay (no), hau (you).

Obsolete words Obsolete words completely went out of use: anon (at once), to befall (to happen), etc.

　


Neologisms Neologisms are new words and expressions created for the purposes of naming new things and phenomena: antibiotic, feedback, nuclear fission.

They are borrowed from other languages or made according to the productive patterns of word formation:

affixationaffixation: de-icer, super-radar, electee, kitchenette, musicdom;

compoundingcompounding: gold-digger, ghost-writter, a walk-up, walk-ins;

shortening shortening and blendingblending: telist (telegraphist), coke (coca-cola);

conversionconversion: to garage, to force-land, etc. 　　


Terms (professionalisms) Terms (professionalisms) are used in a certain branch of sciences, art, technology

e.g., in Linguistics – bilingual, allophones, palatalization, componential analysis, hyponymy, synonyms, etc.

Functional Styles:Basic Vocabulary (p. 158)

　 Basic vocabulary Basic vocabulary or Standard English Standard English opposes to Informal and Formal vocabulary. It is used and understood by a majority of people under any circumstances or degree of formality, regardlessregardless of profession, educational level, social group, geographical location:

a table to go beautiful up Down, etc.


1. What is meant by “formal words”?2. What are the two types of learned words?3. What is understood by “a literary learned word”?

Define and give examples.4. What is meant by officialese? Define and give examples.5. What is meant by words of poetic diction? Define and

give examples 6. What is “an archaic word”? Define and give examples.7. What kinds of words are called neologisms? Define and

give examples.8. Name the ways of formation of new words in Modern

English? 9. What is understood by Basic Vocabulary?10. Comment on the correlations of words of various

Functional styles and their emotional coloring.

Functional Styles:Stylistic Means of the Vocabulary (pp. 158 – 161)

The use of the functional styles is characterized by the choice of language means choice of language means suitable for a specific situation of communication.

All the stylistic devices are organized on several levels: a level of morphemes – morphological expressive morphological expressive

means, means, a level of words – lexical stylistic deviceslexical stylistic devices, a level of sentences – syntactic expressive meanssyntactic expressive means.

Functional Styles:Morphological Expressive Means (p. 159)

Morphological expressive Morphological expressive means are used to depict pronunciation peculiarities introduced in writing.

Morphological expressive means Morphological expressive means fall into 2 types: phonetic phonetic expressive means and graphical graphical expressive means.

　

Functional Styles:Morphological Expressive Means (p. 159)

Phonetic expressive means Phonetic expressive means deal with sound forms in poetry:

1.1. onomatopoeiaonomatopoeia - - the use of words, to imitate sounds of animals, objects or actions: hiss, bowwow, bump, sizzle: …she came down the stairs and shooed me away;

2. alliteration alliteration is a repetition of consonants: From a cheap and chirpy chopper on a big black block [ch,p,b, k];

3. assonanceassonance is a repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables: ...Sylken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain [ə:].

Functional Styles:Morphological Expressive Means (cont)

Graphical expressive means Graphical expressive means convey in writing people’s emotions expressed by intonation and stress:

1. graphongraphon is the intentional violation of the graphical representation of a word: gonna (going to); Sooper Class Model; Knee-hi; NRG (energy);

2. italicsitalics,, multiplication, capitalization multiplication, capitalization of a word: Allll aboarrrrrd! Help. Help. HELP;

3. morphemic repetitionmorphemic repetition: She unchained, unbolted and unlocked the door;

4. occasional wordsoccasional words: I am an undersecretary in an underbureau.

Functional Styles:Lexical Stylistic Devices (pp. 159 – 160)

Lexical Stylistic devices are called tropes tropes and make speech colorful and bright. Among tropes we find the following lexico-stylistic devices:MetaphorMetaphor:: I found three splendid moons on

the plate (pancakes)

SimileSimile – comparison of different objects in the structures that contain words “like” and “as”: His skin was tight as a drum. She acted like a dog around him.

MetonymyMetonymy:: She was a pale eighteen.


Epithet Epithet expresses a bright, unexpected, characteristic s of an object: She gave him a you-know-how-dirty-men-are look… an I-and-thou relationship to God.

IronyIrony is created by words with contextual meanings directly opposite to dictionary meanings: She returned the sweet smile of an alligator.

Pun Pun is misinterpretation of a group of words in a sentence: Have you seen any spirits, or taken any? (“supernatural forces” and “ strong drinks”)


Hyperbole Hyperbole (exaggerationexaggeration) is emphasis achieved through overstatement: My vegetable love should grow faster than empires.

Understatement (opposite to hyperbole) – when the quality of an object or phenomenon is underrated: I am not that smart to make a decision.

PeriphrasisPeriphrasis (euphemismseuphemisms/ disphemismsdisphemisms) - a roundabout way to express an idea: Sometimes the unbelievable happens.

Functional Styles:Lexical Stylistic Devices (cont) (pp. 159 – 160)

AntonomasiaAntonomasia - - a proper name is used instead of a common noun, or vice versa: Dr Clean Hands appeared in front of us.

Zeugma Zeugma is the use of words that are not connected semantically: She went home in a flood of tears and a silver Nissan. In 1578 he set sail with a group of colonists and Queen Elizabeth’s blessing.

False chainFalse chain (a variation of zeugma) - a number of semantically disconnected objects are attached to the same verb: the room was furnished with tulips, foreigners and French novels.

Functional Styles:Lexical Stylistic Devices (cont) (pp. 159 – 160)

OxymoronOxymoron joins two antonymous words: pretty ugly, awfully beautiful, loving hate.

AllusionAllusion – use of words that make the reader think about some historical events, literature, mythology, etc.: The car had the wings of Mercury I thought.

Functional Styles:Syntactic Expressive means (p. 160)

Syntactic stylistic devices make speech emphatic by means of a specific syntactic arrangement of an utterance:1. Antithesis1. Antithesis - juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in parallel constructions: - “This pot is cracked. Look!” – “It isn’t cracked,” I said.

2. Inversion2. Inversion - when the predicate precedes the subject, or the object precedes the subject-predicate unity: ...in came Beryl, out bounded Elizabeth after me…

3. 3. EllipsisEllipsis - omission of one or more members of a sentence: In manner, close and dry. In voice, husky and low.

4. Detachment4. Detachment - singling out one of the secondary members of the sentence: She was crazy about you. In the beginning.

Functional Styles:Syntactic Expressive means (p. 160)

Repetition Repetition may be of several types:1)1)anaphoraanaphora - - the beginning of a sentence is repeated:

...good-bye, Lily, good-bye love, good-bye silly dreams; 2) epiphora epiphora - - the end of a sentence is repeated:

I wake up and I am alone, I talk with people and I am alone...;3) framingframing – the beginning of a sentence is repeated at the end:

She must leave. Today, now, immediately...Yes, she must leave;4) anadiplosisanadiplosis (catch repetition) – the end of one clause is repeated in

the beginning of the following one: Now he understood. He understood many things...;

5) chain repetitionchain repetition (several anadiplosis (several anadiplosis): Failure meant poverty, poverty meant squalor, squalor meant destruction;

6) successive repetitionsuccessive repetition - - closely following repeated units: She felt sure. Sure. Sure.

7) simple repetition - simple repetition - repetition without specific order of arrangement of words : I watched him walk away with sickness in my heart - though it was a pleasing sickness.

Functional Styles:Syntactic Expressive means (cont) (p. 160)1. Parallelism1. Parallelism - similar arrangement of word combinations,

phrases and even sentences: On the chair sat an old woman, on the table sat a younger one.

2. PolysyndetonPolysyndeton is a repeated use of conjunctions: He was wifed in Texas and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted, and cousined...

3. AsyndetonAsyndeton is an omission of conjunctions: Her face blushed, paled, vanished...

4. Rhetorical questions hetorical questions are questions without expecting any answer: Why? Why? Who could ever give a clear answer?

5. Violation of phraseological units – any change of a structure and meanings of words that revives and makes the expression fresh and original: …always seeing the tunnel at the end of the light (G.W. Bush);

6. Litotes is a two-element structure in which 2 negative constructions are used for positive evaluation: Her face was not unpretty.

PracticalPick out and analyze stylistic devices in the following sentences:

1. I really don’t see anything romantic in proposing. It is very romantic to be in love. But there is nothing romantic about a definite proposal (O. Wilder).

2. …beautifully preserved and written in an impeccably neat penmanship – crimson ink on cream paper -…

3. …and that the greatest story ever told is, in fact, the greatest story ever sold?

4. They were astonishingly stupid (J.K. Rowling).5. Eyes streaming, he swayed, trying to focus on the street to

spot the source of the noise.6. “I love you mucher”.“Plenty mucher? Me tooer”.7. He swallowed the hint with a gulp and a gasp and a grin. 8. We can’t say much about you-know-what, obviously…

(J.K.Rowling)

Practical (cont)

9. All shortcuts have disappeared. Screen. Mind. Both are blank.10. And yet – and yet – what less could I do? I’ll tell you my

story, gentlemen, and then I’ll ask you, as man to man, what less could I do? (A.C.Doyle)

11. A real grooming guru of the class.12. Follow our advice: Drink Pinta Milka Day.13. She unchained, unbolted and unlocked the door.14. Laughing, crying, cheering, chaffing, singing, David Rossi’s

people brought him home.15. He was the culture vulture of the family. 16. “Put – it – away!” uncle Vernon snarled into Harry’s ear.

“Now! Before – anyone – sees!” – “Get – off – me!” Harry gasped.

17. In 1578 Humphry Gilbert set gait with a group of colonists and Queen Elizabeth’s blessings.


1. Characterize Morphological means of the Vocabulary. Define and give examples.

2. Characterize Lexical Stylistic devices of the English Vocabulary. Define and give examples.

3. Characterize Syntactic Expressive means of the English Vocabulary. Define and give examples.

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