Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

Chapter 1

Questions to Consider

How is cognitive psychology relevant to everyday experience?

Are there practical applications of cognitive psychology?

How is it possible to study the inner workings of the mind, when we can’t really see the mind directly?

What is the field of cognitive psychology?

Learning Objectives

Challenges of the Field History of the Field Modern Approaches to Studying the

Mind Strategies for Successful Learning

Cognition and Cognitive Psychology

Cognition The mental processes that are involved

in perception, attention, memory, problem solving, reasoning, and making decisions

Cognitive Psychology Branch of psychology concerned with

the scientific study of cognition

Challenges of Cognitive Ψ

Often times, “the processes involved in cognition are complex and hidden from view”

Take a moment and think about all that is happening around you (perception, attention, memory, reasoning)

Complexity examples Stroop effect

Described by J.R. Stroop in 1935 Name of word interferes with naming of the color—

some stimuli influence us even when we don’t want them to do so

Angela example in text—revisited grandparent’s and memories of childhood came back

History of Cognitive Ψ

1st cognitive psychology experiment, 1868 Franciscus Donders, Dutch physiologist Used mental chronometry

What is mental chronometry?

What are 2 ways to measure reaction time? ____________ ____________

Mental processes are ____________ from behavior

History of Cognitive Ψ

1st cognitive psychology experiment, 1868 Franciscus Donders, Dutch physiologist Used mental chronometry

Measures time-course of cognitive processes Measured reaction time: time b/w presentation of

stimulus and person’s response to that stimulus Simple reaction time Choice reaction time (push one of two buttons in

response to a stimulus) Inferred mental process of perception

Mental response cannot be measured directly, but can be inferred from behavior (choice reaction time – simple reaction time = length of time to make a decision)

All research in cognitive psychology deals with inferred mental processes

Helmholtz’s Unconscious Inference Helmholtz developed the ophthalmoscope;

proposed theories of object perception, color vision, and hearing

Theory of unconscious inference: some perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions that we make about the environment; past experiences with objects may impact our perceptions

2 sheets of paper exercise

Ebbinghaus Learned lists of nonsense syllables (e.g., DAX, QEH) Why nonsense syllables? Repeated lists and noted how many repetitions it

took to repeat the list with no errors; this was called __________

Waited a period of time and then relearned the list Computed a savings score

Savings = [(initial repetitions) – relearning repetitions]/initial repetitions; then multiply by 100 for a %

Forgetting curve (Figure 1.6) Measured behavior to infer processes of memory

These early researchers were physiologists, physicists, and philosophers

Ebbinghaus Learned lists of nonsense syllables (e.g., DAX, QEH) Why nonsense syllables?

Did not want actual words to influence his ability to memorize or recall certain words

Repeated lists and noted how many repetitions it took to repeat the list with no errors; this was called savings method

Waited a period of time and then relearned the list Computed a savings score

Savings = [(initial repetitions) – relearning repetitions]/initial repetitions; then multiply by 100 for a %

Forgetting curve (Figure 1.6) Measured behavior to infer processes of memory

These early researchers were physiologists, physicists, and philosophers

Wilhelm Wundt 1879, founded first laboratory of scientific

psychology at the University of Leipzig, in order to study the mind scientifically

Carried out reaction-time experiments Developed analytic introspection

Procedure used in which trained participants described their experiences and thought processes elicited by stimuli presented under controlled conditions

Problematic: introspection did not seem to reveal the structure of thought; results from different laboratories often disagreed

Decline and Rebirth

John Watson and Behaviorism Developed new approach to psychology by

studying actual behaviors in their own right and not worrying about consciousness

Argued behavior is observable and objective Studied impact of stimulus conditions on

behavior (stimulus-response) Most famous study: Little Albert

B.F. Skinner Studied operant conditioning: believe

reinforcements, not free will, determined behavior

Published book on verbal behavior that claimed language developed through imitation and reinforcement

Noam Chomsky, linguist Disagreed with Skinner, and believed language

development was inborn and held across cultures Defended his theory with

Children say sentences they have never heard Incorrect grammar

Realization that to understand complex cognitive behaviors need to consider how the mind works in addition to S-R

Rise of the Information Processing Metaphor Broadbent’s flow diagram depicted the mind as

processing information in a sequences of stages Information processing models conceive of cognitive

activities as involving a series of steps, procedures, or processes that take time (e.g., 1/10 second)

Modern Approaches to Study the Mind

Behavioral Approach Measure behavior and explain cognition in

terms of behavior e.g., reaction time Measuring mental rotation exercise (Figure

1.10 and Figure 1.11) Physiological Approach

Measure both behavior and physiology and explain cognition in terms of physiology;

e.g., reaction time and brain wave activity or brain activation

Davachi experiment Figure 1.12 (words that were remembered on the memory test had more brain activity when words were first exposed

Cognitive Psychology

Scientific study of mental processes Simply put “it is the study of thought” Behavior is examined by cognitive

psychologists the same way that physicists infer the force of gravity from the behavior of objects in the world.

Mental Processes: remembering, attention, producing and understanding language, solving problems, and making decisions

Thinking is something that is constantly happening, yet we rarely stop to think about it

Omnipresence of Cognitive Processes

Perception and Sensory Memory Organize and interpret incoming information

(e.g., first lecture) Sensory memory holds information, like an

information buffer, just long enough to determine whether it seems worthwhile

Attention Set of processes through which you focus on

incoming information Ability to attend is flexible—can divert (cocktail

party effect, police car) Attention is also limited

Working Memory Like a mental juggling act: to fully

process and understand facts and figures, have to repeat material/info and/or jot it down in your notes

Pattern Recognition and Concept Representation Recognize the term s-y-l-l-a-b-u-s and

that activates some concept in memory

Long-Term Memory Have to store what is being said for later use

Memory Distortion Forgetting, Misremember information Trying to think of a person’s last name

Autobiographical Memory Research focuses on how we remember

information about ourselves, our personal past

Knowledge Representation Mental representations are representations of

your stored knowledge, and you access them when necessary

Language Your implicit knowledge of syntax (word

arrangement rules) and semantics (rules for expressing meaning) allows you to comprehend instantly what makes sense and what does not

Problem Solving Involves operating within constraints

(such as time) and reaching a goal from a starting state that is nowhere near the goal

Decision Making If I miss a class will it affect my grade? How much time should I spend

studying?

Cognitive Science

Cognitive Science Study of the mind (mental processes)

as carried out by many different disciplines

Disciplines: cognitive psychology, and research on the mind within the fields of computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, anthropology, artificial intelligence, and philosophy

(Figure 1.14)

Study Techniques

Elaborate Organize Associate Take breaks Matching learning and testing

conditions