Introduction to Applied Introduction to Applied LinguisticsLinguistics

4-year College4-year College

Junior studentsJunior studentsFall semesterFall semester

Topics: Topics:

Ways of Word-Building in Modern EnglishWays of Word-Building in Modern EnglishTextbook:Textbook:

Exploring the System of the English LanguageExploring the System of the English Language

Part 2, chapter 1Part 2, chapter 1 (pp. 119 – 131)(pp. 119 – 131)ISBN 986-7688-42-2ISBN 986-7688-42-2

Professor: Ludmila KudrevatykhProfessor: Ludmila Kudrevatykh

Learning ActivitiesLearning Activities

• Preview the material of a chapter at Preview the material of a chapter at homehome

• Learn linguistic terminologyLearn linguistic terminology

• Listen to the teacher’s explanationsListen to the teacher’s explanations

• Do practical in classDo practical in class

• Correct the mistakes under the Correct the mistakes under the supervision of the teachersupervision of the teacher

1.1. Preview a chapter Preview a chapter

2.2.

3.3. Discuss definitions and Discuss definitions and classifications classifications

4.4.

5.5. Do practical Do practical

6.6. Make mistakes correctionMake mistakes correction

7.7. Do controlling testsDo controlling tests

• Individual home workIndividual home work

• Teacher’s explanations Teacher’s explanations and presentationsand presentations

• Individual or pair-work in Individual or pair-work in classclass

• On the board in class On the board in class

• Regularly, after discussionRegularly, after discussiona. Quizzesa. Quizzesb. Practical exercisesb. Practical exercises

Course MethodsCourse Methods

Lesson plan Lesson plan (in weeks)(in weeks)

1.1. Morphemic structure of a word;Morphemic structure of a word;2.2. Productive ways of word-building in Modern Productive ways of word-building in Modern

English: word-derivation;English: word-derivation;3.3. Productive ways of word-buildingProductive ways of word-building: word-derivation : word-derivation

((contcont););4.4. Productive ways of word-building: Productive ways of word-building: word-compositionword-composition;;

5.5. Productive ways of word-building: Productive ways of word-building: conversionconversion;;

6.6. Productive ways of word-building: Productive ways of word-building: shorteningshortening;;

7.7. Minor ways of word-formation in Modern Minor ways of word-formation in Modern English;English;

8.8. Review;Review;9.9. Midterm.Midterm.

Lesson plan Lesson plan (continued)(continued)

1.1. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: synonyms;Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: synonyms;2.2. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: synonymssynonyms (cont); (cont);

3.3. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: antonyms; antonyms; 4.4. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: antonymsantonyms (cont); (cont);

5.5. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: homonymshomonyms;;

6.6. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: Lexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: homonymshomonyms (cont); (cont);

7.7. Lexico-Semantic Groupings of WordsLexico-Semantic Groupings of Words: hyponyms, : hyponyms, paronymsparonyms;;

8.8. Review;Review;9.9. Final Test.Final Test.

What is Lexicology? What is Lexicology? (p.119 – 120)(p.119 – 120)

LexicologyLexicology is a branch of Linguistics that is a branch of Linguistics that studies studies the meaning the meaning and and the use of the use of wordswords..

2 basic subdivisions of Lexicology2 basic subdivisions of Lexicology: : MorphologyMorphology andand SemanticsSemantics

• Morphology studies Morphology studies forms of words.forms of words. • Semantics studies Semantics studies meanings of wordsmeanings of words..

What kind of words does Lexicology What kind of words does Lexicology study?study?

Lexicology Lexicology mostly studies mostly studies

lexical wordslexical words than than grammatical wordsgrammatical words

e.g.: e.g.: We are coming tonightWe are coming tonight by a 10 o’clock busby a 10 o’clock bus

Lexical words Lexical words carry carry the main meaning of a the main meaning of a sentencesentence: : Coming , tonight, ten, o’clock, busComing , tonight, ten, o’clock, bus

Grammatical words Grammatical words make the sentence make the sentence grammatically completegrammatically complete: : we, are, by, awe, are, by, a

Morphemic structure of a wordMorphemic structure of a word (p.121)(p.121)

MorphemesMorphemes are units smaller than a word each are units smaller than a word each having its sound form and a meaning: having its sound form and a meaning: tteacheach--er er (2), (2), helphelp-l-lessess--nessness (3), (3), sportssports--manman (3) (3)..

• Like a word Like a word - a morpheme is a - a morpheme is a two-sided two-sided language unit that language unit that has associations with a certain has associations with a certain sound-patternsound-pattern and and a a meaningmeaning. .

• Unlike a word Unlike a word - a morpheme is - a morpheme is not an independent unit not an independent unit and can occur in speech only as and can occur in speech only as a constituent part of a worda constituent part of a word. .

Morphemes cannot be divided into smaller units Morphemes cannot be divided into smaller units without losing their meanings. without losing their meanings.

Classes of morphemes Classes of morphemes (p. 121)(p. 121)

2 classes of morphemes: 2 classes of morphemes: • lexical morphemes and lexical morphemes and • grammatical morphemesgrammatical morphemes

Lexical morphemes Lexical morphemes are used are used to build new wordsto build new words ((teacher, worker, helper, builder, readerteacher, worker, helper, builder, reader))

Grammatical morphemes Grammatical morphemes are used are used to change to change grammatical grammatical forms of words forms of words and make a sentence and make a sentence grammatically completegrammatically complete(teacher, teachers, teach, teaching; the, on, without,(teacher, teachers, teach, teaching; the, on, without,

Types of Morphemes: Types of Morphemes: Free morphemes Free morphemes (p. 121)(p. 121)

Both types of morphemes may be Both types of morphemes may be freefree andand boundbound..Free morphemes are used Free morphemes are used independentlyindependently..

Free lexical morphemes Free lexical morphemes are are rootsroots of words of words - they- they• express lexical meaning of a word express lexical meaning of a word ((playplay, , playplays, s, playiplaying)ng)• build up words by themselves (build up words by themselves (tteacheach, , househouse, , worldworld)) Free grammatical morphemes Free grammatical morphemes are are function words function words --conjunctionsconjunctions ((and, orand, or), ), prepositionsprepositions ((in, under,in, under, withwith), ),

articles articles ((the, a, anthe, a, an) )

They make a sentence grammatically correct.They make a sentence grammatically correct.

Types of Morphemes: Types of Morphemes: Bound Morphemes Bound Morphemes (p. 121)(p. 121)

Bound morphemes occur only as Bound morphemes occur only as constituent parts of wordsconstituent parts of words Bound lexical Bound lexical morphemes are mostly morphemes are mostly affixes affixes

((prefixes and suffixesprefixes and suffixes) ) • prefixes prefixes are used are used beforebefore the root ( the root (ununpleasantpleasant))• suffixessuffixes – – afterafter the root morpheme ( the root morpheme (helplhelplessess) )

Bound lexical morphemes change the lexical meaning of a Bound lexical morphemes change the lexical meaning of a wordword

Bound grammatical Bound grammatical morphemes are morphemes are inflexionsinflexions ( (endingsendings))--ss for the Plural of nouns ( for the Plural of nouns (chairchairss, table, tabless, window, windowss), ), --eded for the Past Indefinite of regular verbs (for the Past Indefinite of regular verbs (openopeneded, clos, closeded, chang, changeded), ), --inging for the Present Participle ( for the Present Participle (teachiteachingng, openi, openingng, closi, closingng), etc.), etc.

Bound grammatical morphemes change Bound grammatical morphemes change a grammatical form a grammatical form of a wordof a word

Types of Morphemes: Types of Morphemes: Classification of Lexical Morphemes Classification of Lexical Morphemes (p. 121)(p. 121)

Morphemes could be classified Morphemes could be classified semanticallysemantically and and structurallystructurally

SemanticallySemantically,, lexical morphemes may be of 3 types: lexical morphemes may be of 3 types: • Root morphemes Root morphemes • Affixal morphemes (affixes: prefixes and suffixes)Affixal morphemes (affixes: prefixes and suffixes)• Semi-affixes (semi-prefixes, semi-suffixes)Semi-affixes (semi-prefixes, semi-suffixes)

Structurally,Structurally, lexical morphemes may be of 3 types: lexical morphemes may be of 3 types:• Free morphemesFree morphemes• Bound morphemesBound morphemes• Semi-bound (semi-free) morphemesSemi-bound (semi-free) morphemes

Semi-bound/ semi-free morphemesSemi-bound/ semi-free morphemes can function can function bothboth as free and bound morphemes: as free and bound morphemes:

((man – postman – postmanman, well – , well – wellwell-known, half – -known, half – halfhalf-done, over - once--done, over - once-overover, , overoverall)all)

Types of Morphemes: Types of Morphemes: Classification of Grammatical Morphemes Classification of Grammatical Morphemes (p. (p. 121)121)

Grammatical morphemes could be classified Grammatical morphemes could be classified

functionallyfunctionally and and structurallystructurally

The main The main functionfunction of grammatical words is to make a of grammatical words is to make a sentence grammatically correct and complete. sentence grammatically correct and complete. Conjunctions, prepositions and articles are used for Conjunctions, prepositions and articles are used for this purpose.this purpose.

StructurallyStructurally, grammatical morphemes are used to , grammatical morphemes are used to change a grammatical form of a word. Inflections change a grammatical form of a word. Inflections (endings) are used for this purpose.(endings) are used for this purpose.

Practical 1Practical 1Analyze morphemic structures of the following Analyze morphemic structures of the following words:words:

Childhood, speaker, Childhood, speaker, homeward, unpredictable, homeward, unpredictable, booklet, misunderstanding, booklet, misunderstanding, include, well-bred, enlarge, include, well-bred, enlarge, engine, disorganized, deliver, engine, disorganized, deliver, detail, affectionateness, detail, affectionateness, underfed, water, half-done, underfed, water, half-done, lady-like, discuss, experience, lady-like, discuss, experience, daily, evaluate, realize, daily, evaluate, realize, estimation, elderly, infatuate, estimation, elderly, infatuate, water-proof, study, self-study, water-proof, study, self-study, somber, surprise, assessment, somber, surprise, assessment, demoralization, undersigned, demoralization, undersigned, inaccessible, impassable, inaccessible, impassable, remember, debus, ex-wife, remember, debus, ex-wife, frustratingly, divide, destroyfrustratingly, divide, destroy

ExamplesExamplestable –table –• It consists of 1 morpheme: “table”;It consists of 1 morpheme: “table”;• It is a simple word;It is a simple word;• SemanticallySemantically: “table” is a root : “table” is a root

morpheme;morpheme;• StructurallyStructurally: “table” is a free : “table” is a free

morpheme.morpheme.

disappointment disappointment – – • It consists of 3 morphemes: “dis-“, It consists of 3 morphemes: “dis-“,

“appoint” and “-ment”;“appoint” and “-ment”;• SemanticallySemantically::• ““dis-” is a derivational morpheme – dis-” is a derivational morpheme –

prefix,prefix,• ““appoint” is a root morpheme,appoint” is a root morpheme,• ““-ment” is a derivational morpheme -ment” is a derivational morpheme

– suffix;– suffix;• StructurallyStructurally::• ““dis-“ and “-ment” are bound dis-“ and “-ment” are bound

morphemes,morphemes,• ““appoint” is a free morpheme.appoint” is a free morpheme.

Ways of Word Formation:Ways of Word Formation:What is Word-Building? What is Word-Building? (p. 122)(p. 122)

Word-building is a process of creating new words Word-building is a process of creating new words from the material available in the language after from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic patterns.certain structural and semantic patterns.

2 ways of word formation:2 ways of word formation:• productive ways productive ways areare widely used to form a lot of new widely used to form a lot of new

words in Modern English words in Modern English ((word-derivation, word-composition, conversion, shorteningword-derivation, word-composition, conversion, shortening); );

• non-productive ways non-productive ways are not frequently used for the are not frequently used for the production of new words in Modern English production of new words in Modern English ((blending, back-formation, sound-and-stress interchange, blending, back-formation, sound-and-stress interchange, sound imitationsound imitation))

Productive Ways of Word Productive Ways of Word Formation: Formation: Word-DerivationWord-Derivation (p. 124 – 126)(p. 124 – 126)

Word-derivation Word-derivation oror affixation affixation is the formation of new is the formation of new words by adding derivational affixes to different words by adding derivational affixes to different types of stems – either types of stems – either prefixesprefixes or or suffixessuffixes, or both , or both together.together.

2 different ways of word-derivation:2 different ways of word-derivation:• prefixationprefixation and and

• suffixationsuffixation

Several degrees of word-derivation: Several degrees of word-derivation:

• zero degree of derivation (zero degree of derivation (to support, to maketo support, to make) ) • the first degree of derivation (the first degree of derivation (ununlock, kindllock, kindlyy) ) • the second degree of derivation (the second degree of derivation (disdishonesthonestyy), etc. ), etc.

Word-Derivation:Word-Derivation:Principles of classification of affixes Principles of classification of affixes (p. 125)(p. 125)

2 principles of classification:2 principles of classification:• DiachronicDiachronic• SynchronicSynchronic

Diachronic analysisDiachronic analysis deals with the deals with the origin of affixesorigin of affixes: : nativenative and and foreignforeign affixes. affixes.

SynchronicallySynchronically, , affixes are classified according to the affixes are classified according to the following:following:

1.1. meanings of affixes; meanings of affixes; 2.2. functions performed;functions performed;3.3. parts of speech formed;parts of speech formed;4.4. stylistic reference;stylistic reference;5.5. degree of productivity.degree of productivity.

Word-Derivation: Word-Derivation: PrefixationPrefixation (p.125)(p.125)

formation of new words with the help of formation of new words with the help of prefixesprefixes

Diachronically, Diachronically, prefixes may be of prefixes may be of nativenative and and foreign foreign origin.origin.

SynchronicallySynchronically, , prefixes are classified according to the prefixes are classified according to the following:following:

1.1. meanings of prefixes; meanings of prefixes; 2.2. functions performed by prefixes;functions performed by prefixes;3.3. parts of speech formed by prefixes;parts of speech formed by prefixes;4.4. stylistic reference of prefixes;stylistic reference of prefixes;5.5. degree of productivity of prefixes.degree of productivity of prefixes.

Prefixation:Prefixation: Origin of Prefixes Origin of Prefixes (p. 125)(p. 125)

• Many of the native prefixes (Many of the native prefixes (be-, out-, under-, be-, out-, under-, over-, afterover-, after--) used to be independent words that ) used to be independent words that lost their independence and turned into prefixes lost their independence and turned into prefixes (out(outlet, let, underundergo, go, overoverall, all, afterafterthought)thought)

• Some of the prefixes have always functioned as Some of the prefixes have always functioned as prefixes, e.g., prefixes, e.g., mis-, unmis-, un--:: mismisdeed, deed, ununableable..

• Foreign prefixes (Foreign prefixes (pre-, post-, co-, inter-, pre-, post-, co-, inter-, super-, extra-, antisuper-, extra-, anti-, etc-, etc..) have been adopted ) have been adopted by the English language mostly as constituent by the English language mostly as constituent parts of borrowed words (parts of borrowed words (post-post-war, war, interinterchange, change, subsubdivide, divide, ultraultramodern, modern, antianti-war, -war, cocoordinateordinate))

Prefixation: Prefixation: Meanings of Derivatives Meanings of Derivatives (1)(1)

Prefixes carry different meanings. Prefixes carry different meanings.

It is possible to distinguish the following prefixes:It is possible to distinguish the following prefixes:• 1.1. negative prefixes: negative prefixes: ununemployed, employed, inincorrect, correct, aamoralmoral;;• 2.2. reversative prefixes: reversative prefixes: ununfasten, fasten, dedeform, form, disdisconnectconnect::• 3.3. prefixes of time and order: prefixes of time and order: prepre-war, -war, exex-president, -president,

foreforetelltell;;

• 4.4. prefixes of repetition: prefixes of repetition: rerewrite, write, reremake;make;• 5.5. locative prefixes: locative prefixes: subsubway, way, interintercontinental, continental,

transtransoceanic, oceanic, overovercoatcoat;;• 6. pejorative prefixes: 6. pejorative prefixes: pseudopseudoscientific, scientific, malmaltreattreat..

Prefixation: Prefixation: Functional Use (2)Functional Use (2)

• Functionally, English prefixes are used Functionally, English prefixes are used to create a to create a new lexical meaningnew lexical meaning of a derivative word: of a derivative word:an order – a an order – a disdisorderorder (noun – noun) (noun – noun)

pleasant – pleasant – ununpleasant pleasant (adjective – adjective)(adjective – adjective)

to read – to read – toto reread reread (verb – verb)(verb – verb)

• Only some prefixes may change a word-class of a Only some prefixes may change a word-class of a derivative. derivative.

They are: They are: bebe-, -, dede-, -, enen-: -: bebelittle, little, dedebus, bus, enentrain. train.

Prefixation: Prefixation: Parts of speech formed Parts of speech formed (3)(3)

In Modern English prefixes are not used to form a In Modern English prefixes are not used to form a derivative of a different word-class (except 3 derivative of a different word-class (except 3 prefixes – be-, de-, en-)prefixes – be-, de-, en-)

Since the Old English period, prefixes have mostly Since the Old English period, prefixes have mostly been typical of English been typical of English verbsverbs..

Prefixation:Prefixation: Stylistic Reference (4)Stylistic Reference (4)

According to their stylistic reference, According to their stylistic reference, prefixes may be of 2 types:prefixes may be of 2 types:stylistically neutralstylistically neutral and and stylistically coloredstylistically colored. .

Most of the native prefixes are stylistically Most of the native prefixes are stylistically neutral: neutral: subsubdivide, divide, rereinterpretinterpret. .

Some of unassimilated prefixes are marked Some of unassimilated prefixes are marked by stylistic, mostly by bookish, coloring: by stylistic, mostly by bookish, coloring: transtranscontinental, continental, supersuper-ordinate-ordinate

Prefixation: Prefixation: Degree of Productivity (5)Degree of Productivity (5)

According to the degree of productivity, prefixes are According to the degree of productivity, prefixes are divided into 2 types:divided into 2 types:productiveproductive and and non-productive non-productive prefixes. prefixes.

With the help of productive prefixes a lot of new With the help of productive prefixes a lot of new words are formed in Modern English. They are: words are formed in Modern English. They are: re-, re-, un-, dis-, un-, dis-, etc. (see: handouts) etc. (see: handouts)

Non-productive prefixes, though sometimes quite Non-productive prefixes, though sometimes quite frequent in use, do not participate in the formation frequent in use, do not participate in the formation of new words in Modern English: of new words in Modern English: a-, for-, with-, a-, for-, with-, forthforth-.-.

Prefixation: Prefixation: Practical 1Practical 1Give a full morphological analysis of prefixGive a full morphological analysis of prefixes in the es in the following wordsfollowing words

Disappointment, belittle, Disappointment, belittle, unbelievable, reread, unbelievable, reread, subtropical, enrich, ex-subtropical, enrich, ex-boss, indistinguishable, boss, indistinguishable, immoral, overestimate, immoral, overestimate, antinational, antinational, nonproductive, asocial, nonproductive, asocial, transcontinental, illegal, transcontinental, illegal, extraordinary, outgoing, extraordinary, outgoing, counterattack, abnormal, counterattack, abnormal, unsophisticated, impose, unsophisticated, impose, stepdaughter, retroactive, stepdaughter, retroactive, pseudovector, co-producer, pseudovector, co-producer, underestimating, derail, underestimating, derail,

disrespect –disrespect – • It’s a derivative. It’s a derivative. • It consists of 2 morphemes “It consists of 2 morphemes “disdis-” and -” and

““respectrespect””..• It is the first degree of derivation.It is the first degree of derivation.

Semantically, Semantically, • ““disdis-” is a derivational morpheme -” is a derivational morpheme

(prefix), (prefix), • ““respect”respect” is a root morpheme. is a root morpheme.

Structurally, Structurally, • ““disdis-” is a bound morpheme, -” is a bound morpheme, • ““respectrespect is a free morpheme. is a free morpheme.

Diachronically: Diachronically: • prefix “prefix “disdis-“ is of Latin origin.-“ is of Latin origin.

Synchronically: Synchronically: • Prefix “Prefix “disdis-“ has the meaning of a -“ has the meaning of a

reversative action, reversative action, • it doesn’t change the part of speech it doesn’t change the part of speech

formed, formed, • it is stylistically neutral and it is stylistically neutral and • it is productive in Modern Englishit is productive in Modern English

Prefixation: Prefixation: Practical 2Practical 2Define meanings of prefixes in the following Define meanings of prefixes in the following wordswords

to unlock, to decentralize, independent, to unlock, to decentralize, independent, anti-war, instability, uncomfortable, anti-war, instability, uncomfortable, misbehavior, counter-plan, outside, to misbehavior, counter-plan, outside, to mishear, a counter-propaganda, to mishear, a counter-propaganda, to overcook, outlaw, to devalue, non-smoker, overcook, outlaw, to devalue, non-smoker, antifascist, inexperienced, unwell, extra-antifascist, inexperienced, unwell, extra-regular, ultra-short, to entrap, super-pure, regular, ultra-short, to entrap, super-pure, transcontinental, to redo, coexistence, to transcontinental, to redo, coexistence, to overdue, an ex-minister, impertinent, overdue, an ex-minister, impertinent, bedim, restructure, over-busy, an bedim, restructure, over-busy, an interclass, extraterritorial, an ex-interclass, extraterritorial, an ex-serviceman, an outbuilding serviceman, an outbuilding

Word-derivation: Word-derivation: Suffixation –Suffixation –the the formation of new words with the help of formation of new words with the help of suffixes suffixes (p. 125 – 126)(p. 125 – 126)

Diachronical classificationDiachronical classification::suffixes may be suffixes may be nativenative and and foreignforeign. .

• Suffixes of native originSuffixes of native origin: : -ness, -ish, -ing, --ness, -ish, -ing, -hoodhood, etc. , etc. Originally, many of the suffixes were Originally, many of the suffixes were independent words that gradually turned independent words that gradually turned into derivational suffixes: into derivational suffixes: -dom, -hood,-dom, -hood, - -ship,ship, etc. etc.

• Some suffixes have always been known as Some suffixes have always been known as derivational units: derivational units: -ish-ish, -, -less, -nessless, -ness, , etc.etc.

Suffixation:Suffixation: Origin Origin (p. 125)(p. 125)

Foreign suffixes were borrowed with the words of Foreign suffixes were borrowed with the words of LatinLatin and and FrenchFrench origin. Suffixes of origin. Suffixes of Latin origin Latin origin are: are:

• --((a)tion / -iona)tion / -ion: : constitution, revolution; opinion, union;constitution, revolution; opinion, union; • -ate / -ute-ate / -ute: : create, congratulate; distribute, contributecreate, congratulate; distribute, contribute;;• -ct-ct: : connect, act, conductconnect, act, conduct;;• -able-able: eatable, doable, teachable;: eatable, doable, teachable;• -ate-ate: desperate, accurate;: desperate, accurate;• -ant / -ent-ant / -ent: important; convenient, evident;: important; convenient, evident; • -or / -ar / -al-or / -ar / -al: junior, senior; maternal; familiar, solar, : junior, senior; maternal; familiar, solar, etc.etc.

Suffixes of Suffixes of French origin French origin are:are:• -ment-ment: development, appointment;: development, appointment;• -ess-ess: actress, tigress; : actress, tigress; • -ance / -ence-ance / -ence: arrogance; patience;: arrogance; patience;• -age-age: courage, marriage, : courage, marriage, etc.etc.

Suffixation: Suffixation: Functional Use Functional Use (p. 126)(p. 126)

• Suffixes are used to derive a word into a Suffixes are used to derive a word into a different different word-classword-class: V : V N, V N, V Adj, Adj Adj, Adj V, N V, N Adj, Adj, cf., cf., to to form – formation, , to invent – inventive, active – to form – formation, , to invent – inventive, active – to activate, a sister – sisterly, activate, a sister – sisterly, etc. etc.

• Only some suffixes do not change the part of Only some suffixes do not change the part of speech of a derived word but transfer it speech of a derived word but transfer it into into another semantic groupanother semantic group: cf., the suffix : cf., the suffix –ship–ship changes concrete nouns to abstract nouns, as in changes concrete nouns to abstract nouns, as in a a champion - championship, a chairman - chairmanshipchampion - championship, a chairman - chairmanship; ; see also: see also: a piano – a pianist, a dance – dancinga piano – a pianist, a dance – dancing, etc. , etc.

Suffixation:Suffixation: Functional Use Functional Use (cont)(cont)

According to the part of speech formed, According to the part of speech formed, suffixes may be classified into the following suffixes may be classified into the following groups:groups:

• noun-forming suffixesnoun-forming suffixes: -: -dom, -ness, -ist, -ism, -dom, -ness, -ist, -ism, -ment, -age, -ess;ment, -age, -ess;

• adjective-forming suffixesadjective-forming suffixes: : -able, -less, -ful, --able, -less, -ful, -ous, -ish, -ative;ous, -ish, -ative;

• verb-forming suffixesverb-forming suffixes: : -en, -fy, -ize, -ate;-en, -fy, -ize, -ate;

• adverb-forming suffixesadverb-forming suffixes: : -ly, -ward-ly, -ward(for examples, please, see handouts)(for examples, please, see handouts)

Suffixation: Suffixation: Meaning of Derivatives Meaning of Derivatives (p. 126)(p. 126)

Suffixes express various meanings Suffixes express various meanings of certain parts of of certain parts of speech.speech.

Noun-forming suffixes Noun-forming suffixes may express the following meanings:may express the following meanings:• agent, profession or occupation: agent, profession or occupation: -er, -eer, -ant, -ist-er, -eer, -ant, -ist;;• appurtenanceappurtenance: -an: -an ((GermanGerman)), , -ian-ian ((Russian), Russian), -ese-ese ((JapaneseJapanese););• collectivity: collectivity: --age, -dom, -hood, -shipage, -dom, -hood, -ship;;• abstract idea: abstract idea: -age, -ence, ancy, -dom, -hood, -ment, -ism, -tion, --age, -ence, ancy, -dom, -hood, -ment, -ism, -tion, -

th, -ty.th, -ty.

Adjective-forming suffixes Adjective-forming suffixes may express: may express: • presence of quality (presence of quality (--ous, -ful, -ableous, -ful, -able); ); • absence of quality absence of quality (-less(-less););

Verb-forming suffixes Verb-forming suffixes have meanings of:have meanings of:• to cause, to become to cause, to become (-en, -ize, -fy(-en, -ize, -fy))• To act in a specific way To act in a specific way (-ate(-ate))

Suffixation:Suffixation: Stylistic Reference Stylistic Reference (p. 126)(p. 126)

Native suffixes and fully assimilated Native suffixes and fully assimilated borrowed suffixes are borrowed suffixes are stylistically neutral;stylistically neutral;Some of borrowed suffixes are Some of borrowed suffixes are stylistically stylistically coloredcolored. .

Greek affixes are stylistically colored in Greek affixes are stylistically colored in Modern English (bookish style): Modern English (bookish style): --oid, -tron, oid, -tron, -a, -i,-a, -i,

cf.: cf.: humanhumanoidoid, synchro, synchrotrontron, , protoprotolanguagelanguage, etc, etc..

Suffixation:Suffixation: Degree of Productivity Degree of Productivity (p. (p. 126)126)

Productive suffixes are frequently used for the formation Productive suffixes are frequently used for the formation of new words in Modern English: of new words in Modern English: -er, -ist, -ing, -er, -ist, -ing, etc.etc.

The degree of productivity of suffixes should not be The degree of productivity of suffixes should not be mixed with the mixed with the frequency of their usagefrequency of their usage. .

Non-productive suffixes that are quite seldom used to Non-productive suffixes that are quite seldom used to build new words in Modern English are frequently met in build new words in Modern English are frequently met in the vocabulary: the vocabulary: -ock-ock ( (hillockhillock), ), -th-th ( (widthwidth) ) –t–t ( (keptkept). ).

Some of the suffixes gained their productivity after Some of the suffixes gained their productivity after having been non-productive for centuries: having been non-productive for centuries: --ishish ( (reddish, reddish, yellowishyellowish), ), --domdom ( (boredom, serfdom, slavedomboredom, serfdom, slavedom))

Suffixation:Suffixation: SplintersSplinters

• Splinters are Splinters are parts of words which appeared as parts of words which appeared as a result of a result of clipping clipping the end or the beginning of a word: the end or the beginning of a word: minimini- (from: - (from: miniminiature) ature) minicar, miniradiominicar, miniradio; ; maxi-maxi- (from: (from: maximaximum) mum) maxi-house, maxi-sculpturemaxi-house, maxi-sculpture; ; --nappernapper (from: kid (from: kidnappernapper) ) busnapper, dognapperbusnapper, dognapper; -; -omatomat (from: automat) (from: automat) cashomat, laundromatcashomat, laundromat; ; --eteriaeteria (from: caf (from: cafeteriaeteria) ) booketeria, groceteriabooketeria, groceteria; ; --quakequake (from: earth (from: earthquakequake) ) Moonquake, youthquakeMoonquake, youthquake; -; -tel tel (from: hotel) (from: hotel) motel, boatel, airtelmotel, boatel, airtel; ; --burgerburger (from: ham (from: hamburgerburger) ) fishburger, beefburger;fishburger, beefburger;; -; -scapescape (from: landscape) (from: landscape) seascape, townscapeseascape, townscape; ; Euro- (from: Euro- (from: EuroEuropean) pean) Euromarket, Eurotunnel, EurocardEuromarket, Eurotunnel, Eurocard, , etc. etc.

Linguists treat them as Linguists treat them as pseudo affixes pseudo affixes (or semi-affixes).(or semi-affixes).

Suffixation: Suffixation: Practical 1Practical 1Give a full morphologicalGive a full morphological analysis of analysis of suffixes in the following wordssuffixes in the following words

Government, unpredictable, Government, unpredictable, winner, fruitfulness, winner, fruitfulness, businesslike, desperate, businesslike, desperate, international, buddy, lioness, international, buddy, lioness, illiterate, leadership, illiterate, leadership, companionship, glorious, companionship, glorious, interviewee, hopeless, piglet, interviewee, hopeless, piglet, cookery, inaccessible, cookery, inaccessible, glorious, martyrdom, ex-glorious, martyrdom, ex-builder, immediate, actor, builder, immediate, actor, addressee, easily, addressee, easily, description, subdivision, description, subdivision, summarize, sharpen, summarize, sharpen, interesting, careful, reddish, interesting, careful, reddish, designate, considerate, designate, considerate, designative, designatory, designative, designatory, graduator, obstinateness, graduator, obstinateness, soldiery, nominee, armful soldiery, nominee, armful

friendship –friendship – • It’s a derivative. It’s a derivative. • It consists of 2 morphemes “friend” It consists of 2 morphemes “friend”

and “-ship”.and “-ship”.• It is the first degree of derivation.It is the first degree of derivation.

Semantically, Semantically, • ““friend” is a root morpheme”,friend” is a root morpheme”,• ““-ship” is a derivational morpheme – -ship” is a derivational morpheme –

suffix. suffix. Structurally, Structurally,

• ““friend” is a free morpheme; friend” is a free morpheme; • ““-ship” is a bound morpheme. -ship” is a bound morpheme.

Diachronically: Diachronically: • Suffix “-ship” is of native origin.Suffix “-ship” is of native origin.

Synchronically: Synchronically: • Suffix “-ship“ has a meaning of “a Suffix “-ship“ has a meaning of “a

quality or condition of being a friend”; quality or condition of being a friend”; • it doesn’t change the part of speech of it doesn’t change the part of speech of

a derivative;a derivative;• it is a Noun-forming suffix;it is a Noun-forming suffix;• it is stylistically neutral and it is stylistically neutral and • it is a productive suffix it is a productive suffix • ..

Suffixation: Suffixation: Practical 2Practical 2

DDefine meanings of suffixes in the following efine meanings of suffixes in the following wordswords• Define meanings of Define meanings of Noun-forming suffixes in the following words:Noun-forming suffixes in the following words:

Anticipation, novelette, employee, examiner, lioness, birdie, Anticipation, novelette, employee, examiner, lioness, birdie, nestling, booklet, boredom, performance, temperature, partnership, nestling, booklet, boredom, performance, temperature, partnership, similarity, easiness, reality, tourism, humanistsimilarity, easiness, reality, tourism, humanist

• Define meanings of Adjective-forming suffixes in the following words:Define meanings of Adjective-forming suffixes in the following words:Hopeless, doable, brownish, governmental, useful, suitable, funny, Hopeless, doable, brownish, governmental, useful, suitable, funny, jealous, notional, businesslike, informative, watered, kind-hearted, jealous, notional, businesslike, informative, watered, kind-hearted, capitalist, desperate, starry, starred, woolen, illiteratecapitalist, desperate, starry, starred, woolen, illiterate

• Define meanings of Verb-forming suffixes in the following words:Define meanings of Verb-forming suffixes in the following words:Generalize, demonstrate, purify, shorten, identify, illustrate, Generalize, demonstrate, purify, shorten, identify, illustrate, deliberate, circulate, activate, dictate, illustrate, analyze, widen, deliberate, circulate, activate, dictate, illustrate, analyze, widen, simplify, strengthen, enumerate, deafen simplify, strengthen, enumerate, deafen

• Define meanings of Adverb-forming suffixes in the following words:Define meanings of Adverb-forming suffixes in the following words:Clearly, wonderfully, downtown-ward, inward, affectionately, Clearly, wonderfully, downtown-ward, inward, affectionately, frustratinglyfrustratingly

Productive Ways of Word-Productive Ways of Word-Formation: Formation: CompoundingCompounding (p.122 – 124)(p.122 – 124)

• CompoundingCompounding is combining of 2 or more stems of is combining of 2 or more stems of words in order to form a third word with a new words in order to form a third word with a new meaning: meaning: a handbag, duty-free, clip-claps, wait-and-seea handbag, duty-free, clip-claps, wait-and-see

• The second word usually The second word usually identifiesidentifies an object while an object while

the first word the first word specifies specifies what kind of object it is: what kind of object it is: water tank/ tank water, water tank/ tank water,

washing machine/ machine washing, washing machine/ machine washing,

table game/ game tabletable game/ game table

Word-composition:Word-composition:Classification of Compound wordsClassification of Compound words

7 aspects 7 aspects to classify compounds are knownto classify compounds are known::1.1.StructuralStructural

2.2.MorphologicalMorphological

3.3.SemanticSemantic

4.4.FunctionalFunctional

5.5.Syntactic functionsSyntactic functions

6.6.PhoneticPhonetic

7.7.GraphicalGraphical

Compounding:Compounding:Structural classification (1) Structural classification (1) (p. 122)(p. 122)

Structurally, compounds are characterized by a Structurally, compounds are characterized by a specific order and arrangement of stems. specific order and arrangement of stems.

• It is usually It is usually the second stemthe second stem that is that is a structural a structural and and a semantic centera semantic center of a compound: of a compound:

a matcha matchboxbox, free, freehandedhanded, well , well knownknown..

The second component is often called “The second component is often called “the headthe head” ” of a compound word, and the first component – its of a compound word, and the first component – its ““modifiermodifier”.”.

Compounding:Compounding: Structural Structural classification classification (cont) (cont)

Degree of semantic independence ofDegree of semantic independence of stemsstems (p.122)(p.122)

According to the degree of semantic independence of stems According to the degree of semantic independence of stems compounds mightcompounds might be of 2 different be of 2 different types: types: subordinatesubordinate and and coordinatecoordinate compounds. compounds.

Subordinate compoundsSubordinate compounds are words the components of which are are words the components of which are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance. neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance. It is the second component that forms the semantic and It is the second component that forms the semantic and structural center of a compound word: structural center of a compound word: aa speedospeedometermeter, a baby-, a baby-sittersitter, a share, a shareholderholder..

　　　　In In coordinate compoundscoordinate compounds both stems are semantically equal in both stems are semantically equal in importance. importance.

Coordinate compounds fall into two subgroups: Coordinate compounds fall into two subgroups: • additive compounds and additive compounds and • reduplicative compounds. reduplicative compounds.

Compounding: Compounding: Structural classification Structural classification (cont)(cont)

Coordinate compoundsCoordinate compounds• Additive compounds Additive compounds are formed from stems of independently are formed from stems of independently

functioning words of the same part of speech. They denote an object functioning words of the same part of speech. They denote an object that is two things at the same time: that is two things at the same time: secretary-stenographersecretary-stenographer, , Anglo-Anglo-Saxon, blue-green, parent-teacher (association)Saxon, blue-green, parent-teacher (association). .

• ReduplicativeReduplicative compoundscompounds are made up by repetition of the first stem; as are made up by repetition of the first stem; as a result duplicates are made: a result duplicates are made: fifty-fifty, tick-tockfifty-fifty, tick-tock, etc., etc.

Reduplicative compounds may be of 3 kinds:Reduplicative compounds may be of 3 kinds:• an an exact duplication exact duplication of the first stem in a word: of the first stem in a word: hush-hush, goody-hush-hush, goody-

goody, bye-byegoody, bye-bye;;• variation of variation of consonantsconsonants in the root: in the root: cl clap-ap-trtrap, ap, wwilly-illy-nnillyilly• variation of variation of vowelsvowels in the root: in the root: ch chiitchtchaat, zt, ziigzgzaag, pg, piing-png-poong.ng.

Sometimes such words are called “Sometimes such words are called “ricochet wordsricochet words”.”.

Some of the researchers do not treat coordinative compounds as compound Some of the researchers do not treat coordinative compounds as compound words, as they don’t contain either a head or a modifier in their structure (see: words, as they don’t contain either a head or a modifier in their structure (see: Minor ways of word formation, p. 130)Minor ways of word formation, p. 130)

Compounding: Compounding: Structural Structural classification classification (cont)(cont)

Neo-classical compounds Neo-classical compounds (p. 124)(p. 124)

Some compound words contain parts which are Some compound words contain parts which are not themselves independent words. not themselves independent words.

They are mostly compounds formed They are mostly compounds formed from Latin from Latin and Greek loanwordsand Greek loanwords, for example, in a word like , for example, in a word like bibliographybibliography neither neither biblio-biblio-,, nor nor --graphygraphy are words are words in Modern English. in Modern English.

Such compounds are treated as Such compounds are treated as neo-classical neo-classical compoundscompounds and their parts are defined as and their parts are defined as ““combining formscombining forms”:”: bio-,bio-, electro-, tele-, -ology, -electro-, tele-, -ology, -phile, -scopephile, -scope (biography, telescope, Philology).(biography, telescope, Philology).

Compounding: Practical 1Compounding: Practical 1Define types of the following compounds according Define types of the following compounds according to the degree of their structural and semantic to the degree of their structural and semantic indepenindependence:dence:

subordinate – coordinatesubordinate – coordinate: : additive, additive, reduplicative:reduplicative:

complete repetition, variation of consonants/vowelscomplete repetition, variation of consonants/vowels

One-sided, way-laid, onrush, hotchpotch, two-party (system), saw dust, shipshape, tricolor, freshman, tear-gas, hustle-bustle, goody-goody, take-home, week-end, week-ender, go-between, lipstick, fellow-lodger, willy-nilly, athlete-gymnast, triennial, eye-lid, Anglo-American, tick-tacks, hoity-toity, bye-bye, round-faced, star-chart, tit-bit, woman-hater, hotchpotch, baby-sitter, helter-skelter, finger-print, director-manager, hurdy-gurdy, a blow-ball, hobnob, dairymaid, Afro-Asian, eyelevel, standpoint, hush-hush, director-producer, quake-stricken, slink-pink, shake-shack, mother-daughter (relationships), detective-policeman, flip-flop, Chinese-Canadian

Compounding: Compounding: Morphological Morphological Classification Classification (2)(2)

Types of stems joined togetherTypes of stems joined together (p. 124)(p. 124)

According to the morphological types of stems joined together, According to the morphological types of stems joined together, compounds are subdivided into 2 groups: compounds are subdivided into 2 groups: neutralneutral and and syntacticsyntactic..

Neutral compoundsNeutral compounds may be of 3 types: may be of 3 types:1.1. compounds proper compounds proper that are formed by simple stems: that are formed by simple stems: ice-ice-cold,cold, bedroom, tallboybedroom, tallboy;;2.2. derivational compounds derivational compounds one of the stems of which is one of the stems of which is derived: derived: kind-heartkind-hearted,ed, music-lovmusic-loverer, absent-mind, absent-mindednessedness, grass-, grass-hopphopperer;;3.3. compounds with a shortened stemcompounds with a shortened stem:: TT-shirt, -shirt, TVTV-set, -set, phonephone call.call.

Syntactic compoundsSyntactic compounds consist of elements consist of elements typical of a phrase typical of a phrase or a or a sentence (articles, prepositions, particles, etc.): sentence (articles, prepositions, particles, etc.): Jack-of-all-trades; a go-between, a mother-in-law, a sit-in, a forget-Jack-of-all-trades; a go-between, a mother-in-law, a sit-in, a forget-me-not, a man-of-war, up-to-date, me-not, a man-of-war, up-to-date, etc etc

Compounding: Practical 2Compounding: Practical 2Define types of the following compounds according Define types of the following compounds according to the morphological types of stems joined to the morphological types of stems joined together:together:

neutral neutral - - syntacticsyntacticproper, derivational, with shortened stem proper, derivational, with shortened stem

Heart-felt (talk), eye-witness (video), difficult-to-Heart-felt (talk), eye-witness (video), difficult-to-understand (proposal), shoe-maker, first-time understand (proposal), shoe-maker, first-time (voter), Jack-o’-lantern, drive-in (restaurant), (voter), Jack-o’-lantern, drive-in (restaurant), hanky-panky, e-mail, walk-in (closet), four-volume hanky-panky, e-mail, walk-in (closet), four-volume (piece), week-ender, sit-in (demonstration), larger-(piece), week-ender, sit-in (demonstration), larger-than-life (character), merry-go-round, T-shirt, than-life (character), merry-go-round, T-shirt, icebound (waters), shilly-shally, coin-box, actor-icebound (waters), shilly-shally, coin-box, actor-manager, stand-up (meal), puffed-up, short-manager, stand-up (meal), puffed-up, short-sighted, shooting-star, sitter-in, paper-money, sighted, shooting-star, sitter-in, paper-money, panic-stricken, detective-manager, stay-at-home panic-stricken, detective-manager, stay-at-home (moms), a feel-good (factor)(moms), a feel-good (factor)

Compounding: Compounding: Semantic Semantic Classification Classification (3)(3)

Degree of motivation Degree of motivation (p. 124)(p. 124)

Semantically, compounds are treated as Semantically, compounds are treated as idiomaticidiomatic or or non-idiomaticnon-idiomatic compounds of different degree of compounds of different degree of motivationmotivation

• The meaning of a The meaning of a non-idiomaticnon-idiomatic compound word can compound word can be deduced from the meanings of its components: be deduced from the meanings of its components: a reading-room, an evening gowna reading-room, an evening gown. .

• The meaning of an The meaning of an idiomaticidiomatic compound cannot be compound cannot be defined from the meanings of their stems and the defined from the meanings of their stems and the degree of semantic cohesion of their constituent degree of semantic cohesion of their constituent parts is very different, cf.: parts is very different, cf.: bull-in-a-china-shopbull-in-a-china-shop (politics).(politics).

Compounding: Compounding: Semantic Semantic Classification Classification (3)(3)

Degree of motivation Degree of motivation (cont) (cont) (p. 123)(p. 123)According to the degree of their motivation, compounds may be of 3 According to the degree of their motivation, compounds may be of 3 types:types:

• completely motivated, completely motivated, • partially motivated, and partially motivated, and • completely non-motivated. completely non-motivated.

In In completely motivated compoundscompletely motivated compounds both components are used in both components are used in their direct meanings: their direct meanings: shoemaker, headache, street lampshoemaker, headache, street lamp. .

In In partially motivated compoundspartially motivated compounds one component is used in its one component is used in its direct meaning, while the other is used in its indirect meaning: direct meaning, while the other is used in its indirect meaning: aa flowerbed, a castle-builder, hotdogflowerbed, a castle-builder, hotdog..

Completely non-motivated compoundsCompletely non-motivated compounds lack any motivation, i.e. lack any motivation, i.e. there is no connection between the meaning of a compound and the there is no connection between the meaning of a compound and the meanings of its components, cf., meanings of its components, cf., fiddlesticksfiddlesticks means “nonsense”, means “nonsense”, eye-washeye-wash - “something that is said or done to deceive a person”, - “something that is said or done to deceive a person”, red tapered tape – “bureaucracy”. – “bureaucracy”.

Compounding: Compounding: Practical 3Practical 3Define the degree of motivation in the following Define the degree of motivation in the following compounds:compounds:

((completely motivated, partially motivated, non-motivatedcompletely motivated, partially motivated, non-motivated))

a cold duck, a grasshopper, hoodwink, a tricycle, a a cold duck, a grasshopper, hoodwink, a tricycle, a chatterbox, a cool beggar, a loudspeaker, horse-chatterbox, a cool beggar, a loudspeaker, horse-collar, earphones, huntsman, a bus-driver, hot-collar, earphones, huntsman, a bus-driver, hot-house, fireproof, higgledy-piggledy, hotheaded, a house, fireproof, higgledy-piggledy, hotheaded, a bookworm, hopscotch, star-dust, man-of-war, happy-bookworm, hopscotch, star-dust, man-of-war, happy-go-lucky, red tape, will-o’-the-wisp, kith-and-kin, go-lucky, red tape, will-o’-the-wisp, kith-and-kin, devil-may-care, hide-and-seek, hand-to-hand devil-may-care, hide-and-seek, hand-to-hand (fighting), hang-dog, hen-hearted, herring-bone, (fighting), hang-dog, hen-hearted, herring-bone, highwayman, heyday, highball, holystone, hugger-highwayman, heyday, highball, holystone, hugger-mugger, hush-money, tableland, onlooker, out-and-mugger, hush-money, tableland, onlooker, out-and-out, bolster savings, hot dog, hot-headed, humbug, out, bolster savings, hot dog, hot-headed, humbug, scandalmonger, shorthand, singsong, wool-scandalmonger, shorthand, singsong, wool-gathering, runoff, walkie-talkiegathering, runoff, walkie-talkie

Compounding: Compounding: Functional Classification Functional Classification (p.123)(p.123)

Functionally, compounds are viewed as words of different Functionally, compounds are viewed as words of different parts of speech: their word-class is indicated by the second parts of speech: their word-class is indicated by the second stem of a compound. stem of a compound.

Compound words may belong to different word-classes:Compound words may belong to different word-classes:1.1. nounsnouns: : aa birthday, a weekend, a single motherbirthday, a weekend, a single mother;;2.2. adjectivesadjectives: : long-legged, peace-loving, easy-goinglong-legged, peace-loving, easy-going;;3.3. adverbsadverbs: : everywhere, outdoors, insideeverywhere, outdoors, inside;;4.4. pronounspronouns: : someone, nothingsomeone, nothing;;5.5. connectivesconnectives: : within, withoutwithin, without;;6.6. verbs formed by means of conversionverbs formed by means of conversion: : to blacklist, to to blacklist, to

blackmail;blackmail;7.7. verbs with verbal and adverbial stemsverbs with verbal and adverbial stems: : to bypass, to offsetto bypass, to offset..

Compounding: Functional ClassificationCompounding: Functional Classification

Word-class patterns of compound wordsWord-class patterns of compound words (p. 123 – 124)(p. 123 – 124)• N + N: N + N: railway, summerhouse, cigar-ash;railway, summerhouse, cigar-ash;• Adj + N: Adj + N: short-term, blackberry, bluestocking;short-term, blackberry, bluestocking;• N + Part I: N + Part I: soul-baring, fence-building, law-making,soul-baring, fence-building, law-making,• N + Part II: N + Part II: horror-struck, smoke-blackened, horror-struck, smoke-blackened,

technology-rejected;technology-rejected;• Adj + Part II: Adj + Part II: short-lived, ill-prepared;short-lived, ill-prepared;• Adv + Part II: Adv + Part II: well known, badly-injured, half-seen;well known, badly-injured, half-seen; • Adj + Part I: Adj + Part I: freethinking, aggressive-sounding, freethinking, aggressive-sounding,

slow-burning;slow-burning;• N + Adj: N + Adj: air tight, tobacco-mad;air tight, tobacco-mad;• Num + N: Num + N: four-volume, one-vote, first-time; four-volume, one-vote, first-time; etc.etc.

Compounding: Practical 4Compounding: Practical 4Identify functional patterns according to which the Identify functional patterns according to which the following compound words are built following compound words are built

a newly-created (concept), walkie-talkie, a child-a newly-created (concept), walkie-talkie, a child-lover, a one-earner (household), a wipe-clean lover, a one-earner (household), a wipe-clean (carpet), fee-paying (school), well-meant, face-to-(carpet), fee-paying (school), well-meant, face-to-face, small-minded, man-of-the-people face, small-minded, man-of-the-people (impression), job-for-life (security), single-(impression), job-for-life (security), single-mothers, something-must-be-doner, Charles-and-mothers, something-must-be-doner, Charles-and-Di (case), Pepsi Generation, a gap year, a theatre-Di (case), Pepsi Generation, a gap year, a theatre-goer, feel-good (factor), money-making goer, feel-good (factor), money-making (business), short-lived (plan)(business), short-lived (plan)

Compounding: Compounding: Syntactic Syntactic Classification Classification (5)(5)

Functions in a SentenceFunctions in a SentenceIn a sentence, compound words fulfill different functions. In a sentence, compound words fulfill different functions. They may be used as the following members of a sentence:They may be used as the following members of a sentence:

• Subject Subject - - Japan’s old Japan’s old job-for-life securityjob-for-life security has has vanishedvanished……

• Object Object – – I forced my I forced my manservantmanservant to help me to help me……• PredicatePredicate – – My mentor was a great My mentor was a great watermanwaterman. .

Langdon backpedaledLangdon backpedaled;;• Attribute Attribute – – A definite A definite end-of-the-holidayend-of-the-holiday gloom was gloom was

in the air;in the air;• Adverbial modifierAdverbial modifier of manner, time and order – of manner, time and order –

… … beautifully written in a neat beautifully written in a neat penmanshippenmanship……… … He sat white knuckled in a He sat white knuckled in a passenger seatpassenger seat……

Compounding: Practical 5Compounding: Practical 5Identify syntactic functions of the following Identify syntactic functions of the following compounds in a sentence: compounds in a sentence:

((subject, object, predicate, attribute, adverbial modifiersubject, object, predicate, attribute, adverbial modifier, etc.), etc.)

1.1. He was a little, white-faced, clean-shaven, grizzly-haired He was a little, white-faced, clean-shaven, grizzly-haired fellow of 50.fellow of 50.

2.2. He proclaimed a hand-off policy (Davis).He proclaimed a hand-off policy (Davis).3.3. That was a hand-to-hand confrontation (Davis).That was a hand-to-hand confrontation (Davis).4.4. ……up-and-coming number of Virginia’s ruling elite (Davis).up-and-coming number of Virginia’s ruling elite (Davis).5.5. That was a long-term impact (Davis).That was a long-term impact (Davis).6.6. That produced a mopping-up effort (Davis).That produced a mopping-up effort (Davis).7.7. They had swallowed all his dim-witted lies (J.K. Rowling).They had swallowed all his dim-witted lies (J.K. Rowling).8.8. He is a New Yorker.He is a New Yorker.9.9. Carryover funds can be used to cover a deficit.Carryover funds can be used to cover a deficit.10.10.The team conducted its review on-site. The team conducted its review on-site. 11.11.The runoff from farmland can carry dirty water into the river.The runoff from farmland can carry dirty water into the river.

Compounding: Compounding: Phonetic Classification Phonetic Classification (p. 123)(p. 123)

Phonetically, a compound word gets Phonetically, a compound word gets a new stress patterna new stress pattern. .

Compounds may be built according to the following stress Compounds may be built according to the following stress patterns:patterns:

1.1. primary stressprimary stress on the first component (┴ ─): on the first component (┴ ─): doorway, doorway, blackboard.blackboard.

2.2. double stressdouble stress, i.e. primary stress on the first component , i.e. primary stress on the first component and secondary stress on the second component (┴ ┬): and secondary stress on the second component (┴ ┬): blood-vessel, washing-machine.blood-vessel, washing-machine.

3.3. level stresslevel stress – both stems possess individual stresses(┴ ┴): – both stems possess individual stresses(┴ ┴): open-minded, grass-green.open-minded, grass-green.

Primary stress is traditionally typical of Primary stress is traditionally typical of nounsnouns, , Secondary and level stress – of Secondary and level stress – of adjectivesadjectives and and adjectival adjectival groupsgroups. .

Compounding: Compounding: Graphical Classification Graphical Classification (p. 123)(p. 123)

Compounds could be written in various ways. According to Compounds could be written in various ways. According to the means of connection, compounds are divided into four the means of connection, compounds are divided into four groups:groups:

1.1. compounds formed by compounds formed by simple placingsimple placing one stem after one stem after another without any linking element: another without any linking element: headache, warpath, headache, warpath, flowerpot;flowerpot;

2.2. compounds stems of which are coined with the help of compounds stems of which are coined with the help of linking letterslinking letters such as such as --oo-, --, -ii-, --, -ss-:-: AfrAfroo-Asian, hand-Asian, handiicraft, craft, statestatessman, neurman, neurooscience; science;

3.3. compounds written with compounds written with a hyphena hyphen: : third-rate, best-seller, third-rate, best-seller, well-being; well-being;

4.4. compounds written as compounds written as separate wordsseparate words: : awriting table, a awriting table, a dining room, a school bus, single mothers.dining room, a school bus, single mothers.

Compounding: Practical 6Compounding: Practical 6Define graphical types of connections in the Define graphical types of connections in the following compounds:following compounds:

((simple placing, linking letters, a hyphen, separate writingsimple placing, linking letters, a hyphen, separate writing))

Handicraft, quick-witted, hustle-bustle, snowman, Handicraft, quick-witted, hustle-bustle, snowman, Austro-Asian, buttercup, saw dust, speedometer, Austro-Asian, buttercup, saw dust, speedometer, hue and cry, bumble-bee, hump-backed, hurdy-hue and cry, bumble-bee, hump-backed, hurdy-gurdy, sportsman, handiwork, hit-or-miss, gurdy, sportsman, handiwork, hit-or-miss, Morphosyntax, borderline, anthropologist, Morphosyntax, borderline, anthropologist, statesman statesman

Compounding: Practical 7 Compounding: Practical 7 Give a full morphological analysis of the following Give a full morphological analysis of the following compound words:compound words:

Buttonhole, fifty-fifty, father-in-Buttonhole, fifty-fifty, father-in-law, make-up, hush-hush, wait-law, make-up, hush-hush, wait-and-see, peace-fighter, pell-and-see, peace-fighter, pell-mell, bookmaker, tiptoe, mell, bookmaker, tiptoe, progressive-minded (people), progressive-minded (people), nuclear-powder (submarines), nuclear-powder (submarines), bye-bye, a paper-littered table, bye-bye, a paper-littered table, actor-producer, riff-raff, evil-actor-producer, riff-raff, evil-hearted (people), put-it-hearted (people), put-it-together toy set, sit-on-the-together toy set, sit-on-the-fence (policy), hand-washable fence (policy), hand-washable (clothes), clip-clap, color-(clothes), clip-clap, color-blinded (people), duty-free blinded (people), duty-free (goods), a short-staffed (goods), a short-staffed (office), middle-of-the-roader, (office), middle-of-the-roader, higgledy-piggledy, looker-on, higgledy-piggledy, looker-on, (the) not-always-appropriate (the) not-always-appropriate (methods), teacher-made (methods), teacher-made (tests), coach-manager, flip-(tests), coach-manager, flip-flop, Morphosemantics, flop, Morphosemantics, detective-managerdetective-manager

a woman-hatera woman-hater

• It is a neutral derivational It is a neutral derivational compound word; compound word;

• It consists of two stems: a It consists of two stems: a simple stem simple stem woman woman and a and a derivative stem derivative stem hathaterer;;

• It’s formed by the pattern N + It’s formed by the pattern N + V-er= N; V-er= N;

• It is a compound noun; It is a compound noun; • It is a compound of the It is a compound of the

subordinate type: the second subordinate type: the second stem stem haterhater forms a semantic forms a semantic and a structural centre of a and a structural centre of a compound; compound;

• It is a completely motivated It is a completely motivated compound.compound.

• The two stems are joined The two stems are joined together by a hyphen; together by a hyphen;

Productive Ways of Word-Productive Ways of Word-Formation:Formation: ConversionConversion (p. 126)(p. 126)

Conversion is a process when a word is converted from Conversion is a process when a word is converted from one word-class to another without any changes of a one word-class to another without any changes of a form, but form, but only through the changes in its paradigm:only through the changes in its paradigm: to to cut – a cut, to swim – a swim, a shoulder – to shoulder.cut – a cut, to swim – a swim, a shoulder – to shoulder.Paradigm is an ordered set of grammatical forms of a Paradigm is an ordered set of grammatical forms of a certain part of speech – certain part of speech – noun, verb, adjective, adverb (p. 73): noun, verb, adjective, adverb (p. 73): nouns: nouns: a girl – girls – girl’s; a girl – girls – girl’s; verbs:verbs: to write – wrote – written – writing – have written – will to write – wrote – written – writing – have written – will write, write, etc.etc.

Conversion occurred as a result of historical processes – Conversion occurred as a result of historical processes – • leveling of endings, leveling of endings, • reduction of unstressed vowels, reduction of unstressed vowels, • simplification of stems, etc. simplification of stems, etc.

Conversion:Conversion: Historical background Historical background (p. (p. 126)126)

In the history of the English language words In the history of the English language words love – to love, work – love – to love, work – to work, smoke – to smoke, answer – to answer, drink – to drinkto work, smoke – to smoke, answer – to answer, drink – to drink had different morphological features and possessed their own had different morphological features and possessed their own special paradigms: special paradigms: OE OE lufulufu (love) – (love) – lufianlufian (to love), (to love), answaruanswaru (an answer) – (an answer) – andswarian andswarian (to answer), (to answer), drinkudrinku (a drink) - (a drink) - drinkandrinkan (to drink), (to drink), smockasmocka (a smoke) – (a smoke) – smockiansmockian (to smoke). (to smoke).

Complicated morphological changes caused by the analytical Complicated morphological changes caused by the analytical tendencies in the development of the grammatical structure of the tendencies in the development of the grammatical structure of the English language resulted in accidental identity of verbal and English language resulted in accidental identity of verbal and nominal forms.nominal forms.

Cases of conversion in the XIV-th century imitated such pairs of Cases of conversion in the XIV-th century imitated such pairs of words in analogy for they were: words in analogy for they were:

• numerous in the vocabulary and numerous in the vocabulary and • subconsciously accepted as word-building patterns.subconsciously accepted as word-building patterns.

Conversion: Conversion: Structural Patterns Structural Patterns (p. 127)(p. 127)

Conversion in Modern English is extremely productive and Conversion in Modern English is extremely productive and influences almost every part of speech. influences almost every part of speech.

Traditionally, conversion regards verbs and nouns Traditionally, conversion regards verbs and nouns transformations.transformations.

Verbs made from nouns Verbs made from nouns (N (N V) V) are the most numerousare the most numerous: : • to hand, to face, to eye, to room, to monkey, to honeymoon, to can, to to hand, to face, to eye, to room, to monkey, to honeymoon, to can, to

chin, to fist, chin, to fist, etc., cf., etc., cf., My mother clothed and shoed meMy mother clothed and shoed me. .

Verbs can also be made from adjectives (Adj Verbs can also be made from adjectives (Adj V): V): • to pale, to yellow, to coolto pale, to yellow, to cool, etc., cf., , etc., cf., He narrowed his eyes. He narrowed his eyes.

Nouns are made from verbs (V Nouns are made from verbs (V N): N): • a do, a go, a make, a run, a find, a catch, a walk, a move, a show, a do, a go, a make, a run, a find, a catch, a walk, a move, a show, etc.,etc.,• cf., cf., She gave a little shiver.She gave a little shiver.

Conversion: Conversion: Structural Patterns Structural Patterns (cont)(cont)

Adjectives are made from nouns (N Adjectives are made from nouns (N Adj): Adj): • a rich, a blind, a mute,a rich, a blind, a mute, etc., etc., • cf., cf., He is an absolute imbecile in his profession.He is an absolute imbecile in his profession.

Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion: conversion:

• to but, to down, to out, the ups and downs, the ins and outs, to but, to down, to out, the ups and downs, the ins and outs, etc., etc.,

• cf., cf., I was speculating with various whys, and whats and whos. I was speculating with various whys, and whats and whos.

• the process of the formation of verbs is called “verbalization”; the process of the formation of verbs is called “verbalization”; • the formation of nouns is called “substantivization”; the formation of nouns is called “substantivization”; • the formation of adjectives - adjectivalization”.the formation of adjectives - adjectivalization”.

Conversion:Conversion: Semantic correlations Semantic correlations (p. (p. 127)127)

Semantic associations of converted verbs may be traced in:Semantic associations of converted verbs may be traced in:• 1.1. action characteristic of the object: action characteristic of the object: witness – to witness, dog – witness – to witness, dog –

to dog;to dog;• 2.2. instrumental use of the object: instrumental use of the object: elbow – to elbow, hammer – to elbow – to elbow, hammer – to

hammer;hammer;• 3.3. acquisition or addition of the object: acquisition or addition of the object: to fish, to tail, to grass, to to fish, to tail, to grass, to

dust;dust;• 4.4. derivation of an object: derivation of an object: to skin, to dust, to bone;to skin, to dust, to bone;• 5.5. location: location: to bag, to pocket, to house;to bag, to pocket, to house;• 6.6. temporal relations: temporal relations: to winter, to week-end.to winter, to week-end.• 　　　　

Nouns converted from verbs may denote:Nouns converted from verbs may denote:• 1.1. moment of an actionmoment of an action: a jump, a swim, a step, a laugh: a jump, a swim, a step, a laugh;;• 2.2. agent or doer of an action: agent or doer of an action: a help, a cheat, a borea help, a cheat, a bore;;• 3.3. place of an action: place of an action: a drive, a walk, a standa drive, a walk, a stand;;• 4.4. result of an action: result of an action: a cut, a peel, a find, a makea cut, a peel, a find, a make..

Conversion: Conversion: Practical 1 Practical 1 Define semantic correlations within the following Define semantic correlations within the following pairs of converted words:pairs of converted words:

a pocket – to pocket, to jump – a jump, supper – a pocket – to pocket, to jump – a jump, supper – to supper, grass – to grass, a winter – to winter, to to supper, grass – to grass, a winter – to winter, to shave – a shave, to make – a make, a face – to shave – a shave, to make – a make, a face – to face, to cut – a cut, to smoke – a smoke, to swim face, to cut – a cut, to smoke – a smoke, to swim – a swim, milk – to milk, to come down – a come – a swim, milk – to milk, to come down – a come down, pale – to pale, in / out – ins and outs, down, pale – to pale, in / out – ins and outs, wounded – the wounded, a nose – to nose, a wounded – the wounded, a nose – to nose, a shoulder – to shoulder, an elbow - to elbow, a shoulder – to shoulder, an elbow - to elbow, a suspect – to suspect suspect – to suspect

Conversion: Conversion: Functional correlationsFunctional correlations

Functionally, in a sentence converted words may Functionally, in a sentence converted words may be:be:

• SubjectSubject: : The silverThe silver had been taken by the murderer; had been taken by the murderer;

• ObjectObject: : I suggested I suggested a blinda blind;;

• AttributeAttribute: : I bought a new I bought a new put-togetherput-together toy set toy set;;

• PredicatePredicate: : My mother My mother clothed clothed and and shoedshoed me me;;

• PredicativePredicative: : She is still She is still an evilan evil;;

• Adverbial modifierAdverbial modifier: : He paused a moment longer, He paused a moment longer, eyeingeyeing

the metal threshold,the metal threshold, etc. etc.

Conversion: Conversion: Practical 2Practical 2Define patterns of conversion in the following Define patterns of conversion in the following pairs of words: pairs of words:

a worry – to worry, love – to love, a cut – to cut, a a worry – to worry, love – to love, a cut – to cut, a room – to room, gray – to gray, a can – to can, room – to room, gray – to gray, a can – to can, poor – the poor, a find – to find, a comb – to poor – the poor, a find – to find, a comb – to comb, red – to red, up/ down – ups and downs, a comb, red – to red, up/ down – ups and downs, a work – to work, a drink – to drink, a go – to go, work – to work, a drink – to drink, a go – to go, rich – the rich, Russian – the Russian, a stand – to rich – the rich, Russian – the Russian, a stand – to stand, a nurse – to nurse, a whistle – to whistle, to stand, a nurse – to nurse, a whistle – to whistle, to trim – trim – a trimtrim – trim – a trim

Conversion: Conversion: Practical 3Practical 3Give a full morphological analysis of converted Give a full morphological analysis of converted words in the following sentences: words in the following sentences:

1.1. Sometimes nothings mean more Sometimes nothings mean more than many somethings.than many somethings.

2.2. Good has come out of evil.Good has come out of evil.3.3. She gave a little shiver.She gave a little shiver.4.4. The English exercised a The English exercised a

surprisingly tolerant hand-off surprisingly tolerant hand-off policy… policy…

5.5. I vouch to him. (C. Doyle)I vouch to him. (C. Doyle)6.6. My wife was dogged by ill health My wife was dogged by ill health

for twelve years (M Spark)for twelve years (M Spark)7.7. I narrowed my eyes…I narrowed my eyes…8.8. Her face blushed – then paled (A. Her face blushed – then paled (A.

Christie)Christie)9.9. What would happen to our father What would happen to our father

who was khakied like every other who was khakied like every other man? man? (L. Lee)(L. Lee)

10.10.I was speculating with various I was speculating with various whys and whats and whoswhys and whats and whos … …

Example: Example: I saw no I saw no blindsblinds on the on the window.window.

Blind(s) Blind(s) – – • It is a Noun converted from It is a Noun converted from

an Adjectivean Adjective• It is a converted nounIt is a converted noun• It has a grammatical It has a grammatical

inflection inflection –s–s of the plural of the plural form of a nounform of a noun

• It denotes “an object that It denotes “an object that shuts out light”shuts out light”

• It functions as an Object in It functions as an Object in the sentencethe sentence

Productive Ways of Word-Productive Ways of Word-

Formation:Formation: ShorteningShortening (p. 127)(p. 127)

ShorteningShortening or or abbreviationabbreviation of words is a way of of words is a way of formation of new words by means of substituting formation of new words by means of substituting a part of the word for a whole. a part of the word for a whole.

2 different types of abbreviations: 2 different types of abbreviations:

• graphical abbreviations and graphical abbreviations and

• lexical abbreviations lexical abbreviations

Shortening: Shortening: Graphical abbreviations Graphical abbreviations (p. 128)(p. 128)

Graphical abbreviationsGraphical abbreviations – substitutes of words – substitutes of words used for used for writingwriting purposes in written speech: scientific books, purposes in written speech: scientific books, advertisements, letters, articles, etc. advertisements, letters, articles, etc.

According to According to the way of formationthe way of formation, graphical abbreviations are , graphical abbreviations are subdivided into the following types:subdivided into the following types:

• initial shorteningsinitial shortenings – – shortened words that keep the initial shortened words that keep the initial letter only; letter only; the shortened variant is read as its full English equivalent the shortened variant is read as its full English equivalent i.e. i.e. – “that is”, – “that is”, e.g. e.g. – “for example” – “for example”

• syllable shorteningssyllable shortenings – – shortened words that keep syllables; shortened words that keep syllables; the remaining part is read as a full word the remaining part is read as a full word Oct Oct - “October” - “October”, Dr., Dr.- “Doctor” - “Doctor”

Shortening:Shortening: Lexical abbreviations Lexical abbreviations (p. (p.

128)128)

Lexical abbreviations represent shortened words used Lexical abbreviations represent shortened words used in oral in oral speech.speech.

Lexical abbreviations fall into 2 groups:Lexical abbreviations fall into 2 groups:• lexical abbreviations proper and lexical abbreviations proper and • clippings. clippings.

Lexical abbreviations properLexical abbreviations proper are formed by a simultaneous are formed by a simultaneous operation of shortening and compounding. operation of shortening and compounding.

In this case they are made up of the following components:In this case they are made up of the following components:– initial soundsinitial sounds ( (ITIT - - “informational technology”),“informational technology”),– syllablessyllables of the components of a word-group ( of the components of a word-group (pop-musicpop-music - -

“popular music”),“popular music”),– shortened elementsshortened elements of a compound word ( of a compound word (V-dayV-day – – “Victory “Victory

day”).day”).

Shortening:Shortening: Lexical abbreviationsLexical abbreviations (cont)(cont)

There are 2 types of lexical abbreviations: There are 2 types of lexical abbreviations: • alphabetisms and alphabetisms and • acronyms. acronyms.

The difference between them lies The difference between them lies on the ways of their formation and reading.on the ways of their formation and reading.

Alphabetisms Alphabetisms are formed and read as a succession of are formed and read as a succession of alphabetical readingalphabetical reading of of the constituent letters: the constituent letters: G.M.T.G.M.T. – “Greenwich mean time”; – “Greenwich mean time”; V.I.P.V.I.P. - “a very important person”; - “a very important person”; EEC -EEC - “European Economic Community”, “European Economic Community”, INTLINTL – “international”, – “international”, ojoj - “orange - “orange juice”; juice”;

AcronymsAcronyms are formed and read as are formed and read as a succession of syllablesa succession of syllables denoted by the denoted by the constituent letters (names of organizations): constituent letters (names of organizations): UNOUNO – “United Nations Organization”, – “United Nations Organization”, SARSSARS – “Severe Acute Respiratory – “Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome”, Syndrome”, SWAKSWAK – “sealed with a kiss” (at the end of a letter). – “sealed with a kiss” (at the end of a letter).

Shortening: Shortening: Clipping Clipping (p. 128)(p. 128)

Words may be built by the process of Words may be built by the process of clippingclipping – the – the process of cutting off one or several syllables of a process of cutting off one or several syllables of a word.word.

In some cases it is the In some cases it is the stressed syllablestressed syllable that is left that is left after cutting off: after cutting off: fridgefridge from “refrigerator”, from “refrigerator”, exam exam fromfrom “examination”“examination”..

Sometimes, however, the Sometimes, however, the unstressed syllableunstressed syllable remains: remains: phone phone fromfrom “telephone”, “telephone”, plane plane fromfrom “airplane”,“airplane”, Bess Bess from “Elizabeth”.from “Elizabeth”.

Shortening:Shortening: Clipping Clipping (cont)(cont)

There are 4 types of clipping: There are 4 types of clipping:

1.1.aphaeresis (initial clipping), aphaeresis (initial clipping), 2.2.apocope (final clipping), apocope (final clipping), 3.3.syncope (middle clipping) and syncope (middle clipping) and 4.4.a mixed type. a mixed type.

Shortening:Shortening: Clipping Clipping (cont)(cont)

• AphaeresisAphaeresis takes place when the first part of a word is takes place when the first part of a word is clipped: clipped: phonephone (telephone), (telephone), fencefence (defense), (defense), spite spite (despite),(despite), cologne cologne (au-de-cologne), (au-de-cologne), bachbach (bachelor’s snack). (bachelor’s snack).

• ApocopeApocope occurs when the last part of a word is clipped: occurs when the last part of a word is clipped: demodemo (demonstration), (demonstration), limolimo (limousine). (limousine).

• SyncopeSyncope happens when the middle part of a word is happens when the middle part of a word is clipped: clipped: maths maths ((mathmathematicematicss), ), specsspecs ( (specspectacletacless). ).

• A mixed typeA mixed type involves clipping at the beginning and at involves clipping at the beginning and at the end of a word: the end of a word: tectec (de (detectective), tive), fluflu (in (influfluenza).enza).

Shortening:Shortening: Ellipsis. Substantivation. Ellipsis. Substantivation.

SShortening may affects not only words but word-groups, as hortening may affects not only words but word-groups, as well. Shortened phrases may appear well. Shortened phrases may appear as a result of ellipsis and as a result of ellipsis and substantivationsubstantivation (substantivalisation). (substantivalisation).

EllipsisEllipsis is the omission of a word or words in a phrase when the is the omission of a word or words in a phrase when the remaining part keeps the lexical meaning of a whole phrase: remaining part keeps the lexical meaning of a whole phrase: a sit-down a sit-down is “a sit-down demonstration”, is “a sit-down demonstration”, NatNat is “a National Party member” is “a National Party member”..

SubstantivationSubstantivation is dropping of a final noun in an attributive is dropping of a final noun in an attributive phrase when the remaining adjective keeps the meaning and phrase when the remaining adjective keeps the meaning and all the syntactical functions of the noun: all the syntactical functions of the noun: pub pub (n)(n) – “a– “a public house”public house”, , finals finals (n)(n) – “final examinations”– “final examinations”,,

hobby hobby (n)(n) – “a hobbyhorse”.– “a hobbyhorse”.

Shortening: Shortening: Practical 1Practical 1Define types of the following shortened words Define types of the following shortened words and methods of their formation:and methods of their formation:

((lexical abbreviations proper: alphabetisms, acronyms; lexical abbreviations proper: alphabetisms, acronyms;

clipping: aphaeresis, apocope, syncopeclipping: aphaeresis, apocope, syncope, , mixed type; ellipsis;mixed type; ellipsis; substantivationsubstantivation))

UNO, doc, sis, T-shirt, Aussie, e.g., A.D., P.T.O., UNO, doc, sis, T-shirt, Aussie, e.g., A.D., P.T.O., prep, ft, FBI, gent, memo, maths, co-ed, M.P., prep, ft, FBI, gent, memo, maths, co-ed, M.P., fence, LA, U.K., SARS, finals, taxi, EU, CNN, demo, fence, LA, U.K., SARS, finals, taxi, EU, CNN, demo, exams, comfy, flu, Feb, USA, adj, Dr, Mrs, N.Y., info, exams, comfy, flu, Feb, USA, adj, Dr, Mrs, N.Y., info, e-mail, hol, 30℃, V-day, deco, cc, Joe, usu, in, a e-mail, hol, 30℃, V-day, deco, cc, Joe, usu, in, a foot, metrop, circs, veggy, H.L., H.C., i.e., op. cit., foot, metrop, circs, veggy, H.L., H.C., i.e., op. cit., Jan, TV, Beth, p.m., flu, fence, specs, spite, DOG-Jan, TV, Beth, p.m., flu, fence, specs, spite, DOG-phone, comfy, a pubphone, comfy, a pub

Shortening:Shortening: Functions in a sentenceFunctions in a sentence

Shortened words may fulfill the various Shortened words may fulfill the various functions in a sentence:functions in a sentence:

– SubjectSubject: : The BBCThe BBC announced the report… announced the report…

– AttributeAttribute: : The LCDThe LCD screen provided directions in several screen provided directions in several languages;languages;

– ObjectObject: : I would like to have your I would like to have your e-maile-mail;;

– PredicativePredicative: : They were the original They were the original ATMsATMs;;

– PredicatePredicate: : He was repeatedly He was repeatedly phoningphoning with no answer with no answer, , etc.etc.

Shortening: Shortening: Practical 2Practical 2Give a full morphological analysis of the Give a full morphological analysis of the shortened words in the following sentences:shortened words in the following sentences:

1.1. ……kids sleeping on backpacks and kids sleeping on backpacks and roving out to their portable MP3’s roving out to their portable MP3’s players…players…

2.2. In a military manoeuvre worthy of In a military manoeuvre worthy of the CIA…the CIA…

3.3. He managed to manoeuvre the He managed to manoeuvre the hijacked taxi to the far side of the hijacked taxi to the far side of the Bois de Bouloque Bois de Bouloque

4.4. The LCD screenThe LCD screen provided directions provided directions in seven languages (D. Brown).in seven languages (D. Brown).

5.5. ……a keypad similar to that of a bank a keypad similar to that of a bank ATM terminal (D. Brown).ATM terminal (D. Brown).

6.6. In the area without phone and e-In the area without phone and e-mail mail

7.7. The BBC producer loved Teabing’s The BBC producer loved Teabing’s hot premise.hot premise.

Example:Example: P.T.OP.T.O..

1.1. ““Please Turn Over”Please Turn Over”

2.2. It’s a three member It’s a three member word-groupword-group

3.3. It’s a graphical It’s a graphical abbreviation: initial abbreviation: initial shorteningshortening

4.4. There are no There are no grammatical grammatical inflectionsinflections

5.5. It is a verbal groupIt is a verbal group

Minor Ways of Word-Formation Minor Ways of Word-Formation (p. 129 – 130)(p. 129 – 130)

Minor ways of word-formation are not Minor ways of word-formation are not frequently used in Modern English for the frequently used in Modern English for the formation of new words. formation of new words.

They are:They are:

• BlendingBlending• BackformationBackformation• Sound-and-stress interchangeSound-and-stress interchange• OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia

Minor Ways of Word-Formation:Minor Ways of Word-Formation: BlendingBlending (p. 129)(p. 129)

BlendingBlending is compounding by means of clipped words, e.g.: is compounding by means of clipped words, e.g.:

• Telegenic = television + photogenicTelegenic = television + photogenic• Oxbridge = Oxford + CambridgeOxbridge = Oxford + Cambridge• Medicare = medical + careMedicare = medical + care• Cashomat = cash + automatCashomat = cash + automat• Fruice = fruit + juiceFruice = fruit + juice• Popcert = popular + concertPopcert = popular + concert• Midterm = middle + temMidterm = middle + tem• Yarden = yard + gardenYarden = yard + garden• Dollarature = dollar + literatureDollarature = dollar + literature• Cell-phone = cellular + telephoneCell-phone = cellular + telephone• Wango = waltz + tango Wango = waltz + tango • Toyotire = Toyota + tireToyotire = Toyota + tire• Senseyes = sensitive + eyesSenseyes = sensitive + eyes

Minor Ways of Word-Formation:Minor Ways of Word-Formation: BackformationBackformation

Back-formationBack-formation, , or negative derivation is the or negative derivation is the formation of new words by means of cutting off an formation of new words by means of cutting off an element that was mistakenly taken for a suffix.element that was mistakenly taken for a suffix.

• the noun the noun editor editor was borrowed from French in the XVII-th century. was borrowed from French in the XVII-th century. Later, in the XVIII-th century the verb Later, in the XVIII-th century the verb to edit to edit was produced by means was produced by means of back-formationof back-formation

• the formation of the noun the formation of the noun greed greed from the adjective from the adjective greedygreedy• the production of the adjective the production of the adjective difficult difficult from the noun from the noun difficultydifficulty

the verb the verb toto ice-skate – ice-skate – from the noun from the noun ice-skater, ice-skater, or, probably,or, probably, ice- ice-skatingskating

• the verb the verb to lazeto laze from the noun from the noun lazerlazer• the verb to the verb to window-shop –window-shop – from the noun from the noun window-shoppingwindow-shopping

((to baby-sit - a baby-sitter, to force-land – force-landing, to finger-to baby-sit - a baby-sitter, to force-land – force-landing, to finger-print – finger-printing, to gloom – gloomy, to sculpt – a sculptor, to print – finger-printing, to gloom – gloomy, to sculpt – a sculptor, to emote - - emotion, to donate – donation, to diagnose – diagnosisemote - - emotion, to donate – donation, to diagnose – diagnosis))

Minor Ways of Word-Formation:Minor Ways of Word-Formation:Sound-and-stress InterchangeSound-and-stress Interchange

Sound-and-stress-interchangeSound-and-stress-interchange is traced in the formation of is traced in the formation of new words that differ in a root-forming vowel/ consonant or new words that differ in a root-forming vowel/ consonant or stress patterns, e.gstress patterns, e.g.,.,

- Wide - widthWide - width a record – to recorda record – to record

- Strong - strengthStrong - strength a protest – to protesta protest – to protest

- to invite – invitationto invite – invitation a contrast – to contrasta contrast – to contrast

- to describe – descriptionto describe – description a rebel – to rebela rebel – to rebel

- to analyze – analysisto analyze – analysis an ally – to allyan ally – to ally

- a house – housinga house – housing a suspect – to suspecta suspect – to suspect

- to conclude – conclusionto conclude – conclusion to ridicule - ridiculousto ridicule - ridiculous

Minor Ways of Word-Formation:Minor Ways of Word-Formation:OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is imitation of different kinds of sounds is imitation of different kinds of sounds produced by animals, birds, human beings, and inanimate produced by animals, birds, human beings, and inanimate objects, e.g.:objects, e.g.:

- Cocks cry “Cocks cry “cock-a-doodle-docock-a-doodle-do””

- Ducks “Ducks “quackquack””

- Frogs “Frogs “croakcroak””

In names of some animals, birds, and gamesIn names of some animals, birds, and games, e.g.,, e.g.,- a cucoo, a crow, a humming-bird, cricketa cucoo, a crow, a humming-bird, cricket