Introduction to Anatomy

M. Ilker Gelisen MD

Human anatomy

THE DEFINITION OF ANATOMY

– Greek = to cut up, or dissect– The science that deals with the structure of the body

Anatomical Scale

Anatomy and Physiology

• •Anatomy – study of structure

• Physiology – study of function

“Structure dictates function.”

THE DEFINITION OF PATHOLOGY

• the branch of medical science that studies the causes and nature and effects of diseases

• any deviation from a healthy or normal condition

Pathology is the precise study and diagnosis of disease. The word pathology is from Ancient Greek, pathos which may be translated into English as either "experience" or "suffering". and, -logia, "the study of".

THE DEFINITION OF PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

A subject to explore the rule of origin and

evolution of disease processes and the

fundamental mechanisms .

Pathophysiology

Anatomy

Overview of Anatomy

• Branches of anatomy

– Gross anatomy

– Microscopic anatomy• Cytology• Histology

– Developmental anatomy• Embryology

– Comparative anatomy

Scale of Anatomy

• Gross anatomy– Surface anatomy– Regional anatomy– Systemic anatomy

• Microscopic anatomy– Cytology– Histology

Gross Anatomy

• Definition:– That which can be seen with the naked eye

• Kinds:– Regional:

• body studied by area

– Systematic:• body studied by system

Microscopic Anatomy

Cytology

• Studies the internal structure of individual cells• Cyto= “cell” ology= “study of”• “unit of Life”• 50-100 trillion cells in the body

Histology• Study of structure & organization of groups of

cells and tissues• Tissue= groups of organized specialized cells

that perform similar functions

Developmental Anatomy

• Definition:– The study of anatomical changes in a life cycle

• Kinds:– Embryology:

• The study of prenatal development

– Postnatal development:• The study of structures after birth

Comparative Anatomy

• Definition:– Comparison of structures between organisms

• Kinds:– Vertebrate:

• Comparison of structures among the vertebrate classes

– Phylogeny:• The study of phyla, and their relationships

• All vertebrates share a basic pattern of organization, most noticeable during embryology.

Comparative Anatomy

History• After the Fall of Rome (476 A.D.): the dark ages

– Medical knowledge saved by Byzantium and the Islamic world– monasteries

• 1200’s– Out of the dark ages– Medical schools in Solerno, Bologna Italy

• 1400’s: Renaissance– Leonardo de Vinci (1452-1519)

• Vesalius: the “Reformer of Anatomy” (1514-1564)– Based on cadaver dissection again; corrected Galen– The father of modern anatomy

• The emergence of modern medicine

20

Tashrih al-badan

manuscript

Ca 1400-1500

By Mansur ibn Muhammad

ibn Ahmad ibn Yusuf ibn Faqih

LLyas

Persian Anatomist

Leonardo’s Sketches

De Humani Corporis Fabrica

Albinus

Tabulae Sceleti e Musculorum Corporis Humani

(London, 1749). Copperplate engraving with etching. National

Library of Medicine

Plastination: Gunter von Hagen

Plastination: Gunter von Hagen001 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w7imTotlzsk

Anatomical Terminology

• Why is it important?• How are things named?

– Anatomical structures- landmarks– Specialized directional terms– Location– Proper nouns

Anatomical Terminology

• Standard anatomical position• Body regions• Body orientation & direction• Body planes & sections• Body cavities

AnatomicalTerminology

Anatomic position is a specific body position in which an individual stands upright with the feet parallel and flat on the floor.

The head is level, and the eyes look forward toward the observer.

The arms are at either side of the body with the palms facing forward and the thumbs pointing away from the body.

Gross Anatomy

Figure 1.3

Anatomical position – a common visual reference point Person stands erect with feet together and eyes forward Palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed away from the

body

Anatomical Terminology

A plane is an imaginary surface that slices the body into specific sections.

The three major anatomic planes of reference are the coronal, transverse, and sagittal planes.

Anatomical Planes, Axes & Directions

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uKQGNh_herE

Sectionsand Planes

A coronal plane, also called a frontal plane, is a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

Frontal Plane

• Longitudinal section into anterior (front) & posterior (back) halves

Sectionsand Planes

A transverse plane, also called a cross-sectional plane or horizontal plane, cuts perpendicularly along the long axis of the body or organ separating it into both superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.

Transverse Plane

• Horizontal plane divides body into superior (top) & inferior (bottom) halves

• Cross sections

Sectionsand Planes

A sagittal plane or median plane, extends through the body or organ vertically and divides the structure into right and left halves.

Sagittal Plane

• Longitudinal section into left & right halves

• Midsagittal down the midline

Body planes and sections - cut into sections along a flat surface called a plane

(also called XS – cross section)

(also called coronal)

Sections and Planes

A sagittal plane in the body midline is a midsagittal plane.

A plane that is parallel to the midsagittal plane, but either to the left or the right of it, is termed a parasagittal (or sagittal) plane.

A minor plane, called the oblique plane, passes through the specimen at an angle.

Midline Midsagittal Plane

Body Planes and Sections

• Oblique section through the trunk

Directional Terms of the Body

Directional terms are precise and brief, and for most of them there is a correlative term that means just the opposite.

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body

Relative to front (belly side) or back (back side) of the body : Anterior = In front

of; toward the front surface

Posterior = In back of; toward the back surface

Dorsal =At the back side of the human body

Ventral = At the belly side of the human body

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body

Relative to the head or tail of the body: Superior = Toward

the head or above Inferior = Toward

feet not head Caudal = At the rear

or tail end Cranial = At the head

end

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body

Relative to the midline or center of the body: Medial = Toward the

midline of the body Lateral = Away from

the midline of the body

Deep = On the inside, underneath another structure

Superficial = On the outside

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body

Relative to point of attachment of the appendage: Proximal =

Closest to point of attachment to trunk

Distal = Furthest from point of attachment to trunk

Orientation and Directional Terms

Orientation and Directional Terms

Orientation and Directional Terms

Body Orientation & Direction

Martini table 1-2

Body Positions

• Supine– Lying down in the anatomical position with face up

• Prone– Lying down in the anatomical position with face

down

anatomical terms of movement

• Flexion: A movement by which the angle of a joint is decreased

• Extension: A movement by which the angle of a joint is increased

anatomical terms of movement

• Adduction: Movement toward the central axis• Abduction: Movement away from the central axis

anatomical terms of movement

• Medial rotation: Rotation toward the medial side of the body

• Lateral rotation: Rotation towards the lateral side of the body

an atomical terms of movement http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5YcNAPzDxDg

Body Regions

The human body is partitioned into two main regions, called the axial and appendicular regions. the axial region includes the head,

neck, and trunk which comprise the main vertical axis of our body

our limbs, or appendages, attach to the body’s axis and make up the appendicular region

anatomical Directional Terms, Planes, and Body Cavities http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rZffxPpBjiA

Principle Anatomical Regions

Martini Table 1-1

Posterior Regions

Superficial vs Deep

1.) parietal or visceral

2.) pericardial, pleural, or

peritoneal*

Naming of serous membranes (serosa) with 2 adjectives:

Parietal serosa forms the outer wall of the cavityVisceral serosa covers the visceral organ

Pericardial: heartPleural: lungsPeritoneal: abdominal

• 9 abdominal regions; 4 quadrants

epigastric

inguinal,(or iliac)

umbilicalflank(side but in back)

The important regions:

The 4 quadrants: RUQLUQRLQLLQ

What’s underneath……

MAJOR FUNCTIONS

• Metabolism: sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body– Anabolism: building; requires energy– Catabolism: break-down; releases energy

• Excitability/Conductivity:• Contractility• Growth and Development• Reproduction

Human Body Systems and Functionshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qhajGKS5thQ

Systemic Anatomy

• Study structure of major body systems

• 11 body systems

• SYSTEMS1) Integumentary2) Skeletal3) Muscular

4) Cardiovascular 5) Lymphatic

6) Immune 7) Nervous 8) Endocrine 9) Respiratory 10) Digestive 11) Urinary 12) Reproductive

Integumentary System

• Components– Skin– Hair, nails

• Function– External covering– Protection– Synthesis of Vitamin D– Location of Sense receptors

Skeletal System• Components

– Bones– Joints and adjacent cartilages

• Function– Support– Protection– Movement– Blood cell production (red bone

marrow)– Mineral storage (calcium and

phosphorus)

Muscular System• Components

– Skeletal Muscles– Associated Connective Tissues

(tendons)• Function

– Locomotion– Manipulation of the environment– Facial expression

(communication)– Maintain posture– Produce heat

Circulatory System

• Components– Cardiovascular System– Lymphatic System

• Function– Transportation of materials– Within the body– To and from internal and external environments

Cardiovascular System

• Components– Heart– Vessels

• Function– Transportation of blood– Blood contains O2 and CO2,

nutrients, wastes, etc.– Blood composed of plasma and

cells

Lymphatic System• Components

– Lymphatic Organs (spleen, lymph nodes, thymus, etc.)

– Lymphatic Vessels• Function

– Transportation of lymph– Lymph is derived from tissue

fluid– Houses white blood cells

Immune System• Components

– Immune Organs (red bone marrow, thymus, etc.)

– White blood cells (lymphocytes, macrophages, etc.)

• Function– Defense (Immune

response)

Nervous System• Components

– Brain, Spinal cord (CNS)– Nerves (PNS), sense receptors

• Function– Control system (fast, “hard

wired”)– Response to external and

internal environments

Endocrine System• Components

– Glands that secrete hormones– E.g. Pituitary, pancreas,– thyroid

• Function– Control system (slow,

“chemical”)– Regulates processes such as

growth, reproduction and nutrient use

Respiratory System• Components

– Lungs– Tubing ( trachea, bronchus, etc.)– Larynx (vocal cords)

• Function– Exchange of respiratory gases (O2

and CO2)– Between blood and atmosphere– Voice production

Digestive System• Components

– Alimentary canal (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine)

– Accessory structures(liver, salivary glands, etc.)

• Function– Break down food into small,

absorbable pieces– Between blood and lumen– Eliminate waste

Urinary System• Components

– Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra

• Function– Eliminate waste (nitrogen)

from blood– Between blood and

external environment – Regulates water,

electrolytes, acid/base

Reproductive System• Components

– Male Reproductive System– Female Reproductive System

• Function– Perpetuation of the species– Hormones influence structure and

function– Sexually bimorphic species

Structural organization from simplest to most complex

• Chemical• Cellular• Tissue – group of cells similar in structure and

function• Organ – Two or more tissue types performing specific

function• Organ system – group of organs acting together to

perform specific function• Human organism

88

• B. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION - from the smallest component to the whole

body.

EpithelialConnectiveMuscleNervous

The Cell

Voyage into the cell

Introduction to Cells

• The basic structural and functional unit of all living things

• Major cellular regions• The plasma membrane• The cytoplasm• The nucleus

Functions of the plasma membrane• Separates intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid• Acts as a barrier• Some membrane proteins act as receptors• Determines which substances enter and leave cell

– Diffusion– Specific transport mechanisms– Bulk (vesicular) transport

• Exocytosis• Endocytosis

The Cytoplasm

• The Cytosol: jelly-like fluid matrix• Organelles (about nine types)

– Ribosomes: sites of protein synthesis– Endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth): products synthesized

(protein, lipid, steroid); store calcium– Golgi apparatus: packages and modifies proteins– Mitochondria: synthesizes ATP (energy source)– Lysosomes: intracellular digestion (“disintegrators”)– Peroxisomes: detoxify substances– Cytoskeleton: supports cellular structures– Centrosomes and centrioles: organize microtubule network

• Inclusions: not permanent (eg. food storage units and pigments)

The nucleus• Control center of the cell• Surrounded by a nuclear envelope• Nucleolus associated with ribosome

production• Chromatin - extended & condensed

– DNA and histones (packaging material)– Four types of nucleotides: A, T, G, C– Nucleosomes: 8 histones wrapped in DNA– Chromosomes

NUCLEUSControl center of the cellSurrounded by a nuclear envelopeNucleolus associated with ribosome productionChromatin - extended & condensed

Tissues

Tissues

Tissues

• Definition: a group of closely associated cells that perform related functions and are similar in structure

• Between cells: nonliving extracellular material• Four basic types of tissue…function

– Epithelium…covering– Connective tissue…support– Muscle tissue…movement– Nervous tissue…control

Epithelia (plural)• Epithelium: sheet of cells that covers a body surface

or lines a body cavity; also form most of the body’s glands

• Roles: as interfaces and as boundaries• Functions:

Protection AbsorptionSensory reception Ion transportSecretion Filtration Formation of slippery surfaces for movement

Four basic types of tissue

EpitheliumConnective tissue

Connective tissue proper (examples: fat tissue, fibrous tissue of ligaments)

Cartilage Bone Blood

Muscle tissueNervous tissue

The four tissue typeshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tKWTJ3_-1E8

Classes of Connective Tissue: note the cell types and great variety of subclasses

Connective Tissue• Originate from embryonic tissue called mesenchyme• Most diverse and abundant type of tissue• Many subclasses• Function: to protect, support and bind together

other tissues– Bones, ligaments, tendons– Areolar cushions; adipose insulates and is food source– Blood cells replenished; body tissues repaired

• Cells separated from one another by large amount of nonliving extracellular matrix

Basic functions of connective tissue reviewed

• Support and binding of other tissues• Holding body fluids• Defending the body against infection

– macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells, WBCs• Storing nutrients as fat

(a) Cutaneous membrane

(b) Mucous membrane

(c) Serous membrane

• Four basic types of tissue

– Epithelium– Connective tissue– Muscle tissue

• Skeletal• Cardiac• Smooth

– Nervous tissue

• Four basic types of tissue

–Epithelium–Connective tissue–Muscle tissue–Nervous tissue

• Neurons• Supporting cells

Terminology • Find definitions and memorize terms:

AnteriorPosteriorSuperiorInferiorMedialLateralProximalDistalSuperficialDeepCephalicVertebralThoracicAppendicularBrachialLumbar

Latin and Greek Prefixes and Suffixes (http://www.technion.ac.il/~medicine/Students/latin&Greekprefixes.html )

Acro- extremity. Acrophobia is a fear of heights. Adeno- gland. Adenoid is a lymph gland found in the nasopharynx. Alba- white. Albinsm is the white appearance of skin lacking melanin. Algia- pain. Neuroalgia is a pain following the course of a nerve. Angi- vessel. Angioplasty is the repair of a blood vessel. Arthro- joint. Arthritis is the inflammation of skeletal joints. Auto- self. Autolysis is the destruction of body cells by bodily enzymes.Bio- living. Biology is the study of living organisms. Blast- germ, bud. Osteoblast is the germ of a bone cell. Blephar- eyelid. A blepharoplasty is eyelid surgery. Brachi- arm. The brachialis muscle moves the arm. Broncho- trachea, windpipe. Bronchitis is the inflammation of the respiratory system. Bucc- cheek. The buccinator muscle is in the cheek.

Capit- head. De-capitate means "Off With the Head!" Carcin- cancer. A carcinogen is a substance which triggers cancer formation. Cardia- heart. Cardiologist is a heart specialist. Cephal- head. Cephalon is another term for the brain. (see capit-) Cerebro- brain. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is fluid circulating within the brain and spinal cord. Chole- bile, gall. Cholecestectomy is removal of the gallbladder. Chondro- cartilage. A chondrocyte is a cartilage cell. Chroma- color. Chromosomes are so named because they took color easily when dye is added to a cell. Cili- eyelash. Supercilia are eyebrows -- the hairs above the eyelashes. Corpus- body. Corpus albicans is the white body inside an ovary. Corona Crown. Coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle run along the heart, encircling it like a crown.The coronary ligaments of the liver (which encircle the liver like a crown), the coronal suture and the corona of the glans penis, all structures which encircle something (like a crown). Cost- rib. Costal cartilages attach ribs to the sternum. Cut- skin. Cutaneous tissue is skin tissue.

Cysti- sac, bladder. Cyto- cell. Cytology is the study of cells.Dactyl- digits. Polydactylism is the presence of more fingers than is normal. Derma- skin. Dermatologists are skin specialists. (see cut-) Dura- tough, hard. Dura mater is the tough covering around the brain and spinal cord.

Entero- intestine. Enteritis is inflammation of the intestines. Erythro- red. Erythrocytes are red blood cells.Galacto- milk.Galactose-Milk Sugur; Galactosemia is the lack of ability to digest one of milk's sugars. Gastro- stomach, belly. Gastric juices are produced in the stomach. Glosso- tongue. Hypoglossal means "below the tongue". Glyco- sugar. Glycosuria is sugar in the urine.

Hema- blood. Hemaglobin is a large molecule of the red blood cell. Hepato- liver. The hepatic vein drains blood away from the liver. Hyster- uterus. Hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus.Ileo- ileum. Part of the small intestine. Ilio- ilium. Part of the hip bone.Lachry- tears. Lacrimal glands secrete tears. Leuko- white. Leukocytes are white cells of the blood. (see alba-) Lingua- tongue. Sublingual glands are beneath the tongue. (see glosso-) Lipo- fat. Liposuction is the removal of fat by suction tube. Lith- stone. Shock wave lithotripsy is a treatment for breaking up kidney stones. Lumbo- lower back. Lumbar vertebrae are located in the lower back.Macul- spot, blotch. The macula lutea is a spot on the retina of an eyeball. Mamm- breast. Mammogram is a picture of a breast, usually a female breast. Mast- breast. Aren't we showing our obsession with breasts? Meningo- membrane. Meninges are the coverings of the brain and spinal cord. Metro- uterus. Endometrium is the inner lining of the uterus. (see hystero-) Morpho- shape. Endomorphs are people whose physical shape extends to the limits of human dimension. Myelo- spinal cord. Poliomyelitis is inflammation of the grey matter of the spinal cord.

Myo- muscle. Myo-cardiac infarction is a problem with the heart muscle. Necro- death. Necrosis is death of cell tissue.

Nephro- kidney. Nephrons are the functional units of a kidney. Neuro- nerve. Neurons are individual nerve cells.Oculo- eye. An oculist supplies eyeglasses. Odont- tooth. Othodontics refers to repair of teeth. Onco- tumour. Oncology is not doctors wearing pagers; it is the study of cancerous tumours. Ophthalm- eye. Ophthalmology is the study of eye and its diseases. Oro- mouth. The oral cavity is the other name for the mouth. Orchido- testicle. Orchidectomy is removal of a testicle. Osse-, Osteo- bone. Osteoporosis is porosity of bone. Oto- ear. Otosclerosis is the formation of bone in the ear.Otomycosis-fungal infection in ear

Patho- disease. Pathogens are agents which cause disease. Peps- digestion. Pepsin is an enzyme found in the digestive system. Phago- eat. Phagocytes are cells (cyto-) which eat foreign material. Philo- love, to have an affinity for. Hydrophilic molecules are attracted to water (hydro-) Phleb- vein. Phlebitis is inflammation of the veins. Phren- diaphragm. Phrenic refers to a diaphragm. Pneumo- lung. Pneumonia is a disease of the lungs. Pulmo- lung. Are lungs related to breasts? Pyo- pus. Pyruria is pus in the urine.

Ren- kidney. Renal artery supplies blood to the kidney. Rhin- nose. Rhinoplasty is a nose job

Scler- hard. Atherosclerosis is hardening of the arteries. (see dura-) Stasis- stand still. Homeostasis is the process of maintaining constant conditions within the body.

Thromb- clot, lump. Thrombosis refers to a clot in the heart or blood vessel. Trich- hair. Trichosis is a disease of the hair.

Vas- vessel, duct. Vas deferens is the vessel which carries sperm from the epididymus. Viscer- organ. Visceral refers to organs.

Zoo- animal. Zoology refers to the study of animals.

THE END