introduction antenna basics 11 -...
TRANSCRIPT
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Symbols, Prcnxes allll Abb rev iations ( Inside f ronl cover and racing insicle rronl cover)
Constants and Conversions (Facing inside back cover)
Gradient Di vergence and Curl in Rec tangular. Cylindrica l and Spherica l Coordinates
(lnside back covcr)
Preface, xv
Introduction
1-1 lntroe!uc ti on
A Short I-li story of Antennas
1-2 Dimens ion s and Units 3
1-3 Fu ndamenta l and Seconclary Unit s 3 1- 4 I-low ro Read the Symbol s a ne! Notation 4
1-5 Eguatíon and Problem Num bering 6
1-6 Dimens io nal Analys is 6
1- 7 The E lectromagnetic Spectrum ; Radio-Freguellcy Band s 9
Refere nces JO
Antenna Basics 11
2-1 lntroduc tion 1 J
2-2 Basic Antenna Parameters 12
2-3 Patte rns 14
2-4 Bea m Area (or Beam Solid Angle) Q A J9
2-5 Rad iat io n Intens ily 22
2-6 Bea m Effi c iency 22
2-7 Direc livi ly D and Gaio G 23
2-8 Direc ti vi ty and Resolu tion 26
2-9 Antenna Ape rtures 27
2-10 Effective He ight 30 2-11 The Radi o Commu nicali on Lin k 36
2-12 Fields fro m O scilla ling Di pole 37 2-13 Ante nna F ield Zones 39
2-14 Shape-Impedance Consideratío ns 40
2-15 Linear, EJl ipt ica l ane! Circular Po la ri za lion 44
2-16 Poynting Vecto r for EJliplically and Circularly Polarized Waves 47
2-17 The Polarizat ion E llipse and lhe Po inca ré Sphere 47
References 52
Problems 52
jjj
iv COl1lenrS
Chapter 3 The Antenna FamiJy 57
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 5
3-1 Introdllction 57
3-2 Loops, Dipo les and Slots 57
3-3 Opened-Ollr Coaxial -Line Antennas 60
3-4 Opened-Out 2-Co ndllctor (Tw in-Line) Ante nn as 6 1
3-5 Opened-Ollt Wavegui de Antennas (Apertllre Types) 62
3-6 F lat-Sheet ReAecror Antennas 63
3-7 Parabo lic Di sh and Dielectric Lens Ante nnas 64
3-8 End-Fire Antennas 66
3-9 Broad Bandwidth Antenn as: T he Conical Spiral and the Log-Periodic 67
3-10 The Patch Anrenna, Patch Anay, and the Grid Array 67
References 70
Problems 70
Point Sources 72
4-1 lntroduclion. Po int Source Defined 72
4-2 Power Pattern s 73
4-3 A Power Theorem and lts App lica tion to an Iso tropic SOllrce 75
4-4 Radiat ion lntensity 75
4-5 Examples of Powe r Patterns 76
4-6 Field Patterns 81
4-7 Phase Patterns 86
Problems 88
Arrays of Point Sources, Part 1 90
5-1 Jntrod uct ion 90
5-2 Arrays of Two lsotropic Point Sources 90
5-3 NOlli sotropic but S imil ar Point SOllrces and the Princ ipi e 01' Pattern Mul tiplicat ion 98
5-4 Examp le of Pattern Synthesis by Pattern Multiplication 102
5-5 Noni sotropic and Di ssimilar Point Sources 106
5-6 Linea r Arrays of ti lsotropic Poiot Sources 01' Eqll al A ll1plitude and Spacing 109
5-7 Null Direc tion s fo r Arrays of /1 Iso tropic Point Sources 01' Eqllal Amp li tude
and Spacin g 11 6
Probl ems 120
Anays of Point Sources, Part II )26
5-8 Linear Broadside Arrays with Nonu niform All1p litllde DistributiollS. Genera l
Consideration s 126
5-9 Linear Arrays with onuniforrn Ampli tude Di striblltions. The Dolph-Tchebyscheff
Optimum Distribution 129
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Con tenlS v
5-10 Examp le of Dolph-Tchebysche ff (D-T ) Di slri bu tion for an Arr~y of Eight SO LuTes 137
5-11 Compa ri son of Amplitude Distri butions for Eight-Source Arrays 139
5-12 Continuous Arrays 140
5-13 Huyge lls' Principie 144
5-14 Huygens ' Principie App lied to the Diffr¡¡ction of <1 Plane Wave 1nc ide nt on a Flat Sheet.
Physiea lOpti es 147
5-15 Recrangular-Areil Broadside A1Tays 150
5-16 Array s wirh Mi ss ing Sources and Random Array s 152
5-17 Broadside versus E lld-Fi re Arrays. Turns versus Dipol es and Three-Di me nsiona l
Arrays 154
5-18 Direetions of Maxima for Arrays of 11 lsotropic Po int Sourees of Eg ua l Ampli tude
and Spacing 159
Referenees 162
Prob lems 162
The Electric DipoJe and Thin Linear Antennas 165
6-1 The Short Elee tri e Dipole 165
6-2 T he Fields of a S hon Dipole 166
6-3 Rad iat ion Resistanee of Sho rt Eleetrie Dipole 175
6-4 The Thín Linear Antenna 177
6-5 Radiat ion Resistance of ),, / 2 Antenna 18 1
6-6 Rad iation Resis tanee il t a Point Whieh is not a Curren t
Maximu m 182
6-7 Two Half-Wave Dipol es: Broadside and End-Fire
(T11e W8JK Array) 183
6-8 Fields of a Thin Linear Antenna with a Uniform Traveling Wave 187
Referenees 193
Problems 193
The Loop Antenna 197
7-1 The Small Loop 197
7-2 Comparison of Far Fields uf Sma ll Loop ancl Shon Dipole 199
7-3 The Loop Antenna. Genera l Case 200
7-4 Far-Field Patterns of Circular Loop Antennas with Uniform Curre nt 202
7-5 The Slll all Loop as a Spee ial Case 205
7-6 Radiation Resis tanee of Loops 206
7-7 Direetivity ofCireular Loop Ante nna s with Unifonn CLIITent 209
7-8 TabJe of Loop Formulas 2 12
7-9 Sq uare Loops 212
7-10 Radiation Effkieney, Q, Bilndwidth and Signa l-to-Noise Ratio 2 14
Refe renees 220
Problems 220
· ' .!l.- _~
vi Contents
Chapter 8
Chapter 8
End-Fire Antennas: The Helical Beam Antenna and rhe Yagi-Uda Array, Part 1 222
8-1 The Heli u il Bea m Antenn3 Story by John Kraus 222
8-2 He lical Geollletry 227
8-3 Practica! Design Considerations for the Monofi la r A xial-Mode
Helica l Antenna 23 1
8-4 He lical Beam Ante nna wirh Loops Replacing rhe Ground Plane 242
8-5 Dipole Arrays w ith Parasi tic Ele ments 242
8-6 The Yagi-Uda Array Slory 246
Problems 249
The Helical Antenna: Axial and Other Modes, Part TI 250
8-7 [ntl'Ocluction 250
8-8 Axill l-M ocle Pattem., and the Phase Veloc ity of Wave Propagation o n Mo nnHlar
Hel ices (Krau s-4) 25 I
8-9 Monofilar Axial-Mode S ing le-Turn Pallerns of Sq uare Helix 258
8-10 Complete Axia l-Mode Patterns 01' rvlonofilar Helices 26 1
8-1 I Axial Ratio and Conditions for Circu lar Pola rizalion o fM onofil a r Axial -Mode He licll l
Antennas 263
8-12 Wi deba nd Charac te ri sti cs o f Monotila r Helical Antennas Radiating in the
Axial Mode 268
8-13 Tabl e of Pattern , Bea mwidlh, Gain, Impedance and Axilll Ratio Formulas 270
8-U Radiat ion frOI11 Linear Pe riodic Struc tures with Travelin g Waves with Particul ar Refcrence
to the He li x as a Periodic Struc ture Antenna 27 1
8-15 Array s of Monofilar Axial-Mode Helical Antennas 280
8-16 Th e Monofilar Ax ia l-Mode He li x as a Par'as itic Elelllent and Polari ze r
(see Fig, 8-57 ) 284
8-.17 The Monofilar Axia!-Mode Heli c::i1 Antenna as II Phase llnd
Frequency Shifter 285
8-18 Linear Polarizar io n wi th Monofil ar Ax ial -M ode Helica l Antennas 286
8-19 Mon oti lar Axia l-Mode Helica l Antennas as feeds 287
8-20 Tapered and Oth er fo rrns ofAxia l-Mode He lical Anlennas 289
8-21 Multifilar Axia l-Mode Heli ca l Antennas 29 !
8-22 Monofilar anel Mu!titil a r NOl'll1a!-Mode Heli ca l Antennas 292
8-23 Axial-Mode He lix Te rminati ons 297
8-24 Anlenn a Roration Ex periments 297
8-25 Bililar and Quadritilar Axia l-Moue Heli ces 299
8-26 Generic A! gori rhrn fi ve-Seglllen t Helix vers us Circ ular Hc li x 299
References 300
Additi ona l References on Helical Antel1llas 303
Problems 303
vii
Chapter 9 Slot, Patch and Horn Antennas 304
Chapter 10
Chapter 1 1
9-1 Slot Antennas 304
9-2 Patterns 01' S lot Anten nas in Flal Sheets. Edge Diffrac tion 307
9-3 Babinet's Principi e and Complementary Antennas 3 11
9-4 Thc:: Impedance of Complementary Screens 3 J 4
9-5 The Impedance 01' Slot Anlennas 317
9-6 Slotled Cylinder Anten nas 32t 9-7 Patch or Microst rip Ante nnas 322 9-8 Horn Anten nas 330
9-9 Th e Rectangular Hom Antenna 333
9-10 Bea lll width Comparison 338
9-11 Conical Horn An tennas 339
9- 12 Ridge Horns 339
9-13 SeplU ITI Horns 340
9- ]4 COlTugatecl Horns 341
9-]5 Aperture-Matched Horn 343
References 344
Problems 345
Flat Sheet, Comer and Parabolic Reflector Antennas 347
10-1 Introclucrioll 347
10-2 F lat Sheet Reflectors 349
]0-3 Comer Reflectors 352 10-4 Passive (Retro) Comer Reflector 364
1()-5 T he Parabo[a. Ge llera l Properlies 365 10-6 A Comparisoll between Parabolic alld Comer Reflecto rs 367
10-7 The Paraboloiclal Reflector 368 10-8 Parterns of Large Ci rcular Apertures with Uniform Illullli nation 372
References 375
Probl erns 375
Broadband and Frequency-Independent Antennas 378
11-1 Broadband Basics 378
11-2 Infinite and Finite Bi conica l Antennas 380
11 - 3 Direclional Biconicals , Conical s, Di sk Cones and Bow Ties 382 11-4 The Freq uency-Ind ependent Concept: RUlll sey's Principie 386
11-5a Tbe lllino is Slory 387
11-Sb The Frequency- Indepenclent Planar Log-Spiral An tenna 387 ] ]- 6 The Frequency-Tndepenclen t Co nica l-Spi ra l Antenna 39 J
11-7 The Log-Periodic Antenna 392
11 - 8 The Composite Yagi-Uda-Corner-Log-Perioclic (YUCOLP) Arrny 399
viii Contents
References 399
Problems 400
Chapter 12 Antenna Temperature, Remote Sensing and Radar Cross Section 401
12-1 At1tenna Temperature 401
12-2 System Tem perature 409 12-3 SNR (Signa l-to-Noise Ratio) 411
12-4 Pass ive Remote Sensing 414
12-5 Radar anu Rad ar Cross Section 417 References 427
Problems 427
Chapter 13 Self and Mutual Impedances 438
13-1 [ntroduction 438
13-2 Reciprocity Theorem for Antennas 439
13-3 The 73-Q Radiation Resistance of a }../2 Antenna 44 1
13-4 Radliltion Resistance at a Point Which is Not a Curre nt Maximum 444
13-5 Self-Impedance of a Thin LlIlear Antenna 446
[3-6 Mutual Impedance of Two Pamllel Linear Antennas 448
13-7 Mutual Impedance of Parallel Antennas Side-by-Side 450
13-8 Mutua.II mpedance of Parallel Collinea r Antennas 454 13-9 Mutual Impedance of Para llel Antennas in Eche lon 454
13-10 Mutual Impedance of Other Conf1gurations 455
13-11 Mutu al Impedance in Tenns of Directivity and Rad iat ion Resistance 457 References 459
Problems 459
Chapter 14 The Cylindrical Antenna and the Moment Method (MM) 461
14-1 In troduction 461
14-2 Outline of the Integral-Equa tion Method 462 14-3 Current Distributions 463 14-4 Input Impedance 465
14-5 Paneros 01' Cy lind rica l Antennas 470 14-6 Thc Thin CyJindrica l Antenna 471
14-7 Cylindrical An tennas with Conica l Inpu t Sections 472
14-8 Antennas of Other Sbapes. The Spheroidal Anten na 472 14-9 Currenl DiSlributions on Long Cylindri ca l Antennas 473
14-10 Integral Eq uations and the Moment Method (MM) in Electrostatics 477
14-11 The MOl1lent Method (MM) and Its Application to a Wire Antenna 482
14-12 Self-Impedance, Radar Cross Section and MutualIlllpedance of Short Dipoles by the Mechod of Moments by Edward H. Ne wmon 490
COlllelll S ix
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
References 499
Problems 500
The Fourier Transform Relation between Aperture Distribution and Far-Field Pattern 501
15-1 Continuous Aperture Di stributi oll 50 1
15-2 Fourier Transform Relat ions between lhe Far-Fi e ld Pattero alld the Aperlllre
Di stribution 503
15-3 Spatia \ Freqllency Response and Pattero Smoothing 506
15-4 T he Simple (Adding) Inte rferometer 509
15-5 Aperture Synthesis and MlIltiaperture Anays 518
15-6 Grating Lobes 520
15-7 Two-Dimensiona\ Aperture Synthesis 52\
15-8 Phase Closllre or Self-Calibration for "C lea ll" Maps 523
Rel'erences 526
Problems 526
Arrays of Dipoles and of Apertures 529
16-1 Int roduc ti on 529
16-2 Array of Two Driven >../2 Elements. Broadside Case 530
16-3 Array 01' 2 Driven >../2 Elements. End-Fire Case 539
16-4 Array of 2 Driven >../2 Elements. General Case with Eqllal Currents 01' Ally Phase
Relation 544
16-5 Close ly Spaced Elelllents, Radiating Efficiency and Q. The W8JK Array 548
16-6 Array of /'1 Driven E lements 553
16-7 Horizonta.l Antennas aboye aPiane Grollnd 555
16-8 Vertical Antennas aboye aPiane Ground 566
16-9 Yagi-Uda Modifica tion s 570
16-10 Phased Arrays 572
16-11 Freque ncy-Scanll ing Arrays 576
16-12 Re troarray s. The Van Atta Array 581
16-13 Adaptive Array s and Sman Antenna s 582
16-14 Microstrip Arrays 584
16-15 Low-Side-Lobe Arrays 585
16-16 Long-Wire Antennas 585
16-17 ClIrtain Arrays 591
16-18 Locatioll and Method of Feed ing Antennas 592
16-19 Folded Dipole Antennas 593
16-20 Mod ificatio ns of Folded Dipoles 596
16-21 Argu s Type AII -Sky Surveillance Antennas 597
References 599
Additional References on Adapti ve Arrays 601
Problems 602
x
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
ContenlS
Lens Antennas 607
17-1 Introduction 607
17-2 Nonmetallic Dielectric Lens Antennas. Ferma l's Princi pie
(Equality of Path Length) 609
17-3 Artific ia l Die lectri c Lens Antenn3S 616
17-4 E -Plane Metal-Plate Lens Antennas 619
17-5 Tolerances on Len s Antennas 625 17-6 H -Plane Meta l-Plate Lens Antennas 627 17-7 Reflec tor-Lens Antenna 628
17-8 Polyrods 629
17-9 MlIltiple-Helix Lenses 631
17-10 LlInebllrg 3nd Einstein Lenses 632
References 634
Problems 635
Frequency-Selective Surfaces and Periodic Structures By Ben A. Munk 636
18-1 Introdllction. Definition of FSS 636
18-2 The Halfwave Dielectric Radome 638 18-3 Slotted Metal Radome 639
18-4 The Simple Hybrid Radome 641
18-5 The Ideal Stealth Radome 642
18-6 Tran smission and Reflection Properti es of Simple Periodic SlIrfaces of Wires 642
18-7 Complementary Surfaces and Babinet's Principi e 646
18-8 Obligue Angle of Incidence 646 18-9 On the Shape and Development of EJements 647
18-10 Contro lling Bandwidrh with Angle of lnc idence and Polarization 651 18-11 Other Applicalions 654
References 658 Problems 659
Practica] Design Considerations of Large Aperture Antennas 660
19-1 Aperture Distriblltions and Et"fi.ciencies 660 19-2 Surface Irregularities and Gain Loss 673
19-3 Off-A xis Operation 01' Parabolic Refl ectors 678
19-4 Cassegrain Feed, Shaped ReAectors . Spherica l ReAectors and Offset Feed 680 19-5 Low-Side-Lobe Cons iderations 684 References 687
Additional References fo r Further Reading 688
Problems 689
Contents xi
Chapter 20 Sorne Exarnples of Large or Unique Antennas 691
Bo nll 691
Arecibo 69 t
Bell Telephone Laboratories 694
Nobeyama 695
Ohio 696
Gorki 698
Five College Observatory 699
Na ncay 701
RATAN-600 70 1
Parkes 702
Manchester 702
VLA 702
Nauell 703
Gr"een Bank 705
References 707
Chapter 21 Antennas for Special Applications 708
21-1 Introduction 708
21-2 Electrically Small Anlennas 709
21-3 Phys ically S rnall Antennas 712
21-4 Antenna Siting and the Effect of Typica l (Irnperfect) Ground 7 13
21-5 Ground-Plane Anrennas 7 19
21-6 S leeve Antenn3s 721
21 - 7 Turns tile Antenna 722
21 - 8 Superlurnsti le Antenna 724
21-9 Othe¡" Omnid irectional Antennas 726
21-10 Circularly Polar ized Antennas 727
21-11 The High-Gain Orn ni 729
21-12 Submerged Antennas 729
21-13 S urface-Wave ancl Leaky-Wave Antennas 734
21- 14 Antenna Design Considerations for Satellite Communication 742
21- 15 Receiving vers us Transmitting Consideralions 746
21-16 Ba ndwidth Cons idera tion s 748
21-17 A rchitectura lly Acceptable Antennas 748
21-18 TLS (Tnstrurnent Landing System ) Antenllas 750
21-19 The "Sugar Scoop An tenna" and the 3K Cosrn ic Sky Background Story 755
21-20 LEO Sate llite Link Antennas 760
21-21 Aste roid Detection Antenna 769
21-22 Leaky Transrniss ioll Lines as Antennas 771
21-23 Arti sti c Antennas (F¡"actals ) 772
21-24 Cell-Tower trees 772
21-25 Antenna s for Terrestrial Mobile Comlllunications Systems by Pertl; Vainikainen 775
xii Contenl '
21-26 Antennas for Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): Pul se Banclwid th 781 21-27 Embedded Antennas 784
21-28 Ultra-Wide-Ba nd (UWB) Antennas fOI" Digital App li cations 785 2"1-29 The Pl asma Antenna 788
References 789 Problems 792
Chapter 2 2 Terahertz Antennas 796
22-1 Introd uct ion 796
22-2a Pyramiclal Horn Cavity with Dipole 797 22-2b Corner ReAectol" Array 798
22-2c Bow-Tie Dipole 798 22-3 A 600-THz Anten na ') 798
22-4 Pl anar Antenna Structures on Dielectric Lenses 799 22-5 TH z. Waveg uide Structures 800 References 802
Chapter 23 Baluns, etc. By Ben A. Munk 803
23-1 Int roducti on 803 23-2 Balun Types 1, II and III and Choke Baluns 803 23-3 Bandwid th 806 23-4a Sleeve-Dipole Baluns 808 23-4b Modifications 808 23-5 Mast Balun 810 23-6 Printed Ba luns 810 23-7 The A/2 Bypass Balun 813 23-8 Balanced Transforlller 815 23-9 Cutaway Baluns 818 23-10 Natural Baluns 821 23-11 FoJded Dipole tO J-Match 822
23-12 Matching Stubs 823 23-13 Traps 823 23-14 Conclusio n 824 References 825 Adclitional References 825 Problellls 825
Chapter 24 Antenna Measurements. By Arto Lehto and Pertti Vainikainen 827
24-1 Introduction 827
24-2 Basic Concepts 828 24-3 Typical Sources of Error in Antenna Measurements 835
--_. . .. _---
Comenls xiii
24-4 Measurernent Ranges 838
References 8R3
Problems 8R5
24-S Measurement of Di ffere III Antenna Parame ters 854
24-6 Mi sce ll aneous Topies 873
Appendix A Tables for References 888
A-l Tab le of Antena and Antenna System Relations 888
A-2 Formulas for Input Impedance of Tenninated Tran smission Lines 890
A-3 ReAeetion and Transrnission Coefllcients and VSWR 891
A-4 Charaete ri sti c Impedance of Coax ial , 2- Wire and Mic roS trip Transmission Lines 89 1
A-S Charaeteri stic Impedance of Transllli ss ion Lines in Terms of Di str ibllted Paral11eters 892
A-6 Material Const<lnts (Perm itt ivity, Conductivity and Dielectric Strength) 893
A-7 Pertnitt ivity Relations 894
A-S Maxwe ll's Equalions 894
Appendix B Books, Tapes and Articles 896
B-l Books 896
B-2 Video Tapes 899
B-3 Selectecl Anides for Funher Reading 900
Appendix e Computer Programs (Codes) 904
C-I Introcl llcti on 904
C-2 Software Modeling Phil osophy 905
C-3 Cocles Illustra ting Results in Anlennas 906 C-4 Expert MININEC for Stuclents 907
C-S Other Useful Codes 907
References 907
References for Further Reading on Antenna Cornputer Simlllatioll 908
Appendix D Absorbing Materials 909
References 913
Appendix E Measurement Error 914
Appendix F Answers to Starred Problems 915
Index 921
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