introducing geology. what is geology? geology - the scientific study of earth. –physical geology...
TRANSCRIPT
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Introducing GeologyIntroducing Geology
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What is Geology?What is Geology?
• Geology - the scientific study of Earth.– Physical Geology is the study of:
• Earth Materials– Minerals
– Rocks
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GeologyGeology• Processes that Occur on Earth’s Surface
– Weathering, the natural decomposition of minerals and rocks. The final product of weathering is soil.
Brice Canyon, UT
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Surface ProcessesSurface Processes• Erosion - Movement of Weathered Earth
materials on Earth’s surface
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Surface Processes (cont.)Surface Processes (cont.)• Uplift
– Volcanic and/or tectonic forces build crust up above sea level
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UpliftUplift
– Removal of material by erosion allows isostatic uplift of underlying continental rocks.
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IsostasyIsostasy
Figure 1-16A
• Archimedes’ Principle– Every floating object is pushed upward by a buoyant
force that is• Equal to the weight of the displaced fluid
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Isostasy (Greek for “equal standing”)Isostasy (Greek for “equal standing”)
• Earth’s crust consists of buoyant blocks of rock.– They float in gravitational
balance on top of the mantle
• Isostatic equlibirum– Occurs when the
buoyant force equals the opposing gravitational force.
– Equilibrium Line• Separates the iceberg’s
submerged root from its exposed top.
Figure 1-16
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Surface Processes (cont.)Surface Processes (cont.)• Deposition
– Loose sediment is deposited in low areas when transport agent (water, ice, wind) loses its carrying power
– Earlier sediments get buried by later ones and harden into sedimentary rock
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Structure and Processes of Structure and Processes of Earth’s InteriorEarth’s Interior
Gravity Meter
Magnetometer
Seismographs
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TectonicsTectonics
• The study of the origin and arrangement of Earth’s structural features which include– Folds and faults but also – Continents– Mountains– Earthquake regions.
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Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics
• Earth’s lithosphere (the crust and the rigid upper mantle) is divided into several large, thick plates that – slowly move and change in size and shape.
• Plate boundaries are the sites of intense geologic activity (e.g., earthquakes and volcanoes).
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Tectonic PlatesTectonic Plates
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Practical Aspects of Practical Aspects of GeologyGeology
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Practical Aspects of GeologyPractical Aspects of Geology
• Natural Resources– All manufactured objects
depend on Earth’s resources
– Localized concentrations of useful geological resources are mined or extracted
– If it can’t be grown, it must be mined
– Most resources are limited in quantity and non-renewable
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Resource Extraction and Resource Extraction and Environmental ProtectionEnvironmental Protection
• Coal Mining– Careless mining can release
acids into groundwater
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Resource Extraction and Environmental ProtectionResource Extraction and Environmental Protection
• Petroleum Resources– Removal,
transportation, and waste removal can damage the environment.
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Alaskan PipelineAlaskan Pipeline
• Completed in 1977– 1,250 km long– Final cost of $7.7 billion (estimated at $900 million)
• Alaska provides as much as 20% of U.S. domestic oil• Built on permafrost – engineering problems• Earthquake prone region
– Sections jointed to allow shifting of as much as 6 meters without rupturing
National Petroleum Reserve - Alaska
Arctic NationalWildlife Refuge
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Exxon Valdez Oil Spill - 1989Exxon Valdez Oil Spill - 1989
• 240,000 barrel of crude oil spilled into Prince William Sound
• Devastating effects on wildlife and the fishing industry
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A “fix” to the energy crisis?A “fix” to the energy crisis?
• North Slope ‘s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge– Extreme points of view which are more emotional than scientific
• Any significant and potential oil field should be developed without regard to environmental impact
• Any intrusion on an ecological environment is unacceptable
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Geologic HazardsGeologic Hazards
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EarthquakesEarthquakes• Shaking can damage buildings and break utility
lines.
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Undersea Earthquakes can Generate Undersea Earthquakes can Generate TsunamisTsunamis
Sumatra earthquake and tsunami – December 26, 2004
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Sumatra TsunamiSumatra Tsunami
Marina beach in Madras, India
Commercial area of Banda Aceh, Northeast Indonesia
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VolcanoesVolcanoes
Mt. St. Helens, USA1980
Hawaii, USA
Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines1991
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Mass MovementMass Movement
Mudflows in Armero, Colombia was buried under 8 meters of mud1985
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Mass MovementMass Movement
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FloodsFloods
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Wave ErosionWave Erosion
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Earth’s Heat EnginesEarth’s Heat Engines
• Heat Engines convert heat energy into mechanical energy.
Heat energy is converted tomechanical energy
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Earth’s External Heat EngineEarth’s External Heat Engine
• Primary driver of circulation in the– atmosphere (weather)– Hydrosphere (ocean
currents
• Controls weathering of rocks at Earth’s surface
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Earth’s Internal Heat EngineEarth’s Internal Heat Engine
• Hot, buoyant material deep within Earth moves slowly upward
• Denser material move downward• Primary driver of
– Volcanism– Tectonics
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Earth SystemsEarth Systems
• Earth has four major systems.
• Each system is shaped by a related set of processes and parts.
• They are closely connected and interact with one another.
• This means that a change in one system can cause a change in another.
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An Interdisciplinary Approach to An Interdisciplinary Approach to Studying EarthStudying Earth
• The way in which individual components of land, water, air, and life forms are connected must be understood.
• A system is– Any size group of interacting parts that form a
complex whole to serve a function– Most natural systems are driven by sources of
energy that move mater and/or energy from one place to another.
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Earth’s Four SpheresEarth’s Four Spheres
• Earth is divided into four independent parts• Each loosely occupies a shell around Earth - This why they’re called spheres
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The GeosphereThe Geosphere
• The solid Earth• The largest sphere
– Extends from the surface to the center of the planet
• Three principle regions based on compositional differences– Crust– Mantle– Core
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The AtmosphereThe Atmosphere• A very shallow layer of
gases• 99% is within 30 km (20
mi) of Earth’s surface• An integral part of our
planet– Provides the air we breath– Protects us from harmful
short-wave solar radiation• Energy exchanges
between Earth’s surface and the atmosphere and space produce weather.
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The HydrosphereThe Hydrosphere
• The collective mass of water found on, under, and above Earth’s surface
• The hydrosphere includes . . .
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OceansOceans
• Cover nearly 71% of Earth’s surface• Average depth is 3,800 meters (12,500 ft.)• Accounts for 97% of Earth’s water
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StreamsStreams
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LakesLakes
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GlaciersGlaciers
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Ground WaterGround Water
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CloudsClouds
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Volume ComparisonsVolume ComparisonsVolume of the
Entire HydrosphereVolume of the
Entire Atmosphere
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The BiosphereThe Biosphere• Includes all life on Earth• Most is concentrated near
Earth’s surface
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Distribution of Earth’s WaterDistribution of Earth’s Water
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Geologic TimeGeologic Time
““Nothing hurries geologyNothing hurries geology””
- Mark Twain- Mark Twain
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What is Time?What is Time?
• It is our sense of one thing happening after another.
• We need standards of time for the convenience of everyday life.
• Time is how we sense and record changes in the environment.
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Units of timeUnits of time
• As humans we think of time related to personal experience.– Seconds– Minutes– Hours– Month– Years– Decades– Centuries– Millenia
However, you will see that when we talk about Earth history, even using a
millennium isn’t sufficient because of Earth’s vast age.
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Deep TimeDeep Time
• When we study history 200, 1,000 or even 2,000 years seems like a long time.
• Geology involves vastly greater amounts of time– This is referred to as deep time.
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Geologic ProcessesGeologic Processes
• Most are slow but relentless– Reflecting the pace at which the heat engines work– It’s unlikely that a mountain will visibly change shape
or height during a human lifetime
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Geologic ProcessesGeologic Processes
• In a geologic time frame– Most mountains are probably eroding “rapidly”
Uluru is a great block of uptilted sandstone in the heart of Australia's Outback. This region may be the world's best-developed peneplain,
and Uluru its best-known monadnock.
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To a geologist . . .To a geologist . . .
• “Rapidly” may mean within a few million years.
• A “fast” process– Started and completed within a few million
years.– For example . . .
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Rate of Plate MotionRate of Plate Motion
• At a mid ocean ridge– 1 cm/yr movement– 100,000 years for the
seafloor to move 1,000 km (100,000 cm in one km)
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Some geologic processes do occur quickly Some geologic processes do occur quickly Mt. St. Helens
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Landslides Occur QuicklyLandslides Occur Quickly• Tully Valley landslide on April 27, 1993• Occurred after heavy precipitation of 190 mm (7.5 in) during April in conjunction with melting of a winter snowpack
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Scale Model of Earth HistoryScale Model of Earth History
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The Geologic Time ScaleThe Geologic Time Scale
• Earth history is subdivided into time units based on:– The fossil record– Extinctions
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The Geologic Time ScaleThe Geologic Time ScaleThe “calendar” into which geologic events are placed.The “calendar” into which geologic events are placed.
Figure 1-03