intro to educational psychology

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Test InformationGuide:College-LevelExaminationProgram®

2011-12

Introduction toEducationalPsychology

© 2011 The College Board. All rights reserved. College Board, College-Level ExaminationProgram, CLEP, and the acorn logo are registered trademarks of the College Board.

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CLEP TEST INFORMATIONGUIDE FOR INTRODUCTION TOEDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

History of CLEP

Since 1967, the College-Level Examination Program(CLEP®) has provided over six million people withthe opportunity to reach their educational goals.CLEP participants have received college credit forknowledge and expertise they have gained throughprior course work, independent study or work andlife experience.

Over the years, the CLEP examinations have evolvedto keep pace with changing curricula and pedagogy.Typically, the examinations represent material taughtin introductory college-level courses from all areasof the college curriculum. Students may choose from33 different subject areas in which to demonstratetheir mastery of college-level material.

Today, more than 2,900 colleges and universitiesrecognize and grant credit for CLEP.

Philosophy of CLEP

Promoting access to higher education is CLEP’sfoundation. CLEP offers students an opportunity todemonstrate and receive validation of theircollege-level skills and knowledge. Students whoachieve an appropriate score on a CLEP exam canenrich their college experience with higher-levelcourses in their major field of study, expand theirhorizons by taking a wider array of electives andavoid repetition of material that they already know.

CLEP Participants

CLEP’s test-taking population includes people of allages and walks of life. Traditional 18- to 22-year-oldstudents, adults just entering or returning to school,homeschoolers and international students who needto quantify their knowledge have all been assisted byCLEP in earning their college degrees. Currently,58 percent of CLEP’s test-takers are women and52 percent are 23 years of age or older.

For over 30 years, the College Board has worked toprovide government-funded credit-by-examopportunities to the military through CLEP. Militaryservice members are fully funded for their CLEP examfees. Exams are administered at military installations

worldwide through computer-based testing programsand also — in forward-deployed areas — throughpaper-based testing. Approximately one-third of allCLEP candidates are military service members.

2010-11 National CLEP Candidates by Age*

These data are based on 100% of CLEP test-takers who responded to this survey question during their examinations.

*

Under 189%

18-22 years39%

23-29 years22%

30 years and older30%

2010-11 National CLEP Candidates by Gender

41%

58%

Computer-Based CLEP Testing

The computer-based format of CLEP exams allowsfor a number of key features. These include:

• a variety of question formats that ensure effectiveassessment

• real-time score reporting that gives students andcolleges the ability to make immediate credit-granting decisions (except College Composition,which requires faculty scoring of essays twice amonth)

• a uniform recommended credit-granting score of50 for all exams

• “rights-only” scoring, which awards one point percorrect answer

• pretest questions that are not scored but providecurrent candidate population data and allow forrapid expansion of question pools

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CLEP Exam Development

Content development for each of the CLEP examsis directed by a test development committee. Eachcommittee is composed of faculty from a widevariety of institutions who are currently teachingthe relevant college undergraduate courses. Thecommittee members establish the test specificationsbased on feedback from a national curriculumsurvey; recommend credit-granting scores andstandards; develop and select test questions; reviewstatistical data and prepare descriptive material foruse by faculty (Test Information Guides) andstudents planning to take the tests (CLEP OfficialStudy Guide).

College faculty also participate in CLEP in otherways: they convene periodically as part ofstandard-setting panels to determine therecommended level of student competency for thegranting of college credit; they are called upon towrite exam questions and to review forms and theyhelp to ensure the continuing relevance of the CLEPexaminations through the curriculum surveys.

The Curriculum Survey

The first step in the construction of a CLEP exam isa curriculum survey. Its main purpose is to obtaininformation needed to develop test-contentspecifications that reflect the current collegecurriculum and to recognize anticipated changes inthe field. The surveys of college faculty areconducted in each subject every three to five yearsdepending on the discipline. Specifically, the surveygathers information on:

• the major content and skill areas covered in theequivalent course and the proportion of the coursedevoted to each area

• specific topics taught and the emphasis given toeach topic

• specific skills students are expected to acquire andthe relative emphasis given to them

• recent and anticipated changes in course content,skills and topics

• the primary textbooks and supplementary learningresources used

• titles and lengths of college courses thatcorrespond to the CLEP exam

The Committee

The College Board appoints standing committees ofcollege faculty for each test title in the CLEP battery.Committee members usually serve a term of up tofour years. Each committee works with contentspecialists at Educational Testing Service to establishtest specifications and develop the tests. Listedbelow are the current committee members and theirinstitutional affiliations.

Diane Finley,Chair

Prince George’s CommunityCollege

Lynley Anderman Ohio State University

Judith Peña-Shaff Ithaca College

The primary objective of the committee is to producetests with good content validity. CLEP tests must berigorous and relevant to the discipline and theappropriate courses. While the consensus of thecommittee members is that this test has high contentvalidity for a typical Introduction to EducationalPsychology course or curriculum, the validity of thecontent for a specific course or curriculum is bestdetermined locally through careful review andcomparison of test content, with instructional contentcovered in a particular course or curriculum.

The Committee Meeting

The exam is developed from a pool of questionswritten by committee members and outside questionwriters. All questions that will be scored on a CLEPexam have been pretested; those that pass a rigorousstatistical analysis for content relevance, difficulty,fairness and correlation with assessment criteria areadded to the pool. These questions are compiled bytest development specialists according to the testspecifications, and are presented to all the committeemembers for a final review. Before convening at atwo- or three-day committee meeting, the membershave a chance to review the test specifications andthe pool of questions available for possible inclusionin the exam.

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At the meeting, the committee determines whetherthe questions are appropriate for the test and, if not,whether they need to be reworked and pretestedagain to ensure that they are accurate andunambiguous. Finally, draft forms of the exam arereviewed to ensure comparable levels of difficulty andcontent specifications on the various test forms. Thecommittee is also responsible for writing anddeveloping pretest questions. These questions areadministered to candidates who take the examinationand provide valuable statistical feedback on studentperformance under operational conditions.

Once the questions are developed and pretested,tests are assembled in one of two ways. In somecases, test forms are assembled in their entirety.These forms are of comparable difficulty and aretherefore interchangeable. More commonly,questions are assembled into smaller,content-specific units called testlets, which can thenbe combined in different ways to create multiple testforms. This method allows many different forms tobe assembled from a pool of questions.

Test Specifications

Test content specifications are determined primarilythrough the curriculum survey, the expertise of thecommittee and test development specialists, therecommendations of appropriate councils andconferences, textbook reviews and other appropriatesources of information. Content specifications takeinto account:

• the purpose of the test

• the intended test-taker population

• the titles and descriptions of courses the test isdesigned to reflect

• the specific subject matter and abilities to be tested

• the length of the test, types of questions andinstructions to be used

Recommendation of the AmericanCouncil on Education (ACE)

The American Council on Education’s CollegeCredit Recommendation Service (ACE CREDIT)has evaluated CLEP processes and procedures for

developing, administering and scoring the exams.Effective July 2001, ACE recommended a uniformcredit-granting score of 50 across all subjects, withthe exception of four-semester language exams,which represents the performance of students whoearn a grade of C in the corresponding collegecourse.

The American Council on Education, the majorcoordinating body for all the nation’s higher educationinstitutions, seeks to provide leadership and a unifyingvoice on key higher education issues and to influencepublic policy through advocacy, research and programinitiatives. For more information, visit the ACECREDIT website at www.acenet.edu/acecredit.

CLEP Credit Granting

CLEP uses a common recommended credit-grantingscore of 50 for all CLEP exams.

This common credit-granting score does not mean,however, that the standards for all CLEP exams arethe same. When a new or revised version of a test isintroduced, the program conducts a standard settingto determine the recommended credit-granting score(“cut score”).

A standard-setting panel, consisting of 15–20 facultymembers from colleges and universities across thecountry who are currently teaching the course, isappointed to give its expert judgment on the level ofstudent performance that would be necessary toreceive college credit in the course. The panelreviews the test and test specifications and definesthe capabilities of the typical A student, as well asthose of the typical B, C and D students.* Expectedindividual student performance is rated by eachpanelist on each question. The combined average ofthe ratings is used to determine a recommendednumber of examination questions that must beanswered correctly to mirror classroom performanceof typical B and C students in the related course. Thepanel’s findings are given to members of the testdevelopment committee who, with the help ofEducational Testing Service and College Boardpsychometric specialists, make a final determinationon which raw scores are equivalent to B and C levelsof performance.

*Student performance for the language exams (French, German and Spanish)is defined only at the B and C levels.

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Introduction to Educational Psychology

Description of the Examination

The Introduction to Educational Psychologyexamination covers material that is usually taughtin a one-semester undergraduate course in thissubject. Emphasis is placed on principles of learningand cognition, teaching methods and classroommanagement, child growth and development, andevaluation and assessment of learning.

The examination contains approximately100 questions to be answered in 90 minutes.Some of these are pretest questions that will notbe scored. Any time candidates spend on tutorialsand providing personal information is in additionto the actual testing time.

Knowledge and Skills Required

Questions on the Introduction to EducationalPsychology examination require candidates todemonstrate one or more of the following abilities.

• Knowledge and comprehension of basic facts,concepts and principles

• Association of ideas with given theoreticalpositions

• Awareness of important influences on learningand instruction

• Familiarity with research and statisticalconcepts and procedures

• Ability to apply various concepts and theoriesas they apply to particular teaching situationsand problems

The subject matter of the Introduction toEducational Psychology examination is drawnfrom the following topics. The percentages next tothe main topics indicate the approximate percentageof exam questions on that topic.

5% Educational Aims and Philosophies• Lifelong learning• Moral/character development• Preparation for careers• Preparation for responsible citizenship• Socialization

15% Cognitive Perspective• Attention and perception• Memory• Complex cognitive processes (e.g.,

problem solving, transfer, conceptualchange)

• Applications of cognitive theory

11% Behavioral Perspective• Classical conditioning• Operant conditioning• Schedules of reinforcement• Applications of behavioral perspectives

15% Development• Cognitive• Social• Moral• Gender identity/sex roles

10% Motivation• Social-cognitive theories of motivation

(e.g., attribution theory, expectancy-valuetheory, goal orientation theory, intrinsicand extrinsic motivation, self-efficacy,self-determination theory)

• Learned helplessness• Teacher expectations/Pygmalion effect• Anxiety/stress• Applications of motivational theories

17% Individual Differences• Intelligence• Genetic and environmental influences• Exceptionalities in learning (e.g.,

giftedness, learning disabilities, behaviordisorders)

• Ability grouping and tracking

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I N T R O D U C T I O N T OE D U C A T I O N A L P S Y C H O L O G Y

12% Testing• Classroom assessment (e.g., formative

and summative evaluation, gradingprocedures)

• Norm- and criterion-referenced tests• Test reliability and validity• Bias in testing• High-stakes assessment• Interpretation of test results (e.g.,

descriptive statistics, scaled scores)• Use and misuse of assessments

10% Pedagogy• Planning instruction for effective

learning• Social constructivist pedagogy (e.g.,

scaffolding)• Cooperative/collaborative learning• Classroom management

5% Research Design and Analysis• Research design (e.g., longitudinal,

experimental, case study,quasi-experimental)

• Research methods (e.g., survey,observation, interview)

• Interpretation of research (e.g.,correlation versus causation,descriptive statistics)

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Sample Test Questions

The following sample questions do not appear onan actual CLEP examination. They are intended togive potential test-takers an indication of the formatand difficulty level of the examination and toprovide content for practice and review. Knowingthe correct answers to all of the sample questionsis not a guarantee of satisfactory performance onthe exam.

Directions: Each of the questions or incompletestatements below is followed by five suggestedanswers or completions. Select the one that is bestin each case.

1. Which of the following learning outcomesusually undergoes the largest loss within24 hours of acquisition?

(A) The learning of meaningful material(B) The learning of rote material(C) The formulation of concepts(D) The application of principles(E) The making of generalizations

2. When Robert’s classmates no longer showedapproval of his clowning, his clowning behavioroccurred less frequently. The concept bestexemplified by Robert’s change in behavior is

(A) extinction(B) discrimination(C) generalization(D) transfer(E) learning set

3. Which of the following are functions of anIndividualized Education Program (IEP) ?

I. Supports classroom teachersII. Creates a relationship (partnership) between

regular classroom and resource teamIII. Provides an instructional program to meet

the needs of the individual studentIV. Allows the school professionals to solely

make decisions without consulting parents

(A) III only(B) I and III only(C) III and IV only(D) I, II, and III only(E) I, II, III, and IV

4. In a fifth-grade class that is working on a set ofarithmetic problems, which of the followingbehaviors would be most characteristic of thestudent who is a divergent thinker?

(A) Writing down the principle used to solve theproblem as well as the solution itself

(B) Making answers far more exact than isnecessary

(C) Working as fast as possible in order to be thefirst to finish the assignment

(D) Finding a variety of ways to solve eachproblem

(E) Providing the correct solution to the greatestnumber of problems

5. To measure students’ understanding of a theoremin geometry, it is best for a teacher to have thestudents do which of the following?

(A) Write out the theorem(B) Recall the proof of the theorem(C) Demonstrate that they have memorized

the theorem(D) Solve a problem that is given in the textbook(E) Solve a related problem that is not in

the textbook

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6. A child who is frightened by a dog and developsa fear of other dogs is exhibiting which of thefollowing principles of learning?

(A) Discrimination learning(B) Negative transfer(C) Behavior shaping(D) Stimulus generalization(E) Cognitive dissonance

7. In experimental studies of the motordevelopment of identical twins, one twinis given practice at a particular skill early andthe other twin six weeks later. The fact that itgenerally takes less practice for the later-trainedtwin to acquire the skill is evidence for theimportance of

(A) heredity(B) maturation(C) intelligence quotient (IQ)(D) individual differences(E) early experience

8. In a fifth-grade class studying the ancient Incanculture, all of the following questions are likelyto stimulate pupils to think creatively EXCEPT:

(A) Why do you suppose the clothing of theIncas was so different from today’sclothing?

(B) What weapons and tools did the Incas usefor hunting?

(C) What would be the reaction of ancient Incastoward modern Peru?

(D) If the Incas had defeated the Spanish, howmight things be different in Peru today?

(E) If you had lived in Peru during the time ofthe Incas, what are the things you wouldhave liked and disliked?

9. The psychological frame of reference that dealsextensively with the effects of unconsciousmotivation on behavior is

(A) behaviorism(B) structuralism(C) psychoanalysis(D) humanism(E) Gestalt psychology

10. Of the following, learning is best defined as

(A) development that occurs withoutexternal stimulation

(B) the process of overcoming obstaclesduring instinctual behavior

(C) effort that is persistent, selective,and purposeful

(D) the modification of behaviorthrough experience

(E) the gathering of data to test hypotheses

11. According to cognitive learning theorists, a newunit can be most readily learned by a class ofstudents when the unit’s concepts and terms are

(A) recited from memory in a numberof contexts

(B) expressed as observable behavioralobjectives

(C) chosen to reflect the most up-to-datefindings in the field

(D) related hierarchically to concepts andterms mastered previously

(E) presented in a manner that studentsfind different and complex

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12. A preschool child sees a teacher roll a ball ofclay into a sausage-like shape. The teacher asks,“Is the amount of clay the same as before?” Thechild insists that the sausage shape consists ofmore clay than the ball did. According toJean Piaget, this mistake by the child occursprincipally because of which of the following?

(A) A poorly stated question by the teacher(B) Erroneous earlier learning by the child(C) The greater attractiveness of the sausage

shape(D) A cognitive impairment(E) A lack of understanding of the

conservation principle

13. A fourth-grade teacher wants her studentsto learn to recognize oak trees. Which ofthe following strategies would best lead tothat goal?

(A) Bringing oak leaves into the classroom andhaving students trace them

(B) Taking the students to the park to show themoaks and other trees and pointing out thedistinguishing characteristics of oaks

(C) Giving each student one or two acorns toplant and presenting a lesson on how oaktrees grow

(D) Decorating the classroom bulletin boardswith pictures of trees

(E) Showing students a film of the major treesof North America and then giving thestudents a quiz on oak trees

14. Longitudinal studies of cognitive abilitiesduring middle and later adulthood indicatewhich of the following declines most with age?

(A) Speed of information processing(B) Size of vocabulary(C) Wisdom(D) Quality of verbal reasoning(E) Crystallized intelligence

15. If a test is reliable, the

(A) results will be approximately the same if thetest is given again under similar conditions

(B) test measures what it was designedto measure

(C) predictive validity of the test is high(D) objectives measured by the test

are important(E) test scores can be interpreted objectively

by anyone simply by using the test manual

16. The concept of developmental tasks refers to the

(A) development of mental abilities, asdistinguished from physical abilities

(B) ability of the child to develop certainconceptual arrangements

(C) behavior of the child that results fromhereditary determinants

(D) behaviors of the child that are expectedat various ages

(E) physiological development of the child

17. Which of the following correlation coefficientshas the highest predictive value?

(A) .80(B) .60(C) .00(D) –.70(E) –.90

18. Which of the following statistics is mostaffected by extreme scores?

(A) Mean(B) Median(C) Mode(D) Rank correlation(E) Interquartile range

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19. A certain researcher studied Stephanie’sdevelopment of mathematical proof andjustification from grade 1 through grade 5by collecting videotapes, portfolios, notes,student interviews, and small-groupevaluations of Stephanie over the five-yearperiod. This type of study is referred to as

(A) an experimental study(B) a case study(C) a matched-group study(D) a correlational study(E) a survey

20. Which of the following perspectives on teachingwould most likely support the idea thatinstruction should emphasize a positiverelationship between teachers and students?

(A) Behavioral(B) Humanistic(C) Cognitive(D) Psychoanalytic(E) Maturational

21. Assuming that the data above were collected inan experimental study, which of the followingstatements best describes the relationshipsdepicted in the graph?

(A) Differences among students in test anxietyresult in different achievement levelsdepending on the instructional methodreceived.

(B) Differences among students in test anxietyresult in different achievement levelsindependent of the instructional methodreceived.

(C) The effect of two different instructionalmethods on students’ achievement ispositively correlated with students’ testanxiety levels.

(D) The effect of two different instructionalmethods on students’ achievement isnegatively correlated with students’ testanxiety levels.

(E) Students’ achievement levels areindependent of their test anxiety levels.

22. Frank, a fifteen year old, is capable of reasoningabstractly without the use of real objects to assisthim. According to Jean Piaget, Frank is in whichof the following stages of cognitive development?

(A) Concrete operations(B) Tertiary circular reactions(C) Preoperations(D) Formal operations(E) Sensorimotor

High

Low

Low

Lecture Methodof Instruction

Students’ Test Anxiety Level

Stud

ents

’ Ach

ieve

men

t Sco

res

DiscussionMethod ofInstruction

High

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23. Decisions about the values that are transmittedin schools are best related to the teacher’srole as

(A) instructional expert(B) socialization agent(C) counselor(D) motivator(E) classroom manager

24. Using the principle of successive approximationinvolves which of the following?

(A) Reinforcing responses that representprogress toward a desired response

(B) Making a succession of trials designed toprovide information about a problem

(C) Acquiring a behavior change throughimitation of models demonstrating thebehavior

(D) Averaging repeated measures for adequateassessment of a variable

(E) Testing possible solutions until success isobtained in problem solving

25. Which of the following best characterizesthe concept of a critical or sensitive periodin development?

(A) A bridge between two cognitive stages, suchas the transition between preoperational andconcrete-operational thinking

(B) An age period during which a behavior mustdevelop if it is to develop normally

(C) An age period during which the child tendsto display a certain class of behaviors, suchas the “terrible twos”

(D) An age period during which the child’ssense of self-worth is especially vulnerableto social criticism

(E) An age period during which children areinfluenced more by peers than by adults

26. In cooperative learning it is NOT important forstudents to

(A) rely on group members’ contributions tocomplete the task

(B) be held individually accountable for theirown learning

(C) be at the same achievement level(D) interact directly with other group members(E) know and use good interpersonal skills

27. Some psychologists theorize that behavioraldevelopment, like anatomical development,proceeds from the simple to the complex, fromhomogeneous to heterogeneous, and from thegeneral to the specific. Which of the followingterms refers to these developmental trends?

(A) Constancy(B) Assimilation(C) Metacognition(D) Differentiation(E) Transfer

28. Paying attention to new information is importantin the learning process because such attentionbrings information from

(A) an external environment into the sensoryregister

(B) an external environment into long-termmemory

(C) the sensory register into working memory(D) working memory into long-term memory(E) the sensory register into long-term memory

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29. When a two-year-old child points to a picture ofa horse in a picture book and says “doggie,” thechild is committing an error of

(A) overregularization(B) overextension(C) receptive vocabulary(D) syntax(E) articulation

30. Which of the following psychologicalschools of thought most emphasizesperceptual organization?

(A) Behaviorism(B) Evolutionary psychology(C) Humanism(D) Psychodynamic approach(E) Gestalt psychology

31. A student has to memorize a long list of nounsfor a contest. Which of the following is the beststrategy for the student to use to enhance recallof the words?

(A) Grouping the words by semantic category(B) Spelling each of the words(C) Sorting the words according to length(D) Writing out the definition of each of the

words(E) Determining the presence or absence of

a target sound in each word

32. In an evaluation of achievement, the relationshipbetween formative evaluation and summativeevaluation is most similar to that between

(A) skills instruction and skills practice(B) diagnostic examinations and final

examinations(C) subjective data and objective data(D) descriptive data and inferential data(E) norm-referenced tests and criterion-

referenced tests

33. Which of the following treatments is mostcommon for attention-deficit/hyperactivitydisorder?

(A) Stimulant medication(B) Mnemonic aids(C) Self-esteem workshops(D) Psychotherapy(E) Motivational training

34. A person who drove a manual-transmission carfor years finds that, when driving a car with anautomatic transmission, he often lifts his foot tostep on the clutch. This driver is experiencing

(A) parallel distributed processing(B) an articulatory loop(C) positive transfer(D) proactive interference(E) retroactive interference

35. A parent complains that 40 percent of thequestions on a classroom test were taken from4 pages of the 70 pages covered in the materialassigned in the test. The parent is questioningthe test’s

(A) interrater reliability(B) test-retest reliability(C) split-half reliability(D) content validity(E) criterion-related validity

36. Joseph Renzulli’s triad for identifying giftednessis best described as which of the following?

(A) Above-average ability, task commitment,creativity

(B) Skillful processing of verbal information,artistic expression, assertiveness

(C) High IQ scores, academic aptitude,practical intelligence

(D) Language fluency, analytic problem-solving ability, ethical thinking

(E) Interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonalintelligence, logical-mathematicalintelligence

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37. Behavioral theories that focus on helpingstudents develop self-management skillsemphasize that it is important for students to

(A) assess their competencies(B) improve their self-concepts(C) increase their general knowledge(D) develop social awareness(E) recognize clear signals that behaviors are

appropriate

38. Jacob Kounin’s concept of “withitness” refers towhich of the following teacher abilities?

(A) Maintaining awareness of everything that ishappening in the classroom

(B) Sequentially processing classroom activitiesand giving feedback to students

(C) Going from one activity to another withoutwasting time

(D) Focusing on one thing at a time in theclassroom to keep from becoming frustrated

(E) Identifying students’ academic strengthsand deficiencies

39. Which of the following would be the bestevidence that a test intended to estimate futuresuccess in school was biased against one groupof examinees?

(A) A large mean-score difference between thatgroup and the rest of the examinees

(B) A large standard deviation in the test scoresof that group

(C) A low passing rate for all examinees(D) An 80 percent passing rate for that group(E) An underprediction of academic

achievement for that group

40. In the United States, responsible adolescents aremost likely to have parents who are

(A) autocratic(B) authoritarian(C) authoritative(D) permissive(E) enmeshed

41. Which of the following is a major point in CarolGilligan’s criticism of Lawrence Kohlberg’stheory of moral development?

(A) The levels of moral reasoning in Kohlberg’sscheme are unrelated to social and politicalattitudes.

(B) Mature levels of moral reasoning may differqualitatively between men and women.

(C) The higher levels of moral reasoning inKohlberg’s scheme apply only to childrenin the United States.

(D) The stages in Kohlberg’s scheme deviatefrom those in Jean Piaget’s stage theory.

(E) Chronological age is unrelated to maturityof moral reasoning on Kohlberg’s scale.

42. Which of the following best illustratesmetacognition?

(A) Memorizing terms and definitions froma textbook

(B) Monitoring one’s comprehensionwhile reading

(C) Listening to the radio and studying atthe same time

(D) Retrieving information from workingmemory

(E) Retrieving information from long-term memory

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43. George Miller’s research finding that humanshave a processing capacity of seven plus-or-minus two items applies to which of thefollowing types of memory?

(A) Sensory register(B) Explicit(C) Implicit(D) Short-term(E) Procedural

44. Alice maintains a messy desk in order to gainattention from her teacher. For Alice, theteacher’s attention serves as which of thefollowing?

(A) Negative reinforcement(B) Positive reinforcement(C) Extinction(D) Primary reinforcement(E) Shaping

45. Research that investigates nature versus nurtureas a basis of intelligence has found the highestcorrelations of IQ scores between which of thefollowing?

(A) Dizygotic twins raised together(B) Nontwin siblings raised together(C) Nontwin siblings raised apart(D) Monozygotic twins raised together(E) Monozygotic twins raised apart

46. Mary’s score on an achievement test is 75. Thenormative data show an overall test mean of 50and a standard deviation of 10. This informationindicates that Mary’s z score equivalent is

(A) –2.5(B) –0.53(C) +0.53(D) +1.3(E) +2.5

47. A teacher informs parents that their child hasearned a stanine score of five. The teacher isactually saying that the student’s test score

(A) is below average(B) is average(C) is above average(D) indicates giftedness(E) indicates a disability

Questions 48–49 refer to the following information.

Jodie, who is in the ninth grade, took a test thatmeasured her ability in mathematics. The testconsisted of 50 multiple-choice questions and hada completion time of two hours. It was scored from0 to 50 points, with a mean of 27, a mode of 26, anda median of 25. Jodie’s score represented her actualknowledge of mathematics and did not provide anyinformation about how she compared with otherstudents who had taken the same test.

48. The test that Jodie took is best characterized as

(A) a portfolio assessment(B) an intelligence (IQ) test(C) a developmental profile(D) a norm-referenced test(E) a criterion-referenced test

49. An examination of the scores of all of thestudents who took the test would reveal that thescore most often earned was

(A) 15(B) 25(C) 26(D) 27(E) 50

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50. A teacher rewards students for every fifthquestion they get right in class. Which of thefollowing is a schedule of reinforcement that theteacher is using?

(A) Fixed interval(B) Fixed ratio(C) Variable interval(D) Extinction(E) Differential

51. José cannot find his favorite toy. When his fathertalks with him about it and encourages José tothink about where he last used it, José suddenlyremembers the toy’s location. José’s thinking isthus aided by the conversation with his father.This is an example of a theory of cognitivedevelopment formulated by

(A) Jean Piaget(B) Lev Vygotsky(C) Noam Chomsky(D) Carol Gilligan(E) Lawrence Kohlberg

52. Paul is fourteen years old, has recently brokenup with his girlfriend of three weeks, andbelieves that no one can understand the painhe is feeling. According to David Elkind, Paulis displaying

(A) the imaginary audience(B) metacognition(C) a personal fable(D) postformal thought(E) symbolic thought

53. Research on the use of rewards generallyindicates that if a teacher continuously rewardsstudents with candy for writing creative stories,the students’

(A) writing abilities will keep improving(B) writing abilities will get worse over time(C) writing will not be affected in any way(D) interest in writing will lessen over time(E) interest in writing will increase over time

54. Mary enjoys reading, primarily because herfather gives her a dollar for each book she reads.Mary’s motivational orientation for reading ismost accurately described as

(A) mastery oriented(B) goal oriented(C) intrinsic(D) extrinsic(E) egocentric

55. Which of the following is a motivational theoryin which students attempt to explain the causesof their successes and failures?

(A) Cognitive-behavioral theory(B) Hierarchy of needs(C) Reward theory(D) Attribution theory(E) Achievement motivation

56. A student’s score at the 75th percentile indicatesthat the student

(A) correctly answered 75 percent of the exam(B) correctly answered 75 questions on the exam(C) scored worse than 75 percent of the

test-takers(D) scored the same as or better than 75 percent

of the test-takers(E) scored the same as or better than 25 percent

of the test-takers

57. Five-year-old Billy rarely makes eye contact andfrequently self-stimulates and repeats back thespeech that he hears. Based on this informationalone, it is most likely that Billy has

(A) autistic disorder(B) major depressive disorder(C) attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder(D) mental retardation(E) dyslexia

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58. Which of the following is most likely tobe used as an individually administeredintelligence test?

(A) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children(B) Differential Ability Scales(C) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality

Inventory(D) Graduate Record Examinations General Test(E) Thematic Apperception Test

59. Tests such as the SAT Reasoning Test and theACT test are most often used for which type oftesting?

(A) Diagnostic(B) Intelligence(C) Achievement(D) Aptitude(E) Projective

60. A self-regulated learner is likely to engage in allof the following EXCEPT

(A) thinking about which learning strategies areappropriate for a given task

(B) evaluating his or her performance whileprogressing through a task

(C) thinking about multiple tasks andresponsibilities simultaneously

(D) setting realistic goals(E) managing study time

61. Token economies in classrooms often providestudents with the opportunity to earn points forgood behavior that can be exchanged for sometype of reward, such as candy, free time, or toys.According to researchers, a token economysystem would be most beneficial in a classroomin which students

(A) exhibit high intrinsic motivation(B) typically behave well(C) are out of control(D) are especially gifted(E) have just begun to show minor behavior

problems

62. Which of the following is NOT consistentwith developmentally appropriate practice inkindergarten?

(A) Having different learning centers in theclassroom

(B) Expecting all children to read simple wordsby the end of the year

(C) Giving children time for free play duringeach week

(D) Having children engaged in activities insmall groups

(E) Allowing children a rest period during theday

63. Which of the following is a gender differencethat is regularly observed on achievement tests?

(A) Boys tend to have higher average scores onreading tests than do girls.

(B) Girls tend to have higher average scores onscience tests than do boys.

(C) Girls tend to have higher average scores onspatial reasoning tests than do boys.

(D) There tends to be more variability amongboys’ scores on achievement tests than theredoes among girls’ scores.

(E) Girls tend to have higher average scores onmath tests than do boys.

64. Learned helplessness is most likely to occurwhen students view the cause of their failures as

(A) stable and uncontrollable(B) stable and controllable(C) unstable and controllable(D) external and controllable(E) internal and unstable

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65. Mr. Arevola, an experienced fifth-grademathematics teacher, is acknowledged as anexcellent teacher and often acts as a mentorto young teachers. He is especially helpfulby assisting newcomers to understand thedifficulties that students often have withcomprehension of fractions and to teach in away that will address that issue. According toLee Shulman, the type of teacher knowledgeMr. Arevola conveys could best be described as

(A) content knowledge(B) process knowledge(C) declarative knowledge(D) pedagogical content knowledge(E) pedagogical process knowledge

66. According to Albert Bandura, which of thefollowing is the most powerful source ofself-efficacy for a child?

(A) Physiological cues(B) Verbal persuasion(C) Mastery experiences(D) Observational learning(E) Imitation

67. Stage theories of development are bestdescribed as

(A) quantitative/continuous(B) qualitative/discontinuous(C) morally bound(D) universally accepted(E) socially determined

68. Which of the following is an exampleof disequilibrium?

(A) Robert has learned about different types ofsharks, and he reasons that a dolphin is atype of shark because it looks similar.

(B) William has figured out that the Sun iscovered by clouds at night, which causesthe darkness.

(C) Dameon wonders how a caterpillar can bean insect when it appears to have more thansix legs.

(D) Ricky understands that his teddy bear isnot alive, because he has learned aboutcharacteristics of living things.

(E) Jon decides that sand is a liquid because ittakes the shape of its container.

69. Achievement tests differ from aptitude testsprimarily in that

(A) the score distributions of achievementtests tend to be linear, whereas the scoredistributions of aptitude tests tend to bebell-shaped

(B) achievement tests are designed to measurewhat students have learned, whereas aptitudetests are designed to predict how wellstudents will perform in the future

(C) achievement tests tend to face moreresistance from parents, students, andclassroom teachers than do aptitude tests

(D) achievement tests are designed tomeasure the middle-ability populationmost accurately, whereas aptitude testsare designed to measure the high- andlow-ability populations most accurately

(E) aptitude tests are designed to have lessvariability in scores than achievementtests have

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70. Mr. Janis asked his class to draw a picture of aflower. Ninety percent of the class drew a pictureof a rose. In terms of cognitive psychology, whatwould a rose be for these students?

(A) An attribute(B) A concept(C) A prototype(D) A heuristic(E) An algorithm

71. During the final exam, Ellen started breathingreally hard and her heart felt as if it would jumpout of her chest. What hormone was most likelyinvolved in this process?

(A) Epinephrine(B) Dopamine(C) Norepinephrine(D) Serotonin(E) Cortisol

72. Jenna has just been diagnosed with anarticulation disorder. Which behavior is shemost likely to exhibit?

(A) Saying “wed” instead of “red”(B) Speaking too slowly(C) Stammering while talking(D) Using a high-pitched voice(E) Speaking without emotional tone

73. Ms. Sharps has been emphasizing the use ofauthentic assessment in her watercolor paintingclass. What type of assessment is she most likelyto use to grade her students?

(A) Portfolio(B) Essay test(C) Oral presentation(D) Short essays(E) Multiple-choice tests

74. Jacquelin has always done well in school. In herfifth-grade class, she works hard and alwaysdoes her homework. She often reads extra booksand does extra math problems. Which of ErikErikson’s psychosocial stages would Jacquelinbest exemplify?

(A) Trust versus mistrust(B) Autonomy versus shame and doubt(C) Initiative versus guilt(D) Industry versus inferiority(E) Identity versus role confusion

75. A seventh-grade boy scores 66 on an IQ test.He is very sociable but has some trouble withindependent living tasks. He would most likelybe diagnosed with which of the following?

(A) A learning disability(B) Autistic disorder(C) Asperger’s disorder(D) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder(E) Mental retardation

76. When teachers praise students who score thehighest on tests or who do work withoutmistakes, this often makes other students

(A) achieve the highest test scores possible(B) give up if they are not also doing well(C) help each other(D) start learning outside their zone of proximal

development(E) put maximum effort into their own work

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77. Which of the following strategies is LEASTlikely to increase test scores?

(A) Giving rewards to students who get veryhigh scores

(B) Giving partial credit for partially correctanswers

(C) Giving clear feedback about the reasonsfor a low score

(D) Providing ungraded assignments toencourage creativity and risk-taking

(E) Grading oral as well as written work

78. A teacher believes that students of all ages canimprove their basic abilities through hard work,even though many of them might think that theirability is fixed and cannot be changed. Thisbelief is associated with a view of intelligencereferred to as

(A) fluid(B) crystallized(C) multiple(D) incremental(E) the g factor

79. Teachers who want to positively reinforcestudents’ behaviors would best be guidedby which of the following statements?

(A) Make sure that all children get the samereward so that they are equally motivated.

(B) Delay reinforcement rather than providingit right after the behavior being rewarded.

(C) Promote self-regulation and self-management so students do not becomedependent on incentives.

(D) Balance positive reinforcement withpunishment so students do not expect only tobe rewarded.

(E) Wait until a complex behavior is performedin full before rewarding it, rather thanrelying on shaping.

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Study Resources

Most textbooks used in college-level introductionto educational psychology courses cover the topicsin the outline given earlier, but the approaches tocertain topics and the emphases given to them maydiffer. To prepare for the Introduction to EducationalPsychology exam, it is advisable to study one ormore college textbooks, which can be found in mostcollege bookstores. When selecting a textbook,check the table of contents against the knowledgeand skills required for this test.

You may also find it helpful to supplement yourreading with books listed in the bibliographiesthat can be found in most educational psychologytextbooks.

Visit www.collegeboard.org/clepprep for additionaleducational psychology resources. You can also findsuggestions for exam preparation in Chapter IV ofthe Official Study Guide. In addition, many collegefaculty post their course materials on their schools’websites.

Answer Key

1. B 2. A 3. D 4. D 5. E 6. D 7. B 8. B 9. C 10. D 11. D 12. E 13. B 14. A 15. A 16. D 17. E 18. A 19. B 20. B 21. A 22. D 23. B 24. A 25. B 26. C 27. D 28. C 29. B 30. E 31. A 32. B 33. A 34. D 35. D 36. A 37. E 38. A 39. E 40. C

41. B 42. B 43. D 44. B 45. D 46. E 47. B 48. E 49. C 50. B 51. B 52. C 53. D 54. D 55. D 56. D 57. A 58. A 59. D 60. C 61. C 62. B 63. D 64. A 65. D 66. C 67. B 68. C 69. B 70. C 71. A 72. A 73. A 74. D75. E76. B77. A78. D79. C

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Test Measurement Overview

Format

There are multiple forms of the computer-basedtest, each containing a predetermined set of scoredquestions. The examinations are not adaptive. Theremay be some overlap between different forms of atest: any of the forms may have a few questions,many questions, or no questions in common. Someoverlap may be necessary for statistical reasons.

In the computer-based test, not all questionscontribute to the candidate’s score. Some of thequestions presented to the candidate are beingpretested for use in future editions of the tests andwill not count toward his or her score.

Scoring Information

CLEP examinations are scored without a penalty forincorrect guessing. The candidate’s raw score is simplythe number of questions answered correctly. However,this raw score is not reported; the raw scores aretranslated into a scaled score by a process that adjustsfor differences in the difficulty of the questions on thevarious forms of the test.

Scaled Scores

The scaled scores are reported on a scale of 20–80.Because the different forms of the tests are notalways exactly equal in difficulty, raw-to-scaleconversions may in some cases differ from form toform. The easier a form is judged to be, the higherthe raw score required to attain a given scaled score.Table 1 indicates the relationship between numbercorrect (raw score) and scaled score across all forms.

The Recommended Credit-GrantingScore

Table 1 also indicates the recommendedcredit-granting score, which represents theperformance of students earning a grade of C in thecorresponding course. The recommended B-levelscore represents B-level performance in equivalentcourse work. These scores were established as theresult of a Standard Setting Study, the most recenthaving been conducted in 2005. The recommended

credit-granting scores are based upon the judgmentsof a panel of experts currently teaching equivalentcourses at various colleges and universities. Theseexperts evaluate each question in order to determinethe raw scores that would correspond to B and Clevels of performance. Their judgments are thenreviewed by a test development committee, which, inconsultation with test content and psychometricspecialists, makes a final determination. Thestandard-setting study is described more fully in theearlier section entitled “CLEP Credit Granting” onpage 4.

Panel members participating in the most recent studywere:

Sharon Anderson Colorado State UniversityH. Keith Cochran Missouri Southern State

UniversityJoanna Dickey Eastern Kentucky UniversityMaggie Foster Plattsburgh State UniversityCharlyn Harper

BrowneClark Atlanta University

Steven Hoover St. Cloud State UniversityBrenda Karns Austin Peay State UniversityKathleen Kleissler Kutztown UniversityRandy Lennon University of Northern ColoradoJohn McClure Northern Arizona UniversitySteven Osterlind University of MissouriKathryn Penrod South Dakota State UniversityKeith Roach Mid-Continent UniversityWarren Shillingburg Community College of Southern

NevadaJoanne Stephenson Union UniversityKaren Thierry Rutgers University — CamdenKatherine Vorwerk University of MassachusettsSteuart Watson Miami University

To establish the exact correspondences between rawand scaled scores, a scaled score of 50 is assigned tothe raw score that corresponds to the recommendedcredit-granting score for C-level performance. Thena high (but in some cases, possibly less than perfect)raw score will be selected and assigned a scaledscore of 80. These two points — 50 and 80 —determine a linear raw-to-scale conversion forthe test.

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Table 1: Introduction to Educational PsychologyInterpretive Score Data

American Council on Education (ACE) Recommended Number of Semester Hours of Credit: 3

Course Grade Scaled Score Number Correct80 -79 -78 9077 88-8976 87-8875 8674 8573 83-8472 82-8371 81-8270 80-8169 79-8068 77-7867 76-7766 75-7665 74-7564 73-7463 72-73

B 62 7161 69-7060 68-6959 67-6858 66-6757 65-6656 6455 6354 61-6253 60-6152 59-6051 58-59

C 50* 57-5849 5648 5547 5446 52-5345 51-5244 50-5143 49-5042 4841 4740 4639 4538 43-4437 42-4336 41-4235 40-4134 39-4033 3832 3731 35-3630 34-3529 33-3428 32-3327 31-3226 30-3125 29-3024 28-2923 2722 25-2621 24-2520 0-24

*Credit-granting score recommended by ACE.Note: The number-correct scores for each scaled score on different forms may vary depending on form diffi culty.

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Validity

Validity is a characteristic of a particular use of thetest scores of a group of examinees. If the scores areused to make inferences about the examinees’knowledge of a particular subject, the validity of thescores for that purpose is the extent to which thoseinferences can be trusted to be accurate.

One type of evidence for the validity of test scores iscalled content-related evidence of validity. It isusually based upon the judgments of a set of expertswho evaluate the extent to which the content of thetest is appropriate for the inferences to be madeabout the examinees’ knowledge. The committeethat developed the CLEP Introduction to EducationalPsychology examination selected the content of thetest to reflect the content of the general introductoryeducational psychology curriculum and courses atmost colleges, as determined by a curriculum survey.Since colleges differ somewhat in the content of thecourses they offer, faculty members should, and areurged to, review the content outline and the samplequestions to ensure that the test covers core contentappropriate to the courses at their college.

Another type of evidence for test-score validity iscalled criterion-related evidence of validity. Itconsists of statistical evidence that examinees whoscore high on the test also do well on other measuresof the knowledge or skills the test is being used tomeasure. Criterion-related evidence for the validityof CLEP scores can be obtained by studiescomparing students’ CLEP scores with the gradesthey received in corresponding classes, or othermeasures of achievement or ability. At a college’srequest, CLEP and the College Board conduct thesestudies, called Admitted Class Evaluation Service, orACES, for individual colleges that meet certaincriteria. Please contact CLEP for more information.

Reliability

The reliability of the test scores of a group ofexaminees is commonly described by two statistics:the reliability coefficient and the standard error ofmeasurement (SEM). The reliability coefficient isthe correlation between the scores those examineesget (or would get) on two independent replicationsof the measurement process. The reliabilitycoefficient is intended to indicate thestability/consistency of the candidates’ test scores,and is often expressed as a number ranging from.00 to 1.00. A value of .00 indicates total lack ofstability, while a value of 1.00 indicates perfectstability. The reliability coefficient can be interpretedas the correlation between the scores examineeswould earn on two forms of the test that had noquestions in common.

Statisticians use an internal-consistency measure tocalculate the reliability coefficients for the CLEPexam. This involves looking at the statisticalrelationships among responses to individualmultiple-choice questions to estimate the reliabilityof the total test score. The formula used is known asKuder-Richardson 20, or KR-20, which is equivalentto a more general formula called coefficient alpha.The SEM is an index of the extent to which students’obtained scores tend to vary from their true scores.1

It is expressed in score units of the test. Intervalsextending one standard error above and below thetrue score (see below) for a test-taker will include68 percent of that test-taker’s obtained scores.Similarly, intervals extending two standard errorsabove and below the true score will include 95 percentof the test-taker’s obtained scores. The standard errorof measurement is inversely related to the reliabilitycoefficient. If the reliability of the test were 1.00 (ifit perfectly measured the candidate’s knowledge),the standard error of measurement would be zero.

Scores on the CLEP examination in Introductionto Educational Psychology are estimated to havea reliability coefficient of 0.90. The standard errorof measurement is 3.42 scaled-score points.1 True score is a hypothetical concept indicating what an individual’s score on a

test would be if there were no errors introduced by the measuring process. It isthought of as the hypothetical average of an infinite number of obtained scoresfor a test-taker with the effect of practice removed.

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