Intro to Comparative Intro to Comparative Government , the UN, and Government , the UN, and

Industrial DemocraciesIndustrial Democracies

Comparative Politics Comparative Politics MethodologyMethodology

““All comparative methods All comparative methods are scientific; therefore, all are scientific; therefore, all scientific method is scientific method is comparative.”comparative.”

3 Basic Questions of 3 Basic Questions of Comparative PoliticsComparative Politics

What are we comparing? Units of analysis—What are we comparing? Units of analysis—states and governmentsstates and governments

How do we systemitize our understanding of How do we systemitize our understanding of comparative politics? Can’t study all, so we comparative politics? Can’t study all, so we take small samples and generalize.take small samples and generalize.

How can we make the comparisons? How can we make the comparisons? --Across cultures/nations (vertical)--Across cultures/nations (vertical) --Across groups/social movements (horiz.)--Across groups/social movements (horiz.) --Across time (temporal)--Across time (temporal)

3 Shifts in Scope of Analysis3 Shifts in Scope of Analysis General theory is not helpful; limit General theory is not helpful; limit

research to a few cases and address research to a few cases and address middle range theorymiddle range theory

Shift #1: Middle-range theoryShift #1: Middle-range theory Shift #2: MethodsShift #2: Methods Deductive Method: General to specificDeductive Method: General to specific Inductive Method: Specifics to general Inductive Method: Specifics to general

conclusion. Best method: case studyconclusion. Best method: case study Shift #3: Cross-temporal analysis Shift #3: Cross-temporal analysis

Comparative ApproachesComparative Approaches(David Apter)(David Apter)

Institutionalist: look at institutions. (What makes a strong Institutionalist: look at institutions. (What makes a strong state? Military, economy, resources, legitimacy, adaptive state? Military, economy, resources, legitimacy, adaptive power of states. Is regime Totalitarian, Authoritarian, power of states. Is regime Totalitarian, Authoritarian, Transitional, or Democratic?) Transitional, or Democratic?)

Developmentalist: look at society, culture.Developmentalist: look at society, culture. 2 types: Modernization and Dependency school2 types: Modernization and Dependency school Must understand socioeconomic forcesMust understand socioeconomic forces Ethnic Composition plays a roleEthnic Composition plays a role State aggression/frustration/identityState aggression/frustration/identity I. Couldn’t explain Fascist Italy, Weimar German failure I. Couldn’t explain Fascist Italy, Weimar German failure

(really due to Versailles, economic collapse)(really due to Versailles, economic collapse) Neo-institutionalist: state and society interactNeo-institutionalist: state and society interact

Methods of AnalysisMethods of Analysis Clinical Method—Controlled settings, operate Clinical Method—Controlled settings, operate

within confinement (lab climate). Highly within confinement (lab climate). Highly objective, very analytical, devoid of personal, objective, very analytical, devoid of personal, emotional interference. Manipulate variables emotional interference. Manipulate variables to shape experimentto shape experiment

Statistical Method—Gather random data, look Statistical Method—Gather random data, look for correlation, hopefully diagnose causationfor correlation, hopefully diagnose causation

Case Study—1 element. Good that it relates to Case Study—1 element. Good that it relates to that element only. Ex: Marxism believes that that element only. Ex: Marxism believes that economy is the most important; not always economy is the most important; not always truetrue

Comparative Method—Contains “old” and Comparative Method—Contains “old” and “new” methods“new” methods

Comparative Politics Comparative Politics ApproachesApproaches

Traditional—look at cultures, study to learn Traditional—look at cultures, study to learn similarities. Focus: formal institutions onlysimilarities. Focus: formal institutions only

Behaviorist Approach—Feelings, attitudes, Behaviorist Approach—Feelings, attitudes, functions as opposed to institutions. Shift to functions as opposed to institutions. Shift to infrastructure. Use mass media, foreign infrastructure. Use mass media, foreign policy, public opinions, ideology to analyze. policy, public opinions, ideology to analyze. Focus: cross-national, cross-cultural Focus: cross-national, cross-cultural (“Western world”). Take a prescriptive (“Western world”). Take a prescriptive approach and analyze data empiricallyapproach and analyze data empirically

Post-Behaviorism-reaction to precision and Post-Behaviorism-reaction to precision and quantificationquantification

The Comparative Method: The Comparative Method: StagesStages

1. Identify a problem/question (Ex: What 1. Identify a problem/question (Ex: What causes/promotes democracy?)causes/promotes democracy?)

2. Gather data, collect info thru observation2. Gather data, collect info thru observation 3. Formulate connection between data, 3. Formulate connection between data,

make a hypothesismake a hypothesis 4. Make prediction/projection (inference) 4. Make prediction/projection (inference)

from generalization (if/then statement)from generalization (if/then statement) 5. Verify/Falsify (Falsification more useful)5. Verify/Falsify (Falsification more useful) 6. Theory6. Theory

Political Culture—Political Culture—Building Civil SocietyBuilding Civil Society

Def’n: A buffer between state and individualDef’n: A buffer between state and individual Ex: Legal association, doctor’s associationEx: Legal association, doctor’s association There are moral, legal, and economic concerns in There are moral, legal, and economic concerns in

building civil society.building civil society. Moral: Soviets had tradition of strong state crushing Moral: Soviets had tradition of strong state crushing

religion, had no morals under communism. Soviet religion, had no morals under communism. Soviet people saw free market as “cheating.”people saw free market as “cheating.”

Legal: Soviets had no experience with contracts, Legal: Soviets had no experience with contracts, ownership, bankruptcy, judges taught to rule the way ownership, bankruptcy, judges taught to rule the way the party wanted them tothe party wanted them to

Economic: Soviets used command economy exclusively, Economic: Soviets used command economy exclusively, no entrepreneurial knowledgeno entrepreneurial knowledge

•Where Do We Focus Our Where Do We Focus Our Study of International Study of International

Politics?Politics? Three levels of analysis:Three levels of analysis:

– Individual-level: People make policyIndividual-level: People make policy– State-level: States make policyState-level: States make policy– System-level: International Arena System-level: International Arena

encourages/discourages certain encourages/discourages certain types of behaviortypes of behavior

1010

•Man, the State, and War—Kenneth Waltz Man, the State, and War—Kenneth Waltz (1959)(1959)

• Classified theories of international relations into three Classified theories of international relations into three categories, or levels of analysis. categories, or levels of analysis.

• The first level explained international politics as being The first level explained international politics as being driven primarily by actions of individuals, or outcomes driven primarily by actions of individuals, or outcomes of psychological forces. of psychological forces.

• The second level explained international politics as The second level explained international politics as being driven by the domestic regimes of states.being driven by the domestic regimes of states.

• The third level focused on the role of systemic factors, The third level focused on the role of systemic factors, or the effect that international anarchy was exerting on or the effect that international anarchy was exerting on state behavior. "Anarchy" in this context is meant not state behavior. "Anarchy" in this context is meant not as a condition of chaos or disorder, but one in which as a condition of chaos or disorder, but one in which there is no sovereign body that governs nation-states.there is no sovereign body that governs nation-states.

•Waltz’s First Level: Man (Human Waltz’s First Level: Man (Human Behavior)Behavior)

Wars result from selfishness, from misdirected aggressive impulses, from stupidity.Wars result from selfishness, from misdirected aggressive impulses, from stupidity. If these are the primary causes, the elimination of war must come through uplifting If these are the primary causes, the elimination of war must come through uplifting

and enlightening men (p.16). and enlightening men (p.16). For pessimists, peace is at once a goal and a utopian dream, while optimists take For pessimists, peace is at once a goal and a utopian dream, while optimists take

seriously the proposition to reform the individual. Pessimists (Niebuhr, Morgenthau) seriously the proposition to reform the individual. Pessimists (Niebuhr, Morgenthau) have countered the theory of politics built on an optimistic definition of man but have countered the theory of politics built on an optimistic definition of man but also expose the important error of exaggerating the causal importance of human also expose the important error of exaggerating the causal importance of human nature. Since this nature is very complex, it can justify any hypothesis we may nature. Since this nature is very complex, it can justify any hypothesis we may entertain. If men can be made good, then one must discover how to alter human entertain. If men can be made good, then one must discover how to alter human nature. This expectation is often buried under the conviction that individual nature. This expectation is often buried under the conviction that individual behavior is determined more by religious and spiritual inspiration rather than behavior is determined more by religious and spiritual inspiration rather than material circumstance. If man's evil qualities lead to wars, then one must worry material circumstance. If man's evil qualities lead to wars, then one must worry about ways to repress them or compensate for them. Control rather than about ways to repress them or compensate for them. Control rather than exhortation is needed, tends to assume a fixed human nature, which shifts the focus exhortation is needed, tends to assume a fixed human nature, which shifts the focus away from it, toward social and political institutions that can be changed (p.41). away from it, toward social and political institutions that can be changed (p.41).

Not every contribution the behavioral scientist can make has been made before and Not every contribution the behavioral scientist can make has been made before and found wanting, but rather, the proffered contributions of many of them have been found wanting, but rather, the proffered contributions of many of them have been rendered ineffective by a failure to comprehend the significance of the political rendered ineffective by a failure to comprehend the significance of the political framework of international action. Social and psychological realism has produced framework of international action. Social and psychological realism has produced political utopianism (p.77). political utopianism (p.77).

•Waltz’s Second Level: Internal Structure of StatesWaltz’s Second Level: Internal Structure of States• The internal organization of states is the key to understanding war and peace. The internal organization of states is the key to understanding war and peace.

Removing the defects of states would establish the basis for peace. Definition Removing the defects of states would establish the basis for peace. Definition of a ``good'' state: (a) Marx - according to the means of production, (b) Kant - of a ``good'' state: (a) Marx - according to the means of production, (b) Kant - according to abstract principles of right, (c) Wilson - according to national according to abstract principles of right, (c) Wilson - according to national self-determination and democracy. self-determination and democracy.

• The use of internal defects to explain external acts of a state can take many The use of internal defects to explain external acts of a state can take many forms: (i) type of government generally bad - deprivations imposed by forms: (i) type of government generally bad - deprivations imposed by despots upon their subjects produce tensions that find their expression in despots upon their subjects produce tensions that find their expression in foreign adventure; (ii) defects in governments not inherently bad - restrictions foreign adventure; (ii) defects in governments not inherently bad - restrictions placed on the state in order to protect the rights of its citizens interfere with placed on the state in order to protect the rights of its citizens interfere with executing foreign policy; and (iii) geographic or economic deprivations - state executing foreign policy; and (iii) geographic or economic deprivations - state has not attained its ``natural'' frontiers, or ``deprived'' countries undertake has not attained its ``natural'' frontiers, or ``deprived'' countries undertake war to urge the satisfied ones to make the necessary compensatory war to urge the satisfied ones to make the necessary compensatory adjustments (p.83). adjustments (p.83).

• Liberal thought has moved from reliance upon improvement within separate Liberal thought has moved from reliance upon improvement within separate states to acceptance of the need for organization among them. Rigorous states to acceptance of the need for organization among them. Rigorous application of this logic leads to asking to what extent organized force must application of this logic leads to asking to what extent organized force must be applied in order to secure the desired peaceful world. Arguing for a world be applied in order to secure the desired peaceful world. Arguing for a world government and settling for balance of power as an unhappy alternative government and settling for balance of power as an unhappy alternative reveals the limits of the second image analysis. Even though bad states may reveals the limits of the second image analysis. Even though bad states may lead to war, the obverse that good states mean peace is doubtful. Just like lead to war, the obverse that good states mean peace is doubtful. Just like societies they live in make men, the international environment makes states societies they live in make men, the international environment makes states (p.122). (p.122).

• War results from states seeking to further their own national interestWar results from states seeking to further their own national interest

•Waltz’s Third Level: International Waltz’s Third Level: International AnarchyAnarchy

• With many sovereign states, with no system of law enforceable With many sovereign states, with no system of law enforceable among them, with each state judging its grievances and ambitions among them, with each state judging its grievances and ambitions according to the dictates of its own reason or desire - conflict, according to the dictates of its own reason or desire - conflict, sometimes leading to war, is bound to occur. To achieve a sometimes leading to war, is bound to occur. To achieve a favorable outcome from such a conflict, a state has to rely on its favorable outcome from such a conflict, a state has to rely on its own devices, the relative efficiency of which must be its constant own devices, the relative efficiency of which must be its constant concern (p.159). Machiavelli, Rousseau, Thucydides, Clausewitz. concern (p.159). Machiavelli, Rousseau, Thucydides, Clausewitz.

• In anarchy, there is no automatic harmony. Because some In anarchy, there is no automatic harmony. Because some countries may be willing to use force to achieve their ends, and countries may be willing to use force to achieve their ends, and because there is no authority to prevent them from doing so, even because there is no authority to prevent them from doing so, even peacefully inclined states must arms themselves. Goodness and peacefully inclined states must arms themselves. Goodness and evil, agreement and disagreement, may or may not lead to war. evil, agreement and disagreement, may or may not lead to war.

• War occurs because there is nothing to prevent it: there is no War occurs because there is nothing to prevent it: there is no automatic adjustment of interests among states and there is a automatic adjustment of interests among states and there is a constant possibility that conflicts will be settled by force (p.188). constant possibility that conflicts will be settled by force (p.188).

• A balance of power may exist because some countries consciously A balance of power may exist because some countries consciously make it the end of their policies, or it may exist because of the make it the end of their policies, or it may exist because of the quasi-autonomous reactions of some states to the drive for quasi-autonomous reactions of some states to the drive for ascendancy of others. It is not so much imposed by statesmen on ascendancy of others. It is not so much imposed by statesmen on events as it is imposed by events on statesmen (p.209). events as it is imposed by events on statesmen (p.209).

What Causes War?What Causes War? Self-defenseSelf-defense Collective self-defenseCollective self-defense Help a helpless 3Help a helpless 3rdrd party party Dissatisfied with status quo (Hitler and Versailles Treaty)Dissatisfied with status quo (Hitler and Versailles Treaty) Nationalism/JingoismNationalism/Jingoism Perception of leaders (Galtieri, Hussein)Perception of leaders (Galtieri, Hussein) Preemptory strikes more effective, self-defense Preemptory strikes more effective, self-defense

implications (Bush 43 and Iraq)implications (Bush 43 and Iraq) ReligionReligion Conquest (outlawed by UN Charter)Conquest (outlawed by UN Charter) Parity—both sides are evenly matched and think it would Parity—both sides are evenly matched and think it would

be possible to beat the otherbe possible to beat the other Preponderance—one side really believes it can clean the Preponderance—one side really believes it can clean the

other side’s clockother side’s clock Xenophobia—unites citizensXenophobia—unites citizens

Prisoner’s dilemmaPrisoner’s dilemma Two prisoners are accused of a crime.Two prisoners are accused of a crime. If one confesses and the other does not, the one who confesses will If one confesses and the other does not, the one who confesses will

be released immediately and the other will spend 20 years in prison. be released immediately and the other will spend 20 years in prison. If neither confesses, each will be released. If neither confesses, each will be released. If both confess, they will each be jailed 5 years. If both confess, they will each be jailed 5 years. They cannot communicate with one anotherThey cannot communicate with one another. . Given that neither prisoner knows whether the other has confessed, it Given that neither prisoner knows whether the other has confessed, it

is in the self-interest of each to confess himself. is in the self-interest of each to confess himself. Paradoxically, when each prisoner pursues his self-interest, both end Paradoxically, when each prisoner pursues his self-interest, both end

up worse off than they would have been had they acted otherwiseup worse off than they would have been had they acted otherwise Demonstrates how many conflicts are caused by system-level factors, Demonstrates how many conflicts are caused by system-level factors,

although all 3 levels of analysis offer insight into why war happensalthough all 3 levels of analysis offer insight into why war happens

What Promotes Peace?What Promotes Peace? CommunicationCommunication Prisoner’s DilemmaPrisoner’s Dilemma

Interdependence—if you really need something Interdependence—if you really need something from the other state, you can’t risk warfrom the other state, you can’t risk war

Alliances—collective security mechanisms make Alliances—collective security mechanisms make aggressors less likely to attackaggressors less likely to attack

Liberal Democracy with transparencyLiberal Democracy with transparency

25-27 First World Industrial Countries

USA, UK, France, Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, Norway, New Zealand, Australia, Belgium, Austria, Denmark, Canada, Finland, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Ireland, Greece

Iffy: Israel

Evolution of the 1Evolution of the 1stst World World 1648: Treaty of Westphalia lays 1648: Treaty of Westphalia lays

ground for the modern state with the ground for the modern state with the principles of territorial integrity and principles of territorial integrity and governmentgovernment

All faced questions about the role of All faced questions about the role of religion in politicsreligion in politics

Industrial Revolution impacts Industrial Revolution impacts countries, leads to social countries, leads to social unrest/problems/basis for sociologyunrest/problems/basis for sociology

Industrial Democracies: Similarities and Differences

Similarities:

Wealth: $15K-30K GNP/person). Charles Hauss ID’s wealth as reason for democracy

Evolution similar Stability-- Dall

(Yale): Polyarchy means different groups share power on different issues

Post-industrial (Service economy)

Post-materialist

Differences:

Political systems Economic systems range from

USA market capitalism protected capitalism in JPN socialism in SWE

Culture (GER, ITY, FRA, JPN have penchant for strong “father state”. Huntington claims culture makes democracy—but if this is true, why are these countries different?

Foreign Policy orientations (sanctions on Iraq)

Post-Materialism:Post-Materialism:(Ronald Inglehart, U-M)(Ronald Inglehart, U-M)

In the industrial world, there are 2 kinds of people:In the industrial world, there are 2 kinds of people:

Materialist:Materialist:

PoorPoor UneducatedUneducated Older, Older,

concerned concerned with living with living from day to from day to dayday

Post-MaterialistPost-Materialist

Wealthy, well educated Wealthy, well educated UC/MCUC/MC

Concerned with Concerned with environment, feminism, environment, feminism, consumer protection, consumer protection, civil liberties, support civil liberties, support peace movements. peace movements.

They think about self-They think about self-actualizationactualization

Western EuropeWestern Europe What is Western Europe?What is Western Europe? Cultural distinctionCultural distinction ReligionReligion Languages: Slavic, Romantic, GermanicLanguages: Slavic, Romantic, Germanic Pre-iron curtainPre-iron curtain Post-iron curtainPost-iron curtain NATONATO EU creates “in/out” divisionEU creates “in/out” division Neutrals? Austria, Switzerland, SwedenNeutrals? Austria, Switzerland, Sweden Borders: Turkey? EU requires democracy and human Borders: Turkey? EU requires democracy and human

rightsrights Legal systems based on Common Law, Roman Law, Legal systems based on Common Law, Roman Law,

Napoleonic CodeNapoleonic Code

Political Ideology: Quick Political Ideology: Quick ReviewReview

Def’n: A coherent and consistent set of Def’n: A coherent and consistent set of beliefs about who ought to rule, what beliefs about who ought to rule, what principles rulers should obey, and principles rulers should obey, and what policies rulers ought to pursuewhat policies rulers ought to pursue

People regularly have “inconsistent” People regularly have “inconsistent” opinions (ex: wanting to spend more opinions (ex: wanting to spend more on both national defense and welfare)on both national defense and welfare)

European IdeologyEuropean Ideology Classical LiberalismClassical Liberalism

Against State Against State Intervention in Intervention in EconomyEconomy

Favors personal and Favors personal and economic liberty.economic liberty.

Would have Would have supported free supported free market and opposed market and opposed government government regulation of traderegulation of trade

Classical ConservatismClassical Conservatism

Pro-Status quoPro-Status quo Economic Inequality Economic Inequality Opposed excesses of French Opposed excesses of French

Revolution and its emphasis Revolution and its emphasis on personal freedom, wants on personal freedom, wants to restore power of the State, to restore power of the State, Church, and aristocracyChurch, and aristocracy

Doesn’t favor EUR integrationDoesn’t favor EUR integration ““Thatcherite Conservatism” Thatcherite Conservatism”

different, more like American different, more like American ConservatismConservatism

The Concept of “Regime”The Concept of “Regime” Institutions and practices that typically Institutions and practices that typically

endure from government to endure from government to governmentgovernment

Iraqi “regime” removed 2003Iraqi “regime” removed 2003

Women in National Women in National ParliamentsParliaments

Benjamin Barber: Benjamin Barber: Jihad v. McWorldJihad v. McWorld

Fragmentation and Globalization Fragmentation and Globalization competecompete

Tribal enclaves lure membersTribal enclaves lure members McDonalds and MNCs now have global McDonalds and MNCs now have global

operationsoperations These two forces collide to produce These two forces collide to produce

catastrophe and anomiecatastrophe and anomie

Fareed Zakaria:Fareed Zakaria:“Illiberal Democracy”“Illiberal Democracy”

Most democracies before third wave of Most democracies before third wave of democratizations were liberal democratizations were liberal democraciesdemocracies

Protect civil libertiesProtect civil liberties Allow for free electionsAllow for free elections Recent development: only 1 of 2 presentRecent development: only 1 of 2 present Hong Kong: civil liberties but no votingHong Kong: civil liberties but no voting Haiti: voting but no civil libertiesHaiti: voting but no civil liberties

The United NationsThe United Nations

History of the UNHistory of the UN• Formed after the fall of the League of Nations which Formed after the fall of the League of Nations which

could not successfully rule as a governing body and could not successfully rule as a governing body and WW IIWW II

• Has the ability to maintain and deploy its member Has the ability to maintain and deploy its member nations' armed forces as peace keepers.nations' armed forces as peace keepers.

• The term "United Nations" was suggested by Franklin The term "United Nations" was suggested by Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II, to refer to the Allies.D. Roosevelt during World War II, to refer to the Allies.

From August to October 1944, representatives of From August to October 1944, representatives of France, the Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the France, the Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union met to elaborate United States, and the Soviet Union met to elaborate the plans at the Dumbarton Oaks Estate in the plans at the Dumbarton Oaks Estate in Washington, DC. Those and later talks produced the Washington, DC. Those and later talks produced the framework of the UN (finalized in San Francisco)framework of the UN (finalized in San Francisco)

• Originally 51 member countries in 1945Originally 51 member countries in 1945• Now over 200 membersNow over 200 members

UN FinancingUN Financing Financed by two methods: Assessed and VoluntaryFinanced by two methods: Assessed and Voluntary Assessed is decided by how large and wealthy the Assessed is decided by how large and wealthy the

member country is, therefore determining the amount member country is, therefore determining the amount of money it is able to allocate to the UN (decided when of money it is able to allocate to the UN (decided when the UN makes it’s budget every two years).the UN makes it’s budget every two years).

There is a ceiling rate for countries so the UN is not There is a ceiling rate for countries so the UN is not dependent one country for its money. The ceiling rate dependent one country for its money. The ceiling rate is now 22%. Only the United States meets this amount.is now 22%. Only the United States meets this amount.

UN General AssemblyUN General Assembly Meets in regular yearly sessions under a Meets in regular yearly sessions under a

president elected from among the president elected from among the representatives.representatives.

Only UN organ in which all members are Only UN organ in which all members are represented, represented,

Serves as a forum for members to discuss issues Serves as a forum for members to discuss issues of international law and make decisions on the of international law and make decisions on the functioning of the organization. functioning of the organization.

Begins on the third Tuesday in September and Begins on the third Tuesday in September and ends in mid-Decemberends in mid-December

President elected at the beginning of each President elected at the beginning of each session session

Hold special session under request of Security Hold special session under request of Security Council if majority of members or majority of a Council if majority of members or majority of a single membersingle member

““Uniting for Peace” Resolution has not been Uniting for Peace” Resolution has not been effectiveeffective

Voting in the General Voting in the General AssemblyAssembly

Voting -important questions Voting -important questions recommendations on peace and security; recommendations on peace and security;

election of members to organs; admission, election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; suspension, and expulsion of members; budgetary matters budgetary matters

is by a two-thirds majority of those present is by a two-thirds majority of those present and voting. and voting.

Other questions are decided by majority Other questions are decided by majority vote. vote.

Each member country has one voteEach member country has one vote

Security CouncilSecurity Council Security Council has the power to make decisions Security Council has the power to make decisions

which member governments must carry out under which member governments must carry out under the United Nations Charter. the United Nations Charter.

decisions of the Council are known as UN Security decisions of the Council are known as UN Security Council Resolutions.Council Resolutions.

Presidency of the Security Council is rotated and lasts Presidency of the Security Council is rotated and lasts for one month. for one month.

Members must always be present at UN headquarters Members must always be present at UN headquarters in New York so that the Security Council can meet at in New York so that the Security Council can meet at any time—weakness in League of Nationsany time—weakness in League of Nations

president sets the agenda, presides at meetings and president sets the agenda, presides at meetings and oversees any crisis - alternates in alphabetical order oversees any crisis - alternates in alphabetical order

Permanent Members (5)Permanent Members (5) Republic of China, Republic of China, French Republic, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, French Republic, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America United States of America

Elected MembersElected Members.(10) elected to 2 year terms .(10) elected to 2 year terms

The SecretariatThe Secretariat• One of the main organs of the UN• Headed by the Secretary General, and other civil servants, and provides

information for UN Assembly meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the UN Security Council, the UN General Assembly, the UN Economic and Social Council, and other U.N. bodies.

• The United Nations Charter provides that the staff be chosen by application of the "highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity," with due regard for the importance of recruiting on a wide geographical basis

The Secretary General’s duties include:The Secretary General’s duties include: -helping resolve international disputes, -helping resolve international disputes, -administering peacekeeping operations, -administering peacekeeping operations, -organizing international conferences, -organizing international conferences, -gathering information on the implementation of Security Council decisions, and -gathering information on the implementation of Security Council decisions, and -consulting with member governments regarding various initiatives.-consulting with member governments regarding various initiatives. The Secretary General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any The Secretary General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any

matter that, in his or her opinion, may threaten international peace and security.matter that, in his or her opinion, may threaten international peace and security.

Offices under the SecretariatOffices under the Secretariat United Nations Office of the Secretary-General United Nations Office of the Secretary-General United Nations Office of Internal Oversight Services United Nations Office of Internal Oversight Services United Nations Office of Legal Affairs United Nations Office of Legal Affairs United Nations Department of Political Affairs United Nations Department of Political Affairs United Nations Department for Disarmament Affairs United Nations Department for Disarmament Affairs United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs United Nations Department of General Assembly and Conference Management United Nations Department of General Assembly and Conference Management United Nations Department of Public Information United Nations Department of Public Information United Nations Department of Management United Nations Department of Management United Nations Office of the Iraq Program United Nations Office of the Iraq Program United Nations Office of the United Nations Security Coordinator United Nations Office of the United Nations Security Coordinator United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime United Nations Office at Geneva United Nations Office at Geneva United Nations Office at Vienna United Nations Office at Vienna United Nations Office at Nairobi United Nations Office at Nairobi

UN Secretaries GeneralUN Secretaries General Trygve Lie, Norway (1945-1953) Trygve Lie, Norway (1945-1953) Dag Hammarskjöld, Sweden (1953-1961) Dag Hammarskjöld, Sweden (1953-1961) U Thant, Burma (1961-1971) U Thant, Burma (1961-1971) Kurt Waldheim, Austria (1972-1981) Kurt Waldheim, Austria (1972-1981) Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Peru (1982-1991) Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Peru (1982-1991) Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egypt (1992-1996) Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egypt (1992-1996) Kofi Annan, Ghana (1997-2006)Kofi Annan, Ghana (1997-2006) Ban Ki-moon, South Korea (2006-present)Ban Ki-moon, South Korea (2006-present)

The International Court of The International Court of JusticeJustice

• Composition: Rosalyn Higgins, President (United Kingdom); Awn Shawkat Al-Composition: Rosalyn Higgins, President (United Kingdom); Awn Shawkat Al-Khasawneh, Vice-President (Jordan); Judges: Raymond Ranjeva (Madagascar), Shi Khasawneh, Vice-President (Jordan); Judges: Raymond Ranjeva (Madagascar), Shi Jiuvong (China), Abdul G. Koroma (Sierra Leone), Gonzalo Parra-Aranguren Jiuvong (China), Abdul G. Koroma (Sierra Leone), Gonzalo Parra-Aranguren (Venezuela), Thomas Buergenthal (US), Hisashi Owada (Japan), Bruno Simma (Venezuela), Thomas Buergenthal (US), Hisashi Owada (Japan), Bruno Simma (Germany), Peter Tomka (Slovakia), Ronny Abraham (France), Kenneth Keith (New (Germany), Peter Tomka (Slovakia), Ronny Abraham (France), Kenneth Keith (New Zealand), Bernardo Sepulyeda Amor (Mexico), Mohamed Bennouna (Morocco), Zealand), Bernardo Sepulyeda Amor (Mexico), Mohamed Bennouna (Morocco), Leonid Skotnikov (Russian Federation); Registrar: Mr. Philippe Couvreur (Belgium). Leonid Skotnikov (Russian Federation); Registrar: Mr. Philippe Couvreur (Belgium).

• There are always 15 judges on the court elected by members of the UN and the There are always 15 judges on the court elected by members of the UN and the Security Council. Elected for 9 year-terms. Elections held every three years for one-Security Council. Elected for 9 year-terms. Elections held every three years for one-third of the assembly. third of the assembly.

• Only one person per nationality and if the State is not presented by a justice in a Only one person per nationality and if the State is not presented by a justice in a case involving that State, the State can elect an case involving that State, the State can elect an ad hocad hoc justice. justice.

• Nominees have to meet the requirements of their country’s requirements for their Nominees have to meet the requirements of their country’s requirements for their highest court of law, or can be jurists of recognized competence in international law.highest court of law, or can be jurists of recognized competence in international law.

• Both countries must submit to ICJ jurisdiction (Case of Certain Norwegian Loans)Both countries must submit to ICJ jurisdiction (Case of Certain Norwegian Loans)

Charles Krauthammer: Charles Krauthammer: The Unipolar Moment (1990) (2002) The Unipolar Moment (1990) (2002)

(2006)(2006) Thinking about post-Cold War US foreign policy has been led astray by Thinking about post-Cold War US foreign policy has been led astray by

three conventionally-accepted but three conventionally-accepted but mistakenmistaken assumptions about the assumptions about the character of the post-Cold War environment.character of the post-Cold War environment.

(1) that the world is now multipolar, whereas it is in fact unipolar, with (1) that the world is now multipolar, whereas it is in fact unipolar, with the USA the sole superpower, at least for present policy purposes the USA the sole superpower, at least for present policy purposes

(2) that the US domestic consensus favors internationalism rather than (2) that the US domestic consensus favors internationalism rather than isolationism—Krauthammer admits he was wrong hereisolationism—Krauthammer admits he was wrong here

(3) that in consequence of the Soviet collapse, the threat of war has (3) that in consequence of the Soviet collapse, the threat of war has substantially diminished. Dangers may be smaller, but more substantially diminished. Dangers may be smaller, but more widespread.widespread.

Krauthammer thought this unipolarity would last 30 years or so.Krauthammer thought this unipolarity would last 30 years or so. Revisited in 2002 and 2006 “Apogee”Revisited in 2002 and 2006 “Apogee” Halfway through the 30 years, still no alliances against U.S. Halfway through the 30 years, still no alliances against U.S. Some trouble being made by Iran, assisted by Russia/ChinaSome trouble being made by Iran, assisted by Russia/China Economic concerns, debt, EU emerging, ChinaEconomic concerns, debt, EU emerging, China But no clear end in sight. Fewer state-on-state conflicts. Why?But no clear end in sight. Fewer state-on-state conflicts. Why?

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Democratic TheoryDemocratic Theory Democratization: Spread of democracyDemocratization: Spread of democracy Standards of democracy:Standards of democracy:

– Process versus outcome: (Fareed Zakaria)Process versus outcome: (Fareed Zakaria) Procedural (Illiberal) versus substantive (liberal) democracyProcedural (Illiberal) versus substantive (liberal) democracy

– Exclusiveness versus inclusiveness:Exclusiveness versus inclusiveness: Role of genderRole of gender

– Individualism versus communitarianism:Individualism versus communitarianism: Individualism: Rights and liberties of individual are supremeIndividualism: Rights and liberties of individual are supreme Communitarianism: Welfare of the collective is most importantCommunitarianism: Welfare of the collective is most important

Three Waves of Democratization (Huntington)Three Waves of Democratization (Huntington) But let’s examine the causes of democracy But let’s examine the causes of democracy

before we get to Huntingtonbefore we get to Huntington

Causes of DemocracyCauses of Democracy WealthWealth. A higher GDP per capita correlates with democracy and the wealthiest democracies have . A higher GDP per capita correlates with democracy and the wealthiest democracies have

never been observed to fall into authoritarianism.never been observed to fall into authoritarianism. There is also the general observation that There is also the general observation that democracy was very rare before the industrial revolution. Empirical research thus lead many to democracy was very rare before the industrial revolution. Empirical research thus lead many to believe that economic development either increases chances for a transition to democracy believe that economic development either increases chances for a transition to democracy (modernization theory), or helps newly established democracies consolidate.(modernization theory), or helps newly established democracies consolidate. Some campaigners for Some campaigners for democracy even believe that as economic development progresses, democratization will become democracy even believe that as economic development progresses, democratization will become inevitable. However, the debate about whether democracy is a consequence of wealth, a cause of it, inevitable. However, the debate about whether democracy is a consequence of wealth, a cause of it, or both processes are unrelated, is far from conclusion. or both processes are unrelated, is far from conclusion.

EducationEducation. Wealth also correlates with education, though their effects on democratic consolidation . Wealth also correlates with education, though their effects on democratic consolidation seem to be independent.seem to be independent. Better educated people tend to share more liberal and pro-democratic Better educated people tend to share more liberal and pro-democratic values. On the other hand, a poorly educated and illiterate population may elect populist politicians values. On the other hand, a poorly educated and illiterate population may elect populist politicians who soon abandon democracy and become dictators even if there have been free elections. who soon abandon democracy and become dictators even if there have been free elections.

Fewer Natural Resources. The resource curse theoryFewer Natural Resources. The resource curse theory suggests that states whose sole source of wealth suggests that states whose sole source of wealth derives from abundant natural resources, such as oil, often fail to democratize because the well-being derives from abundant natural resources, such as oil, often fail to democratize because the well-being of the elite depends more on the direct control of the resource than on the popular support. On the of the elite depends more on the direct control of the resource than on the popular support. On the other hand, elites who invested in the physical capital rather than in land or oil, fear that their other hand, elites who invested in the physical capital rather than in land or oil, fear that their investment can be easily damaged in case of a revolution. Consequently, they would rather make investment can be easily damaged in case of a revolution. Consequently, they would rather make concessions and democratize than risk a violent clash with the opposition.concessions and democratize than risk a violent clash with the opposition.

CapitalismCapitalism. Some claim that democracy and capitalism are intrinsically linked. This belief generally . Some claim that democracy and capitalism are intrinsically linked. This belief generally centers on the idea that democracy and capitalism are simply two different aspects of freedom. A centers on the idea that democracy and capitalism are simply two different aspects of freedom. A widespread capitalist market culture may encourage norms such as individualism, negotiations, widespread capitalist market culture may encourage norms such as individualism, negotiations, compromise, respect for the law, and equality before the law.compromise, respect for the law, and equality before the law. These are seen as supportive for These are seen as supportive for democratization. By contrast, many Marxists would claim that capitalism is inherently undemocratic, democratization. By contrast, many Marxists would claim that capitalism is inherently undemocratic, and that true democracy can only be achieved if the economy is controlled by the people as a whole and that true democracy can only be achieved if the economy is controlled by the people as a whole rather than by private individuals. rather than by private individuals.

Causes of Democracy Causes of Democracy Cont’dCont’d

Social equalitySocial equality. Acemoglu and Robinson argued that the relationship between social . Acemoglu and Robinson argued that the relationship between social equality and democratic transition should be nonlinear: People have less incentive to equality and democratic transition should be nonlinear: People have less incentive to revolt in an egalitarian society (Singapore), so the likelihood of democratization is lower. revolt in an egalitarian society (Singapore), so the likelihood of democratization is lower. In a highly unequal society (South Africa under Apartheid), the redistribution of wealth In a highly unequal society (South Africa under Apartheid), the redistribution of wealth and power in a democracy would be so harmful to elites that these would do everything and power in a democracy would be so harmful to elites that these would do everything to prevent democratization. Democratization is more likely to emerge somewhere in the to prevent democratization. Democratization is more likely to emerge somewhere in the middle, in the countries, whose elites offer concessions because (1) they consider the middle, in the countries, whose elites offer concessions because (1) they consider the threat of a revolution credible and (2) the cost of the concessions is not too high. This threat of a revolution credible and (2) the cost of the concessions is not too high. This expectation is in line with the empirical research showing that democracy is more stable expectation is in line with the empirical research showing that democracy is more stable in egalitarian societies.in egalitarian societies.

Middle classMiddle class. According to some models, the existence of a substantial body of citizens . According to some models, the existence of a substantial body of citizens who are of intermediate wealth can exert a stabilizing influence, allowing democracy to who are of intermediate wealth can exert a stabilizing influence, allowing democracy to flourish. This is usually explained by saying that while the upper classes may want flourish. This is usually explained by saying that while the upper classes may want political power to preserve their position, and the lower classes may want it to lift political power to preserve their position, and the lower classes may want it to lift themselves up, the middle class balances these extreme positions. themselves up, the middle class balances these extreme positions.

Civil societyCivil society. A healthy civil society (NGOs, unions, academia, human rights . A healthy civil society (NGOs, unions, academia, human rights organizations, LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS—MEDIA, POLITICAL PARTIES, ELECTIONS, organizations, LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS—MEDIA, POLITICAL PARTIES, ELECTIONS, INTEREST GROUPS) are considered by some theorists to be important for INTEREST GROUPS) are considered by some theorists to be important for democratization, as they give people a unity and a common purpose, and a social democratization, as they give people a unity and a common purpose, and a social network through which to organize and challenge the power of the state hierarchy. network through which to organize and challenge the power of the state hierarchy. Involvement in civic associations also prepares citizens for their future political Involvement in civic associations also prepares citizens for their future political participation in a democratic regime. Finally, horizontally organized social networks build participation in a democratic regime. Finally, horizontally organized social networks build trust among people and trust is essential for functioning of democratic institutions.trust among people and trust is essential for functioning of democratic institutions.

Causes of Democracy cont’dCauses of Democracy cont’d Civic cultureCivic culture. In . In The Civic CultureThe Civic Culture and and The Civic Culture RevisitedThe Civic Culture Revisited, Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney , Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney

Verba conducted a comprehensive study of civic cultures. The main findings is that a certain civic Verba conducted a comprehensive study of civic cultures. The main findings is that a certain civic culture is necessary for the survival of democracy. This study truly challenged the common thought culture is necessary for the survival of democracy. This study truly challenged the common thought that cultures can preserve their uniqueness and practices and still remain democratic. that cultures can preserve their uniqueness and practices and still remain democratic.

CultureCulture. It is claimed by some that certain cultures are simply more conductive to democratic values . It is claimed by some that certain cultures are simply more conductive to democratic values than others. This view is likely to be ethnocentric. Typically, it is Western culture which is cited as than others. This view is likely to be ethnocentric. Typically, it is Western culture which is cited as "best suited" to democracy, with other cultures portrayed as containing values which make "best suited" to democracy, with other cultures portrayed as containing values which make democracy difficult or undesirable. This argument is sometimes used by undemocratic regimes to democracy difficult or undesirable. This argument is sometimes used by undemocratic regimes to justify their failure to implement democratic reforms. Today, however, there are many non-Western justify their failure to implement democratic reforms. Today, however, there are many non-Western democracies. Examples include India, Japan, Indonesia, Namibia, Botswana, Taiwan, and South democracies. Examples include India, Japan, Indonesia, Namibia, Botswana, Taiwan, and South Korea. Korea.

Human Empowerment and Emancipative ValuesHuman Empowerment and Emancipative Values. In . In Modernization, Cultural Change and DemocracyModernization, Cultural Change and Democracy, , Ronald Inlgehart and Christian Welzel explain democratization as the result of a broader process of Ronald Inlgehart and Christian Welzel explain democratization as the result of a broader process of human developmenthuman development which empowers ordinary people in a three-step sequence. First, modernization which empowers ordinary people in a three-step sequence. First, modernization gives more resources into the hands of people, which empowers capability-wise, enabling people to gives more resources into the hands of people, which empowers capability-wise, enabling people to practice freedom. This tends to give rise to practice freedom. This tends to give rise to emancipative valuesemancipative values that emphasize freedom of that emphasize freedom of expression and equality of opportunities. These values empower people motivation-wise in making expression and equality of opportunities. These values empower people motivation-wise in making them willing to practice freedom. Democratization occurs as the third stage of empowerment: it them willing to practice freedom. Democratization occurs as the third stage of empowerment: it empowers people legally in entitling them to practice freedom. In this context, the rise of empowers people legally in entitling them to practice freedom. In this context, the rise of emancipative values has been shown to be the strongest factor of all in both giving rise to new emancipative values has been shown to be the strongest factor of all in both giving rise to new democracies and sustaining old democracies. Specifically, it has been shown that the effects of democracies and sustaining old democracies. Specifically, it has been shown that the effects of modernization and other structural factors on democratization are mediated by these factors modernization and other structural factors on democratization are mediated by these factors tendencies to promote or hinder the rise of emancipative values. Further evidence suggests that tendencies to promote or hinder the rise of emancipative values. Further evidence suggests that emancipative values motivate people to engage in elite-challenging collective actions that aim at emancipative values motivate people to engage in elite-challenging collective actions that aim at democratic achievements, either to sustain and improve democracy when it is granted or to democratic achievements, either to sustain and improve democracy when it is granted or to establish it when it is denied.establish it when it is denied.

Causes of Democracy cont’dCauses of Democracy cont’d Homogeneous populationHomogeneous population. Some believe that a country which is deeply divided, whether by ethnic . Some believe that a country which is deeply divided, whether by ethnic

group, religion, or language, have difficulty establishing a working democracy. The basis of this theory group, religion, or language, have difficulty establishing a working democracy. The basis of this theory is that the different components of the country will be more interested in advancing their own position is that the different components of the country will be more interested in advancing their own position than in sharing power with each other. India is one prominent example of a nation being democratic than in sharing power with each other. India is one prominent example of a nation being democratic despite its great heterogeneity. despite its great heterogeneity.

Previous experience with democracyPrevious experience with democracy. According to some theorists, the presence or absence of . According to some theorists, the presence or absence of democracy in a country's past can have a significant effect on its later dealings with democracy. Some democracy in a country's past can have a significant effect on its later dealings with democracy. Some argue, for example, that it is very difficult (or even impossible) for democracy to be implemented argue, for example, that it is very difficult (or even impossible) for democracy to be implemented immediately in a country that has no prior experience with it. Instead, they say, democracy must immediately in a country that has no prior experience with it. Instead, they say, democracy must evolve gradually. Others, however, say that past experiences with democracy can actually be bad for evolve gradually. Others, however, say that past experiences with democracy can actually be bad for democratization — a country, such as Pakistan, in which democracy has previously failed may be less democratization — a country, such as Pakistan, in which democracy has previously failed may be less willing or able to go down the same path again. willing or able to go down the same path again.

Foreign interventionForeign intervention. Some believe that foreign involvement in a democratization is a crucial factor in . Some believe that foreign involvement in a democratization is a crucial factor in its success or failure. For some, foreign involvement is advantageous for democracy—these people its success or failure. For some, foreign involvement is advantageous for democracy—these people believe that democracy should be actively promoted and fostered by those countries which have believe that democracy should be actively promoted and fostered by those countries which have already established it, and that democracy may not otherwise take hold. Others, however, take the already established it, and that democracy may not otherwise take hold. Others, however, take the opposite stance, and say that democratization must come "from the bottom up", and that attempts to opposite stance, and say that democratization must come "from the bottom up", and that attempts to impose democracy from the outside are often doomed to failure. The most extreme form is military impose democracy from the outside are often doomed to failure. The most extreme form is military intervention to create democracy, with advocates pointing to the creation of stable democracies in intervention to create democracy, with advocates pointing to the creation of stable democracies in Japan and Germany (disputed) Japan and Germany (disputed) [12][12] after WWII, while critics point out, for example, the failures of after WWII, while critics point out, for example, the failures of colonialism and decolonization to create stable democracies in most developing nations, where colonialism and decolonization to create stable democracies in most developing nations, where dictators often quickly took power after a brief democratic period following independence. dictators often quickly took power after a brief democratic period following independence.

Age distributionAge distribution. Countries which have a higher degree of elderly people seems to be able to maintain . Countries which have a higher degree of elderly people seems to be able to maintain democracy, when it has evolved once, according to a thesis brought forward by Richard P. Concotta. democracy, when it has evolved once, according to a thesis brought forward by Richard P. Concotta. When the young population (defined as people aged 29 and under) is less than 40%, a democracy is When the young population (defined as people aged 29 and under) is less than 40%, a democracy is more secure. more secure.

Samuel Huntington, “The Third Wave” Samuel Huntington, “The Third Wave” (1991)(1991)

3 Waves of Democratization:3 Waves of Democratization: The first one brought democracy to Western Europe and The first one brought democracy to Western Europe and

Northern America in the 19th century. It was followed by Northern America in the 19th century. It was followed by a rise of dictatorships between 1918-1939. a rise of dictatorships between 1918-1939.

The second wave began after World War II, but lost The second wave began after World War II, but lost steam between 1962 and the mid-1970s. steam between 1962 and the mid-1970s.

The latest wave began in 1974 and is still ongoing. The latest wave began in 1974 and is still ongoing. Democratization of Latin America and post-Communist Democratization of Latin America and post-Communist countries of Eastern Europe is part of this third wave.countries of Eastern Europe is part of this third wave.

Recall Zakaria’s article on Illiberal Democracies—mostly Recall Zakaria’s article on Illiberal Democracies—mostly 33rdrd wave wave

Two-turnover test determines if consolidation is Two-turnover test determines if consolidation is completecomplete

Causes of “The Third Wave”Causes of “The Third Wave” Loss of legitimacy of authoritarian regimes due to increased popular Loss of legitimacy of authoritarian regimes due to increased popular

expectation of periodic and competitive election, and/or poor economic expectation of periodic and competitive election, and/or poor economic performance or military failure.performance or military failure.

Growth in global economic output helped modernize many less developed Growth in global economic output helped modernize many less developed economies. Economic modernization, which includes structural changes economies. Economic modernization, which includes structural changes like increased rates of urbanization, education, and a rising middle class, like increased rates of urbanization, education, and a rising middle class, unleashes a constellation of social forces with the organizational capacity unleashes a constellation of social forces with the organizational capacity and education to press for democratic governance.and education to press for democratic governance.

Changes in the Catholic Church brought about by Vatican II emphasized Changes in the Catholic Church brought about by Vatican II emphasized individual rights and opposition to authoritarian rule. This shift in world individual rights and opposition to authoritarian rule. This shift in world view was especially important for the Catholic countries of the view was especially important for the Catholic countries of the Mediterranean and Latin America, as well as the Philippines, Poland and Mediterranean and Latin America, as well as the Philippines, Poland and Hungary.Hungary.

Regional Contingency Factor (Snowball effect. Regional Contingency Factor (Snowball effect. For Soviet equivalent see For Soviet equivalent see Domino TheoryDomino Theory), also known as demonstration effects, happens when ), also known as demonstration effects, happens when success of democracy in one country causes other countries to success of democracy in one country causes other countries to democratize.democratize.

External factors, most notably the efforts to spread democracy by the External factors, most notably the efforts to spread democracy by the European Union and the United States.European Union and the United States.

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Democratization as a Policy Democratization as a Policy GoalGoal

Increased democratization in recent timesIncreased democratization in recent times Linked with economic development and Linked with economic development and

education level—more investment in education, education level—more investment in education, consumer productsconsumer products

Classic question: Does economic liberalization Classic question: Does economic liberalization precede or follow political liberalizationprecede or follow political liberalization

Attitudes: Freedom is not always the first Attitudes: Freedom is not always the first priority of citizenspriority of citizens

Inevitability? Francis FukuyamaInevitability? Francis Fukuyama

Francis Fukuyama, Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History and the Last Man” “The End of History and the Last Man”

(1992)(1992) The end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the The end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the

universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.“form of human government.“

Fukuyama's thesis consists of 2 main elements:Fukuyama's thesis consists of 2 main elements: The empirical argument: Since the beginning of the 19th The empirical argument: Since the beginning of the 19th

Century, there has been a move for States to adopt some Century, there has been a move for States to adopt some form of liberal democracy as its government.form of liberal democracy as its government.

The philosophical argument: Fukuyama examines the The philosophical argument: Fukuyama examines the influence of thymos (or human spiritedness). His argument influence of thymos (or human spiritedness). His argument is democracy hinders risky behavior. Enlightened rational is democracy hinders risky behavior. Enlightened rational thought shows that the roles of master and slave are thought shows that the roles of master and slave are unsatisfying and self-defeating and hence not adopted by unsatisfying and self-defeating and hence not adopted by lofty spirts. This type of argument was originally taken up lofty spirts. This type of argument was originally taken up by Hegel and John Locke.by Hegel and John Locke.

Problems With Spreading Problems With Spreading DemocracyDemocracy

Many countries are not “ready”Many countries are not “ready” May hinder a country’s economyMay hinder a country’s economy Different standards of democracy (if illiberal Different standards of democracy (if illiberal

democracy is adopted, may never get liberal)democracy is adopted, may never get liberal) Limited public support in many areas due to Limited public support in many areas due to

perception of government corruption, lack of perception of government corruption, lack of education (Democracy requires educated education (Democracy requires educated citizenry)citizenry)

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Democracy, Foreign Policy, & Democracy, Foreign Policy, & SecuritySecurity

The new global standard of acceptable governance?The new global standard of acceptable governance? Implications for world politics:Implications for world politics:

– Foreign policy successForeign policy success– Democracies more successful at war (but is this a Democracies more successful at war (but is this a

tautology?)tautology?)– Women and political participationWomen and political participation• Democratic Peace Theory-- Democracies Are Democratic Peace Theory-- Democracies Are

Unlikely to Fight Each OtherUnlikely to Fight Each Other

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Criticisms of Democratic Peace Criticisms of Democratic Peace TheoryTheory

Peace is an anomaly—war the normal Peace is an anomaly—war the normal conditioncondition

Democracies are not always peacefulDemocracies are not always peaceful– What about the United States and its What about the United States and its

war record?war record?

Feminists would argue need for positive Feminists would argue need for positive peacepeace

Francis Fukuyama—Francis Fukuyama—The End of History and the Last Man” The End of History and the Last Man”

(1992)(1992) "What we may be witnessing is not just "What we may be witnessing is not just

the end of the Cold War, or the passing the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history, of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: that is, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind's ideological the end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.“form of human government.“

But not so fast….But not so fast….

After the Cold War, what are we going to After the Cold War, what are we going to fight about? Democracies generally have fight about? Democracies generally have same western values, rarely fight each same western values, rarely fight each otherother

People's cultural and religious identities People's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in will be the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold War world.the post-Cold War world.

Clash of Civilizations—Clash of Civilizations—Samuel Huntington (1991)Samuel Huntington (1991)

Samuel Huntington,Samuel Huntington,“Clash of Civilizations” “Clash of Civilizations”

(1992)(1992) World politics is entering a new phase, in which the great divisions among World politics is entering a new phase, in which the great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural.

Civilizations-the highest cultural groupings of people-are differentiated from Civilizations-the highest cultural groupings of people-are differentiated from each other by religion, history, language and tradition. These divisions are deep each other by religion, history, language and tradition. These divisions are deep and increasing in importance.and increasing in importance.

The fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics. The fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of the future.

In this emerging era of cultural conflict the United States must forge alliances In this emerging era of cultural conflict the United States must forge alliances with similar cultures and spread its values wherever possible. With alien with similar cultures and spread its values wherever possible. With alien civilizations the West must be accommodating if possible, but confrontational if civilizations the West must be accommodating if possible, but confrontational if necessary. necessary.

In the final analysis, however, all civilizations will have to learn to tolerate each In the final analysis, however, all civilizations will have to learn to tolerate each other.other.

Huntington’s CivilizationsHuntington’s Civilizations

Analysis of HuntingtonAnalysis of Huntington Rejected by most scholars in the 1990sRejected by most scholars in the 1990s

After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Huntington has been After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Huntington has been increasingly regarded as having been prescient in light of:increasingly regarded as having been prescient in light of:

The United States invasion of Afghanistan.The United States invasion of Afghanistan. The 2002 Bali Bombings.The 2002 Bali Bombings. The 2003 Invasion of Iraq.The 2003 Invasion of Iraq. The 2004 Madrid train bombings.The 2004 Madrid train bombings. The 2006 cartoon crisis.The 2006 cartoon crisis. The 2005 London bombings.The 2005 London bombings. The ongoing Iranian nuclear crisis.The ongoing Iranian nuclear crisis. The 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict.The 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict. The 2008-09 Israel-Gaza conflict.The 2008-09 Israel-Gaza conflict.

The Breakup of Yugoslavia: The Breakup of Yugoslavia: The AftermathThe Aftermath

Fragmentation and Globalization competeFragmentation and Globalization compete McDonalds and MNCs now have global McDonalds and MNCs now have global

operations—produce and sell products operations—produce and sell products around the world.around the world.

World “smaller” than ever—interconnected World “smaller” than ever—interconnected by internet, telecommunicationsby internet, telecommunications

Tribal enclaves lure membersTribal enclaves lure members These two forces collide to produce These two forces collide to produce

catastrophe and anomiecatastrophe and anomie

Benjamin Barber: Benjamin Barber: Jihad v. McWorld (1992)Jihad v. McWorld (1992)

Most democracies before 1960 were liberal Most democracies before 1960 were liberal democracies—two characteristicsdemocracies—two characteristics

Protect civil libertiesProtect civil liberties Allow for free electionsAllow for free elections Recent development: only 1 of 2 presentRecent development: only 1 of 2 present Examples:Examples: HaitiHaiti SingaporeSingapore Hong KongHong Kong

Fareed Zakaria:Fareed Zakaria:“Illiberal Democracy” (1997)“Illiberal Democracy” (1997)

Paul KennedyPaul Kennedy“The Rise and Fall of Great Powers” “The Rise and Fall of Great Powers”

(1988)(1988) Kennedy: Great powers eventually fall, usually after “imperial Kennedy: Great powers eventually fall, usually after “imperial

overstretch”overstretch” Examples: Rome, British EmpireExamples: Rome, British Empire Such “Declinists” worry U.S. is guilty of overstretch too and Such “Declinists” worry U.S. is guilty of overstretch too and

will pay a price as a result—loss of Pax Americanawill pay a price as a result—loss of Pax Americana

Critics: “Lax Americana” more dangerous than Pax Critics: “Lax Americana” more dangerous than Pax Americana. America MUST be involved to keep the world Americana. America MUST be involved to keep the world secure.secure.

““Social Overstretch” more of a danger: The idea that Social Overstretch” more of a danger: The idea that spending money on altruistic social welfare programs to spending money on altruistic social welfare programs to support the least productive people in society financially support the least productive people in society financially drains that economy.drains that economy.

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives Define “democracy”Define “democracy” Explain variations in democracies in different countriesExplain variations in democracies in different countries Define “rule of law”Define “rule of law” Describe characteristics of civil society and civic cultureDescribe characteristics of civil society and civic culture Outline support for and exceptions to the hypothesis that capitalism and affluence are Outline support for and exceptions to the hypothesis that capitalism and affluence are

prerequisites of democratic political culturesprerequisites of democratic political cultures Outline the development of democratic states in Western Europe since the 18th centuryOutline the development of democratic states in Western Europe since the 18th century Define “political legitimacy” and explain its role in democratic civil societiesDefine “political legitimacy” and explain its role in democratic civil societies Explain the roles of social capital and tolerance in democratic civil societiesExplain the roles of social capital and tolerance in democratic civil societies Outline the characteristics of the types of political parties found in Western democratic Outline the characteristics of the types of political parties found in Western democratic

statesstates Describe characteristics of presidential and parliamentary regimesDescribe characteristics of presidential and parliamentary regimes Explain the primary roles of bureaucracies in democratic regimesExplain the primary roles of bureaucracies in democratic regimes Define and apply the concept of an “integrated elite”Define and apply the concept of an “integrated elite” Describe an “interventionist state” and its primary characteristicsDescribe an “interventionist state” and its primary characteristics Define “feedback” within the context of political systemsDefine “feedback” within the context of political systems

Learning ObjectivesLearning ObjectivesAfter mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to:After mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to: Describe and define state, nation, regime, and government.Describe and define state, nation, regime, and government. Understand the definition of a nation-state.Understand the definition of a nation-state. Gain introductory knowledge of the process of comparative political analysis.Gain introductory knowledge of the process of comparative political analysis. Comprehend the difference between globalization and imperialism.Comprehend the difference between globalization and imperialism. Recognize the essence of political system and system theory and be able to Recognize the essence of political system and system theory and be able to

apply this theory in comparative analysis.apply this theory in comparative analysis. Describe the ‘input-output’ process of political system operation.Describe the ‘input-output’ process of political system operation. Identify roles and positions of states and nation-states in international politics.Identify roles and positions of states and nation-states in international politics. Explain the applicability of the international political economy.Explain the applicability of the international political economy. Understand the three-way classification of states and regimes.Understand the three-way classification of states and regimes. Define the fundamentals of the public policy and the process of its analysis.Define the fundamentals of the public policy and the process of its analysis.

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

• • describe comparative politics as a field of political science.describe comparative politics as a field of political science.•• explain at least one rationale for comparing political systems.explain at least one rationale for comparing political systems.•• explain why generalizations and theories are goals of explain why generalizations and theories are goals of comparative politics.comparative politics.•• describe how comparativists use scientific method.describe how comparativists use scientific method.•• define state in the context of comparative politics.define state in the context of comparative politics.•• explain why the state is a focus of comparative politics in this explain why the state is a focus of comparative politics in this textbook.textbook.•• distinguish between the types of states described in this chapter distinguish between the types of states described in this chapter and offer and offer

examples of the types.examples of the types.•• recognize and offer initial definitions of other core concepts recognize and offer initial definitions of other core concepts identified in the identified in the

chapter.chapter.•• describe a generic political system and label its most important describe a generic political system and label its most important elements.elements.•• identify historical, contemporary, domestic, and global factors that identify historical, contemporary, domestic, and global factors that

determine basic patterns of politics and government.determine basic patterns of politics and government.

Learning ObjectivesLearning ObjectivesAfter mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to:After mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to: Gain knowledge of democracy as a political system.Gain knowledge of democracy as a political system. Become aware of the latest electoral results and their impact on Become aware of the latest electoral results and their impact on

political realities in the USA, Great Britain, France and Germany.political realities in the USA, Great Britain, France and Germany. Understand concepts and criteria of democracy, such as rights, Understand concepts and criteria of democracy, such as rights,

elections, the rule of law, civil society and capitalism in the free elections, the rule of law, civil society and capitalism in the free market.market.

Define liberal and liberalism.Define liberal and liberalism. Describe and define the origins of the democratic state empowered by Describe and define the origins of the democratic state empowered by

the evolution of political thoughts on democracy.the evolution of political thoughts on democracy. Differentiate between philosophical positions of Thomas Hobbes and Differentiate between philosophical positions of Thomas Hobbes and

John Locke.John Locke. Recognize the process of democracy buildingRecognize the process of democracy building Understand the challenges of democratization.Understand the challenges of democratization. Define and explain legitimacy and the process of political Define and explain legitimacy and the process of political

legitimization.legitimization. Comprehend the role of political parties in political system.Comprehend the role of political parties in political system. Identify different political ideologies and recognize the difference Identify different political ideologies and recognize the difference

between left and right political ideologies and parties.between left and right political ideologies and parties.

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives Classify leading political parties in France, Germany and Great Britain. Understand Classify leading political parties in France, Germany and Great Britain. Understand

political positions of Liberals, Radicals, Social Democrats and Christian Democrats.political positions of Liberals, Radicals, Social Democrats and Christian Democrats. Define catch-all political parties.Define catch-all political parties. Understand postindustrialism and post materialism and their affect on the Understand postindustrialism and post materialism and their affect on the

development of the political system.development of the political system. Recognize mechanisms of party dealignment and realignment.Recognize mechanisms of party dealignment and realignment. Describe interests groups and understand factors contributing to the political Describe interests groups and understand factors contributing to the political

protest.protest. Recognize differences between presidential and parliamentarian forms of Recognize differences between presidential and parliamentarian forms of

government and their impact of government formation, duration, stability and government and their impact of government formation, duration, stability and effectiveness.effectiveness.

Define cabinet responsibility and vote of confidence in parliamentarian systems.Define cabinet responsibility and vote of confidence in parliamentarian systems. Recognize the role of bureaucracy. Define the “law of iron triangle.”Recognize the role of bureaucracy. Define the “law of iron triangle.” Describe the process of public policy formation and implementation.Describe the process of public policy formation and implementation. Define the interventionist state.Define the interventionist state. Understand challenges of economically liberalized democratic state.Understand challenges of economically liberalized democratic state. Describe the impact of foreign policy on international relations.Describe the impact of foreign policy on international relations. Recognize balances that democratic states should achieve to be more effective and Recognize balances that democratic states should achieve to be more effective and

efficient.efficient.

Learning ObjectivesLearning ObjectivesAfter mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to:After mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to: Discuss the summary of the book, including the summary of the current Discuss the summary of the book, including the summary of the current

economic and political situation in the world.economic and political situation in the world. Understand the definitions and components of Understand the definitions and components of crisiscrisis, , dangerdanger, and , and

globalizationglobalization.. Comprehend the basics of Comprehend the basics of global warming global warming challenges in the contemporary challenges in the contemporary

world.world. Define the concept of Define the concept of interdependence interdependence in the process of globalization.in the process of globalization. Recognize the key elements of the historical formation and impact of Recognize the key elements of the historical formation and impact of

imperialism.imperialism. Understand the concept of challenges in the Understand the concept of challenges in the way of thinkingway of thinking.. Discuss differences between Discuss differences between zero-sum zero-sum and and positive-sum positive-sum outcomes.outcomes. Gain complete understanding of the whole book and recognize the importance Gain complete understanding of the whole book and recognize the importance

of studying politics and international affairs, especially in comparative of studying politics and international affairs, especially in comparative prospective.prospective.