Intonation:Involves the occurrence of recurring pitch patterns each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on a group of words of a varying length. (CRUTTENDEN)Intonation is one of the many kinds of resources that are available in the language for making meaningful distinctions. (HALLIDAY)Utterance:Larger unit that can be defined as a continuous piece of speech beginning and ending with a clear pause.Unit of information:Semantic and phonological unit for the development of the discourse which handles not only information as propositional content, but also marker of style, expressions of attitudes and feelings, politeness formulae and so on. (TENCH) Discourse:Any meaningful stretch of languageNucleus:The most prominent syllable within a tone group and it is the chief means of focusing in EnglishObligatory element in the information unit.Tends to falls on the LLIFocus:Indicates the highlighting chosen by the speaker for the utterance.Nucleus placement is the device in language for showing focus on some part of an intonation group and, hence, of a sentence .Principal means of focusing in English. Scope of focus: The accentual pattern of an utterance (including the nuclear accent) is the physical manifestation of the focus of the utterance.Broad focus:In broad the whole of the information conveyed by the intonation group is completely new (all new) and therefore in focus.Narrow focus:An utterance is in narrow focus when only a portion of it is in focus, for example: when it contains new and given information. For various reasons some part of the intonation; grammar is considered to be out of focus. The part of the information group which remains in focus will, like broad focus, most commonly have the nucleus on the LLI.Most commonly it is new information which falls within the scope of focus. However, in a certain limited number of conditions a speaker may fish to highlight old information. As a general rule, accenting has to do with the newness and deaccenting with giveness.Nucleus placement alone cannot indicate the scope of focus; this can only be done by taking contextual and situational considerations into account.New information:Part of the information unit which the speaker has decided to present as not being already available to the hearer (Halliday)Information which is new and contrastive will automatically fall within the scope of focus. Old information:That information which the speaker assumes to be already in some way in the consciousness of the listener and which is hence not in need of highlighting (Cruttenden) Given information Shared knowledge Common groundIt will generally fall outside the scope of focus but there are some occasions when we may wish to focus on a particular piece of information even though it is old, given info brought to focus and reaccented TONALITY The distribution into tone groups, and the number and location of the tone group boundaries (Halliday) Its the system by which a stretch of spoken text is segmented into series of discrete units of intonation which correspond to the speakers perception of pieces or chunks of information. TONICITY Its the system by which as individual discrete unit of intonation is shown to have a prominent word which indicates the focus of information ( Tench) The placing of the tonic syllable; the location, in each tone group, of the pre-tonic and tonic segment : From the phonological point of view : most prominent syllable in an intonation unitSemantic point of view: focus of informationDistributional point of view: the LLI, the most prominent syllable position in the tone group Functional point of view: chief means signaling the focus. Nucleus is the principle means of focusing in English and it is concerned with the function of nucleus. TONEIts the system of contrasting pitch movements on the tonic syllable in each unit of intonation (Gallindo)The pitch movement of an utterance is basically describable in terms of pitch range.About adverbsWhen they occur initially, they gain semantic prominence, when they occur in final position, they are less prominent. Final time and place adverbials are associated with minor information (rising tone) and they are used either unaccented or utter with a rising tone: a low rise or less frequently a fall rise. Time adverbs: can be brought into narrow focus for contrasting of emphasizing Adv of degree: when occurring in final position, they are not nuclear but they are marked either to emphasize the courtesy, or to indicate attitudes as insistence. Sentence adverbs in final position: give them a separate group or a tertiary stress. Reinforcing adverbs in final position: generally given on a separate group and produced with a falling tone, they are not attached to the main intonation group. Most adverbs take a rising tone if in final position because most adverbs are limiting and they take a group apart. Limiting: However Instead Unfortunately Generally Clearly Accidentally Presumably Probably Nevertheless Especially Separately Well Eventually Actually Once/finally Reinforcing Particularly Firstly, etc Anyways Of course Besides Literally By the way Obviously Frequently Deliberately Honestly Definitely Too AlsoVocativesInitial vocatives FALL RISE: for warnings A request for attention For requirement of some service

HIGH FALL: a summon A serious mood Speakers feelings or sense of authority dominance, he/she demands a conversation and sounds impatient LOW FALL: addressing an audience LOW RISE: for enquiries Leads on to a remark Request for attention Addressing to an audience (informal speech) HIGH RISE: enquiries

Medial vocatives: if the words preceding the vocatives are unstressed, its treated in the same way as an initial vocative but if the words preceding the vocative are stressed, its treated in the same way as a final vocative.FINAL VOCATIVES As an expression of courtesy, affection or criticism ( no group apart, either unstressed or partially stressed)FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE DIVISION INTO TONE GROUPS Speakers perception of the organization of information: The division into tone groups may vary according to the meanings the speaker wants to convey Upward length constraint: a tone group may content up to 7 stresses Probabilistic correlation with syntactic structures: in English there is a tendency for tone groups to coincide with clauses Speed of delivery: the slower the pace, the shorter the tone group; and the faster the pace, the longer the tone group.Phonetic cues to recognize tone group boundaries1. Semantic criterion 2. Grammatical criterion 3. Pause4. Change of pitch5. Change of paceNucleus placementIs the device in the language for showing focus on some part of an intonation unit and hence a sentence. PHONETIC POINT OF VIEW: the syllable at which significant pitch movement begins. The syllable carrying maximum prominence and it is concerned with the type of prominence of the nucleus. DISTRIBUTIONAL POINT OF VIEW: the LLI we are concerned with the most prominent syllables position in the tone group. FUNCTIONAL POINT OF VIEW: the chief means signaling focus. The nucleus is the principal means of focusing in English. Concerned with the function of the nucleus. Tonicity and focusNeutral may indicate broad or narrow focus, but it is broad focus which usually shows neutral tonicity. Narrow tonicity may conform to patterns of neutral tonicity when the focused section is at the end. Narrow focus may conform to patterns of marked tonicity when the focused section is not at the end. Nucleus placement and givenessA. To make it clear to the speaker that he agrees with him or that he has understood the message. B. As a means to reiterate information for clarification purposesC. To mark the beginning of a new aspect of the same topicD. When there are no new items in the discourse context. To begin a new aspectE. When the same form conveys different meaningsF. Intonation idiomacy (fixed pattern)G. Contrasts H. EchoesI. InsistenceExceptions to the LLI rule a. Event sentences: Generally involve an intransitive verb which denotes appearance or misfortuneb. Adverbials in final position: Final adverbs are usually unstressed. Adverbs of courtesy, when final in a group, are not nuclear. Adv of manner attract the accent and if the adverb is important, place it at the beginning and give them a separate group.c. Vocatives in final position: Do not take the nuclear accentd. Final reporting clauses: The nuclear accent falls on the main clausee. Adjectival WH-objects: Nuclear accent falls on the noun reporting the object of the verb.f. Noun+ infinitive: The tonic accent is on the noun and the noun is the object of the verbg. Noun+ adjective/participle: The nuclear accent falls on the noun.h. Final relative clauses: Defining relative clauses, the nuclear accent falls on the nouni. Transitive verbs + objects + verb participle: The nuclear accent falls on the DOj. Indirect questions: k. Subject + passive verb: the nuclear accent falls on the subject. The verb is transitivel. Objects of general tendency: Generally go unaccentedm. Fossilized expressions: Fixed patternn. Indefinites: unaccentedEXPLANATIONS TO THE LLI (CRUTTENDEN) 1. Syntactic explanation: One type of syntactic explanation is in terms of transformation, and suggests that the exceptions to the LLI are the results of movements, transformations between deep and surface structure. 2. Semantic explanation: Opponents to the syntactic explanation emphasize the semantic aspect of accenting. 3. Grammatical explanation: A more promising grammatical approach looks or a hierarchy of accentability within syntactic classes. Lexical items are more likely to be accented than grammatical items; nouns can certainly more accentable than the other classes. This shows up in EVENT sentences: Where the subject (a noun) is more accentable than the verb. In those event sentences where the predicate contains a noun but still does not take the nucleus, such noun is either part of an adverbial or else very closely semantically unified with the verb. FINAL adverbials, in the case of many final adverbials are commonly the grammatical object before the adverb which receives the accent. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INTONATIONS Significant: meaningful utterances which are only different in respect of intonation and may differ from each other in meaning because they convey meaning Systematic: Enables us to teach intonation. It is an organization into a system of subsystems, possible for us to analyze it, teach it and learn it. We dont use tones at random. There is a limited number of pitch patterns in any language which we use to produce definite meaningful effects. Characteristic: Each language has its own intonation pattern. The pitch patterns of English are not the same as in other languages, limited not of pitch patterns in any language which we use to produce meaningful effects. Inevitable: Present in every piece of speech. Its a part of the structure of any particular language. No language is spoken in a monotone Integral: To every piece of language, ties up every grammatical / phonological aspect. It links up not only with meaning but also with grammar, pronunciation and spoken discourse at large. The structure of a tone groupThe purpose of this elaborate division of the intonation unit into different parts is to indicate points or areas where intonation can vary and produce differences in meanings. Meaning can be affected by variations in an intonation pattern at different points or areas that coincide with different partas of the structure of the intonation unit.PRE-HEAD: unaccented syllables preceding the 1 nuclear accentHEAD: all syllables accentable or weak from the 1 pre nuclear accent up to the primary (tonic syllable) and constitutes the pre-tonic segmentNUCLEUS: Tonic syllable. Only syllable bearing pitch movement. Tonic segmentTAIL: Strong or weak syllables following the tonicFUNCTIONS OF INTONATIONInformation function: What is being said? Presents the management of the information as the speaker perceives it. (Preparation and presentation of the message) The speaker signals prominence for what he uses the system of pitch, loudness and length. The organization involves: Decisions about the division of intonation into manageable pieces of information and their staging division into tone groups (tonality) Decisions as to what should be made prominent in any piece of information structure of new and given information within a unit (tonicity) Grading the pieces of info and tying them up into coherent sequences (tone)Grammatical function: Which is being said? Syntactic structure, this function relates intonation within the syntax of clauses it signals to the listener the syntactic structure of the structure. It is conveyed through the system of tonality and some components of the syntactic structure are more likely to be made into separate tone groups. Intonation has a grammatical role in disambiguation parallel wordings of different syntactic structure accomplished by tonality, tonicity and tone. It is the general tendency of tone groups to coincide with clauses.Communicative function: What is being said? It presents the speakers purpose in transmitting something The function refers to the intended effect that the speaker wishes to produce on those who are being addressed to the listener Basically associated with the choice of tone. This function is a basic one because whenever we say something we have a purpose in doing so. Intonation makes the same word or statement acquire a different meaning.Attitudinal function: How is being said? It shows the speakers mood. Intonation alone without words can show attitude. Its not what is being said, but the way we say it. It refers to the mood of the speaker or attitude towards the addressee or the message. The effect or attitude is mainly to be found in the extent of a fall or rise and the variations of pitch in the head or pre head. FEATURES FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE TONIC SYLLABLEPitch peak: refers to the highest pitched syllable within a given intonation unit.Kinetic tone: involves pitch movement Loudness peak: refers to the loudest syllable within an intonation unitTempo marking: refers to the speed of deliver in the syllable concerned. It is marked by a relative length compared to a surrounding syllable.Tone and grammatical structures Parentheses: Additional information, the speaker adds in the middle. Comment made by the speaker, but not related to the content of the message. Commonly inserted between two sense groups without affecting its intonation= Low rise with low head, low keyAfterthoughts: Additional information, judgment made by the speaker, muttered comment added to a statement, low rise but with low heads, low key, added to the end, ideas that occurred to the speaker as he finishes his remarks, may take a group apart or may be seen as the tail of the previous groupApposition: The relationship between two or more items which are identical in reference or else the reference must be included in the reference of the otherRelative clauses: Non-defining generally take two groups. Intonation helps disambiguate defining and non-defining relative clausesReporting clauses: a) Initial reporting clauses: When the reporting clause is grammatically complete in itself, a falling tone can be used and a fall rise divided is used when the reporting clause needs a falling tone in order to express a contrast. b) Medial reporting clauses: Inversion of subject and verb, the subject takes the stress.c) Final reporting clauses: Usually non tonic in final position, tertiaries usually from the tailTonal sequences:Rising tone on a non-final group followed by a FALLING TONE on a final group (the most common tonal sequence) it typically occurs on adverbials, noun phrase, subjects, or on subordinate or coordinate clauses. Falling tone on the first group followed by a rising (low rise) on the second group. It typically occurs on adverbials or on tag questions or the reversed polarity kind where the listener is given considerable latitude to disagree. Falling tone on the first group and a falling tone on the second group, this is frequent on structures involving reversed polarity tags, where the speaker is demanding agreement, or on structures involving adverbials on the reinforcing type. Definite falls: Simple independent statements Declarative questions Answers to yes/no questions Straightforward agreement To contradict Wh- questions Yes/no questions Repeated questions Tag questions Exclamations Warnings Commands Interjections Calling someone by name Greetings Farewells