international single species action plan for the

International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of theMaccoa Duck

Oxyura maccoa

TECHNICAL SERIES No. 14

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10-30262_US_Maccoa-Duck.indd 1 12.03.2010 13:50:26 Uhr

Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA)

International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the the Maccoa Duck

Oxyura maccoa

AEWA Technical Series No. 14

April 2007

Prepared in collaboration with The African Gamebird Research Education and Development Trust

BirdLife International Africa Division BirdLife South Africa

Endangered Wildlife Trust

Compiled by: Y. D. Abebe1, N. Baker2, A. Berruti3, D. Buijs4, B.D. Colahan5, C. Davies6, J. Eksteen7, S.W. Evans8, H. Kolberg9, A. Marchant10, Z. Mpofu11, P. Nantongo-Kalundu12, P.Y. Nnyiti13, K. Pienaar14, K. Shaw15, T. Tyali16, J. van Niekerk17, M.J. Wheeler18

1 Ornithopia Ecotour Promotion Agency, PO Box 18112, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, [email protected] 2 Tanzania Bird Atlas, PO Box 1605, Iringa, Tanzania, [email protected] 3 African Gamebird Research Education & Development Trust, PO Box 87070, Houghton, 2041, South

Africa, [email protected] 4 Dept. of Agriculture, Conservation, Environment & Tourism, DNC Services, PO Box 510, Zeerust, 2865,

South Africa, [email protected] 5 Free State Tourism, Environment and Economic Affairs, Private Bag X20801, Bloemfontein, 9300, South

Africa, [email protected] 6 BirdLife Zimbabwe, PO Box RV100, Runiville, Harare, Zimbabwe, [email protected] 7 Mpumalanga Parks Board, Private Bag X11338, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa,

[email protected] 8 Poison Working Group, Endangered Wildlife Trust, Private Bag X11, Parkview, 2122, South Africa,

[email protected] 9 Directorate Scientific Services, Ministry of Environment & Tourism, Private Bag 13306, Windhoek,

Namibia, [email protected] 10 Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife, South Africa, [email protected] 11 Dept. of Wildlife & National Parks, PO Box 11, Maun, Botswana, [email protected] 12 Nature Uganda, PO Box 27034, Kampala, Uganda, [email protected] 13 Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania, PO Box 70919 Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania,

[email protected] 14 Limpopo Environmental Affairs, PO Box 3174, Nylstroom, 0510, South Africa, [email protected] 15 Cape Nature, Private Bag X5019, Stellenbosch, 7299, South Africa, [email protected] 16 Dept. of Economic Affairs, Environment and Tourism, Eastern Cape, P Bag X5001, Greenacres, 6057,

South Africa, [email protected] 17 National Gamebird Federation, PO Box 1639, Rant en Dal, 1751, South Africa, [email protected] 18 Avian Demography Unit, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa,

[email protected]

Milestones in the production of the plan: Workshop: 29-31 March 2005, Wakkerstroom, South Africa First draft: April 2005, presented to the workshop participants Second draft: July 2005, presented to the Range States and to the AEWA Technical Committee Final draft: October 2005, approved by the 4th Meeting of the AEWA Standing Committee in November 2006 and endorsed by the 4th Session of the Meeting of the Parties to AEWA in September 2008

Geographical scope: This International Single Species Action Plan requires implementation in the following countries supporting Maccoa Duck: Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, the United Republic of Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabwe

Recommended citation: Berruti, A., Baker, N., Buijs, D., Colahan, B.D., Davies, C., Dellegn, Y., Eksteen, J., Kolberg, H., Marchant, A., Mpofu, Z., Nantongo-Kalundu, P., Nnyiti, P., Pienaar, K., Shaw, K., Tyali, T., van Niekerk, J., Wheeler, M.J. and Evans, S.W. (eds). 2007. International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the Maccoa Duck (Oxyura maccoa). AEWA Technical Series No. 14. Bonn, Germany.

Picture on the cover: Maccoa Duck (Oxyura maccoa) © Sergio Bianchi

Drawing on the inner cover: Maccoa Duck (Oxyura maccoa) © Jolanta Kremer

Disclaimer The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP/AEWA concerning the legal status of any State, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of their frontiers and boundaries.

International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the Maccoa Duck 3


CONTENTS

Preface ............................................................................................................................................ 4

Acronyms ........................................................................................................................................ 5

Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................ 5

1. Biological Assessment .............................................................................................................. 7

2. Available Key Information ....................................................................................................... 13

3. Threats ...................................................................................................................................... 16

4. Policies and Legislation Relevant for Management ................................................................. 26

5. Framework for Action .............................................................................................................. 28

6. Activities by Country................................................................................................................ 33

7. Implementation ......................................................................................................................... 39

8. References and the Most Relevant Literature ........................................................................... 40

9. Annexes .................................................................................................................................... 44

4 International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the Maccoa Duck


Preface

This International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the Maccoa Duck (Oxyura maccoa) was commissioned to the African Gamebird Research Education and Development Trust (AGRED). It has been compiled by a team of experts under the general leadership of Dr. Aldo Berruti. An action-planning workshop was organised by AGRED. The drafts of the plan went through rigorous consultations and comments received from a large number of experts, governmental officials from the Range States, and from the AEWA Technical Committee are reflected in the final approved version. Financial support for the preparation of this Action Plan was provided by the Secretariat of the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA). The Action Plan follows the format for Single Species Action Plans approved by the 2nd Session of the Meeting of the Parties to AEWA in September 2002.



Acronyms

ADU Avian Demographic Unit, University of Cape Town

AEWA African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement

AGRED African Gamebird Research Education and Development Trust

AWC African Waterbird Census

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CITES Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species

CMS Convention on Migratory Species (Bonn Convention)

CWAC Coordinated Waterbird Count (South Africa)

IAAPs Interested and Affected Parties

IBA Important Bird Area (of BirdLife International)

EWT Endangered Wildlife Trust

MDAG Maccoa Duck Action Group

NGO Non-governmental organisation

NRF National Research Foundation (South Africa)

OVI Objectively Verifiable Indicators

RDB Red Data Book

SSC Species Survival Commission (of the IUCN)

IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature

WCST Wildlife and Conservation Society of the United Republic of Tanzania

WFW Working for Water (South Africa)



Executive Summary

The Maccoa Duck Oxyura maccoa is a localised, relatively scarce species confined to Africa, with northern (Ethiopia, Kenya, the United Republic of Tanzania and Eritrea) and southern (Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Lesotho) populations. Previous estimates of its population size, particularly northern populations, were not based on hard data. These reports gave the impression that this species was far more numerous than the actual situation. Similarly, its distribution was described as including several countries for which there were either no records, or very few, giving a false impression of a wider distribution.

Apart from correcting the status of both populations to reflect its true abundance and distribution, information on trends in populations are presented. The northern populations appear to be in rapid decline. The southern population has now stabilised, after a period of increase in range and abundance following colonisation of artificial impoundments. The first national estimate of the population size of Maccoa Ducks in South Africa based on count data is given. At 4,500-5,500 birds, South Africa has the largest national population of this species, however, there is some evidence that the South African populations may now be in decline. The revised global population estimate is 9,000-11,750 birds.

Both the estimates of the total population size and rate of declines in at least the northern populations indicate that the status of this species should be elevated to Near Threatened globally, and more precise work on Southern Africa populations may show this species to have a global status of Vulnerable with a global population less than 10,000 birds. Regardless, it is clear that the conservation status of this species is worse than previously understood, and both research and conservation actions are required to quantify the conservation risks.

A primary element of future action is creating awareness amongst conservation organisations at international and national level on the need for concern about this species.

Because of a lack of information and lack of definition of threats, many of the proposed activities will depend on a more accurate assessment of threats and a better understanding of the biology of the Maccoa Duck, particularly its movements between breeding and non-breeding seasons.

The Maccoa Duck feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates, and thus has a higher position in the trophic chain compared to most ducks, which often feed, to a larger extent, on plant foods. Therefore the Maccoa Duck may be a better indicator of pollution resulting from biological concentration of contaminants up the food chain than most wetland bird species and may also be a useful indicator of wetland quality.

The northern and southern populations appear to be subjected to different sets of threats. Northern populations appear to be subject to factors resulting largely from the subsistence activities of local communities. The perceived threats to the southern populations are the result of the increasing commercialisation of agriculture and intensification of industry (e.g. pollution) and development of urbanisation with demands for leisure activities and disposal of wastes.

The Workshop saw the formation of the Maccoa Duck Action group with AGRED offering a secretariat for coordinating communication and action. The possibility that this group may evolve into an International Species Working Group under AEWA is being discussed.



1. Biological Assessment

General information The Maccoa Duck is a highly aquatic diving duck restricted to eastern and southern Africa. It has always been comparatively scarce and its biology is not well known. Movements are poorly understood but most movements probably take place over distances of <500 kms. Breeding demographics are not well documented, so that interpretation of its biology in relation to breeding is not simple. This is particularly true for its distribution and movements. Previous estimates of its numbers have been far too high, based on repeated citations of estimates based on guesswork. These high estimates have helped mask the threat posed on northern populations in particular. The most detailed synthesis of the biology of this species is Colahan (2005).

Taxonomy Class: Aves Order: Anseriformes Family: Anatidae Tribe: Oxyurini Genus: OxyuraSpecies: O. maccoaSubspecies: none defined Scott & Rose (1996) defined three separate and isolated populations in the Ethiopian highlands, East Africa and Southern Africa. No subspecies are recognised. They argued for separation of the East African population from the Ethiopian population, on the basis that the Maccoa Duck is an essentially sedentary species of highland areas in Ethiopia and East Africa. They felt that the geographic separation of these populations is a highly probable consequence of the broad band of unsuitable, low-lying country in south-eastern Sudan, southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya separating the two populations. However, historically, there are records from northern Kenya in this supposed gap region (Neil Baker pers. comm.), and it may be that there continues to be migration along the Rift Valley lakes between Ethiopia and countries further south. However, there is insufficient evidence at this stage to conclude these are a single population e.g. Nasirwa (in litt.)supports the contention of a large gap with little or no suitable habitat in the intervening area. Thus this Species Action plan accepts that there are two northern populations: the Ethiopian (including any Maccoa Ducks in Eritrea, following the first record of this species from that country) and the Tanzanian/Kenyan population. Clearly, this issue requires better resolution.

Population development Historically, the Southern African population has increased during the twentieth century due to occupation of artificial impoundments in Namibia, Botswana and some areas of South Africa, presumably occupying Angola, Zimbabwe and Lesotho as a result. However, there are no indications that this spread is continuing and there is cause to believe that declines may have begun. However, it is also clear that the Southern Africa population is smaller than previously estimated,



presumably a result of inadequate data.

The populations in East Africa (centred on Kenya, the United Republic of Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda) have declined considerably, perhaps by as much as 50% in the last 10 years. Data for Ethiopia do not allow an accurate estimation of status, but indications from other wetland species suggest a slower decline.

However, there is now a single record from Eritrea of five birds (see Table 2a), suggesting that there might be an additional small population there. For the northern populations, the estimates are lower than previously estimated by Dodman (in review), and far lower than by Scott and Rose (1996).

Distribution throughout the annual cycle

The northern populations are confined to comparatively small areas in Ethiopia, the United Republic of Tanzania, Kenya and Rwanda (one recent record), centred on lakes within the Rift Valley. The northern populations are now concentrated in high-lying inland areas. In the United Republic of Tanzania, movements recorded between breeding areas in temporary wetlands to concentrations in permanent deeper water when not breeding.

In southern Africa, populations occur from sea-level in the west (South Africa and Namibia) to inland waters at high altitudes (Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Lesotho). Movements probably take place over distances of less than 500 km, with occasional records of large numbers in non-breeding concentrations on larger wetlands.

Survival and productivity

Nothing recorded on longevity and annual survival. Survival from hatching to fledging is probably <50% (Clark 1964).

Life history: Breeding The description of the nest and breeding is taken from Tarboton (2001). The Maccoa Duck nests over deep water in emergent vegetation, usually Typha or sedges. The nest is a deep, round bowl constructed from plant stems which are pulled down from a standing position, and woven into a bulky bowl-shaped structure with a deep open cup that stands 100-230 mm above the water. Some nests have a ramp leading from the water to the cup. The nest would be conspicuous, were it not screened by vegetation. Old nests of Red-knobbed Coot Fulica cristata are occasionally used. Nests are anchored to vegetation and therefore prone to flooding when water levels rise. Nests are surprisingly difficult to detect and females are very inconspicuous during the breeding season. Males are polgynous and promiscuous. Breeding males defend territories from other males. There may be several females breeding simultaneously within a male’s territory within 20m of each other. Successful territories stretch for up to 80m along emergent vegetation, and unsuccessful males may hold inferior territories without breeding successfully (Siegfried 1976). Males take no part in incubation or chick rearing. Territorial behaviour often indicates breeding activity.



The clutch is usually 5-6 eggs, but up to 12 recorded, with more than eight eggs being deposited by two females. Eggs are often dumped in other ducks’ nests (see also Dean 1970, Milstein 1973, Lees-May 1974). Incubation of 25-

27 days by female only and young cared for by female only. Maclean (1997) notes that in South Africa, it breeds in August –January (peak October-November) in the Western Cape Province, throughout the year in Gauteng, Mpumalanga and Northwest Provinces (Tarboton etal.1987), and throughout the year in Zimbabwe (Irwin 1981), although mainly in northern South Africa. Broadly speaking there is a winter trough and a summer peak in breeding. Timing of breeding appears to be related to rainfall. There is no marked synchronisation of breeding.

Life history: Feeding Maccoa Ducks feed by diving for extended periods, with dives lasting for 15-22 seconds (Macnae 1959) during foraging spells of 30-60 minutes (Siegfried et al. 1976a). The diet is mainly small invertebrates, including midge larvae, ostracods, gastropods (Siegfried et al. 1976b), Daphnia and plant material (Stark & Sclater 1906), seeds of Persicariaand Polygonum, and roots and seeds of other plants (Brown et al. 1982).

Life history: Outside breeding season

Maccoa Ducks occur in concentrations in the non-breeding season on larger waters, which may be devoid of vegetation, but are presumably rich in invertebrates. The species is subject to local movements which vary from year to year, and which are not well understood.

Habitat requirements: Breeding

They breed on inland waters, mainly smaller temporary and permanent freshwater deep nutritious wetlands (IUCN Habitats types 5.5, 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8). Emergent vegetation especially Typha, is critical for breeding (Irwin 1981, Hockey et al. 1989, Maclean 1997). It also breeds on sewage ponds (Maclean 1997). Irwin (1981) described the habitat as pans and dams providing some emergent vegetation with adjacent expanse of open water, nesting in clumps of sedges and rushes.

Habitat requirements: Feeding

Refer to breeding (above) and non-breeding sections (below).

Habitat requirements: Outside Breeding season

Uses large and small permanent and temporary freshwater wetlands (IUCN Habitats 5.5, 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8) as well as large or small permanent or temporary saline or alkaline wetlands (IUCN Habitats 5.14, 5.15, 5.16 and 5.17). When not breeding, it may use habitats without any emergent vegetation at all (Maclean 1997).



Distribution of the Maccoa Duck The general distribution of the species is shown below (Fig. 1a), and is much modified from Scott & Rose (1996). Apart from the reduction in general distribution of the northern populations, the following four figures show how localised the distribution is within the broad limits of both the northern (Figs. 1b and 1c) and southern (Figs. 1d and 1d) populations. The species was listed as occurring in several countries by Brown et al. 1982 and del Hoyo et al. (1992) but these records are not based on valid original information (Baker 2004). There is no information to suggest that the species has ever occurred in Malawi, Mozambique or Sudan or has ever been more than a vagrant in Swaziland and Burundi (Dodman in review, Parker 1994, Neil Baker this workshop.). There are two recent records of single birds in Uganda, both dated 2003 (Pauline Nantongo-Kalundu pers. comm). Thus the lack of more recent records from these countries does not indicate any actual loss in range. There are no records of recent occurrence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and only one record in 1983 from Rwanda. Its present status in these countries is unknown (Neil Baker pers. comm.). O. Nasirwa (in litt.) notes that the species may still persist in western Kenya in areas, which are seldom visited. The current distribution is shown below (Fig. 1a), with historical and current distributions in East Africa (Figs. 1b, 1c) and South Africa (Figs. 1d, 1e).

Figure 1a. The current global distribution of the Maccoa Duck based on Scott & Rose (1996) and revised according to Neil Baker (Tanzania Bird Atlas, this workshop, Figs. 1b & 1c), the South African Bird Atlas (Maclean 1997) and CWAC counts (M.J. Wheeler, ADU, Figs. 1d & 1e).



Figure 1b. The historical distribution records of the northern populations of Maccoa Duck (Neil Baker, Tanzania Bird Atlas).

Figure 1c. The current distribution records of the northern populations of Maccoa Duck (Neil Baker, Tanzania Bird Atlas). White circles show sites where the Maccoa Duck no longer occurs and black circles show sites where it still occurs.



Figure 1d. Current distribution records of Maccoa Duck in South Africa (showing provincial boundaries) and numbers of birds recorded based on CWACs (M.J. Wheeler, ADU).

Figure 1e. Current distribution records of Maccoa Duck in relation to IBAs in South Africa from CWACs (M.J. Wheeler, ADU).



2. A

vaila

ble

Key

Inf

orm

atio

n

Tab

le 2

a. P

opul

atio

n es

tim

ates

for

the

Mac

coa

Duc

k. I

t is

not p

ossi

ble

to d

isti

ngui

sh b

etw

een

bree

ding

and

non

-bre

edin

g po

pula

tion

s fo

r th

e M

acco

a D

uck

in

any

coun

try.

Dat

a qu

alit

y, d

ate

of e

stim

ates

and

ref

eren

ces

in a

ll c

ases

do

not

sepa

rate

bre

edin

g an

d no

n-br

eedi

ng p

opul

atio

ns.

Cod

e fo

r Q

uali

ty i

s gi

ven

as

Goo

d (O

bser

ved)

(G

o), G

ood

(est

imat

ed)

(Ge)

, Med

ium

(es

tim

ated

) (M

e), M

ediu

m (

Infe

rred

) (M

i), P

oor

(Ps)

and

Unk

now

n (U

n), a

ccor

ding

to

the

form

at f

or

AE

WA

Sin

gle

Spec

ies

Act

ion

Pla

n, S

epte

mbe

r 20

02.

Cou

ntry

B

reed

ing/

non

-br

eedi

ng n

o.

Quality

Yea

r(s)

of

the

esti

mat

eB

reed

ing

Pop

ulat

ion

tren

d in

the

last

10

year

s (o

r 3

gene

rati

ons)

Quality

Bas

elin

e po

pula

tion

R

efer

ence

s

Eth

iopi

a 50

0-2,

000

Me

2005

D

eclin

e Ps

1,

000-

5,00

0

500-

3000

Scot

t & R

ose

1996

Dod

man

in r

evie

w

Eri

trea

5

Go

2005

U

nkno

wn

Un

K

en H

arte

in li

tt

Ken

ya

<1,

000

Ge

D

ecli

ne M

i Ps

N

o da

ta

Uni

ted

Rep

ublic

of

Tan

zani

a 50

0 G

o 20

05

Dec

line

50%

Go

Go

Uga

nda

0?

Ps

Un

?

Rw

anda

0

Ps

Un

? SS

AP

wor

ksho

p 20

05

Eas

t Afr

ica

(exc

lude

s E

thio

pia)

1,

500

Ge

2005

D

eclin

e

Me

15,0

00-2

5,00

0

1000

-150

0

Scot

t & R

ose

1996

Dod

man

in r

evie

w

Ang

ola

50

Mi

Rec

ent

Unk

now

n -

Dea

n 20

00

Un

Abs

ent?

Nam

ibia

2,

000

Go

1990

s U

nkno

wn

- Si

mm

ons

&

Bro

wn

in p

rep

Un

Abs

ent

Star

k &

Scl

ater

190

6

Bot

swan

a 30

0 G

e 19

99-2

000

U

nkno

wn

- T

yler

200

1 U

n A

bsen

t Sm

ithe

rs 1

964

Z

imba

bwe

100-

300

Mi

2005

U

nkno

wn

Un

No

data

Sout

h A

fric

a 4,

500-

5,50

0 G

o 20

05

Unk

now

n U

n N

o da

ta

L

esot

ho

10-1

00

Go

19

90

Unk

now

n

Un

No

data

Sout

hern

Afr

ican

reg

ion

7,

000-

8,25

0

Ge

2005

U

nkno

wn

Un

>10

000

15

,000

-25,

000

<10

,000

Cal

lagh

an &

Gre

en 1

993

Scot

t & R

ose

1996

D

odm

an in

rev

iew



Table 2b. Maccoa Duck population estimate for South Africa based on provincial population estimates using Coordinated Waterbird Counts (M.J. Wheeler, ADU). These are the sum of the maximum counts multiplied by a factor of 1.5, for wetlands where Maccoa Duck have been recorded.

Provinces of South Africa Count

Western Cape 2,148

Northern Cape 455

Eastern Cape 30

KwaZulu-Natal 6

North-west 14

Free State 1,125

Mpumalanga 1,257

Gauteng 305

Limpopo 48

Total 5,388

Table 2c. Revised estimates of national population sizes of Maccoa Duck in Southern and Eastern Africa from the Maccoa Duck SSAP workshop, March 2005.

Country Estimate Reference

Angola 50 Based on information in Dean 2000

Botswana 300 Tyler 2001

Namibia 2,000 Simmons and Brown in prep.

South Africa 4,500-5,500 SSAP workshop 2005, Table 2b

Zimbabwe 100-300 SSAP workshop 2005

Southern African population 7,000-8,250 SSAP workshop 2005

Ethiopia 500-2,000 SSAP workshop 2005

Eritrea 5 Harte (in litt.)

Kenya 1,000 SSAP workshop 2005

United Republic of Tanzania 500 SSAP workshop 2005

Eastern African populations 2,000-3,500 SSAP workshop 2005

Global estimate 9,000-11,750 SSAP workshop 2005 (rounded estimates)



Tab

le 3

a. K

now

ledg

e on

hab

itat

, die

t an

d oc

curr

ence

of

the

Mac

coa

Duc

k in

Im

port

ant

Bir

d A

reas

and

Pro

tect

ed A

reas

in

coun

trie

s in

whi

ch t

he p

opul

atio

n eq

uals

or

exce

eds

50 b

irds

.

Typ

e of

Kno

wle

dge

Bre

edin

g an

d N

on-b

reed

ing

E

thio

pia

Ken

ya

Uni

ted

Rep

ublic

of

Tan

zani

a

Ang

ola

Nam

ibia

B

otsw

ana

Zim

babw

e So

uth

Afr

ica

L

esot

ho

Hab

itat

and

die

t -

Hab

itat u

se

Part

ly

know

n P

artl

y kn

own

Part

ly

know

n Pa

rtly

kn

own

Part

ly

know

n Pa

rtly

kn

own

Part

ly

know

n Pa

rtly

kn

own

Part

ly

know

n -

Die

t U

nkno

wn

Unk

now

n U

nkno

wn

Unk

now

n U

nkno

wn

Unk

now

n U

nkno

wn

Par

tly

know

n U

nkno

wn

Site

Pro

tect

ion

- N

umbe

r of

IB

As

whe

re th

e sp

ecie

s br

eeds

or

occu

rs

4 2

3 1

3 2

2 22

0

- Pr

opor

tion

of th

e po

pula

tion

in

IBA

s?

80%

? 80

%?

100%

? 10

%?

>50

%

30%

? 30

%?

0

- Pr

opor

tion

of th

e na

tiona

l po

pula

tion

in p

rote

cted

are

as

? 80

%?

80%

? 10

0%?

10%

? >

50%

30

%?

20%

? 0



3. Threats This section described the identified threats or perceived threats in order of relative importance. The threat codes given refer to the hierarchical classification of threats as contained on www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sis/authority.htm. High

Drowning in gill nets. **** Gill-nets set for fish catch and kill Maccoa Ducks as an incidental by-catch. This was identified as the major threat by Callaghan and Green (1993) for the East African population on larger water bodies. Threat code 4.1.1.2.

Draining of wetlands. **** The draining of wetlands for various reasons, including conversion to farmlands is thought to be an important threat. This applies mainly to smaller water bodies which are used by the Maccoa Duck for breeding. Threat code 1.1.1 & 1.4.

Pollution. **** As Maccoa Duck feed on invertebrates in bottom sediment, there is the possibility that levels of pollutants may have lethal and sub-lethal effects through biological concentration up the food chain. Levels of pesticides were recorded by Tannock et al. (1983) in birds from Zimbabwe. The extent of these threats is not known but not considered important at present. Threat code 6.3.1, 6.3.2 & 6.3.3.

Alien vegetation. *** In South Africa in particular, water bodies are prone to invasion by aquatic alien species whilst the wetland margins may be invaded by alien terrestrial plants. In Kenya, in areas around Naivasha where >60% of birds are thought to occur, water bodies have been invaded by the Louisiana Red Crayfish, Water Hyacinth and Salvinia molesta (O. Nasirwa in litt). Threat code 1.5.

Variable water levels. *** This threat refers to the rapid change in water levels in impoundments notably in Southern Africa, but also increased variability in water levels as a result of e.g. loss of forest cover in catchments in Kenya. Rapid changes can disrupt breeding and feeding conditions for Maccoa Ducks. Variation in water levels of natural wetlands is not included here. Threat code is 1.8.

Medium

Improved treatment of sewage water. ** The numbers of Maccoa Ducks at Strandfontein Sewage Works, Western Cape, South Africa, was recorded as dropping from 500 to less than 50 after a new treatment plant altered feeding conditions (Hockey et al. 1989). New legislation in South Africa has specified standards for high water quality, which will reduce the productivity of aquatic food chains in settling ponds of sewage plants and will probably significantly reduce the food supply of Maccoa Ducks. Threat code 1.1.8.

Disturbance. *** This is incidental disturbance with two very different sources – recreational usage of large water bodies in Southern Africa and incidental disturbance resulting from activities of subsistence living of local communities around wetlands. Threat code 1.4.2. & 10.1

Nest predation and poaching. ** This is the deliberate searching for eggs in nests of Maccoa Ducks in small ephemeral wetlands where they exist. Threat code 3.1.1.

Low

Sport hunting. * Bags are limited and controlled by permit. It is unlikely that this is a significant threat except locally. In South Africa, where the bird is protected, questioning of experienced duck hunters suggest that it is rarely shot and then by accident (A. Berruti, AGRED). When disturbed, birds usually seek to escape to cover by swimming low in the water or by diving and swimming underwater (Macnae 1959, Clark 1964). Because this species does not readily flush (Clancey 1967), it is less likely to be an accidental or deliberate target for sport hunters. Threat code 3.5.1.



Botulism. * Botulism (ingestion of toxins released by the bacterium (Clostridium botulinum) has been recorded on at least one occasion in the Free State Province of South Africa (van Heerden 1974). Thirty-one birds (5.8 % of Maccoa Ducks counted at the site) were affected (presumably this means they died in all cases) over summer of 1972-1973 at Witpan in the Free State, Goldfields, South Africa. From time to time, botulism outbreaks occur in South Africa and it is likely that Maccoa Ducks are infected and die during such occurrences. However, this is unlikely to be a significant mortality. Hilgarth and Kear (1984) note a death as a result of avian tuberculosis in captivity. Threat code 8.5.

Local

Competition and hybridisation with Oxyura jamaicensis. *. There is a probable record of O.jamaicensis from Eritrea (Dodman & Taylor 1995) from which the Maccoa Duck has now been recorded (Harte in litt). As this species is a major threat to Oxyura lecucocephala (Birdlife International 2005c) and is increasing in its distribution in Eurasia, it does represent a future threat to the integrity of the Ethiopian population of O. maccoa, then possibly southwards to East Africa and finally Southern Africa. Another possibility is the escape of captive Oxyura jamaicensis from collections in South Africa. No other hybridisation reported with other species (Milstein 1979). At present a very local threat but it does have the potential to become an important threat. Threat codes 2.1 & 2.3.

Bird trade. * This is regarded as a low priority threat. Threat code 3.5.2.

Unknown

Alien benthic-feeding fish.** Based on the threat posed to the Australian Blue-billed Duck Oxyura australis (BirdLife International 2005a), it is possible that the introduction of alien benthic feeding species, notably carp, is a potential threat by direct competition for benthic invertebrates with the Maccoa Duck. Threat code 2.1.



Tab

le 4

.1. T

he i

mpo

rtan

ce o

f th

reat

s re

sult

ing

in a

red

ucti

on i

n br

eedi

ng s

ucce

ss a

t th

e na

tion

al l

evel

for

Eth

iopi

a, K

enya

, the

Uni

ted

Rep

ubli

c of

Tan

zani

a,

Nam

ibia

, Bot

swan

a, S

outh

Afr

ica

and

Zim

babw

e. T

he t

hrea

ts a

re r

anke

d re

lati

ve t

o ea

ch o

ther

(-1

: a

thre

at b

elie

ved

to h

ave

a ne

glig

ible

im

pact

, -2:

a t

hrea

t be

liev

ed t

o ha

ve a

med

ium

im

pact

, -3

: a

thre

at b

elie

ved

to h

ave

a hi

gh i

mpa

ct a

nd -

4: a

thr

eat

beli

eved

to

have

a c

riti

cal

impa

ct a

nd t

hat

need

s to

be

addr

esse

d im

med

iate

ly).

Thr

eats

are

cod

ed a

ccor

ding

to th

e IU

CN

SSC

SiS

Thr

eats

Aut

hori

ty fi

les.

Cou

ntri

es

Thr

eat

code

T

hrea

ts r

educ

ing

bree

ding

suc

cess

E

thio

pia

K

enya

T

he U

nite

d R

epub

lic o

f T

anza

nia

Nam

ibia

B

otsw

ana

Zim

babw

e So

uth

Afr

ica

Hig

h

1.1.

1, 1

.4.

Dra

inin

g of

wet

land

s 1

3 1

1 1

1 2

4.1.

1.2

Dro

wni

ng in

gil

l-ne

ts

1 2

1 1

1 1

1 6.

3.1.

, 6.3

.2,

6.3.

3.

Pollu

tion

1

1 1

2 2

1 2

1.5.

In

vasi

ve a

lien

vege

tatio

n on

wet

land

s

1 2

1 1

1 1

3 1.

8 V

aria

ble

wat

er le

vels

1

2/3

1 3

3 3

3 M

ediu

m

1.

1.8

Impr

oved

qua

lity

of s

ewag

e fa

rm w

ater

1

1 1

1 1

1 2

1.4.

2., 1

0.1.

D

istu

rban

ce

2 2

3 1

1 2

2 3.

1.1

Nes

t pre

datio

n an

d po

achi

ng

2 2

2 2

1 1

1 L

ow

3.

5.1.

Sp

ort h

unti

ng

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 8.

5.

Bot

ulis

m

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 U

nkno

wn

2.

1.; 2

.3.

Com

petit

ion

wit

h O

. jam

aice

nsis

1

1 1

1 1

1 1

2.1

Com

petit

ion

wit

h al

ien

fish

1

1 1

1 1

1 2

3.5.

2.

Bir

d tr

ade

1 1

1 1

1 1

1



Tab

le 4

.2.

The

im

port

ance

of

thre

ats

resu

ltin

g in

a r

educ

tion

in

adul

t su

rviv

al a

t th

e na

tion

al l

evel

for

Eth

iopi

a, K

enya

, th

e U

nite

d R

epub

lic

of T

anza

nia,

N

amib

ia,

Bot

swan

a, S

outh

Afr

ica

and

Zim

babw

e. T

hrea

ts a

re c

oded

acc

ordi

ng t

o th

e IU

CN

SSC

SiS

Thr

eats

Aut

hori

ty f

iles

. (-

1: a

thr

eat

beli

eved

to

have

a

negl

igib

le im

pact

, -2:

a th

reat

bel

ieve

d to

hav

e a

med

ium

impa

ct, -

3: a

thre

at b

elie

ved

to h

ave

a hi

gh im

pact

and

-4:

a th

reat

bel

ieve

d to

hav

e a

crit

ical

impa

ct

and

that

nee

ds to

be

addr

esse

d im

med

iate

ly).

Cou

ntri

es

Thr

eat

code

T

hrea

ts r

educ

ing

bree

ding

suc

cess

E

thio

pia

K

enya

T

he U

nite

d R

epub

lic o

f T

anza

nia

Nam

ibia

B

otsw

ana

Zim

babw

e So

uth

Afr

ica

Hig

h

1.1.

1, 1

.4.

Dra

inin

g of

wet

land

s 1

3 1

1 1

1 3

4.1.

1.2

Dro

wni

ng in

gil

l-ne

ts

2 2

3 1

1 1

1 6.

3.1.

, 6.3

.2,

6.3.

3.

Pollu

tion

1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1.5.

In

vasi

ve a

lien

vege

tatio

n on

wet

land

s

1 2

1 1

1 1

3 1.

8 V

aria

ble

wat

er le

vels

1

2/3

1 3

3 3

3 M

ediu

m

1.

1.8

Impr

oved

qua

lity

of s

ewag

e fa

rm w

ater

1

1 1

1 1

1 1

1.4.

2., 1

0.1.

D

istu

rban

ce

1 2

1 1

1 1

2 3.

1.1

Nes

t pre

datio

n an

d po

achi

ng

1 2

1 1

1 1

1 L

ow

3.

5.1.

Sp

ort h

unti

ng

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 8.

5.

Bot

ulis

m

1 1

1 1

1 1

1 U

nkno

wn

2.

1.; 2

.3.

Com

petit

ion

wit

h O

. jam

aice

nsis

1

1 1

1 1

1 1

2.1

Com

petit

ion

wit

h al

ien

fish

1

1 1

1 1

1 1

3.5.

2.

Bir

d tr

ade

1 1

1 1

1 1

1



LE

GE

ND

: SA

= S

outh

ern

Afr

ica

EA

= E

aste

rn A

fric

a R

atin

g X

= L

ow

XX

= M

ediu

m

XX

X =

Hig

h X

XX

X =

Ver

y H

igh

Mac

coa

Duc

k

A

EW

A: C

olum

n A

cat

egor

y 1c

IU

CN

: Lea

st C

once

rn

CM

S: A

ppen

dix

II

U

nnat

ural

incr

ease

in a

dult

m

orta

lity

U

nnat

ural

dec

reas

e in

bre

edin

g su

cces

s

Popu

latio

n(s)

D

ecre

ase

/ Sta

ble

/ Inc

reas

e

Fig

ure

2. P

robl

em tr

ee o

f thr

eats

and

pro

blem

s re

lati

ng to

Mac

coa

Duc

k.



Unn

atur

ally

low

br

eedi

ng s

ucce

ss

Food

de

man

ds

Low

leve

l (ch

ildre

n)

Nes

t Pre

datio

n X

XX

(ar

ea s

peci

fic)

Lac

k of

aw

aren

ess

Lac

k of

in

fras

truc

ture

Pollu

tion

, may

res

ult i

n po

or f

ertil

ity

SA: X

XX

X, E

A: 0

A

gric

ultu

re

Neg

ligen

ce

Inte

nsif

icat

ion

Indu

stri

al

Dom

estic

Lac

k of

le

gisl

atio

n im

plem

enta

tion

Pove

rty

Lac

k of

co

ntro

l

Abs

ence

of

legi

slat

ion

Popu

lati

on

grow

th

Com

mer

cial

pu

rpos

es

Incr

ease

d de

man

d fo

r fo

od

Popu

lati

on

incr

ease

Pove

rty

Igno

ranc

e

Dis

turb

ance

: spo

rts

& r

ecre

atio

n X

XX

Rec

reat

ion

Subs

iste

nce

livi

ng

Incr

ease

d po

pula

tion



Unn

atur

ally

low

br

eedi

ng s

ucce

ss

cont

inue

d

Dra

inag

e of

wet

land

s X

XX

Agr

icul

ture

Incr

ease

d po

pula

tion

Cha

ngin

g m

arke

ts

Fo

od

Dev

elop

men

t H

ousi

ng, i

ndus

tria

l, se

ttlem

ents

Popu

latio

n in

crea

se

Incr

ease

in

wea

lth

Impr

oved

wat

er

qual

ity

in s

ewag

e w

orks

XX

Stri

ct g

ovt

regu

latio

ns

To

impr

ove

wat

er q

ualit

y (g

roun

d-w

ater

, su

rfac

e w

ater

)

Bir

d tr

ade

(gen

etic

s,

diff

eren

t pop

ulat

ions

) X

Plen

ty

wat

er C

onve

rsio

n of

wet

land

s to

far

mla

nds

XX

XX

H

obby

Fi

nanc

ial

gain

Fo

od

Prod

Incr

easi

ng

popu

lati

on

Fert

ile

soil



Unp

redi

ctab

le

rain

s

Com

mer

cial

ga

in

No

“sui

tabl

e”

loca

l spe

cies

Fluc

tuat

ing

wat

er

leve

ls

Unn

atur

ally

low

br

eedi

ng s

ucce

ss

cont

inue

d

Bro

ught

in

acci

dent

ally

B

roug

ht in

as

orna

men

tal

Incr

ease

d po

pula

tion

Com

mer

cial

&

Put D

eman

d

Wat

er

abst

ract

ion

Lac

k of

fun

ds,

pers

onne

l, tr

aini

ng

W

ar

Insu

ffic

ient

co

ntro

l

Ali

en P

lant

s A

lter

wet

land

and

are

a su

rrou

ndin

g th

e w

etla

nd

XX

X Stru

ctur

al c

hang

e of

nes

ting

habi

tat

Aff

ects

wat

er

leve

l (qu

antit

y)

Floa

ting

vege

tatio

n re

duce

s op

en w

ater

No

/ In

suff

icie

nt

legi

slat

ion

No

“sui

tabl

e”

loca

l spe

cies

Igno

ranc

e &

sn

obbe

ry

Bro

ught

in f

or

drif

t-sa

nd r

ecla

im

Bro

ught

in

for

fore

stry

No

suita

ble

loca

l spe

cies



Unn

atur

ally

hig

h ad

ult m

orta

lity

Ben

thic

fee

ding

fis

h

(Car

p) X

X

Com

mer

cial

fi

shin

g R

elea

se a

nd e

scap

e of

cap

tive-

bred

bi

rds

Hyb

ridi

zatio

n, R

uddy

Duc

k &

M

acco

a D

ucks

fro

m d

iffe

rent

re

gion

s X

Dis

turb

ance

X

XX

Cap

tive

bree

ding

Com

mer

cial

pu

rpos

es

Hob

by

Acc

iden

tal &

de

liber

ate

acti

ons

(the

y al

read

y ex

ist

in c

apti

vity

)

Poac

hing

N

ot c

omm

erci

al

XX

Rec

reat

iona

l (s

port

s)

Subs

iste

nce

use

only

, sm

all

scal

e, c

hild

ren

Spor

t hun

ting

X

Rur

al p

over

ty

Ign

oran

ce

Tan

zani

a L

ocal

ised

pro

blem

, re

side

nt h

untin

g “r

ecre

atio

n”?

SA H

ighl

y co

mm

erci

aliz

ed



Acc

iden

tal d

eath

fro

m g

ill n

ets

EA

: XX

XX

SA

: X

Impr

oved

se

wag

e tr

eatm

ent

X X

Unn

atur

ally

hig

h ad

ult

mor

talit

y co

ntin

ued

Not

in S

A

No

cont

rol

Agr

icul

tura

l le

achi

ng in

to

dam

s

Bot

ulis

m

X

Lac

k of

co

ntro

l (pr

e 19

98)

Hea

vy

Indu

stry

(po

int

sour

ce)

Pollu

tion

of

wet

land

s SA

: XX

XX

EA

: 0

Vill

age

com

mer

cial

(o

nly)

In

cide

ntal

by

catc

h

To

impr

ove

wat

er q

ualit

y (g

roun

d-w

ater

, su

rfac

e w

ater

)

Stri

ct

gove

rnm

ent

regu

latio

ns

Bad

ho

usek

eepi

ng,

Farm

er, l

and-

owne

rs

Rot

ting

mat

ter

in w

ater

(ho

t te

mps

)


AEWA Technical Series No. 14W echnical Se ies No.

4. Policies and Legislation Relevant for Management Table 5. International conservation and legal status of the species. IUCN Red List status

African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement (AEWA)

Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)

Least oncern Column A, category 1c Not listed Appendix II

National policies, legislation and ongoing activities Table 6. National conservation and legal status Country Status in

national Red Data Book (RDB)

Legal protection from killing

Year of protection status

Penalties for illegal killing or nest destruction

Highest responsible authority

Ethiopia No RDB None N/A N/A N/A Kenya Endangered None N/A N/A N/A The United Republic of Tanzania

Endangered None N/A N/A N/A

Angola No RDB N/A N/A N/A Namibia Near-threatened

Draft RDB N/A N/A N/A

Botswana Listed in RDB Status?

None N/A N/A N/A

Zimbabwe No RDB N/A N/A N/A South Africa Of least concern Protected by

provincial hunting regulations

N/A N/A N/A

Lesotho No RDB ? N/A N/A N/A Bennun, L. & Njoroge, P. (eds). 1996. Birds to watch in East Africa: A preliminary Red Data List. National Museums of Kenya, Centre for Biodiversity Research Reports: Ornithology No. 23. Table 7. Site (and habitat) protection and research.

Country Percentage of

population included in IBAs

Percentage of population included in Ramsar sites

Percentage of population included in national protected areas

Research carried out in the last 5 years

Ethiopia ? Nil ? Nil Kenya 80%? 70% 80% Population monitoring The United Republic of Tanzania

80%? Nil 80%? Population monitoring

Angola 100% Nil 100% Nil Namibia 10%? 2% 10%? Population monitoring Botswana >50% Nil 0% Nil Zimbabwe 30% Nil 30% Nil South Africa 30%? 20%? 20%? Population monitoring in

selected locations Lesotho? Nil Nil Nil Nil

C



Tab

le 8

. Rec

ent c

onse

rvat

ion

acti

on a

nd a

ttit

ude

tow

ards

the

spec

ies.

Cou

ntry

N

atio

nal

prot

ecti

on p

lan

for

the

spec

ies

Is t

here

a n

atio

nal

Mac

coa

Duc

k w

orki

ng g

roup

?

Is t

here

a n

atio

nal

surv

ey/m

onit

orin

g pr

ogra

mm

e?

Is th

ere

a m

onit

orin

g pr

ogra

mm

e in

pr

otec

ted

area

s?

Rou

tine

s fo

r in

form

ing

the

resp

onsi

ble

auth

orit

ies

rega

rdin

g ne

stin

g ar

eas

and

nest

sit

es

Con

serv

atio

n ef

fort

s ov

er t

he

last

ten

year

s

Gen

eral

at

titu

deto

war

ds t

he

spec

ies

Eth

iopi

a N

o N

o N

o N

o N

o N

ot s

peci

fic

Not

a p

rior

ity

Ken

ya

No

No

Yes

? N

o N

o N

ot s

peci

fic

Not

a p

rior

ity

The

Uni

ted

Rep

ubli

c of

T

anza

nia

No

No

Yes

Y

es

Yes

? N

ot s

peci

fic

Not

a p

rior

ity

Ang

ola

No

No

No

No

No

Not

spe

cifi

c N

ot a

pri

ority

N

amib

ia

No

No

Yes

Pa

rtly

N

o N

ot s

peci

fic

Not

a p

rior

ity

Bot

swan

a N

o N

o Y

es?

Part

ly?

No

Not

spe

cifi

c N

ot a

pri

ority

Z

imba

bwe

No

No

No

No

No

Not

spe

cifi

c N

ot a

pri

orit

y So

uth

Afr

ica

No

No

Yes

Pa

rtly

N

o N

ot s

peci

fic

Not

a p

rior

ity

Les

otho

N

o N

o N

o N

o N

o N

ot s

peci

fic

Not

a p

rior

ity


AEWA Technical Series No. 14 5. Framework for Action Aim To stabilise or increase natural populations of Maccoa Duck as indicators of sustainable wetland management for the benefit of people in Africa by 2010. Purpose To define the threats and take mitigating action based on improved knowledge based on co-operative partnerships. Objectives Prevent accidental drawings in gill nets; To reduce the use of gill nets in critical sites through the use of legislation (national and local) and education Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Quarterly report

Means of verification: Provincial conservation reports – law enforcement actions and investigation reports

Country/Region: All Priority: Eastern Africa****

Southern Africa** Risks: Government may not wish to amend legislation Opportunities: Capacity building

Changes in legislation Wetland management Reduction in by catch

Stop wetland loss in key Maccoa Duck areas Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Reports

Means of verification: Remote sensing – (Satellite Application Centre – CSIR) Country/Region: All Priority: South Africa and Kenya***

Risks: No funds Political will

Opportunities: Updated data and images Public support

Reduce disturbance at critical Maccoa Duck sites Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Quantitative progress report

Means of verification: Country/Region: All Priority: Disturbance must first be identified and quantified

Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Quarterly report

Means of verification: Provincial conservation reports – law enforcement actions and investigation reports

Country/Region: All Priority: Eastern Africa****

Southern Africa** Risks: Government may not wish to amend legislation Opportunities: Capacity building

Changes in legislation Wetland management Reduction in by catch


Reports

Means of verification: Remote sensing – (Satellite Application Centre – CSIR) Country/Region: All Priority: South Africa and Kenya***

Risks: No funds Political will

Opportunities: Updated data and images Public support


Quantitative progress report

Means of verification: Country/Region: All Priority: Disturbance must first be identified and quantified



Risks: Political will

Practicalities Increasing poverty

Opportunities: Private ownership/protected areas Sport hunting Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Data from hunting organisations Reduction of hunted Maccoa ducks Report accidental deaths

Means of verification: Provincial officials to attend selected hunts (AGRED/NGF could advise)

Country/Region: All Priority: * Risks: Non-cooperation by hunting organisations

Integrity of data Political will Developing sport hunting industry in east Africa

Opportunities: Well-structured South Africa hunting organisations

To prevent poaching Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Political buy-in Site specific success

Means of verification: No of cases handled by Conservation Country/Region: All Priority: * Risks: Lack of political buy-in

No community support Opportunities: Capacity building

Govt support for Ramsar sites Loss of habitat through upgrading sewage works Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Means of verification: Country/Region: Southern Africa Priority: ? Risks: Political will


Opportunities: Private ownership/protected areas

Risks: Political will


Opportunities: Private ownership/protected areas Sport hunting


Data from hunting organisations Reduction of hunted Maccoa ducks Report accidental deaths

Means of verification: Provincial officials to attend selected hunts (AGRED/NGF could advise)

Country/Region: All Priority: * Risks: Non-cooperation by hunting organisations

Integrity of data Political will Developing sport hunting industry in east Africa

Opportunities: Well-structured South Africa hunting organisations


Political buy-in Site specific success

Means of verification: No of cases handled by Conservation Country/Region: All Priority: * Risks: Lack of political buy-in

No community support Opportunities: Capacity building

Govt support for Ramsar sites


Means of verification: Country/Region: Southern Africa Priority: ? Risks: Political will


Opportunities: Private ownership/protected areas


AEWA Technical Series No. 14 Eliminate alien plants Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Reduction in alien plants

Means of verification: Working for Water/Wetlands progress reports in South Africa Country/Region: All Priority: ? Risks: Lack of funding

No political buy-in Slow progress

Opportunities: Improved cooperation Awareness

Reduce Botulism Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Fewer sites experiencing botulism

Means of verification: Country/Region: South Africa Priority: * Risks: Lack of funding

Lack of practical solution Opportunities: Manage water levels for optimal Maccoa Duck Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Successful breeding Length of stay longer than before

Means of verification: Progress in ecological reserve determination and implementation of ecological sound water flow management (appropriate for rivers that feed dams and weirs)

Country/Region: Southern Africa, Kenya Priority: ? Risks: Lack of funding

Lack of manpower Lack of political will

Opportunities: Overall improved aquatic biodiversity/ecological processes Determine effect of pollution on breeding and abundance of Maccoa Duck Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Effects of pollution determined Mitigation measures in place

Means of verification: Country/Region: Southern Africa, Kenya (Naivasha)


Reduction in alien plants

Means of verification: Working for Water/Wetlands progress reports in South Africa Country/Region: All Priority: ? Risks: Lack of funding

No political buy-in Slow progress

Opportunities: Improved cooperation Awareness


Fewer sites experiencing botulism

Means of verification: Country/Region: South Africa Priority: * Risks: Lack of funding

Lack of practical solution Opportunities:


Successful breeding Length of stay longer than before

Means of verification: Progress in ecological reserve determination and implementation of ecological sound water flow management (appropriate for rivers that feed dams and weirs)

Country/Region: Southern Africa, Kenya Priority: ? Risks: Lack of funding

Lack of manpower Lack of political will

Opportunities: Overall improved aquatic biodiversity/ecological processes


Effects of pollution determined Mitigation measures in place

Means of verification: Country/Region: Southern Africa, Kenya (Naivasha)



Priority: **** Risks: Lack of funding

No data available Lack of manpower Lack of political will

Opportunities: Data gained Capacity building

Competition with alien benthic-feeding fish Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Confirmation of threat

Means of verification: Country/Region: All Priority: ** Risks: Data does not exist Opportunities: Similar studies do exist Obtain improved population estimates and distribution of Maccoa Duck Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Revised estimates of all parameters

Means of verification: Country/Region: All Priority: **** Risks: Buy-in Opportunities: Outside funding Re-introduction of birds into suitable sites in southern Tanzania Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

No. of birds 2 years after release

Means of verification: Country/Region: The United Republic of Tanzania Priority: ** Risks: Reasons for extirpation not fully known

No source of birds for breeding Many risks in actual introduction No suitable partners

Opportunities: Supportive community in re-introduction area Much already known New partners


No. of birds 2 years after release

Means of verification: Country/Region: The United Republic of Tanzania Priority: ** Risks: Reasons for extirpation not fully known

No source of birds for breeding Many risks in actual introduction No suitable partners

Opportunities: Supportive community in re-introduction area Much already known New partners


Revised estimates of all parameters

Means of verification: Country/Region: All Priority: **** Risks: Buy-in Opportunities: Outside funding


Confirmation of threat

Means of verification: Country/Region: All Priority: ** Risks: Data does not exist Opportunities: Similar studies do exist

Priority: **** Risks: Lack of funding

No data available Lack of manpower Lack of political will

Opportunities: Data gained Capacity building


AEWA Technical Series No. 14 Bird trade Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Known trade is controlled

Means of verification: Country/Region: All Priority: * Risks: Trade not detected

Policy is not accepted Opportunities: Educate traders

Creating awareness in conservation agencies Hybridisation Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

No hybrids known

Means of verification: CWAC/BIRP/wing-shooters observations Country/Region: All Priority: ** Risks: Undetected populations of Ruddy Ducks

Identification of hybrids Opportunities: Educate waterfowl breeders

Uniform policy in South Africa Upgrade threat status of Maccoa Duck internationally Objectively Verifiable Indicators (OVI):

Species listed as Near-threatened by BirdLife International

Means of verification: Listing on website and RDB Country/Region: All Priority: *** Risks: Opportunities: Increase international awareness of species at risk


Known trade is controlled

Means of verification: Country/Region: All Priority: * Risks: Trade not detected

Policy is not accepted Opportunities: Educate traders

Creating awareness in conservation agencies


No hybrids known

Means of verification: CWAC/BIRP/wing-shooters observations Country/Region: All Priority: ** Risks: Undetected populations of Ruddy Ducks

Identification of hybrids Opportunities: Educate waterfowl breeders

Uniform policy in South Africa


Species listed as Near-threatened by BirdLife International

Means of verification: Listing on website and RDB Country/Region: All Priority: *** Risks: Opportunities: Increase international awareness of species at risk



6. A

ctiv

itie

s by

Cou

ntry

Leg

end:

Cos

t:

*

0 –

5,00

0 U

S$,

P

rior

ity

(for

res

ults

):

*

low

impo

rtan

ce

**

5000

1 –

10,0

00 U

S$,

**

med

ium

impo

rtan

ce

***

10,0

01 –

15,

000

US$

***

hi

gh im

port

ance

**

**

15,0

00 U

S$

***

* cr

itica

lly im

port

ant

Res

ult

(Obj

ecti

ve)

Act

ivit

y A

genc

ies

Tim

esca

le

Cos

t T

o re

duce

the

use

of g

ill n

ets

in c

riti

cal s

ites

thro

ugh

the

use

of le

gisl

atio

n (n

atio

nal

and

loca

l) a

nd e

duca

tion

1.

Acc

ess

exis

ting

legi

slat

ion

on g

ill n

ets

2.Is

legi

slat

ion

bein

g im

plem

ente

d?

3.D

iscu

ss p

ossi

ble

amen

dmen

ts w

ith

govt

. 4.

Iden

tify

str

ateg

ic s

ites

5.

Vis

it si

tes

to d

iscu

ss w

ith s

take

hold

ers

6.E

stab

lish

& im

plem

ent s

ite

acti

on p

lans

7.

Mon

itor

use

of g

ill n

ets

and

duck

po

pula

tions

Gov

t rep

s, W

CST

M

acco

a D

uck

Act

ion

Gro

up

NG

Os,

Gov

t N

GO

s, G

ovt

NG

Os,

Gov

t N

GO

s, G

ovt,

com

mun

ity

NG

Os,

Gov

t, co

mm

unity

Apr

05

- Se

p 05

O

ct 0

5 -

Oct

07

Apr

05

- A

pr 0

8 A

pr 0

5 -

Apr

08

Apr

05

- 20

10

Apr

05

- 20

10

Apr

05

- 20

10

** ** ****

**

**

****

**

**

****

Stop

wet

land

loss

in k

ey

Mac

coa

Duc

k ar

eas

1.

Com

pile

a c

ompr

ehen

sive

list

of

Mac

coa

Duc

k ar

eas

by 2

006.

2.

Und

erst

and

Mac

coa

Duc

k m

ovem

ent

3.Id

enti

fy k

ey s

ites

whe

re c

onve

rsio

n of

w

etla

nds

is a

pro

blem

. Pri

ority

***

4.

Form

par

tner

ship

s be

twee

n IA

APs

to

prev

ent w

etla

nd lo

ss/c

onve

rsio

n an

d re

habi

litat

e de

grad

ed w

etla

nds.

Pri

orit

y **

. 5.

Impl

emen

t/enf

orce

exi

stin

g re

leva

nt

legi

slat

ion

incl

udin

g E

IAs.

Pri

orit

y **

*.

6.M

onito

r w

etla

nd lo

ss a

nd r

ehab

ilita

tion.

Pr

iori

ty *

**

Gov

t, N

GO

s, N

RF

Gov

t, N

GO

s

All

Gov

t

Gov

t/N

GO

s, N

RF

Apr

05

- A

pr 0

6

Apr

05

- A

pr 0

6 A

pr 0

5 -

Apr

06

Ong

oing

Ong

oing

Ong

oing

****

****

**

**

** ** ****



Res

ult

(Obj

ecti

ve)

Act

ivit

y A

genc

ies

Tim

esca

le

Cos

t T

o re

duce

dis

turb

ance

at

crit

ical

Mac

coa

Duc

k si

tes

1.

Ass

ess

leve

l and

for

ms

of d

istu

rban

ce a

t cr

itica

l Mac

coa

Duc

k si

tes.

Pri

orit

y **

* 2.

Form

ulat

e pr

oper

sol

utio

n an

d m

itig

atio

n m

easu

res.

Pri

orit

y***

Mac

coa

Duc

k A

ctio

n G

roup

, WC

ST

Mac

coa

Duc

k A

ctio

n G

roup

, WC

ST

Apr

06

- A

pr 0

7

Apr

06

- A

pr 0

7

***

***

To

prev

ent a

ny n

egat

ive

impa

cts

of s

port

-hun

ting

on

Mac

coa

Duc

k

1.C

onta

ct a

ll h

unti

ng o

rgan

izat

ions

to

requ

est d

ata

on m

orta

liti

es o

f M

acco

a D

uck

due

to h

untin

g. P

rior

ity *

* 2.

Miti

gate

thro

ugh

educ

atio

n w

here

ne

cess

ary.

Pri

ority

*

3.A

lert

Gov

ernm

ent t

o st

atus

& th

reat

s to

M

acco

a D

uck

thro

ugh

hunt

ing.

Ide

ntif

y sp

ecie

s cr

itica

l site

s no

t to

be h

unte

d.

Prio

rity

***

Thi

rstla

nd S

afar

is

Thi

rstla

nd S

afar

is, g

ovt,

med

ia

Nei

l Bak

er, W

CST

Apr

05

- Se

pt 0

5

Apr

05

- 20

10

* ** *

To

min

imiz

e th

e im

pact

of

poac

hing

on

the

Mac

coa

Duc

k

1.

Impl

emen

t vil

lage

-bas

ed, s

ite-

spec

ific

aw

aren

ess

prog

ram

mes

**

2.M

onito

r th

e ef

fect

iven

ess

of p

rogr

amm

es

**

WC

ST, G

ovt,

NG

Os

WC

ST, G

ovt,

NG

Os

Apr

05

- 20

10

Apr

05

- 20

10

** **

To

dete

rmin

e th

e ef

fect

of

wat

er p

ollu

tion

on th

e br

eedi

ng a

nd a

bund

ance

of

Mac

coa

Duc

ks a

nd p

ossi

ble

mit

igat

ion

mea

sure

s

1.

Des

ktop

stu

dy o

f re

leva

nt p

ollu

tion

liter

atur

e an

d un

publ

ishe

d da

ta s

ourc

es in

SA

by

2007

. Pri

ority

***

*.

2.D

epen

ding

on

outc

ome

of d

eskt

op s

tudy

. C

ondu

ct f

ield

wor

k on

spe

cifi

c po

llut

ion

thre

ats

of n

eces

sary

by

2010

. Pri

ority

**

**?.

Res

pons

ible

res

earc

h sc

ient

ist (

NW

Uni

v,

EW

T)

Res

pons

ible

res

earc

h sc

ient

ist (

NW

Uni

v,

EW

T)

All

rel

evan

t gov

t age

ncie

s, p

riva

te

Apr

05

- D

ec 0

6

Jan

07 -

Dec

201

0

Jan

2011

- o

ngoi

ng

****

***

*



Res

ult

(Obj

ecti

ve)

Act

ivit

y A

genc

ies

Tim

esca

le

Cos

t Im

plem

ent p

ollu

tion

mit

igat

ion

mea

sure

s w

here

nec

essa

ry, u

sing

nat

iona

l/pro

vinc

ial

legi

slat

ion.

Pri

ority

***

*

land

owne

rs, N

GO

s

Eli

min

ate

alie

n pl

ants

, res

tore

na

tura

l veg

etat

ion

in 1

0 ke

y M

acco

a D

uck

site

s by

201

0

1.

Id

entif

y ke

y M

acco

a D

uck

site

s w

here

al

ien

plan

ts a

re a

pro

blem

. Pri

orit

y **

*.

2.

Form

par

tner

ship

s w

ith k

ey in

stitu

tions

&

land

owne

rs &

IA

APs

in o

rder

to

elim

inat

e al

ien

plan

ts +

res

tore

nat

ural

ve

geta

tion

in k

ey M

D s

ites.

Pri

ority

***

*.

3.

Impl

emen

t rel

evan

t leg

isla

tion

con

cern

ing

alie

n pl

ant s

peci

es w

here

it e

xist

s. P

rior

ity

***

4.

Mon

itor

alie

n pl

ant c

ontr

ol a

nd

reha

bilit

atio

n of

nat

ural

veg

etat

ions

. Pr

iori

ty *

***

Res

p. g

ov. d

epts

., N

GO

s (W

FW)

Res

p. g

ov d

epts

., N

GO

s, la

ndow

ners

R

esp.

gov

t dep

ts.

Res

p. g

ovt d

epts

., un

iver

siti

es

Jan

06 -

Dec

06

Jan

06 -

ong

oing

A

pr 0

5 -

ongo

ing

Apr

05

- on

goin

g

****

**

**?

*?

***

Man

age

wat

er le

vels

for

op

tim

um M

acco

a D

uck

habi

tat i

n 5

site

s by

201

0

1.

Id

entif

y ke

y M

acco

a D

uck

site

s w

here

w

ater

leve

l flu

ctua

tions

are

a p

robl

em.

Prio

rity

**.

2.

Fo

rm p

artn

ersh

ips

with

key

inst

itutio

ns

and

IAA

Ps in

ord

er to

man

age

wat

er

leve

ls. P

rior

ity *

**.

3.

Impl

emen

t rel

evan

t leg

isla

tion

wit

h re

gard

to w

ater

. Pri

ority

***

. 4.

M

onito

r w

ater

leve

ls a

t key

Mac

coa

Duc

k si

tes.

Pri

orit

y **

*.

Orn

itho

logi

cal N

GO

s R

esp.

par

tner

s, N

GO

s, g

ovt

Res

p. g

ovt a

genc

ies

Orn

itho

l. go

vt d

ept,

NG

Os,

bir

d cl

ubs

Jan

06-

Dec

06

Jan

06 -

ong

oing

A

pr 0

6 -

ongo

ing

Jan

06 -

ong

oing

***?

**

*?

*?

****

To

mit

igat

e ne

gativ

e im

pact

on

Mac

coa

Duc

k ha

bita

t due

to

upg

radi

ng o

f se

wag

e pl

ants

1.

C

ompi

le a

rep

ort o

n de

pend

ence

of

MD

on

set

tling

pon

ds in

exi

stin

g se

wag

e R

espo

nsib

le o

rnith

olog

ists

& b

ird

club

s.

Ja

n 06

- D

ec 0

7

***



Res

ult

(Obj

ecti

ve)

Act

ivit

y A

genc

ies

Tim

esca

le

Cos

t po

nds.

Pri

ority

***

. 2.

To

enco

urag

e pr

ovis

ion

of s

uita

ble

habi

tat

for

Mac

coa

Duc

ks in

mod

ern

sew

age

wor

ks. P

rior

ity *

. 3.

EIA

s fo

r th

e up

grad

ing

of m

unic

ipal

se

wag

e w

orks

mus

t inc

orpo

rate

Mac

coa

Duc

k ha

bita

ts. P

rior

ity

***.

4.

Enc

oura

ge c

atch

men

ts f

orum

s to

bec

ome

awar

e of

Mac

coa

Duc

k ha

bita

t. Pr

iori

ty

**.

Prov

inci

al a

nd lo

cal a

utho

riti

es, E

IA

cons

ulta

nts,

NG

Os

Nat

iona

l, pr

ovin

cial

and

loca

l gov

t, N

GO

s, E

IA c

onsu

ltant

s

Res

p. o

rnith

olog

ist a

nd N

GO

s

Jan

08 -

ong

oing

Apr

05

- on

goin

g

Jan

06 -

ong

oing

* ***

***

To

min

imiz

e oc

curr

ence

of

botu

lism

and

ther

efor

e im

pact

on

Mac

coa

Duc

k

1.

Get

spe

cial

ist (

vete

rina

ry?)

inpu

t on

im

pact

and

miti

gatio

n of

bot

ulis

m in

w

etla

nds

Vet

erin

ary

cons

ulta

nt

Jan

06 -

Dec

06

***

Re-

intr

oduc

tion

of

bird

s in

su

itab

le s

ites

in s

outh

ern

high

land

s of

the

Uni

ted

Rep

ubli

c of

Tan

zani

a

1.Id

entif

y su

itab

le s

ites

2.U

nder

stan

d re

ason

s fo

r ex

tirpa

tion

3.

Ens

ure

prev

ious

thre

ats

no lo

nger

exi

st

4.Id

enti

fy s

ourc

e of

egg

s/ad

ults

of

sam

e ge

netic

sto

ck

5.D

eskt

op s

tudy

of

prev

ious

pr

ogra

mm

es/t

echn

ique

s 6.

Col

labo

ratio

n w

ith s

uita

ble

part

ners

7.

Re-

intr

oduc

tion

Tan

zani

a B

ird

Atl

as P

roje

ct

Tan

zani

a B

ird

Atl

as P

roje

ct

Tan

zani

a B

ird

Atl

as P

roje

ct

Tan

zani

a B

ird

Atl

as P

roje

ct

Tan

zani

a B

ird

Atl

as P

roje

ct

Tan

zani

a B

ird

Atl

as P

roje

ct, o

ther

s T

anza

nia

Bir

d A

tlas

Pro

ject

, oth

ers

Jan

06 -

Jul

06

Jan

06 -

Jul

06

Jan

06 -

Jul

06

Jan

06 -

Jul

06

Jan

06

- Ju

l 06

Jan

06 -

Jul

06

Ja

n 06

- J

ul 0

6

* * * * * * *C

ompe

titio

n w

ith

alie

n be

nthi

c fe

edin

g fi

sh

1.

Iden

tify

key

Mac

coa

Duc

k si

tes

whe

re

exot

ic b

enth

ic-f

eedi

ng f

ish

occu

r 2.

Con

duct

des

ktop

stu

dy o

n lit

erat

ure

and

unpu

blis

hed

data

on

the

impa

ct o

f al

ien

fish

on

Mac

coa

Duc

k fo

od s

ourc

es.

Uni

vers

ity

Uni

vers

ity

Jan

7 -

Dec

07

Jan

06 -

Jul

06

* *



Res

ult

(Obj

ecti

ve)

Act

ivit

y A

genc

ies

Tim

esca

le

Cos

t 3.

Publ

ish

4.B

ased

on

Des

ktop

stu

dy u

nder

take

fur

ther

ap

prop

riat

e ac

tion

if n

eces

sary

.

Uni

vers

ity

?07 ?

* ?

Obt

ain

impr

oved

pop

ulat

ion

estim

ates

and

dis

trib

utio

n of

M

acco

a D

uck

1.Id

enti

fy a

ll M

acco

a D

uck

bree

ding

and

no

n-br

eedi

ng s

ites

2.

Coo

rdin

ated

Mac

coa

Duc

k co

unt a

t non

-br

eedi

ng s

ites

3.E

xpan

d C

WA

C a

nd o

ther

cou

nts

to

incl

ude

mor

e M

acco

a D

uck

site

s 4.

Lis

t all

site

s w

here

spe

cies

use

d to

occ

ur

and

why

they

no

long

er o

ccur

ther

e 5.

Det

erm

ine

mov

emen

t pat

tern

s 6.

Mac

coa

Duc

k ge

neti

cs to

det

erm

ine

gene

tics

of c

apti

ve a

nd w

ild

bird

s

CW

AC

, Bir

dLif

e pa

rtne

rs

CW

AC

, vol

unte

ers,

NG

Os,

con

serv

atio

n ag

enci

es

CW

AC

Uni

vers

itie

s/co

nsul

tant

s

Uni

vers

itie

s U

nive

rsit

ies

Pres

ent -

Dec

06

07 -

ong

oing

07 -

ong

oing

Jan

07-D

ec 0

9

Jan

07 -

Dec

09

Jan

06 -

Dec

06

****

** ** ***

***

**

To

prev

ent h

ybri

diza

tion

of

wild

pop

ulat

ions

of

Mac

coa

Duc

k

1.

Iden

tify

cap

tive

popu

latio

ns (

by e

nd o

f 20

06).

2.

Ale

rt p

rovi

ncia

l aut

hori

ties

to e

nsur

e co

mpl

ianc

e (r

e ca

ptiv

e po

pula

tion

s) w

ith

legi

slat

ion.

3.

Ale

rt b

irdw

atch

ers

to r

epor

t sig

htin

gs o

f th

e R

uddy

Duc

k.

Con

serv

atio

n ag

enci

es/N

GO

s

Mac

coa

Duc

k A

ctio

n G

roup

AG

RE

D p

lus

Mac

coa

Duc

k A

ctio

n G

roup

Jan

06 -

Jul

06

Jan

06 -

Jul

06

Jan

06 -

Jul

06

* * *

To

cont

rol t

rade

of

coll

ectio

n of

Oxy

ura

duck

s an

d eg

gs in

A

fric

a

1.D

eter

min

e ex

tent

of

Mac

coa

Duc

k ad

ult

and

egg

trad

e by

200

6.

2.W

rite

a p

olic

y do

cum

ent o

n O

xyur

a du

ck

impo

rtat

ion

and

coll

ectio

ns f

or n

atio

nal

and

prov

inci

al g

over

nmen

ts.

3.D

ispa

tch

poli

cy d

ocum

ents

and

adv

ocac

y

Con

serv

atio

n ag

enci

es/N

GO

s

AG

RE

D/c

onse

rvat

ion

agen

cies

/NG

Os

AG

RE

D/c

onse

rvat

ion

agen

cies

/NG

Os

Jan

06 -

Jul

06

Apr

05

- D

ec 0

5

Apr

05

- D

ec 0

5

* * *



Res

ult

(Obj

ecti

ve)

Act

ivit

y A

genc

ies

Tim

esca

le

Cos

t fo

r ad

opti

on in

eac

h ra

nge

stat

e/pr

ovin

ce.

4.C

reat

e aw

aren

ess

of p

ossi

ble

dang

ers

of

hybr

idiz

atio

n 5.

Get

oth

er O

xyur

a sp

ecie

s li

sted

as

inva

sive

in S

outh

Afr

ica

and

else

whe

re

AG

RE

D/c

onse

rvat

ion

agen

cies

/ NG

Os/

A

EW

A

AG

RE

D/c

onse

rvat

ion

agen

cies

/NG

Os

Jan

06 -

ong

oing

Apr

05

- D

ec 0

5

* *

To

upgr

ade

the

thre

at s

tatu

s of

the

Mac

coa

Duc

k in

tern

atio

nally

1.

Con

tact

Bir

dLif

e In

tern

atio

nal a

nd

prov

ide

info

rmat

ion

on M

acco

a D

uck

num

bers

. 2.

Prov

ide

info

rmat

ion

as r

eque

sted

by

BL

I fo

r up

grad

e

AG

RE

D

AG

RE

D/c

onse

rvat

ion

agen

cies

/NG

Os

Sept

05

Oct

05

- D

ec 0

5

* *



7. Implementation

During the Workshop, AGRED (African Gamebird Research Education and Development Trust) offered to act as the lead organisation for the implementation of the Action Plan, and this offer was accepted by the workshop participants.

This Workshop group comprised representatives of national or provincial government (the latter in the case of South Africa), individual experts and representatives of NGOs. This could form the basis of an International Species Working Group (ISWG), which is envisaged as being comprised of representatives of national Species Working Groups, government representatives, representatives of relevant interest groups including relevant treaties. AGRED would, as described above, take on the role as coordinator and disseminator of information and act as the driving institution in terms of establishing an International Species Working Group. However, National Species Working Groups will often comprise only one or two individuals, because capacity and expertise is lacking in most, if not all, Range States. In addition, because the Maccoa Duck is not presently rated as highly threatened, it is less likely to achieve significant support from national governments, international and national NGOs and international treaties. Clarification will be sought from the AEWA Technical Committee in terms establishing an ISWG, or a less formal structure (e.g. Maccoa Duck Action Group) will develop through a transitional stage of action and achievement towards the status and structure of an ISWG.

It is perceived that initially, the group would firstly focus on obtaining a better understanding of population sizes and trends, secondly on increasing awareness amongst conservationists and executive authorities that this species is at best Near Threatened.

The activities of this group would focus on:

Guidelines for population censusing and monitoring Annual national counts of Maccoa Ducks Inclusion in national and international RDB status, and upgrading (i.e. higher levels of threat categorisation) of national and international conservation status as appropriate Improved definition of annual cycles and movement Improved understanding of habitat usage in relation to breeding activities Guidelines for habitat management practices Improved definition and evaluation of threats Collect country data for and annual reports on the implementation of the Action Plan Monitor implementation through submission of an annual report Prepare and organise a triennial meeting with Range States Prepare and submit a triennial review to the triennial Range States Meeting



8. References and the Most Relevant Literature

Baker, N.E. 1997. Tanzania Waterbird count. Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania.

Baker, N.E. & Baker, E. 2004. Cape Teal. Scopus.

Barnes, K.N. (ED.) 2000. ESKOM Red Data Book of birds of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland Johannesburg: BirdLife South Africa. Johannesburg. 169 pp.

Beesley, 1972. Birds of the Arusha National Park, Tanzania. J. East Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc. and National Museum. No 132.

Bennun, L. & Njoroge, P. (eds). 1996. Birds to watch in East Africa: A preliminary Red Data List. National Museums of Kenya, Centre for Biodiversity Research Reports: Ornithology No. 23.

Bennun & Njoroge. 1999. Cited in Dodman. In review.

Birdlife Inernational. 2005a. Species Fact Sheet: Oxyura australis. Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 7 March 2005.

Birdlife International. 2005b. Species Fact Sheet: Oxyura leucocephala. Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 7 March 2005.

Birdlife International. 2005c. Species Fact Sheet: Oxyura maccoa. Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 7 March 2005.

Bishop, D.R. 1994. The current status of the Maccoa Duck in Botswana. Babbler 26: 10-12.

Bonde, K. 1993. Birds of Lesotho: A guide to distribution past and present. University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg.

Britton, P.L. 1980. Birds of East Africa. Nairobia, East African Natural History Society.

Brown, L.H., Urban, E.K., & Newman, K. (eds) 1982. The Birds of Africa, Vol. 1. Academic Press, London.

Burger, A.E. & Berruti, A. 1977. Dabchicks Podiceps ruficollis feeding in association with Maccoa Ducks Oxyura maccoa. Ostrich 48: 47.

Callaghan, D.A. & Green, A. 1993. Wildfowl at risk, 1993. Wildfowl 44: 149-169.

Clancey, P.A. 1967. Gamebirds of Southern Africa. Purnell, Cape Town.

Clark, A. 1964. The Maccoa Duck (Oxyura maccoa (Eyton)). Ostrich 35: 264-276.

Clark, A. 1974. Plumage changes in the male Maccoa Duck. Ostrich 45: 251-253.

Clark, A. 1976. Strange death of a female Maccoa Duck. Ostrich 47: 141-142.

Clark, A. 1978. Maccoa Duck displays. Ostrich 49: 86.

Colahan, B.D. 1984. The ecology and conservation of waterfowl in Natal. Unpubl. MSc thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg.



Colahan, B.D. 2005. Maccoa Duck. Pp 89-91. In: Hockey, P.A.R., Dean, W.R.J., Ryan, P.G. & Maree, S.(eds). Roberts Birds of South Africa, 7th ed. Black Eagle Publishing, Cape Town.

Cyrus, D. & Robson, N. 1980. Bird Atlas of Natal. Natal University Press, Pietermaritzburg.

Dean, W.R.J. 1970. Anas hottenotta and Oxyura maccoa eggs in one nest. Ostrich 41: 216.

Dean, W.R.J. 2000. The birds of Angola. An annotated Checklist. British Ornithologists’ Union Checklist No. 18. British Ornithologists Union, 2000.

Del Hoyo, J., Elliottt, A. & Sargatal, J. eds. (1992). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 1. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.

Dodman, T. in review. Waterbird population estimates in Africa. Unpublished Consultation review.

Dodman, T., De Vaan, C., Hubert, E. & Nivet, C. 1997. African Waterfowl Census. 1997. Wetlands International, Wageningen, the Netherlands.

Dodman, T., Taylor. 1995. Cited In Dodman in review.

Earlé, R.A. & Grobler, N. 1987. A First Atlas of Bird Distribution in the Orange Free State. National Museum, Bloemfontein.

Fishpool, L.D.C. & Evans, M.I. 2001. Important Bird Areas in Africa and associated islands. Priority sites for conservation. Newbury and Cambridge, UK: Pisces Publications and BirdLife International (BirdLife International Conservation Series No. 11).

Geldenhuys, J.N. 1976. Relative abundance of waterfowl in the Orange Free State. Ostrich 47: 27-54.

Hëyl, C.W. 1994. Clutch sizes of ducks in the south-western Cape. S.Afr.J. Wildlife Res. 24: 6-11.

Hilgarth, N. & Kear, C.J. 1982. Diseases of stiff-tailed ducks in captivity. Wildfowl 33: 140-144.

Hockey, P.A.R., Underhill, L.G. Neatherway, M. & Ryan, P.G. 1989. Atlas of the Birds of the Southwestern Cape. Cape Bird Club, Cape Town.

Jarvis, A., Robertson, A.J., Brown, C.J. & Simmons, R.E. 2001. Namibian Avifaunal Database. National Biodiversity programme, Ministry of Environment & Tourism, Windhoek.

Jarvis, M.J.F. 1983. Recommendations for duck management in Zimbabwe. Report written for the Department of National Parks and Wild Life Management, PO Box CY140, Causeway, Harare. Government Printers, Harare, Zimbabwe.

Johnsgard, P.A. 1968. Some observations on Maccoa Duck behaviour. Ostrich 39: 219-222.

Lees-May, N. 1974. Eggs of the Maccoa duck in the nest of the Redknobbed Coot. Ostrich 45: 39-40.

Little, R.M., Vester, K.C. & Crowe, T.M. 1994. Temporal and spatial patterns of breeding activity of 12 duck species (Anatidae) in the Cape Provinces, South Africa, and their implications for hunting season. S. Afr. J. Wildl. Res. 25: 17-22.

Irwin, M.P.S. 1981. The Birds of Zimbabwe. Quest Publishing, Salisbury.



Maclean, G.L. 1997. Maccoa Duck. Pps. 148-150. In: Harrison JA, Allan DG, Underhill LG, Herremans M,

Tree, A.J., Parker, V, & Brown C.J. (eds). The Atlas of Southern African Birds. Vol. 1:120-121. BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg.

Macnae. 1959. Notes on the biology of the Maccoa Duck. Bokmakierie 11: 49-51.

Milstein, P. Le. S. 1973. Maccoa Duck Oxyura punctata parasitizing Fulvous Duck Dendrocygna bicolor nest. Bokmakierie 25(3): 74.

Milstein, P. Le. S. The evolutionary significance of hybridisation in South Africa highveld ducks. Ostrich Suppl. 13: 1-48.

Nasirwa, O.O. & Bennun, L.A. 1995. (Cited in Baker (1997).

Nasirwa, O.O. & Bennun, L.A. 1999. Migratory waterbirds and their conservation in Kenya. In Fleur Ng’weno and Paul Matiku (eds). Kenya and the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement. Proceedings of a workshop held at National Museums 29 July 1999. Nature Kenya Nairobi, pp. 14-23.

Osborne, & Tigar. 1990. Priorities for Conservation in Lesotho, Southern Africa. Biol. Conserv. 61: 159-169.

Parker, V.A. 1994. Swaziland Bird Atlas. Websters, Mbabane, Swaziland.

Parker, V. 2000. O Atlas Das Aves Do Sul Do Save, Mocambique. Avian Demography Unit, Cape Town and Endangered Wildlife Trust, Johannesburg.

Penry, E.H. 1982. The status of the Maccoa Duck in Botswana. Honeyguide 11/112: 60-61.

Penry, H. 1994. Bird Atlas of Botswana. University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg.

Scott, D.A. & Rose, P.M. 1996. Atlas of Anatidae populations in Africa and western Eurasia. Wetlands International (Publ. No. 41), Wageningen, Netherlands.

Siegfried, W.R. 1968. Non-breeding plumage in the adult Maccoa Duck. Ostrich 39: 91-93.

Siegfried, W.R. 1969a. Breeding season of the Maccoa duck in the south-western Cape. Ostrich 40: 213.

Siegfried, W.R. 1969b. The proportion of yolk in the egg of the Maccoa Duck. Wildfowl 20: 78.

Siegfried, W.R. 1970. Double wing-moult in the Maccoa Duck. Wildfowl 21: 122.

Siegfried, W.R. 1976. Social organisation in Ruddy and Maccoa Ducks. Auk 93: 560-570.

Siegfried, W.R. 1985. Socially induced suppression of breeding in the Maccoa Duck. Wildfowl 36: 135-137.

Siegfried, W.R., Burger, A.E. & Caldwell, P.J. 1976a. Incubation behaviour of the Ruddy and Maccoa Ducks. Condor 78: 512-517.



Siegfried, W.R., Burger, A.E. & Frost, P.G.H. 1976b. Energy requirements for breeding in the Maccoa Duck. Ardea 64: 171-191. Siegfried, W.R., Burger, A.E. & Van Der Merwe, F.J. 1976c. Activity budgets of male Maccoa Ducks. Zoologica Africana 11(1): 111-125.

Siegfried, W.R. & Van Der Merwe, F.J. 1975. A description and inventory of the displays of the Maccoa Duck Oxyura maccoa. Z. Tierpsychol. 37: 1-23.

Simmons, R.E. & Brown, C.J. in prep. Birds to watch in Namibia: red, rare and endemic species. National Biodiversity Programme., Windhoek, Namibia.

Smithers, R.H.N. 1964. A checklist of the birds of the Bechuanaland Protectorate and the Caprivi Strip.Trustees of the National Museums of Southern Rhodesia, Cambridge.

Stark, A.C. & Sclater, W.L. 1906. The Birds of South Africa. Vol 4. RH Porter, London.

Tannock, J., Howells, W.W., & Phelps, R.J. 1983. Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide residues in eggs of some birds in Zimbabwe. Environ. Bull. 5: 147-155.

Tarboton, W.R. 2001. Nests and eggs of Southern African birds. Struik, Cape Town.

Tarboton, W.R., Kemp, M.I. & Kemp, A.C. 1987. Birds of the Transvaal. Transvaal Museum. Pretoria.

Taylor, P.B., Navarro, R.A., Wren-Sargent, M., Harrison, J.A. & Kieswetter, S.L. 1999. TOTAL CWAC report: Coordinated Waterbird Counts in South Africa, 1992-1997. Cape Town: Avian Demography Unit, University of Cape Town. 251 pp.

Tyler, S.J. 2001. A review of waterbird counts in Botswana, 1991-2000. Babbler Special Supplement No.1.BirdLife Botswana, Gaborone.

Underhill, L.G., Tree, A.J., Oscahdleus, H.D. & Parker, V. 1999. Review of ring recoveries of waterbirds in Southern Africa. Avian Demography Unit, Cape Town.

Van Heerden, J. 1974. Botulism in the Free State goldfields. Ostrich 45: 182-184.



9. A

nnex

es

Ann

ex 1

.Im

port

ant

Bir

d A

reas

(IB

As)

of

rele

vanc

e fo

r th

e M

acco

a D

uck

Oxy

ura

mac

coa.

Dat

a fr

om F

ishp

ool

& E

vans

(20

01),

N.

Bak

er (

this

wor

ksho

p),

M.J

. Whe

eler

(th

is w

orks

hop)

, Sim

mon

s &

Bro

wn

in p

rep.

and

Tay

lor

et a

l. (1

999)

.

Cou

ntry

In

tern

atio

nal

nam

e A

rea

(ha)

L

ocat

ion

Pop

ulat

ion

Yea

r Se

ason

A

ccur

-ac

yP

rote

ctio

n st

atus

P

rote

cted

ar

ea n

ame

Typ

e of

pr

otec

ted

area

Lat

L

ong

Min

M

ax

Eth

iopi

a Su

lulta

pla

ins

ET

024

? 09

.12

38.4

3 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Unp

rote

cted

B

isho

ftu

ET

032

93

08.4

8 39

.00

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

C

hele

klek

a la

ke

& s

wam

p E

T03

3 ?

08.5

1 38

.58

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

A

bija

tta-S

halla

L

akes

Nat

iona

l Pa

rk E

T04

8

88,7

00

0.30

38

.30

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

Pr

opos

ed

natio

nal P

ark

Abi

jatta

-Sh

alla

L

akes

Nat

iona

l Pa

rk

Ken

ya

Lak

e N

aiva

sha

K

E04

8 23

,600

00

.46

36.2

1 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Ram

sar

L

ake

Nak

uru

Nat

iona

l Par

k 18

,800

00

.22

36.0

5 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Nat

iona

l Par

k R

amsa

r L

ake

Nak

uru

Nat

iona

l Pa

rk

The

Uni

ted

Rep

ubli

c of

T

anza

nia

Aru

sha

Nat

iona

l Pa

rk T

Z00

1 13

,700

03

.15

37.0

0 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Nat

iona

l Par

k Fo

rest

res

erve

s A

rush

a N

atio

nal

park

For

est

rese

rves

Elu

anat

a T

Z02

2 1,

100

03.2

3 36

.18

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

Si

ngid

a L

akes

T

Z03

41,

100

04.1

8 34

.42

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

Ang

ola

Bic

uari

Nat

iona

l Pa

rk A

O 0

01

790,

000

15.0

8 14

.56

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

atio

nal P

ark

Bic

uari

N

atio

nal

Park

Z

imba

bwe

Rob

ert

Mac

ilw

aine

R

ecre

atio

n Pa

rk

ZW

013

6,18

0 17

.52

30

.46

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

R

ecre

atio

nal

Park

R

ober

t M

acil

wai

ne

Rec

reat

ion

Park

Rec

reat

ion-

al p

ark

H

wan

ge N

atio

nal

Park

ZW

009

1,46

0, 0

00

19.0

0 26

.30

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

atio

nal P

ark

Hw

ange

N

atio

nal

Park



Cou

ntry

In

tern

atio

nal

nam

e A

rea

(ha)

L

ocat

ion

Pop

ulat

ion

Yea

r Se

ason

A

ccur

-ac

yP

rote

ctio

n st

atus

P

rote

cted

ar

ea n

ame

Typ

e of

pr

otec

ted

area

B

otsw

ana

Bok

aa D

am?

BW

009

620

24.2

8 25

.55

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

Ph

akal

ane

Sew

age

lago

ons

B

W01

0

100

24.3

4 25

.58

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

Nam

ibia

E

tosh

a N

atio

nal

Park

NA

004

2,29

1,20

0 18

.59

14.4

5 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Nat

iona

l Par

k R

amsa

r E

tosh

a N

atio

nal

Park

R

amsa

r

Bus

hman

Pan

Sy

stem

NA

007

12

0,00

0 19

.37

20.3

7 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Unp

rote

cted

Sa

ndw

ich

harb

our

NA

014

8,50

0 23

.20

14.3

0 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Park

R

amsa

r N

amib

N

aukl

uft

Nat

iona

l Pa

rk

Sout

h A

fric

a N

yl R

iver

Fl

oodp

lain

SA

008

50,2

70

28.4

1 24

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N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

Pa

rtia

lly

Prot

ecte

d N

ylsv

ley

Nat

ure

Res

erve

Prov

inci

al

rese

rve,

R

amsa

r

Stee

nkam

sber

g SA

016

4,43

1 30

.02

25.3

7 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Part

ially

Pr

otec

ted

Lak

envl

ei

Res

erve

? Pr

ovin

cial

R

eser

ve?

A

mer

sfoo

rt-

Bet

hal-

Car

olin

a D

istr

ict S

A01

8

347,

381

26.3

2 29

.50

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

C

hris

sie

Pans

SA

019

98,1

22

26.1

9 30

.15

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

SA

020

Gra

ssla

nd

Bio

sphe

re

Res

erve

1,05

3,74

0 27

.15

30.0

1 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Part

ly

rese

rves

, R

amsa

r

Wak

ker-

stro

om,

Seek

oeiv

lei

Prov

inci

al

rese

rves

N

yl R

iver

Fl

oodp

lain

SA

008

50,2

70

28.4

1 24

.93

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

Pa

rtia

lly

Prot

ecte

d N

ylsv

ley

Nat

ure

Res

erve

Prov

inci

al

rese

rve,

R

amsa

r

Ble

sbok

spru

it

SA02

1 1,

932

28.3

0 26

.16

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

Pa

rtia

lly

Prot

ecte

d M

arie

vale

B

ird

Sanc

tuar

y

Prov

inci

al

rese

rve,

R

amsa

r

Spit

zkop

Dam

SA

028

13,1

31

24.3

3 28

.04

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

Unp

rote

cted



Cou

ntry

In

tern

atio

nal

nam

e A

rea

(ha)

L

ocat

ion

Pop

ulat

ion

Yea

r Se

ason

A

ccur

-ac

yP

rote

ctio

n st

atus

P

rote

cted

ar

ea n

ame

Typ

e of

pr

otec

ted

area

Ora

nge

Riv

er

Mou

th W

etla

nds

SA03

0

2,31

1 28

.36

16.2

8 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Unp

rote

cted

R

amsa

r

Ram

sar

K

amfe

rs D

am

SA03

2 1,

176

24.4

6 28

.40

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

Pa

rtia

lly

Prot

ecte

d ?

?

Pl

atbe

rg-K

aroo

C

onse

rvan

cy

SA03

7

1,24

8,16

4 24

.18

30.3

8 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Unp

rote

cted

Sa

ndve

ld &

B

loem

hof

Nat

ure

Res

erve

SA

039

49,3

10

25.4

0 27

.41

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

Fu

lly

Prot

ecte

d Sa

ndve

ld &

B

loem

hof

Nat

ure

Res

erve

Prov

inci

al

Res

erve

K

aroo

Nat

ure

Res

erve

SA

090

16,8

65

24.3

2 32

.13

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

Pa

rtia

lly

Prot

ecte

d K

aroo

N

atur

e R

eser

ve?

Prov

inci

al

Res

erve

?

Sw

artk

ops

Est

uary

& C

hatty

Sa

ltpa

ns S

A09

6

2,87

8 25

.36

33.5

2 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Part

ially

Pr

otec

ted

? ?

V

erlo

renv

lei

SA10

3 1,

448

18.2

5 32

.20

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

R

amsa

r

L

ower

Ber

g R

iver

Wet

land

s SA

104

23,9

49

32.4

7 18

.16

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

O

verb

erg

Whe

atbe

lt S

A11

5 90

4,76

0 20

.00

34.2

4 N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

Unp

rote

cted

R

ietv

lei W

etla

nd

Res

erve

SA

111

619

18.3

0 33

.50

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

Fu

lly

Prot

ecte

d R

ietv

lei

Wet

land

R

eser

ve

Prov

inci

al

Res

erve

W

ilder

ness

-Se

dgef

ield

Lak

es

Com

plex

SA

114

19,8

54

34.0

0 22

.44

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

Pa

rtia

lly

Prot

ecte

d N

atio

nal P

ark,

N

atur

e re

serv

e

Wild

erne

ss

Nat

iona

l Pa

rk,

Gou

kam

ma

Res

erve

Nat

iona

l Pa

rk,

Prov

inci

al

Res

erve

R

amsa

r



Cou

ntry

In

tern

atio

nal

nam

e A

rea

(ha)

L

ocat

ion

Pop

ulat

ion

Yea

r Se

ason

A

ccur

-ac

yP

rote

ctio

n st

atus

P

rote

cted

ar

ea n

ame

Typ

e of

pr

otec

ted

area

Fals

e B

ay P

ark

(Pro

pose

d)

SA11

6

893

34.0

5 8.

31

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

B

otri

vier

vlei

&

Kle

inm

ond

Est

uary

SA

118

26,6

42

19.0

6 34

.21

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

U

npro

tect

ed

D

e H

oop

Nat

ure

Res

erve

SA

119

18,2

56

20.2

3 34

.26

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A

Fu

lly

Prot

ecte

d R

amsa

r

De

Hoo

p N

atur

e R

eser

ve

Prov

inci

al

Res

erve

R

amsa

r L

esot

ho

Non

e

N/A

N

/A

N/A

N

/A

N/A



Ann

ex 2

.Sig

nato

ry C

ount

ries

for

Inte

rnat

iona

l Con

vent

ions

rel

evan

t for

con

serv

atio

n of

the

Mac

coa

Duc

k.

Cou

ntry

P

rese

nce

of M

acco

a D

uck

R

amsa

r C

MS

AE

WA

C

BD

C

ITE

S A

ngol

a B

reed

ing?

X

B

otsw

ana

Bre

edin

g X

X

Bur

undi

H

isto

rica

l X

X

X

E

thio

pia

Bre

edin

g

X

X

Ken

ya

Bre

edin

g X

X

X

L

esot

ho

Bre

edin

g?

N

amib

ia

Bre

edin

g X

X

X

R

wan

da

Abs

ent?

X

X

Sout

h A

fric

a

Bre

edin

g X

X

X

X

X

U

gand

a A

bsen

t?

X

X

X

X

X

The

Uni

ted

Rep

ubli

c of

Tan

zani

a B

reed

ing

X

X

X

X

X

Zim

babw

e B

reed

ing

X

X

International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of theMaccoa Duck

Oxyura maccoa

TECHNICAL SERIES No. 14

UNEP/AEWA Secretariat

UN Campus

Hermann-Ehlers-Str. 10

53113 Bonn

Germany

Tel.: +49 (0)228 815 2413

Fax: +49 (0)228 815 2450

[email protected]

www.unep-aewa.org

10-30262_US_Maccoa-Duck.indd 1 12.03.2010 13:50:26 Uhr

international single species action plan for the

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