international humanitarian law and the challenges … · 18 international humanitarian law and the...
TRANSCRIPT
INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW AND THE CHALLENGES OF CONTEMPORARY ARMED CONFLICTSRECOMMITTING TO PROTECTION IN ARMED CONFLICT ON THE 70 TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE GENEVA CONVENTIONS
REPO
RT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..........................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER 2: CONTEMPORARY AND FUTURE CHALLENGES IN THE CONDUCT OF HOSTILITIES ........151. Urbanizationofarmedconflicts ........................................................................................................ 16A) Theprotectionofciviliansagainsttheeffectsofhostilitiesduringurbanwarfare ..................................16B) Theuseofexplosiveweaponsinpopulatedareas ....................................................................................................19C) Theprotectionofthecivilianpopulationduringsieges .......................................................................................22
2. Newtechnologiesofwarfare .............................................................................................................26A) Cyberoperations,theirpotentialhumancost,andtheprotectionaffordedbyIHL .................................26B) Autonomousweaponsystems .........................................................................................................................................29C) Artificialintelligenceandmachinelearning .............................................................................................................31D) HumanitarianconsequencesandconstraintsunderIHL related tothepotentialuseofweaponsinouterspace ......................................................................................... 32E) Challengesposedbycertainnewtechnologiesofwarfaretolegalreviewsofnewweapons ............... 34
CHAPTER 3: NEEDS OF THE CIVILIAN POPULATION IN INCREASINGLY LONG CONFLICTS: SELECTED ISSUES ...............................................................................................................................371. Internallydisplacedpersons .............................................................................................................38
2. Theprotectionofpersonswithdisabilities ....................................................................................... 41
3. Accesstoeducation .......................................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER 4: IHL AND NON-STATE ARMED GROUPS ...........................................................................491. TheapplicabilityofIHLtoconflictsinvolvingmultiplenon-Statearmedgroups .............................50
2. Thelegalregimeprotectingpersonsliving interritory underthecontrolofnon-Statearmedgroups ...................................................................................52
3. Detentionbynon-Statearmedgroups ...............................................................................................54
CHAPTER 5: TERRORISM, COUNTERTERRORISM MEASURES, AND IHL ............................................571. TheapplicabilityofIHLtoStatesfighting“terrorism” andnon-Statearmedgroupsdesignatedas“terrorists” ...................................................................58
2. Counterterrorismmeasuresand principledhumanitarianaction .....................................................59
3. Statusandprotectionofforeignfightersandtheirfamilies .............................................................. 61
CHAPTER 6: CLIMATE, ARMED CONFLICT, AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT ................................65
CHAPTER 7: ENHANCING RESPECT FOR IHL ......................................................................................711. Investigationsinarmedconflict .......................................................................................................72
2. Rootsofrestraintinwar ...................................................................................................................74
3. “Supportrelationships”inarmedconflict .......................................................................................75
4. IHLinaction:Respectforthelawon the battlefield .........................................................................76
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................79
P. Kr
zysi
ek/IC
RC
CHAPTER 2
CONTEMPORARY AND FUTURE CHALLENGES IN THE CONDUCT OF HOSTILITIES
16 INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW AND THE CHALLENGES OF CONTEMPORARY ARMED CONFLICTS
1. URBANIZATION OF ARMED CONFLICTS
2 ICRC,Urban Services during Protracted Armed Conflict: A Call for a Better Approach to Assisting Affected People, 2015;availableathttps://www.icrc.org/sites/default/files/topic/file_plus_list/4249_urban_services_during_protracted_armed_conflict.pdf.
3 Tothatend,theUniversitéLavalandtheICRCorganizedameetingofexpertsontheprincipleofproportionality:see ICRC,The Principle of Proportionality in the Rules Governing the Conduct of Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law, 2018;availableathttps://www.icrc.org/en/download/file/79184/4358_002_expert_meeting_report_web_1.pdf. TheICRChasalsotakenpartinprocessesinvolvingexpertsandorganizedbyotherinstitutions:seeInternationalLawAssociationStudyGroup,The Conduct Of Hostilities and International Humanitarian Law: Challenges of 21st Century Warfare, 2017;availableathttps://ila.vettoreweb.com/Storage/Download.aspx?DbStorageId=3763&StorageFileGuid=11a3fc7e‑d69e‑4e5a‑b9dd‑1761da33c8ab(thisreportalsodiscussesthenotionsof“militaryobjective”and“precautionsinattack”);ChathamHouse,Proportionality in the Conduct of Hostilities: The Incidental Harm Side of the Assessment,researchpaper,2018;availableathttps://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/research/2018‑12‑10‑proportionality‑conduct‑hostilities‑incidental‑harm‑gillard‑final.pdf.
Astheworldurbanizes,sotoodoesconflict.Increasingly,fightingtakesplaceinurbanareas,andciviliansbearthebruntofit.TheICRCknowsfromdirectobservationthattheuseinpopulatedareasofexplosiveweaponsthathavewideareaeffectscontinuestobeamajorcauseofinjuryanddeathamongciviliansandofdamagetocivilianobjects.Evenwhenservicesthatareindispensableforsustaininglifeinurbanareasarenotdirectlytargeted,theyaredisruptedasanindirectresultofattacks,orbecomemoreandmoredegradeduntiltheyareatthepointofbreakdown.2Insomecases,servicesaredeliberatelydeniedtospecificareas,inordertoexertpressureoncivilianslivingthere.Inhabitantsareleftwithoutsufficientfoodorwater,sanitationandelectricity,anddeprivedofhealthcare;suchprivationisaggravatedwhencitiesarebesieged.Inaddition,fightinginurbancentresresultsinwidespreaddisplacement.Oncefightingstops,unexplodedordnanceand/orotherformsofweaponcontamination,andthelackofessentialservices,preventmanyofthedisplacedfromreturning.Manyoftheseconsequencesarenotuniquetocities,buttheyoccuronasignificantlylargerscaleinurbanwarfareandmayrequireadifferenthumanitarianresponse.
IHLimposeslimitsonthechoiceofmeansandmethodsofwarfare,protectingciviliansandcivilianinfra‑structureagainstunacceptableharmanddestruction.Evenso,thedevastatinghumanitarianconsequencesofurbanwarfareraiseseriousquestionsregardinghowpartiestosuchconflictsinterpretandapplyrelevantIHLrules.Inthissection,theICRCpresentsitsviewsandsharesthefindingsofnewmultidisciplinaryresearchon(a)theprotectionofciviliansagainsttheeffectsofhostilitiesduringurbanwarfare;(b)theuseofexplosiveweaponsinpopulatedareas;and(c)theprotectionofthecivilianpopulationduringsieges.
A) THE PROTECTION OF CIVILIANS AGAINST THE EFFECTS OF HOSTILITIES DURING URBAN WARFARE
Militaryandcivilianpeopleandobjectsareoftenintermingledincities.Forpartiesinvolvedinurbanhostil‑ities,thisinterminglingpresentsimportantchallenges,bothmilitarilyandintermsofavoidingcivilianharm.Becauseurbanwarfareendangersciviliansinwaysparticulartoit,theprotectionaffordedbytheprinciplesandprovisionsofIHLiscritical.Policiescanalsobeaneffectivetooltoprotectciviliansandlimittheeffectsofurbanwarfare,buttheymustnotbeusedtoofferprotectiontociviliansthatwouldbeweakerorlessthanthataffordedbyIHL.
IHLprohibitsattacksdirectedatciviliansandcivilianobjects,aswellasindiscriminateattacks–thatis,attacksthatstrikemilitaryobjectivesandciviliansorcivilianobjectswithoutdistinction.IHLalsoprohibitsattacksthatmaybeexpectedtocauseincidentalcivilianharmthatwouldbeexcessiveinrelationtotheconcreteanddirectmilitaryadvantageanticipated.Whiletheexistenceoftheprincipleofproportionalityisuncontestedandisapplieddailybymilitarycommanders,thekeyconceptsonwhichitrelies(“incidentalcivilianharm”,“militaryadvantage”,and“excessiveness”)wouldbenefitfromfurtherclarification,whichtheICRChassoughttosupport.3
Contemporary and future Challenges in the ConduCt of hostilities 17
Inaddition,IHLrequirespartiestoconflicttotakearangeofprecautionsinattackandagainsttheeffectsofattackstoprotectciviliansandcivilianobjects.Withregardtoprecautionsinattack,allfeasibleprecautionsmustbetakentoavoidoratleastminimizeincidentalcivilianharm.Feasibleprecautionsarethosethatarepossibleinpractice,takingintoaccountallofthecircumstancesrulingatthetime,includinghumanitar‑ianandmilitaryconsiderations.Theunderstandingofwhatprecautionsarefeasiblemayevolveovertime,dependingonanumberoffactors,includingtechnologicaldevelopments,orwiththeidentificationofnewtechniques,tacticsorproceduresthatmakeitpossibletominimizeincidentalcivilianharm.Inthisregard,lessons‑learnedprocesses/exercisesmaybringnewfeasibleprecautionstolight.
Unlesscircumstancesdonotpermit,effectiveadvancewarningmustbegivenofattacksthatmayaffectthecivilianpopulation.Mostattacksinurbanareasmaywelldoso.4Theeffectivenessofawarningshouldbeassessedfromtheperspectiveofthecivilianpopulationthatmaybeaffected.Itshouldreachandbeunderstoodbyasmanyciviliansaspossibleamongthosewhomaybeaffectedbytheattack,anditshouldgivethemtimetoleave,findshelter,ortakeothermeasurestoprotectthemselves.Advancewarningsdonotrelievethepartycarryingouttheattackfromtheobligationtotakeotherprecautionarymeasures,andcivilianswhoremainintheareathatwillbeaffectedbytheattack–whethervoluntarilyornot–remainprotected.
Theprinciplesofdistinction,proportionalityandprecautionsarecomplementary,andallthreemustberespectedforanattacktobelawful.
Debatehasarisenwithrespecttotherelevanceofexpectedincidentalharmtociviliansintheformofdis‑easeandmentaltraumawhenimplementingtheprinciplesofproportionalityandprecautions.IntheICRC’sview,itisimportanttoconsiderincidentalharmthatisforeseeable,suchascontaminationwhentargetingamilitaryobjectiveinacitythatcontainstoxicindustrialchemicals,orthespreadofdiseaseduetoincidentaldamagetomunicipalsewagesystems.Thisisparticularlyrelevantwhenanattackerexpectstocauseinci‑dentaldamagetowaterorsewagesystemsinacitywherecholeraorothersimilarlycontagiousdiseasesarealreadypresent,ashasbeenthecaseinsomerecentconflicts.
Asformentalhealth,whileIHLprohibitsactswhoseprimarypurposeistoterrorizethecivilianpopulation,psychologicaltraumahaslongbeenseenasaninevitableconsequenceofconflicts.Thepsychologicaleffectsofhostilitiesmightalsobelesseasilyanticipatedthanphysicalinjuriesordeath.Yet,itisbroadlyacceptedtodaythathumanhealthencompassesphysicalandmentalhealth.Inthisregard,thereissomeindicationofawarenessinsomerecentmilitarymanualsthatthepsychologicaleffectsofhostilitiesshouldbetakenintoaccount.Thismaybeanareainwhichthepracticeofbelligerentsinthefuturemightbeinfluencedbyevolvingresearchandunderstanding.Intheiroperations,theICRCanditsMovementpartnersseesignificantmentalhealthandpsychosocialneeds,whichrequirebroaderacknowledgementandbetterwaystoaddresstheharmcaused.5
SeveraloftherulesmentionedaboveapplyspecificallytoattackswithinthemeaningofIHL:thatis,tomili‑taryoperationsmostlikelytocauseharmtocivilians.Nonetheless,partiestoconflictmusttakeconstantcaretosparethecivilianpopulationinall militaryoperations.Theseincludetroopmovementsandmanoeuvrespreparatorytocombat,suchasduringgroundoperationsinurbanareas.Thespecificprotectionaffordedtoparticularobjectsmayalsogobeyondattacks.Forinstance,objectsindispensabletothesurvivalofthecivil‑ianpopulationmustneitherbeattackednorotherwisedestroyed,removedorrendereduseless.Thisincludesacity’sdrinking‑watersupplynetworkandinstallations.
4 Forhospitalsandmedicalfacilities,includingthoselocatedinurbanareas,thathavelosttheirprotectionbecausetheyareusedforactsharmfultotheenemy,there is a specific rule on warnings prior to attack.
5 Seebackgrounddocument,“Addressingmentalhealthandpsychosocialneedsofpeopleaffectedbyarmedconflicts,naturaldisastersandotheremergencies”,33IC/19/12.2,2019.
18 INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW AND THE CHALLENGES OF CONTEMPORARY ARMED CONFLICTS
CompliancewithIHLduringtheconductofhostilitiesinurbanareas,asanywhereelse,dependsonwhatthecommanderknew,orshouldhaveknown,atthetimeoftheattack,basedoninformationreasonablyavailablefromallsourcesinthecircumstances.Giventheinterminglingofciviliansandmilitaryobjectivesinurbanareas,itiscriticalthatinformationcollectedwhenplanninganoperationinurbanareasdoesnotfocussolelyonverifyingthattargetsaremilitaryobjectives–akeyrequirement,ofcourse–butalsoonassessingtheincidentalcivilianharm,includingtheindirector“reverberating”effects,thatmaybeexpected.Practicessuchasassumingthepresenceofciviliansinallcivilianbuildingsandassessingpatternsofcivilianlife,amongothers,mayhelpovercomedifficulties–createdbythephysicalenvironmentofacity–inaccuratelyassessing civilian presence.
ChallengesraisedbyattacksinurbanareasServicesessentialtothecivilianpopulationinurbanareasrelyonacomplexwebofinterconnectedinfra‑structuresystems.6Themostcriticalinfrastructurenodeswithinasystemenabletheprovisionofservicestoalargepartofthepopulationanddamagetothemwouldbemostconcerningwhenitcausesthewholesystemtofail.Suchnodesarealsodescribedasa“singlepointoffailure”.Servicesdependontheoperationofpeople,hardwareandconsumables,eachofwhichcanbedisrupteddirectlyorindirectly.Forinstance,adamagedelectricaltransformercanimmediatelyshutdownthesupplyofwatertoanentireneighbourhoodorhospital,drasticallyincreasingtherisksposedtopublichealthandwell‑being.Inaddition,overtime,directandindirecteffectscanhaveacumulativeimpactonaparticularservice–leavinglargepartsofthesystemindisarray–whichbecomesmuchmoredifficulttoaddress.Thiscumulativeeffectwillinfluencetheincidental‑harmassessmentandanalysisduringprotractedhostilities:intheproportionalityassessment,thecivilianharmexpectedfromdamagingthelastelectricpowerdistributionlineofacitywillbesignifi‑cantlygreaterthanthatexpectedfromdamagingoneofmanyfunctioningdistributionlines,asthatlosscanbemadeupbyredundancyinthepowerdistributiongrid.
Giventhiscomplexityandinterconnectednessofessentialservicesystems,itisparticularlyimportanttoconsidernotonlyincidentalcivilianharmdirectlycausedbyanattackbutalsoreverberatingeffects,providedtheyareforeseeable.7Asforanytypeofincidentalharm,whatisreasonablyforeseeable–orshouldhavebeenforeseen–willvary,dependingonthecircumstancesoftheattackandthetarget;however,patternsofincidentalcivilianharmcanbeforeseenbasedonpastexperienceoftheeffectsofurbanwarfare.Whatisforeseeablewillbeinformedandevolve,inparticular,through:analysisoftheeffectsofpastattacks;studiesontheeffectsofconflicts;bettermodellingofweapons’effects;betterunderstandingoftheinfrastruc‑turalset‑upandinterdependencybetweenservices;andnewtechnologiestobetterassesstheconditionorstatusofinfrastructureandservicedeliveryduringtheconflict.Inthisrespect,itisimportantthatarmedforcesrigorouslyapplyshortfeedbackloopsandotherlessonslearnedaspartofthetargetingcycleorother decision‑makingprocesses,topreventtherepetitionofmistakesandinformfutureassessmentsofeffectsthathadnotbeenadequatelyanticipatedormitigatedinthepast.Inparticular,recentconflictshaveshownthedevastatingeffectsthaturbanwarfarehasoncriticalcivilianinfrastructureandthedeliveryofessentialservicestothepopulation,especiallywhenexplosiveweaponswithawideimpactareaareused.
Displacementwithincities,ortootherareas,isoneofthemanyharmfuleffectsonciviliansofurbanwar‑fare.8Inadditiontothethreattocivilianlives,andthedisruptionofessentialurbanservices,oneofthekeydriversoflong‑termdisplacementisthedamageordestructionofcivilianhomestypicallycausedbytheuseofheavyexplosiveweapons.Whiledisplacementisnotexpresslymentionedintheprinciplesofproportion‑alityandprecautionsasarelevanttypeofcivilianharm,dependingonthecircumstancesitmayincrease
6 ICRC,Urban Services during Protracted Armed Conflict: A Call for a Better Approach to Assisting Affected People,2015; availableathttps://www.icrc.org/sites/default/files/topic/file_plus_list/4249_urban_services_during_protracted_armed_conflict.pdf.
7 SeeInternational Humanitarian Law and the Challenges of Contemporary Armed Conflicts,2015,32IC/15/11,pp.52–53;availableathttps://www.icrc.org/en/download/file/15061/32ic‑report‑on‑ihl‑and‑challenges‑of‑armed‑conflicts.pdf. (SubsequentreferencestothisreportwillciteitastheIHL Challenges Report 2015.)
8 SeeICRC,Displaced in Cities: Experiencing and Responding to Urban Internal Displacement Outside Camps,ICRC,2018,pp.18ff.;availableathttps://shop.icrc.org/displaced‑in‑cities‑experiencing‑and‑responding‑to‑urban‑internal‑displacement‑outside‑camps‑2926.html.SeealsochapterIII.1)oninternallydisplacedpersons.
Contemporary and future Challenges in the ConduCt of hostilities 19
theriskofdeath,injuryordisease.Moregenerally,thedisplacementofciviliansexpectedwhenincidentallydamagingtheirhomeswillaffecttheweighttobegiventothatdamageundertheseprinciples.
Anotherchallengeofurbanwarfareisthatmanyobjectsareusedsimultaneouslyformilitaryandcivilianpurposes.Forexample,afiringpositionmightbesituatedontherooftopofacivilianhouseoranapartmentinamultistoreybuildingusedasacommandpost.Similarly,apowerstationmayprovideelectricitytobothamilitarybarracksandtherestofthecity.Ifitsuseformilitarypurposesrendersacivilianobject–ortheseparablepartthereof–amilitaryobjective,itwillbecomealawfultarget.However,theprevailingview,9 sharedbytheICRC,isthattheprinciplesofproportionalityandprecautionsremainrelevant,notonlywithregardtoincidentaldamagetoothercivilianobjects,butalsointermsoftheconsequencesforciviliansofimpairingthecivilianuseofthatobject.Underthisview,forinstance,theattackmustbedirectedattherooftopofthecivilianhouseoratthespecificapartmentinthemulti‑storeybuilding,provideditisfeasibleinthecircumstances,toavertthepossibilityofcivilianslosingtheirhomesandlivelihoods.
Finally,duringgroundoperationsinurbanareas,troopsarelikelytobecomeinvolvedinfirefightsandcallforfiresupport.Thedangerandurgencyofsuchsituationssignificantlyincreasesthelikelihoodandextentofincidentalciviliancasualtiesanddamage–astheICRChasobservedrepeatedly.Asfurtherdiscussedbelow,firebytroopsincontactwiththeenemy,aswellasfiresupport,mustrespectalltherulesgoverningtheconductofhostilities.
ProtectingtheurbanpopulationagainsttheeffectsofattacksCivilianscanbeprotectedmosteffectivelywhentheyarenotinthemidstofcombat.Becauseurbanwarfareoccursamongcivilians,itiscriticalthatpartiesimplementtheirobligationtotakeallfeasibleprecautionstoprotectciviliansandcivilianobjectsundertheircontrolfromtheeffectsofattacks.Forexample,avoidingtolocatemilitaryobjectiveswithinorneardenselypopulatedareas,ormoregenerally,employingstrategiesandtacticsthattakecombatoutsidepopulatedareas,aremeanstotrytoreduceurbanfightingaltogether.
Whenurbanfightingcannotbeavoided,allpartieshaveanobligationtotakeprecautionstospareciviliansfromtheeffectsofattacks.Theobligationofthepartycarryingoutanattacktogiveeffectiveadvancewarn‑ingismirroredbythatofthepartyincontroloftheareatoremoveciviliansandcivilianobjectsfromthevicinityofmilitaryobjectivestothemaximumextentfeasible.
Unfortunately,fartoooftenincontemporaryconflicts,partiesdotheexactoppositeanddeliberatelyendan‑gerthecivilianpopulationandciviliansundertheircontrolbyusingthemashumanshields,whichisabso‑lutelyprohibited.Civiliansusedashumanshields remainprotected,and–while itdoesraisepracticalchallenges–theotherpartymusttakeallfeasibleprecautionstoavoidharmingtheseciviliansandmusttakethemintoaccountinproportionalityassessments.
B) THE USE OF EXPLOSIVE WEAPONS IN POPULATED AREAS Oneofthedefiningfeaturesofurbanwarfareistheuseofexplosiveweaponswithawideimpactarea(alsoreferredtoas“heavy”explosiveweapons),i.e.ofweaponsthattypicallydeliversignificantexplosiveforcefromafarandoverawidearea.10Whilegenerallynotacauseforconcernwhenusedinopenbattlefields,theseweaponshavedevastatingeffectsforthecivilianpopulationwhenemployedagainstmilitaryobjectives
9 Foranaccountofthisdebatewithregardtoproportionality,whichwouldapplymutatis mutandiswithregardtoprecautions,seeICRC,The Principle of Proportionality in the Rules Governing the Conduct of Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law,pp.37–40;InternationalLawAssociationStudyGroup,The Conduct Of Hostilities And International Humanitarian Law: Challenges of 21st Century Warfare, pp.11–12.
10 Theseare:i)weaponsthathaveawideimpactareabecauseofthelargedestructiveradiusoftheindividualmunitionused,i.e.itslargeblastandfragmentationrangeoreffect(suchaslargebombsormissiles);ii)weaponsthathaveawideimpactareabecauseofthelackofaccuracyofthedeliverysystem(suchasunguidedindirect‑fireweapons,includingartilleryandmortars);andiii)weaponsthathaveawideimpactareabecausetheweaponsystemisdesignedtodelivermultiplemunitionssimultaneouslyoverawidearea(suchasmulti‑barrelrocketlaunchers).SeeICRC,IHL Challenges Report 2015,p.49.
20 INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW AND THE CHALLENGES OF CONTEMPORARY ARMED CONFLICTS
locatedinpopulatedareas,11suchastownsandcities.TheirfootprintsarealloverrecentandongoingarmedconflictssuchasthoseinAfghanistan,Gaza,Iraq,Libya,Somalia,Syria,Ukraine,andYemen:death,severeinjuries(oftenleadingtolifelongdisabilities),mentalandpsychologicaltrauma,andlarge‑scaledestructionofhouses,hospitals,schools,andinfrastructureindispensableforthefunctioningofessentialservices–everythingthatmakesacitywork,andonwhichitsinhabitantsdependfortheirsurvival.
Beyondthedirectimpactonthelives,healthandpropertyofcivilians,thereisawidearrayofindirectorreverberatingeffectsthatspreadacrossthenetworksofinterconnectedurbanservicesandaffectamuchlargerpartofthecivilianpopulationthanthosepresentintheimmediateimpactareaoftheattack.Theseincreasinglyknownandforeseeableconsequencesareexacerbatedinprotractedarmedconflicts,wherethelong‑termandattimesirreversibledegradationofessentialservicesincreasesthesufferingofcivilians.Thegenderedimpactofheavyexplosiveweapons’useinpopulatedareasisalsooftenoverlooked:thedifferentsocialrolesofmenandwomenwillinfluencethechancesofwhowillbeinjuredorkilled–men,women,boys,orgirls–,andimpactthenatureofthestigmafacedbysurvivors.Moreover,heavybombingandshell‑ingisamajorcauseofdisplacement;displacedpopulationsareexposedtofurtherrisks,includingsexualviolence,particularlyagainstwomen.
IHLquestionsraisedbytheuseofexplosiveweaponsinpopulatedareasInits2015report,International Humanitarian Law and the Challenges of Contemporary Armed Conflicts,12theICRCoutlinedkeyIHLquestionsraisedbytheuseofexplosiveweaponswithawideimpactareainpopulatedareas.Thosequestionsaresummarizedhere,followedbyadditionalissues.
Theuseofexplosiveweaponswithawideimpactareaagainstmilitaryobjectiveslocatedinpopulatedareasisnotprohibitedper seunderIHL,butitisregulatedbytherulesontheconductofhostilities–notablythepro‑hibitionagainstindiscriminateattacks,theprohibitionagainstdisproportionateattacks,andtheobligationtotakeallfeasibleprecautionsinattack.Becauseofthecloseproximityofmilitaryobjectivestociviliansandcivilianobjects,theparticularvulnerabilityofciviliansinurbanenvironmentsasaresultoftheirdependencyoninterlinkedessentialservices,andthewide‑areaeffectsoftheexplosiveweaponsofconcern,theuseofsuchweaponsinpopulatedareastypicallyresultsinsignificantcivilianharm,raisingseriousquestionsabouttheinterpretationandapplicationoftherelevantIHLrules.
Inits2015report,theICRCnotedthattheinherentinaccuracyofcertaintypesofexplosiveweaponsystems –suchasmanyoftheartillery,mortarandmultiple‑rocketlaunchersystemsinusetoday,inparticularwhenusingunguidedmunitions,aswellasunguidedair‑deliveredbombsandrockets–raisesseriousconcernsundertheprohibitionagainstindiscriminateattacks.Theirlowaccuracymakesitverydifficulttodirecttheseweaponsagainstaspecificmilitaryobjectiveasrequiredbythisrule:thereisahighriskthereforethattheywillstrikemilitaryobjectivesandciviliansandcivilianobjectswithoutdistinction.Whileincreasingtheaccur‑ acyofdeliverysystemswouldhelpreducetheweapons’wide‑areaeffectsinpopulatedareas,theiraccuracycouldbeobviatedbytheuseoflarge‑calibremunitions–i.e.munitionsthathavealargedestructiveradiusrelativetothesizeofthemilitaryobjective–whichmightstillbecontrarytoIHL.
Inthe2015report,theICRCalsonotedthat,inadditiontothedirecteffectsofanattackusingheavyexplosiveweapons,indirectorreverberatingeffectsmustalsobetakenintoaccountwhenassessingtheexpectedinci‑dentalcivilianharmasrequiredbytherulesonproportionalityandonprecautionsinattack,insofarastheyarereasonablyforeseeableinthecircumstances.13Forexample,asnotedabove,incidentaldamagecaused byheavyexplosiveweaponstocriticalcivilianinfrastructure–suchasvitalwaterandelectricityfacilities andsupplynetworks–canseverelydisruptservicesessentialtociviliansurvival,notablyhealthcare,the
11 Theterms‘populatedareas’and‘denselypopulatedareas’areusedinterchangeablyhere,torefertoaconcentrationofciviliansorofciviliansandcivilianobjects,beitinacity,townorvillage,orinanon‑built‑uparea,andbeitpermanentortemporary.See,notably,Art.1(2)ofProtocolIIItothe1980ConventiononCertainConventionalWeapons.
12 ICRC,IHL Challenges Report 2015,pp.47–53.13 Onthequestionofwhenreverberatingeffectsarereasonablyforeseeable,seechapter2,section1)a.ontheprotectionofciviliansagainsttheeffectsofhostilitiesduringurbanwarfare.
Contemporary and future Challenges in the ConduCt of hostilities 21
provisionofelectricity,andwaterandsanitationservices.Astheseservicesareforthemostpartinterdependent, damagetoanyonecomponentofaservicewilloftenhaveadominoeffectonotheressentialservices,trig‑geringhumanitarianconsequencesfarbeyondaweapon’simpactzone.Basedondirectobservationoftheextensivecivilianharmcausedbytheuseofheavyexplosiveweaponsinpopulatedareas,thereissignificantdoubtthatarmedforcessufficientlyfactorinsuchreverberatingeffects,asrequiredbytherulesofpropor‑tionalityandprecautionsinattack.
Whereexplosiveweaponswithawideimpactareaareusedtoprovidecoveringfireforownorfriendlyforcesunderattack,someStatesinvokethenotionof“self‑defence”tosuggestthatIHLrestrictionsontheuseofforce,includingonthechoiceofweapons,couldbelessstringentcomparedtosuchrestrictionsinpre‑plannedattacks,andtojustifytheuseofweaponsthatcarryahighriskofindiscriminateeffectsinthecircumstances.However,eventheuseofforcein“self‑defence”iscircumscribedbytheabsoluteprohibitionsagainstindis‑criminateanddisproportionateattacks,andbyallotherIHLrulesgoverningtheconductofhostilities,whichapplyindefensiveaswellasoffensivesituations.IntheICRC’sview,theprotectionofownorfriendlyforcesisarelevantmilitaryconsiderationimpactingonthefeasibilityofprecautions.Itisalsoarelevantmilitaryadvantagewhenassessingtheproportionalityofanattack,butonlyinsofarasitis“concreteanddirect”,whichisprimarilythecasewhentroopsareunderattack(i.e.in“self‑defence”scenarios).Inallsuchcir‑cumstances,forceprotectionmustbebalancedagainsthumanitarianconsiderations,suchastheextentofincidentalcivilianharmexpectedtoresultfromtheuseofheavyexplosiveweapons.Inthisrespect,thegreatertheriskofincidentalcivilianharmanticipatedfromtheattack,thegreatertherisktoitsownforcestheattackingpartymayhavetobepreparedtoaccept.Atanyrate,forceprotectioncanneverjustifytheuseofindiscriminatefireasameasuretoavoidtheexposureofownorfriendlyforces.
Attimes,explosiveweaponswithawideimpactarea(mostcommonlyartilleryorotherindirect‑fireweaponsystems)areusedtoharasstheenemy,todenythemfreedomofmovement,ortoobstructtheiractivities(“harassing”,“interdiction”or“suppressive”fire).Thistakestheformofacontinuousflowoffire–oftenoflowormoderateintensity–intendedtodelivereffectsoveranareaoronspecificobjectsorpersons,dependingonthecircumstances.However,tobelawful,harassing,interdictionorsuppressivefiremustbedirectedataspecificmilitaryobjective,andmustusemeanscapableofbeingsodirected.Yetinpracticeitisnotalwaysclearthatthisisthecase.
Whenusingindirect‑fireweaponsystemssuchasartillery,manyarmedforcesapplyfireadjustmenttech‑niquessuchas“walkingfire”againstatargetor“bracketing”atarget,inordertobeabletostrikethetar‑getafterseveralroundsoffire.Suchtechniquesconsistinfiringroundsprogressivelyclosertothetarget,recordingtheirimpactandmakingadjustments(corrections)beforefiring“foreffect”atthetarget(fireinsalvos).Suchmethodsofadjustingfirewithinapopulatedareainthemselvesposeasignificantriskofcivilianharm,inthatthe“adjustment”roundsarelikelytolandoff‑targetandstrikeciviliansand/orcivil‑ianobjects.Theuseofsuchtechniquesinpopulatedareasthereforeraisesquestionsundertheprohibitionagainstindiscriminateattacks.
Avoidingtheuseofwide-impactexplosiveweaponsinpopulatedareasInits2015report,theICRCreiteratedapositionithadfirstexpressedlikethisin2011:“duetothesignificantlikelihoodofindiscriminateeffectsanddespitetheabsenceofanexpresslegalprohibitionforspecifictypesofweapons,theICRCconsidersthatexplosiveweaponswithawideimpactareashouldbeavoidedindenselypopulatedareas”.14
14 Ibid.,pp.48–49.TheICRCfirstpublisheditspositiononexplosiveweaponsinpopulatedareasinICRC,International Humanitarian Law and the Challenges of Contemporary Armed Conflicts,2011,32IC/15/11,pp.40–42;availableathttps://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/red‑cross‑crescent‑movement/31st‑international‑conference/31‑int‑conference‑ihl‑challenges‑report‑11‑5‑1‑2‑en.pdf(subsequentreferencestothisreportwillciteitastheIHL Challenges Report 2011).AsimilarcallwasmadebytheMovementin2013.SeeResolution7ofthe2013CouncilofDelegates,“Weaponsandinternationalhumanitarianlaw”,CD/13/R7,para.4;availableathttps://www.icrc.org/en/doc/assets/files/red‑cross‑crescent‑movement/council‑delegates‑2013/cod13‑r7‑weapons‑and‑ihl‑adopted‑eng.pdf.
22 INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW AND THE CHALLENGES OF CONTEMPORARY ARMED CONFLICTS
TheICRChascalledonallStatesandpartiestoarmedconflictstoadoptapolicyofavoidanceofuseofheavyexplosiveweaponsinpopulatedareas,regardlessofwhetherornotsuchusewouldviolateIHL,basedonthreeobservations:
• thegravepatternofcivilianharmcausedbytheuseoftheseweaponsandthehumanitarianandmoralimperativetoprevent,oratleastreduce,suchlevelsofdestructionandsuffering
• theobjectivedifficultyofemploying–inconformitywiththeprohibitionsagainstindiscriminateanddisproportionateattacks–explosiveweaponswithawideimpactareaagainstmilitaryobjectivessituatedinpopulatedareas
• thepersistentlackofclarityonhowStates,andpartiestoarmedconflictsinparticular,interpretandapplysaidIHLruleswithregardtotheuseofheavyexplosiveweaponsinpopulatedareas.AstheICRChaspreviouslystated,“therearedivergentviewsonwhethertheserulessufficientlyregulatetheuseofsuchweapons,orwhetherthereisaneedtoclarifytheirinterpretationortodevelopnewstandardsorrules.Basedontheeffectsofexplosiveweaponsinpopulatedareasbeingwitnessedtoday,thereareseriousquestionsregardinghowthepartiesusingsuchweaponsareinterpretingandapplyingIHL.”15
Anavoidancepolicysuggestsapresumptionofnon‑useofsuchweaponsowingtothehighriskofincidentalcivilianharm,whichcouldbereversedifsufficientmitigationmeasurescanbetakentoreducesuchrisktoanacceptablelevel.Theseincludemeasuresandproceduresrelatedtotargetingandtothechoiceofweaponsthatsignificantlyreducethesizeoftheexplosiveweapon’sareaofimpact,andothermeasurestominimizethelikelihoodand/orextentofincidentalcivilianharm.Suchpoliciesandpracticesshouldbedevelopedwellinadvanceofmilitaryoperationsandfaithfullyimplementedduringtheconductofhostilities,sharedwithpartnerforcesorsupportedpartiesinthecontextofsuchoperations,andtakenintoconsiderationwhendecidingonthetransferofheavyexplosiveweaponsaswellaswhenprovidingsupporttoapartytoanarmedconflict.
Changingbehaviourthrough“goodpractice”Giventhecomplexchallengesofconductinghostilitiesinurbanenvironments,andtheuniquevulnerabil‑itiesofcivilianslivingthere,itiscriticalthatmilitarypoliciesandpracticespaysufficientattentiontotheprotectionofcivilians,includinginthechoiceofmeansandmethodsofwarfare.Whileinstancesofexpresslimitationsonheavyexplosiveweaponsandassociatedmethodsofwarfareinpopulatedareascanbefound,thesearescatteredormission‑specificandrarelypartofaconsistentapproachtowardsmilitaryoperationsconductedinsuchenvironments.InformationavailabletotheICRCtodateindicatesthatonlyalimitednum‑berofStatesappeartohavespecificguidanceandtrainingonurbanwarfareortheconductofhostilitiesinpopulatedareas–althoughsomepositivemovementcanbeseen.
TosupportpolicydevelopmentinthisregardbyStatesandpartiestoarmedconflicts,theICRCrecommended,inarecentlypublishedreport,anumberofgoodpracticesforimplementinganavoidancepolicyandforfacilitatingcompliancewithIHLrulesontheconductofhostilitiesinpopulatedareas.
Inlightofthelarge‑scaledestructionandciviliansufferingwitnessedintoday’sarmedconflicts,theICRCcontinuestocallonallpartiestoarmedconflicttotakeurgentactionbyreviewingtheirmilitarypoliciesandpracticeandbyensuringthattheirdoctrine,education,trainingandweaponsareadaptedtothespecificitiesofurbanandotherpopulatedenvironmentsandtothevulnerabilityofcivilianstherein.
C) THE PROTECTION OF THE CIVILIAN POPULATION DURING SIEGESThehistoryofwarfareisfullofinstancesofsiegesbeingusedasamethodofwarfare.Someofthemarenotoriousfortheirexceedinglyhighdeathtolls.ContemporaryconflictsintheMiddleEasthaveagaindrawntheattentionoftheinternationalcommunitytosiegesandotherencirclementtactics.
Siegesoftenhavegraveconsequencesforlargenumbersofcivilians.Recentsiegeswereaccompaniedbybombardmentandsometimesintensefightingbetweenbesiegingandbesiegedforces,creatingconstantdan‑gerforthecivilianstrappedinthebesiegedarea.Littleornoelectricityanddegradedpublicservicesarealso
15 SeeICRC,IHL Challenges Report 2015,p.51.
Contemporary and future Challenges in the ConduCt of hostilities 23
characteristicfeaturesofsieges.Familiesareforcedtomakeimpossiblechoiceswiththelittlefoodandwateravailable.Factorssuchasage,gender‑specificroles,ordisabilities,mayexacerbatedifficultiesinaccessingscarceresources.Theconsequencesarehunger,malnutrition,dehydration,illness,injuryanddeath.
Thenotionof“siege”Thereisnodefinitionof“siege”or“encirclement”underIHL.Asiegecanbedescribedasatactictoencircleanenemy’sarmedforces,inordertopreventtheirmovementorcutthemofffromsupportandsupplychan‑nels.Theultimateaimofasiegeisusuallytoforcetheenemytosurrender,historicallythroughstarvationandthirst,thoughincontemporaryconflictsbesiegingforcesusuallyattempttocapturethebesiegedareathroughhostilities.Siegesorotherformsofencirclementmayalsobepartofalargeroperationalplan:forinstance,theycanbeusedtoisolatepocketsofenemyforcesleftbehindduringaninvasion.
Asiegethatdoesnotinvolveattemptstocaptureanareathroughassaultmaybeaimedatobtainingamili‑taryadvantageinrelativesafetyforthearmedforcesofthebesiegingparty.Itavoidsthehazardsofurbanfightingforthebesiegingpartyandmayalsobeameanstolimittheheavyciviliancasualtiesoftenassociatedwithurbanfighting.
Conversely,siegesthatdoinvolveattemptstocaptureanareathroughassaultmayincreasetheintensityofthefightingandtheassociatedrisksofincidentalharmforcivilians.Thisisparticularlythecaseifthebesiegedforcesareleftwithnooptionotherthantofightorsurrender.
UnderIHL,itisnotprohibitedtobesiegeanareawherethereareonlyenemyforcesortoblocktheirre‑ inforcementorresupply,includingtoachievetheirsurrenderthroughstarvation.Itisalsonotprohibitedtoattackmilitaryobjectiveswithinabesiegedarea,providedsuchattackscanbecarriedoutinconformitywiththeprinciplesofdistinction,proportionalityandprecautions.
Unfortunately,civiliansareoftentrappedwithinwhenentiretownsorotherpopulatedareasarebesieged,causingunspeakablesuffering.IHLoffersvitalprotectiontotheseciviliansbyimposinglimitstowhatthepartiescandoduringsuchsieges.
Thescopeoftheparties’obligationtoallowcivilianstoleaveabesiegedareaThroughouthistory,besiegingandbesiegedforceshavepreventedciviliansfromleavingbesiegedareas.Forthebesiegingforces,themainpurposewasoftentohastenthesurrenderofthebesiegedforces,becausecivilianshavetorelyonthesamesuppliesastheenemyforces.AttheNurembergtrials,thepracticeofusingartillerytopreventciviliansfromleavingabesiegedareawasdeemedanextreme,butnotunlawful,measure.
Thelawhasevolvedconsiderablysincethen.Ithasdevelopedevenbeyondtheessential,butlimited,provi‑sionsoftheGenevaConventionsontheevacuationofspecificcategoriesofvulnerablepeople.
Today,siegesarelawfulonlywhendirectedexclusivelyagainstanenemy’sarmedforces.
First,shootingatorotherwiseattackingciviliansfleeingabesiegedareawouldamounttoadirectattackonciviliansandisabsolutelyprohibited.
Second,IHLrulesapplytotheconductofhostilitiesduringsieges.Asshowninthefollowingparagraphs,theimplementationofseveralrulesstemmingfromtheprincipleofprecautionsrequiresbothpartiestoallowcivilianstoleavethebesiegedareawheneverfeasible.Inparticular,constantcaremustbetakentosparethecivilianpopulationinallmilitaryoperations,andallfeasibleprecautionsmustbetaken,notablyinthechoiceofmeansandmethodsofwarfare,toavoidorminimizeincidentallossofcivilianlife,injurytociviliansanddamagetocivilianobjects.Inabesiegedareawherehostilitiesaretakingplace,andinviewoftheriskthatposestothem,oneobviousprecautionarymeasureistoevacuatecivilians,oratleastallowthemtoleave.Partiesmustalsogiveeffectiveadvancewarningsofattacksthatmayaffectthecivilianpopulation,thepur‑poseofwhichispreciselytoenablecivilianstotakemeasurestoprotectthemselves.
24 INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW AND THE CHALLENGES OF CONTEMPORARY ARMED CONFLICTS
Thebesiegedpartyhasobligations,too.Itmusttakeallfeasibleprecautionstoprotectthecivilianpopulationunderitscontrolfromtheeffectsofattacks.Thiscanentailallowingcivilianstoleaveorotherwiseremovingthemfromthevicinityofmilitaryobjectives,forexamplebyevacuatingthemfromabesiegedareawherehostilitiesareongoingorexpectedtotakeplace.
Thebesiegedpartymightbe tempted toprevent thecivilianpopulation from leavingbecausehavingabesiegedareaclearedofcivilianswouldmakeiteasierforthebesiegingforcestostarveoutthebesiegedforces,orgivetheformermoreleewaywhenattackingmilitaryobjectivesinthebesiegedarea.However,IHLcategoricallyprohibitsusingthepresenceofcivilianstorendercertainareasimmunefrommilitaryoper‑ations,forinstanceinattemptstoimpedethemilitaryoperationsofthebesiegingforces.Thiswouldamounttousingthecivilianpopulationashumanshields.
Finally,treatyandcustomaryIHLprohibitthestarvation ofthecivilianpopulationasamethodofwarfare.Theimplicationisthattheplightofciviliansdeprivedofsuppliesessentialtotheirsurvivalinabesiegedareacannolongerbeusedbyabesiegingpartyasalegitimatemeanstosubdueitsenemy.ItisthereforetheICRC’sviewthatabelligerentaimingtousestarvationasamethodofwarfareagainstenemyforces,besiegedinanareainwhichciviliansarealsotrapped,mustallowthecivilianstoleavethebesiegedarea,becauseexperienceshowsthatinpracticethesecivilianswillsharetheprivationcausedbyasiegeandmaybeexpectedtobeleftwiththeirbasicneedsunmet.
Theprotectionofciviliansleaving,orbeingevacuatedfrom,abesiegedareaCiviliansmayfleeabesiegedorotherwiseencircledareaorbevoluntarilyevacuated;theymayalsobeevacu‑atedagainsttheirwillbyapartytotheconflict.
Theissueofforcibleevacuationofabesiegedareahasraisedquestionswithrespecttoforceddisplacement.UnderIHL,forceddisplacementisprohibited,unlessthesecurityoftheciviliansinvolvedorimperativemili‑taryreasonssodemand.ProhibitedactsofforceddisplacementcanincludethoseresultingfromunlawfulactsunderIHLbythepartiesinordertocoercecivilianstoleave,includingintheconductofhostilities.16 As hostilitiesduringsiegesentailahighriskofincidentalciviliancasualties,thesecurityoftheciviliansinvolvedmayrequiretheirevacuationfromthebesiegedarea,buttheevacuationmustnotbecarriedoutinawaythatwouldamounttoforceddisplacementasaresultofunlawfulacts.
Toensurethatdisplacementisnotforcedorunlawful,itmustlastnolongerthanrequiredbythecircum‑stances.Displacedpersonshavearighttoreturnvoluntarilyandinsafetytotheirhomesorplacesofhabitualresidenceassoonasthereasonsfortheirdisplacementceasetoexist.17Althoughtemporaryevacuationsmaybenecessary,andevenlegallyrequired,siegesmustnotbeusedtocompelcivilianstopermanentlyleaveaparticulararea.
Fromapracticalperspective,safeevacuationsarebestorganizedwhenthepartiestotheconflictagreeonthenecessaryprocedures.Intheabsenceofsuchanagreement,bothpartiesremainobligedtotakeallfeasibleprecautionstoavoidcausingincidentalharmtociviliansfleeingduringhostilities.
Incaseofdisplacement,regardlessofwhetherciviliansfleeorareevacuatedfromabesiegedarea,allpos‑siblemeasuresmustbetakentoensurethattheciviliansinquestionarereceivedundersatisfactorycondi‑tionsofshelter,hygiene,health,safety(includingfromsexualandgender‑basedviolence)andnutritionandthatmembersofthesamefamilyarenotseparated.
16 ICTY,Prosecutor v. Milomir Stakic,Judgment(AppealsChamber),IT‑97‑24‑A,22March2006,paras281,284–287;ICTY,Prosecutor v. Blagojevic and Jokic,Judgment(TrialJudgment),IT‑02‑60‑T,17January2005,paras596 and600–601.
17 SeechapterIII.1)oninternallydisplacedpersons.
Contemporary and future Challenges in the ConduCt of hostilities 25
Thebesiegingpartymaydecidetoscreendisplacedpersonsforsecurityreasons,suchasfindingoutwhethermembersofthebesiegedforcesintermingledwiththeciviliansleavingthebesiegedarea.ScreeningandothersecuritymeasuresundertakenbythebesiegingpartymustbeconductedwithfullrespectforIHLandhumanrightslaw,particularlywithregardtohumanetreatment,livingconditionsandrelevantproceduralsafeguardsincasesofdetention,andtheprohibitionagainstcollectivepunishment.
Theprotectionofciviliansandthewoundedandsickwhoremain inabesiegedorencircledareaCivilianswhoremaininabesiegedareacontinuetobeprotectedascivilians,unlessandforsuchtimeastheytakeadirectpartinhostilities.Themerefactofremaininginabesiegedarea–whethervoluntarily,for‑ cibly,orashumanshields–doesnotamounttotakingadirectpartinhostilities.Inaddition,thepresenceofbesiegedfightersamongthecivilianpopulationdoesnotmeanthatthecivilianslosetheirprotectionfromdirectattack.Thebesiegedandbesiegingforcesthereforeremainboundbyalltherulesprotectingciviliansagainsttheeffectsofhostilities.18
Furthermore,theIHLrulesonstarvationandonreliefoperationsaredesignedtoensure–incombination–thatciviliansarenotdeprivedofsuppliesessentialtotheirsurvival.
First,inadditiontotheprohibitionagainstusingstarvationofthecivilianpopulationasamethodofwarfare,IHLprohibitsattacking,destroying,removingorrenderinguselessobjectsindispensabletothesurvivalofthecivilianpopulation.Evenwhensuchobjectsarealsousedbytheenemyarmedforces,operationsagainstthemareprohibitediftheycanbeexpectedtoleavethecivilianpopulationwithsuchinsufficientquantitiesoffoodorwaterastocauseitsstarvation.
Second,duringasiege,thepartiescontinuetobeboundbyIHLobligationsrelatingtoreliefoperationsandhumanitarianaccess.IHLprovidesthatimpartialhumanitarianorganizationshavearighttooffertheirser‑vicesinordertocarryouthumanitarianactivities,inparticularwhentheneedsofthepopulationaffectedbythearmedconflictarenotbeingmet.Onceimpartialhumanitarianreliefoperationshavebeenagreedto,thepartiestothearmedconflict–whichretaintherighttocontrolthehumanitariannatureofreliefconsign‑ments–mustallowandfacilitaterapidandunimpededpassageofthesereliefoperations.
Thecommanderofabesiegedforcewhoisnotinapositiontoprovidethesuppliesessentialtothesurvivalofthecivilianpopulationunder itscontrolmustconsenttohumanitarianreliefoperationsforcivilians.Similarly,thecommanderofabesiegingforcemustallowhumanitarianaccesstoandreliefoperationsforciviliansremaininginthebesiegedarea.Thisissubjecttotheparties’rightofcontrolandabilitytoimposetemporaryandgeographicallylimitedrestrictionsrequiredbymilitarynecessityatthetimeandplaceofon‑goinghostilities.
Finally,IHLcontainsextensiverulesrelatingtorespectandprotectionforthewoundedandsick,aswellasthepersonsandobjectsassignedtocareforthem.TheGenevaConventionscontainafewexplicitprovisionsontheevacuationofthewoundedandsickfrombesiegedareasandthepassageofmedicalpersonnelandmedicalequipmentintosuchareas.Moregenerally,partiesmusttakeallpossiblemeasurestosearchfor,collectandevacuatethesickandwounded,andmustprovide–tothefullestextentpracticableandwiththeleastpossibledelay–themedicalcareandattentionrequiredbytheircondition.Alltheserulesapplynotonlytocivilians;theyalsobenefitwoundedandsickmembersofanenemy’sarmedforces.Theapplicabilityoftheserulestosiegesisuncontested.
18 SeechapterII.1)a.ontheprotectionofciviliansagainsttheeffectsofhostilitiesduringurbanwarfare.