international human rights: law, policy, and process · 3. u.s. ratification of human rights...

INTERNATIONAL HUMANRIGHTS:LAW, POLICY, ANDPROCESS

Fourth EditionDavid WeissbrodtRegents Professor of Law andFredrikson & Byron Professor of LawUniversity of Minnesota Law School

Fionnuala Ni AolainDorsey & Whitney Professor of LawUniversity of Minnesota Law School

Joan Fitzpatrick (1950-2003)Jeffrey & Susan Brotman Professor of LawUniversity of Washington School of Law

Frank Newman (1917-1996)Justice, Supreme Court of California (retired)Ralston Professor of International Law (emeritus)University of California Law School (Berkeley)

SUB Hamburg

B/97048

LexisNexis8

Table of ContentsChapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL HUMAN

RIGHTS 1

A. BRIEF HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 3

1. Early Developments 3

2. World War I and the League of Nations 6

3. The Inter-War Years 8

4. World War II and the Beginning of the Modern Human Rights

Movement 8

a. Criminal Accountability: From the Middle Ages to the Nuremberg and

Tokyo Tribunals, and Control Council Law No. 10 11

b. The Creation of the United Nations: Dumbarton Oaks and San

Francisco 11

5. The United Nations and Multilateral Protection of Human Rights 12

a. Codification 13

b. Development of Human Rights Law within the U.N. Structure;

Charter-based human rights bodies 14

c. Development of Human Rights Law through Treaty-based

Human Rights Committees 22

6. Regional Organizations and Law-Making 23

a. European System 23

b. Inter-American System 24

c. African Union 25

B. WHY DO STATES AGREE TO AND OFTEN OBEY INTERNATIONAL

HUMAN RIGHTS? 26

1. Realism 26

2. Institutionalism 28

3. Constructivism 29

4. Liberalism 29

C. HUMAN RIGHTS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 31

1. Customary International Law 31

2. The U.N. and International Human Rights Law 32

a. Human Rights under the U.N. Charter 33

b. International Bill of Human Rights 33

c. Other U.N. Treaties 34

d. Related U.N. Instruments 36

3. Other Worldwide Treaties and Instruments 36

4. International Humanitarian Law 37

5. International Criminal Law 39

6. Domestic Implementation of Human Rights 41

D. CONCLUSION 44

Table of ContentsChapter 2 AN EXERCISE IN DRAFTING INTERNATIONAL HUMAN

RIGHTS STANDARDS: BUSINESS AND HUMANRIGHTS 49

A. INTRODUCTION . 49

B. NON-TREATY STANDARDS IN PREPARATION FOR BINDINGTREATIES 52

1. The Need for Human Rights Responsibilities for Businesses 53

2. Previous Efforts to Establish Non-Treaty Human Rights Standards for

Business and Human Rights 55

Notes and Questions 56

3. Existing Human Rights Instruments Relating to Business 57

Universal Declaration on Human Rights 58

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights . . . 5 8

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 59

International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial

Discrimination 60

Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, General

Recommendation XX 60

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against

Women 60

Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women,

General Recommendation 19, Violence Against Women 61

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court 62

The Global Compact's Ten Principles 62

The Global Sullivan Principles 63

The MacBride Principles 64International Labour Organization, Tripartite Declaration of Principles

Concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy 65Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and

Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights 66C. THE PROCESS OF DRAFTING INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS

STANDARDS 691. Aspirational Standards versus the Lowest Common Denominator 692. Credibility-Enhancing Mechanisms 70

Andrew T. Guzman, The Design of International Agreements 713. Decision-Making 72

Notes and Questions 73D. PARTICIPANTS IN THE DRAFTING PROCESS: WHO CAN PLAY? . 74

1. Government Representatives 74

Permanent Mission of Belgium to the United Nations and Specialized

Institutions in Geneva 74Permanent Mission of Canada to the United Nations and Specialized

Institutions in Geneva 75

Table of Contents2. Nongovernmental Organizations 77

International Chamber of Commerce & International Organization of

Employers, Joint Views of the IOE and ICC on the Draft Norms on the

Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business

Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights 77

John Ruggie, Interim Report of the Special Representative of the

Secretary-General on the Issue of Human Rights and Transnational

Corporations and Other Business Enterprises 79

Letter From Joint NGO's to John Ruggie, Special Representative to the

U.N. Secretary-General on Business and Human Rights, Joint NGO

Position on the Interim Report from the Special Representative of the

U.N. Secretary General on Business and Human Rights 81

Note 83

John Ruggie, Protect, Respect and Remedy: A Framework for Business

and Human Rights, Report of the Special Representative of the Secretary-

General on the Issue of Human Rights and Transnational Corporations

and Other Business Enterprises 83

Note 88

3. Scholars 88David Weissbrodt, Business and Human Rights 88Notes and Questions 91

Chapter 3 RATIFICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF TREATIES:THE COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL ANDCULTURAL RIGHTS 95

A. INTRODUCTION 96B. QUESTIONS 96C. THE COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL

RIGHTS 971. What Are Economic, Social and Cultural Rights? 97

2. Interpreting States' Obligations under the Covenant on Economic, Socialand Cultural Rights 100

South Africa v. Grootboom 105Notes and Questions 114

D. IMPLEMENTATION AND ENFORCEMENT 117Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 117Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Report on The

Eighteenth and Nineteenth Sessions 117Notes and Questions 120

E. RATIFICATION OF TREATIES 1241. How Do Governments Become Bound? 124

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 124Note on P r o c e s s e s for Becoming Bound by Treaty Obligations . . . . 1 2 5

Table of ContentsAnne M. Williams, United States Treaty Law 126


2. Reservations 128

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 128

Dinah Shelton, International Law 129


3. U.S. Ratification of Human Rights Treaties 132

Nigel S. Rodley, On the Necessity of United States Ratification of the

International Human Rights-Conventions 134

Notes 136

a. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of

Genocide (Genocide Convention) 139

b. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading

Treatment or Punishment (Treaty against Torture) 140

c. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 141

d. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

(Racial Convention) 143

e. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against

Women (CEDAW Convention) 144

f. Optional Protocols to the Convention on the Rights of the Child . . . . 145

g. American Convention on Human Rights (American Convention) . . . 145Notes and Questions 146

4. Should the U.S. Ratify the Covenant on Economic, Social and CulturalRights? 151

Philip Alston, U.S. Ratification of the Covenant on Economic, Social and

Cultural Rights: The Need for an Entirely New Strategy 151Notes and Questions 157

5. Ratification — With or Without Qualifications? 160Four Treaties Pertaining to Human Rights: Message from the

President of the United States 160Notes and Questions '. 162

Burns Weston, U.S. Ratification offhe International Covenant on

Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: With or Without

Qualifications 162Notes and Questions 166

F. TREATY RATIFICATION IN THE CONTEXT OFGLOBALIZATION 166

Notes 169

Chapter 4 STATE REPORTING UNDER INTERNATIONAL HUMANRIGHTS TREATIES; CULTURAL RELATIVISM 171

A. INTRODUCTION 172

B. QUESTIONS 173

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C. REPORTING PROCEDURES 175

1. The Civil and Political Covenant's Human Rights Committee 175

2. Reporting and Consideration Procedures 175

a. The Initial Report 175

b. Periodic Reports 178

c. Supplementary Reports 180

d. Emergency Reports 181

3. Problems with the Reporting Structure 181

4. Distribution of Committee Reports and Comments 184


D. THE SITUATION IN IRAN 188

1. Creation of the Islamic Republic of Iran 188Nadar Entessar, Criminal Law and the Legal System in the

Revolutionary Iran 189Amnesty International, Iran, New Government Fails to Address Dire

Human Rights Situation 1902. Human Rights Committee 191

Human Rights Committee, Consideration of Reports Submitted by

States Parties under Article 40 of the Covenant: Initial Reports of

States Parties Due in 1977 191Report of the Human Rights Committee 193Report of the Human Rights Committee, General Comments on

Article 7 of the Covenant 194

Human Rights Committee, Consideration of Reports Submitted by States

Parties under Article 40 of the Covenant: Second Periodic Reports of

States Parties Due in 1983. Addendum, Islamic Republic of Iran . . 195Human Rights Committee, Summary Record of the

1194th Meeting 196

Human Rights Committee, Summary Record of the

1196th Meeting 196Human Rights Committee, Summary Record of the

1230th Meeting 197Notes and Questions 198

3. Country Rapporteur Process of the U.N. Commission on Human Rights/Human Rights Council 198

Preliminary Report by the Special Representative of the Commission

on Human Rights on the Human Rights Situation in the Islamic

Republic of Iran 200Notes and Questions 202

4. Iranian Violations of International Law 204E. THE INTERNATIONAL LAW PROHIBITION OF TORTURE AND

OTHER CRUEL, INHUMAN OR DEGRADING TREATMENT ORPUNISHMENT 206

1. International Documents Limiting the use of Torture and Other Cruel,

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Table of ContentsInhuman, Degrading Treatment or Punishment 206

Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners 206

Notes 206

Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to

Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or

Punishment 207

Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading

Treatment or Punishment 207

Notes 208

Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons under Any

Form of Detention or Imprisonment 210

2. Human Rights Committee Consideration of Communications Under the

First Optional Protocol Interpreting Torture and Ill-Treatment 210

Manfred Nowak, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights:

CCPR Commentary 210

Views of the Human Rights Committee under Article 5, Paragraph 4,

of the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil

and Political Rights (Seventy-Seventh Session) Concerning

Communication No. 887/1999 212

Notes and Questions 2143. European System 215

Ireland v. United Kingdom 216

Ireland v. United Kingdom 217

Tyrer Case 218Notes and Questions 221Selmouni v. France 222Geneva Conventions for the Protection of Victims of

Armed Conflict : .- 224Note 225Restatement (Third) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States

(1987) 225Notes and Questions 225

4. U.N. Response to Amputations in Other Contexts 228F. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS: NATURAL

LAW POSITIVISM, CRITICAL LEGAL STUDIES, FEMINIST LEGALTHEORY, CRITICAL RACE THEORY, AND ISLAMICPRINCIPLES 229

David Weissbrodt and Jovana Davidovic, Theoretical Foundations of

Human Rights 229Islamic Approach: Mahmoud Fadlallah, Islam and Human Rights . . . 238

G. CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTSLAW 245

Summary Record of the 65th Meeting of the Third Committee, General

Assembly 245

Table of Contents


J a c k D o n n e l l y , Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights . . . . 2 4 7

N o t e s a n d Q u e s t i o n s 2 4 9

Chapter 5 WOMEN'S HUMAN RIGHTS — INDIVIDUAL

COMPLAINT PROCEDURES UNDER INTERNATIONALHUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES 251

A. INTRODUCTION 251

B. QUESTIONS 253

C. INDIVIDUAL COMPLAINT PROCEDURES 256

1. The Civil and Political Covenant Human Rights Committee:Consideration of Communications Under the First Optional Protocol . . 256

a. Committee Procedures 256

Report of the Human Rights Committee 257

Report of the Human Rights Committee 259Manfred Nowak, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights:

CCPR Commentary 262b. Committee Jurisprudence 263

Views of the Human Rights Committee under Article 5, Paragraph 4,

of the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil

and Political Rights (Eighty-Fifth Session) Concerning

Communication No. 1153/2003 263Notes and Questions 268

2. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women:Consideration of Communications Under the First Optional Protocol . . 270

a. Committee Procedures 270b. Committee Jurisprudence 271

A.T. v. Hungary 271Notes and Questions 276

D. THE SITUATION IN NORWAY 2791. The Social and Legal Context in Norway 279

Eva-Maria Svensson, Contemporary Challenges in Nordic Gender

Equality Policies and Law 279

Note 281Hege Skjeie & Mari Teigen, Political Constructions of Gender

Equality: Travelling Towards . . . A Gender Balanced Society? . . 281The Norwegian Gender Equality Act 283Committee on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against

Women, Consideration of Reports Submitted by State Parties under

Article 18 of the Convention of all Forms of Discrimination Against

Women, Sixth Periodic Report of States Parties, Norway 284Notes and Questions 288

2. Equality — A Perspective from the United States 289

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Table of ContentsGrutter v. Bollinger 289


E. PUBLIC PARTICIPATION FOR WOMEN: INTERNATIONALSTANDARDS AND COMPARATIVE APPROACHES 296

1. Equality between Men and Women in International Legal Contexts . . . 296

Gender Equality Architecture and UN Reforms 296

Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 298

Notes 300

2. International Treaty and "Soft Law" Standards 301


Note 301

Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination

Against Women 302

European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and

Fundamental Freedoms 303

Convention on the Political Rights of Women 303

General Assembly Resolution on Women and Political

Participation 304

Inter-American Convention on the Granting of Political Rights

of Women 305

Beijing Platform for Action, Fourth World Conference on Women . . 305

Notes 307

3. Quotas — In Theory and Practice 308

Drude Dahlerup, Comparative Studies of Electoral Gender Quotas . 308

Gretchen Bauer, The Hand that Stirs the Pot can also Run the

Country: Electing Women to Parliament in Namibia 311

F. WOMEN'S RIGHTS ARE HUMAN RIGHTS 313

Hilary Charlesworth, Christine Chinkin & Shelley Wright, Feminist

Approaches to International Law 313

G. CONCLUSION 317

Chapter 6 WHAT U.N. CHARTER-BASED PROCEDURES AREAVAILABLE FOR VIOLATIONS OF HUMANRIGHTS? 319

A. INTRODUCTION 320B. QUESTIONS 321C. BACKGROUND ON BURMA (MYANMAR) 324

Burma: Country In Crisis 324Human Rights Watch, Crackdown: Repression of the 2007 Popular

Protests in Burma 326

Amnesty Int'l, Myanmar Briefing Paper: No Return to "Normal" . . . 327Notes 328

D. U.N. PROCEDURES FOR RESPONDING TO VIOLATIONS 329

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Table of Contents1. Development of Major U.N. Procedures 330

a. ECOSOC Resolution 728F (Early Communica t ions Procedures) . . . 330

Economic and Social Council Resolution 728F (XXVIII) 330

b. ECOSOC Resolution 1235 (Agenda for Public Discussion) 332

Economic and Social Council

Resolution 1235 (XLII) 332

c. ECOSOC Resolution 1503 (Confidential

Communication Procedure) 333

Economic and Social Council Resolution 1503 (XLVIII) 334

d. GA Resolution 60/251 (The Human Rights Council) 337G.A. RES. 60/251 337

e. Human Rights Council Resolution 5/1 (Periodic Review andComplaints) 338

2. Overview of Complaints (Former 1503) Procedure in Practice 338

a. Mechanics of the Complaints Procedure 338

b. Deadline for and Length of Submissions 343

c. Admissibility Requirements 343

d. Confidentiality of the Complaints (1503) Procedure 344

e. What Constitutes a Consistent Pattern of Gross and Reliably Attested

Violations? 345

3. Thematic Procedures 346a. Identification and Use of Special Procedures 348

Camille Giffard & Meagan Hrle, The United Nations Charter-Based

Mechanisms 348

b. Selected Reports of Special Rapporteurs and Working Groups

Regarding the Situation in Myanmar 356

Promotion and Protection of all Human Rights, Civil, Political,

Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Including the Right to

Development, Report of the Working Group on Enforced or

Involuntary Disappearances 357

Report by the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, Mr. Jean

Ziegler, Submitted in Accordance with Commission on Human Rights

Resolution 2004/19 358Adverse Effects of the Illicit Movement and Dumping of Toxic and

Dangerous Products and Wastes on the Enjoyment of Human Rights,

Report Submitted by the Special Rapporteur Mrs. Fatma-Zohra

Ouhachi-Vesely 358Civil and Political Rights, Including Religious Intolerance, Report

Submitted by Ms. Asma Jihangir, Special Rapporteur on Freedom

of Religion or Belief 359Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of

the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression, Mr. Ambeyi Ligabo,

Submitted in Accordance with Commission Resolution 2002/48 . . 360Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Independence of Judges and

xi

Table of ContentsPursuant to Paragraphs 6 and 13 to 16 of Security Council Resolution

1556 440

Amnesty Int'l, Sudan: Protecting Civilians in Darfur: A Briefing for

Effective Peacekeeping 441


G. UNILATERAL ACTION 444

Richard B. Lillich, A United States Policy of Humanitarian Intervention

and Intercessionin 444


Abraham D. Sofaer, International Law and the Use of Force 447

Tom J. Farer & Christopher C. Joyner, The United States and the Use of

Force: Looking Back to See Ahead 447

Jules Lobel, Benign Hegemony? — Kosovo and Article 2(4) of the U.N.

Charter 451


H. STRENGTHENING HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION FOR THEFUTURE 455

United States Institute of Peace, United States of America, American

Interests and UN Reform: Report of the Task Force on the

United Nations 455Alex J. Bellamy, Responsibility to Protect or Trojan Horse? The Crisis in

Darfur and Humanitarian Intervention After Iraq 458References 464

Notes and Questions 464I. RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT IN ACTION?: THE

INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE TO DARFUR 465S.C. Res. 1769, U.N. Doc. S/Res/1769 465U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon, Report of the Secretary-General

on the Deployment of the African Union-United Nations Hybrid

Operation in Darfur 467Notes and Questions 469

Chapter 8 HOW CAN HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATORS BE HELDACCOUNTABLE? 483

A. INTRODUCTION 484

B. QUESTIONS 485C. RESPONDING TO PAST HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS 490

Diane F. Orentlicher, Settling Accounts: The Duty to

Prosecute Human Rights Violations of a Prior Regime 490

Notes 494Jose Zalaquett, Balancing Ethical Imperatives and Political Constraints:

The Dilemma of New Democracies Confronting Past Human Rights

Violations 495

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Ruti G. Teitel, Transitional Justice Genealogy 496

Truth and Reconciliation Commissions 497

David Weissbrodt & Paul W. Fraser, Book Review 499

John Dugard, Reconciliation and Justice: The South African

Experience 503


D. THE NUREMBERG PRINCIPLES 516

1. The Absence of a Tribunal for Armenia 516

Vahakn N. Dadrian, Genocide as a Problem of National and

International Law: The World War I Armenian Case and its

Contemporary Legal Ramifications 516

2. The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals 518

3. Control Council Law No. 10 and "Minor" Tribunals 519

Notes and Questions 520E. AD HOC INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS FOR THE FORMER

YUGOSLAVIA AND RWANDA 5221. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia

(ICTY) 523Diane F. Orentlicher, American Society of International Law

Newsletter, Yugoslavia War Crimes Tribunal 5262. The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) 528

Notes and Questions 5323. Efficacy of the ad hoc Tribunals 533

Human Rights Watch, Justice At Risk: War Crimes Trials in Croatia,

Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia and Montenegro 533

Organization of African Unity, The International Panel of Eminent

Personalities to Investigate the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda and the

Surrounding Events 534Aryeh Neier, Rethinking Truth Justice, and Guilt After Bosnia and

Rwanda 536Martti Koskenniemi, Between Impunity and

Show Trials 538Notes and Questions 543

4. Development of New Tribunals 553The Special Court for Sierra Leone 553Michael P. Scharf, Self-Representation Versus Assignment of Defence

Counsel Before International Criminal Tribunals 555The Cambodian Tribunal on the Khmer Rouge 557

Timor-Leste 558Iraq 560

Notes and Questions 561F. A PERMANENT INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (ICC) 562

Jerry Fowler, The Rome Treaty for an International Criminal Court: A

Framework of International Justice for Future Generations 563

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Table of ContentsJohn R. Bolton, The Risks and Weaknesses of the International Criminal

Court From America's Perspective 568

Bartram S. Brown, U.S. Objections of the Statute of the International

Criminal Court: A Brief Response 570

President William Clinton, Statement on Signature of the International

Criminal Court Treaty 573

The First Investigations and Indictments

Issued by the ICC 576


G. PROSECUTING HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATORS IN FOREIGN

NATIONAL COURTS 582

European Attempts to Prosecute Pinochet 582

Human Rights Watch, The Pinochet Precedent: How Victims Can Pursue

Human Rights Criminals Abroad 583

Menno Kamminga, The Exercise of Universal Jurisdiction in Respect of

Gross Human Rights Offences 589

Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium Universal Jurisdiction

over Human Rights Abuses 590


Chapter 9 INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTSFACT-FINDING 587

A. INTRODUCTION ; 587

B. QUESTIONS 588C. BACKGROUND: THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO . 593

1. History of the DRC 5932. Fact-finding in the DRC 595

Human Rights Watch, Democratic Republic of the Congo:

What Kabila is Hiding 595D. FACT-FINDING PROCEDURES 598

1. Preparation for an On-Site Investigation 599Notes and Questions 600

2. Methods of On-Site Fact-Finding 602Notes and Questions 611

3. Analysis, Verification, Follow-Up, and Reporting 615Notes and Questions 616

4. David Weissbrodt & Sarah O'Brien, Epidemiology as a Fact-Finding

Tool 617References 622

5. U.S. State Department Country Reports as Fact-finding Exercises . . . . 623

Department of State, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for

1999 624

6. Fact-Finding for United States Violations of Human Rights 625

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Notes 626

E. EXPERIENCE OF THE INTER-AMERICAN COMMISSION ON HUMANRIGHTS 628

Inter-American Commission On Human Rights (IACHR), Third Report

on the Human Rights Situation in Colombia 628

Thomas Buergenthal, Robert Norris, & Dinah Shelton, Protecting Human

Rights in the Americas: Selected Problems 634


Fact-Finding in the Context of Individual Petitions, Inter-American

Commission on Human Rights, Case 9265 636

Notes 641

Edmundo Vargas, Visits on the Spot: The Experience of the

Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 641

F. FACT-FINDING WITHOUT ON-SITE OBSERVATION 645

Asia Watch & Minnesota Lawyers International Human Rights

Committee 647


G. IMPACT OF FACT-FINDING INVESTIGATIONS 654

1. The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights' Field

Operation in Rwanda 654

Todd Howland, Mirage, Magic, or Mixed Bag? The United Nations

High Commissioner for Human Rights' Field Operation

in Rwanda 654

Note 658

2. Assessing the Impact of Fact-Finding Investigations 659

Sieglinde Granzer, Changing Discourse: Transnational Advocacy

Networks in Tunisia and Morocco 659

Notes 664

Chapter 10 HOW DOES U.S. FOREIGN POLICY INFLUENCE HUMANRIGHTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES? 667

A. INTRODUCTION 668

B. QUESTIONS 668C. INTERNATIONAL DUTIES 670

1. U.S. Duties as a U.N. Member Nation 671a. The U.N. Charter 671b. International Human Rights Treaties 672

D. INCORPORATING HUMAN RIGHTS GOALS INTO U.S. FOREIGNPOLICY: FROM JIMMY CARTER TO BARACK OBAMA 672

1. The Origins of Human Rights in U.S. Foreign Policy 6722. The Creation of General Legislation and the Helsinki Commission . . . 6733. Implementing Human Rights Principles in Foreign Policy under the

Carter Administration 674

xvii

Table of ContentsJimmy Carter, Remarks Commemorating the 30th Anniversary of the

Signing of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 674


4. A New Theme for Human Rights Foreign Policy: Promoting Democracy

Abroad 679

Ronald Reagan, Speech to the House of Commons 679


5. The End of the Cold War 684

James Baker, Secretary of State, Hearing of the Senate Foreign

Relations Committee 685


6. Harmonizing Human Rights With Democracy-Building and Economic

Development 687

Madeleine Albright, Press Briefing on the Release of Country Reports on

Human Rights Practices 1999 687


7. Democracy, Human Rights, and Security 693

PRESIDENT GEORGE W. BUSH, ADDRESS TO THE UNITED

NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY 694


President Barack Obama, Inaugural Address 700

President Barack Obama, Remarks to State Department Employees . 700


E. DEFINING AND IMPLEMENTING U.S. HUMAN RIGHTS FOREIGN

POLICY 702

1. The Role of the Administration 702

a. Diplomatic Efforts and Efficacy 702

David D. Newsom, The Diplomacy of Human Rights: A Diplomat's

View 702


2. Legislation and the Congressional Role 706

a. Country-Specific Legislation 706

b. Legislation and the Presidential Role: Certification Requirements . . . 707

c. "Carrot" Legislation 708

d. Legislation Creating Special Commissions 709

e. Legislation Regarding Use of "Voice and Vote" in International

Financial Institutions 710

f. Other Congressional Tools 712Notes and Questions 712

3. Economic Sanctions 714

Stuart Eizenstat, Under Secretary For Economic, Business and

Agricultural Affairs ; 715Notes and Questions 720

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Table of ContentsChapter 11 THE INTER-AMERICAN SYSTEM AND THE

INTERPRETATION AND APPLICATION OF HUMANRIGHTS INSTRUMENTS 729

A. INTRODUCTION 729

B. QUESTIONS . 730

C. THE MARTINEZ CASE 731

Martinez v. Santa Clara Pueblo 731

Note . 734

D. LAW GOVERNING SELF-DETERMINATION AND DISCRIMINATIONAGAINST WOMEN 735

1. International Law 735

Charter of the Organization of American States 735

American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man 735

American Convention on Human Rights 736

Inter-American Convention on Violence Against Women 737

Draft American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples . . 738United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples . . . 740Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent

Countries (ILO No. 169) 742Notes 743

2. U.S. Law 744E. PROCEDURES OF THE INTER-AMERICAN SYSTEM 745

1. Advisory and Contentious Jurisdiction of the Inter-American Court ofHuman Rights 745

Jo M. Pasqualucci, The Practice and Procedure of the Inter-American

Court of Human Rights 745Thomas Buergenthal, The Inter-American Court of Human Rights . . 747Notes and Questions 748Jo M. Pasqualucci, Advisory Practice of the Inter-American Court of

Human Rights: Contributing to the Evolution of International Human

Rights Law 750Notes and Questions 752

2. Procedures of the Inter-American Commission 753

David Harris, Regional Protection of Human Rights: The Inter-American

Achievement 753Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, The Human Rights

Situation of the Indigenous People in the Americas 754Notes 758

F. JURISPRUDENCE OF THE INTER-AMERICAN COMMISSION 760

1. Does the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man Apply tothe U.S.? 760

Notes 7622. Cases Involving Indigenous Rights 764

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Table of ContentsNotes and Questions 768

3. Typical Cases in the Inter-American Commission 770

Case 11.654, Inter-Am. C.H.R. 770

G. THE INDIGENOUS EXPERIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES 774

1. The Legal Status of Indigenous Peoples 774

Kevin K. Washburn, Federal Criminal Law and Tribal

Self-Determination 774

2. The Status of Indigenous Women 775

Amnesty International, Maze of Injustice the Failure to Protect

Indigenous Women From Sexual Violence in the USA 775

3. Balancing Rights: Indigenous Self-Determination and Equality 778

Wendy Moss, Indigenous Self-Government in Canada and Sexual

Equality under the Indian Act: Resolving Conflicts Between Collective

and Individual Rights 778

H. OTHER REGIONAL SYSTEMS 780

1. The African Union 780References 782

2. Other Regional Structures 783References 784

Notes 785

Chapter 12 THE EUROPEAN HUMAN RIGHTS SYSTEM 787

A. INTRODUCTION 787B. QUESTIONS 789C. THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS 792

1. Derogation 792Lawless v. Republic Of Ireland 792Brogan and Others v. The United Kingdom 798Sakik and Others v. Turkey 803Notes and Questions 808

2. The Right to Life 813Mccann and Others v. United Kingdom 813

Kaya v. Turkey 823

Notes and Questions 824Jordan and Others v. United Kingdom 826Notes and Questions 834

D. REMEDIES IN THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS 835

1. Bringing a Case 8352. Damage Awards 839

Lustig-Prean and Beckett v. United Kingdom (Article 41) 841

Notes and Questions 8433. Parallel Remedies Outside the European System 843

Notes and Questions 847:

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E. INTERSTATE HUMAN RIGHTS CASES IN THE EUROPEANSYSTEM 847


F. HUMAN RIGHTS LAW IN EUROPE APART FROM THE EUROPEAN

CONVENTION 849

1. European Union 849

References 855

2. Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe 856


Chapter 13 DOMESTIC REMEDIES FOR HUMAN RIGHTS

VIOLATIONS WITHIN THE U.S 861

A. INTRODUCTION 862

B. HOFFMAN PLASTIC COMPOUNDS, INC. v. NATIONAL LABORRELATIONS BOARD AND ITS AFTERMATH 864

1. Hoffman Plastic Compounds, Inc. v. National Labor

Relations Board 864

Hoffman Plastic Compounds, Inc. v. National Labor

Relations Board 864

2. Case Law Subsequent to Hoffman Plastic Compounds 869

3. Questions 870

4. U.S. Law 871

42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2 (2000) 871

C. TREATY PROVISIONS CONCERNING DISCRIMINATION AGAINSTIMMIGRANT WORKERS 872

1. Treaties Ratified by the United States 872


International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial

Discrimination 873Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, General

Recommendation 30 8742. Non-Treaty Instruments 875

Universal Declaration of Human Rights 875

D. A CUSTOMARY NORM OF INTERNATIONAL LAW PROHIBITINGDISCRIMINATION AGAINST IMMIGRANT WORKERS 876

1. Introduction 8762. Evidence of State Practice 8763. Evidence of Opinio Juris 877

Notes 878E. INTERNATIONAL REACTION TO THE HOFFMAN PLASTIC

DECISION 880Juridical Condition and Rights of the Undocumented Migrants 880International Labor Organization, Reports of the ILO Committee of

xxi

Table of ContentsFreedom of Association 884

Third Periodic Reports of States Parties Due in 2003 888

List of Issues to be Taken Up in Connection with the Consideration of the

Second and Third Periodic Reports of the United States of America . . 889

Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee 890

F. APPROACHES TO THE APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW IN

U.S. COURTS 890

1. Domestic Law . 891

2. International Law Incorporated into National Statute 891

3. Customary International Law 892

4. Jus Cogens . 894

5. Treaty Application in U.S. Courts 896

a. Self-Executing Treaties 897

b. Reservations 900

6. Interpreting U.S. Law in Light of International Principles and Practice . 902

Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Associate Justice, Supreme Court of the United

States, "A Decent Respect to the Opinions of [Human]Kind": The Value

of a Comparative Perspective in Constitutional Adjudication 907

Notes 909

Hans A. Linde, Comments 910


Chapter 14 U.S. ADJUDICATIVE REMEDIES FOR VIOLATIONSUNDER THE ALIEN TORT STATUTE 933

A. INTRODUCTION 933B. HYPOTHETICAL & QUESTIONS 934C. ALIEN TORT LITIGATION 940

1. Jurisdiction 940Fildrtiga v. Pena-Irala 940Notes and Questions 944

Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain 946

Notes and Questions 9532. Corporate Liability Under the ATCA 969

Khulumani v. Barclay National Bank, Ltd. 969

Notes and Questions 978D. TORTURE VICTIM PROTECTION ACT LITIGATION 984

Notes and Questions 985E. INTERNATIONAL RULES GOVERNING TORTURE AND FORCED

LABOR 990Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 991Slavery, Servitude, Forced Labour and Similar Institutions and Practices

Convention of 1926 (Slavery Convention of 1926) 992Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, The Slave Trade,

xxii

Table of Contentsand Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery 992

Geneva Conventions of 1949, Conventions I-IV 993

Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and

Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed

Conflicts (Protocol II) 993

Control Council Law No. 10, Punishment of Persons Guilty of War

Crimes, Crimes Against Peace and Against Humanity 994

Convention Concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour (ILO No. 29) . 994

Abolition oOf Forced Labour Convention (ILO No. 105) 995

Commentary on the Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational

Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard

to Human Rights 995

Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights, Fact Sheet Released

by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department

of State 997

A. Yasmine Rassam, International Law and Contemporary Forms of

Slavery: An Economic and Social Rights-Based Approach 998


F. OBSTACLES TO ADJUDICATION UNDER THE ALIEN TORTSTATUTE AND TORTURE VICTIMS PREVENTION ACT 1000

1. Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1001Notes and Questions 1007

2. Head of State and Diplomatic Immunity 1014References 1016

3. The Act of State Doctrine 1016Doe Iv.LiuQi 1017Notes and Questions 1022

4. Statute of Limitations, Damages, and Choice of Law 1023Fildrtiga v. Pena-Irala 1023Notes and Questions 1027

5. Forum Non Conveniens 1029

Chapter 15 REFUGEE AND ASYLUM LAW; JURISPRUDENCE OFHUMAN RIGHTS; CULTURAL RELATIVISMREVISITED 1033

A. INTRODUCTION 1034B. THE PROBLEM 1034

1. Awata's Case 10342. Violence against women in Ghana 1035

3. FGM in Ghana 10364. Health Consequences of FGM 1038

Questions 1038C. INTRODUCTION TO REFUGEE AND ASYLUM LAW 1040

xxiii

Table of Contents1. International Definition of "Refugee" 1040

2. U.S. Statutory Definition of "Refugee" 1040

3. U.S. Interpretation of the Refugee Act of 1980 1044

a. "Well-Founded Fear" 1044

UNHCR, Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining

Refugee Status 1045

b. "Persecution" 1046

UNHCR Handbook 1046


c. "Political Opinion" 1047


d. "Particular Social Group" 1049


e. Bars to Asylum 1056

(1) Internal Relocation 1056Asylum Branch, Office of General Counsel, Immigration &

Naturalization Serv., Basic Law Manual:

Asylum Supplement 1056INS Regulations on Asylum Procedures 1057Notes and Questions 1058

(2) Persecutor 1059UNHCR Handbook 1059

4. U.S. Procedures for Claiming Refugee or Asylum Status 1060a. Refugee Status 1060

Deborah E. Anker, Law of Asylum in the United States 1060b. Asylum Status 1061

Deborah E. Anker, Law of Asylum in the United States 1061Notes and Questions 1064

5. Alternative Forms of Relief 1065a. CAT 1065b. Cancellation of Removal 1066c. Adjustment of Status 1067d. Voluntary Departure 1067e. Post-2001 Reforms 1067

D. THE ROLE OF THE UNHCR 1068

1. Purpose, Function, and Responsibility 1068Statute of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for

Refugees 1068Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, Refugee Protection at the

Crossroads 1069Notes and Questions 1069

2. Participation in U.S. Asylum Proceedings 1072

E. GENDER-BASED REFUGEE AND ASYLUM CLAIMS 1073UNHCR Policy on Refugee Women and Guidelines on Their Protection:

xxiv

Table of ContentsAn Assessment of Ten Years of Implementation 1076

1. Claims Relating to Female Genital Mutilation 1077

In Re Fauziya Kasinga 1077


2. Claims Relating to Spousal Abuse 1089

Notes 1090

F. OBSTACLES TO FGM- AND SPOUSAL VIOLENCE-BASED ASYLUMCLAIMS 1093

1. Cultural Relativism 1093

Katherine Brennan, Note, The Influence of Cultural Relativism on

International Human Rights Law: Female Circumcision as a

Case Study 1093

Radhika Coomaraswamy, Identity Within: Cultural Relativism,

Minority Rights and the Empowerment of Women 1094

Michel Rosenfeld, Can Human Rights Bridge the Gap Between

Universalism and Cultural Relativism? A Pluralist Assessment

Based on the Rights of Minorities 1096


2. Some Theoretical Foundations of Gender and International Human

Rights 1099

Chapter 16 THE ILO AND CHILD LABOR 1101

A. INTRODUCTORY COMMENT AND QUESTIONS 1101B. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM OF CHILD LABOR 1104

1. Child Labor in the World 1104

UNICEF, Why Make A Special Case

For The Children? 1104ILO, Facts on Child Labor 1105ILO, A Future Without Child Labour, Global Report Under the Follow-

Up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at

Work 1106UNICEF, The State of the World's Children 1997 1113

2. Child Labor in India 1115Kavita Ratna, India 1115Human Rights Watch, World Report 2003, Small Change:

Bonded Labor in India's Silk Industry 1117Child Labor: Refuting the "Nimble Fingers" Argument 1120

3. Child Labor in the United States 1122Human Rights Watch, World Report 2001 1122

C. THE ILO, CHILD LABOR, AND THE PROTECTION OF HUMANRIGHTS 1123

1. Foundation, Guiding Principles, and Basic Structure of the ILO 1123Minority Rights Group International and Anti-Slavery International, The

xxv

Table of ContentsInternational Labour Organization: A Handbook for Minorities and

Indigenous Peoples 1123

2. Human Rights and the Mandate of the ILO 1126

Virginia Leary, Human Rights at the ILO: Reflections on

Making the ILO More "User Friendly" 1126

3. International Labor Conventions and ILO Monitoring Procedures . . . 1127

Constitution of the ILO and Standing Orders of the International

Labor Conference 1127

Minority Rights Group International and Anti-Slavery International,

the International Labour Organization: A Handbook

for Minorities and Indigenous Peoples 1128

ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work .. 1135


Note on ILO Activities Relevant to the U.S 1136

4. The International Legal Framework against Child Labor 1140

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,

Art. 24 1140

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Art. 10.- -. 1140

Convention on the Rights of the Child, Art. 32 1141

ILO, International Labor Standards Concerned with Labor

Inspection: Main Provisions 1141

[ILO] Convention No. 138, Minimum Age fr Admission

to Employment 1141

Recommendation No. 146, Minimum Age for Admission

to Employment 1142

[ILO] Convention No. 29, Forced or Compulsory Labor 1144

Convention Concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the

Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (ILO No. 182) . . 1145

Note 1146

International Labor Conference, 87th Session, Report of the Committee

on Child Labor 1147

International Labor Conference, 87th Session, R190 Worst Forms of

Child Labor Recommendation 1148

Virginia Leary, Human Rights at the ILO: Reflections on Making

the ILO More "User Friendly" 1148

ILO, Individual Observation Concerning Convention No. 29, Forced

Labour, 1930, India, Report of the Committee of Experts on the

Application of Conventions and Recommendations 1151

ILO, Report of the Committee on Child Labor, Committee Report:

Proposed Conclusions 1153

Committee on the Rights of the Child, Concluding Observations of the

Committee on Rights of the Child on India 1154

xx vi

Table of ContentsD. ILO'S PROGRAMMATIC EFFORTS AGAINST CHILD LABOR:

INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME ON THE ELIMINATION OF CHILDLABOR (IPEC) 1155

ILO, Ipec Action Against Child Labour 2004-2005: Progress and

Future Priorities 1155

ILO, IPEC Andhra Pradesh Project on Child Labour, Coming Together:

From Confrontation to Collaboration: A Tale of Trade Unions Joining

Hands Against Child Labour 1157

Note 1159

E. CHILD LABOR AND TRADE 1159

Frank J. Garcia and Soohyun Jun, Trade-Based Strategies for

Combating Child Labor 1159


F. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS ON CHILD LABOR 1163

ILO, Building on Strengths and Common Interests: Sectoral Alliances

Against Child Labour (1995-2005) : 1163

Notes and Questions . . . ., 1166G. NATIONAL PRACTICES AND LAWS AGAINST CHILD LABOR: THE

EXAMPLE OF THE UNITED STATES 1167

The Apparel Industry and Codes of Conduct: A Solution to the

International Child Labor Problem? 1167Notes 1169

Chapter 17 WHAT SEEM TO BE THE CAUSES OF HUMAN RIGHTSVIOLATIONS AND HOW MIGHT KNOWLEDGE AS TOCAUSATION BE USED? 1177

A. INTRODUCTION 1178B. QUESTIONS 1178C. EPIDEMIOLOGY AND CAUSAL THEORY 1184

1. From Fact-Finding to Causation 11852. Why is Causation Important? 1186

D. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS 1188

1. Political and Economic Theories and Research 1188Neil J. Mitchell & James M. Mccormick, Economic and Political

Explanations of Human Rights Violations 1188Notes 1195Reinhard Heinisch, Political Explanations of Basic Human Rights

Performance 1195Notes and Questions 1200

2. Military Expansion and Conflict 1207Notes and Questions 1207

E. SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF POWER 1209James C. Scott, The Value and Cost of the Public Transcript 1209

xxvii

Table of ContentsNotes and Questions 1213Notes and Questions 1216

F. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS 1218Robert Jay Lifton, Socialization to Killing 1220Notes and Questions 1225

G. SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS 12301. Group Identity and Scapegoating 1230

Philip Mayer, Witches 1231Robert Jay Lifton, Genocide 1234

Notes and Questions 12342. Change, Uncertainty, and Political Manipulation 1235

J.R. Crawford, Witchcraft and Sorcery in Rhodesia 1235Joyce Bednarski, The Salem Witch-Scare Viewed Sociologically . . 1236A. Rebecca Cardozo, A Modern American Witch-Craze 1238

Questions 1240H. INTERNATIONAL NORM DYNAMICS AND POLITICAL

CHANGE 1240Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, International Norm Dynamics

and Political Change 1241Notes and Questions 1246

I. ADDITIONAL READINGS 12481. General Research on Human Rights Violations 12482. Economic & Political Factors 1249

a. Economic Development 1249b. Political Theories 1250c. Military Expansion & Conflict 1252d. U.S. Foreign Policy 1253

3. Sociocultural & psychological factors 1254a. Ingrouping & Outgrouping 1254b. Group Conformity & Obedience to Authority 1254c. Sociological Aspects of Political Power 1255d. Socialization to Violence & War 1255

e. Torture — Effects on Victims 1256

4. Anthropology and Human Rights 12565. Epidemiology and Human Rights 12586. Violations of Human Rights in Latin America 1258

Table of Cases TC-1Index 1-1

XXVUl