international copyright and neighbouring rights …

INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT

AND NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS

VOLUME I

INTERNATIONALCOPYRIGHT ANDNEIGHBOURING

RIGHTSThe Berne Convention and Beyond

second edition

Sam Ricketson and Jane C Ginsburg

VOLUME I

1

3Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp

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FOREWORD

The first edition of Sam Ricketson’s history of the Berne Convention for theProtection of Literary and Artistic Works was written for the centenary of thatConvention. It was a work of very considerable scholarship and it rapidly estab-lished itself as a major source for information and analysis of the Convention’scontent. With Jane Ginsburg joining Sam for this second edition, the twoauthors have produced what is well-nigh a new book, given the range of devel-opments that have affected authors’ copyright at the international level in theintervening eighteen years. It shows the same careful attention to the sourcesreviewed and the same sensible appreciation of the political pressures whichhave been at work in those developments. In rather greater measure than before,it seeks also to predict the future of the rights involved—rights that are nowenveloped in swirls of ideological and practical uncertainty.

1986 is difficult accurately to recall, for it was an analogue age ago. Thecentenary of Berne did not fall at a time of much hope for copyright’s future,threatened as it then was by copying technologies now almost forgotten andsubject to considerable suspicion from developing countries. The Conventionhad last been revised in 1967 in Stockholm under the magisterial guidance ofProfessor Eugen Ulmer. But even that New Deal required four years before theconcerns of newly emergent nations could be met in the Paris arrangements.That was just a beginning of friction. By the 1980s it was doubtful whetherfurther revision could even be contemplated, and indeed so it has proved to bein a direct sense.

What was still scarcely foreseeable in 1986 was the allure of freer globaltrading under a revised GATT. It proved strong enough for the round of nego-tiations that would create the WTO and require its member states, developing aswell as developed, to accept the TRIPs Agreement as part of the parcel. So it wasthat ‘Berne-plus’ conditions became obligations across most of the world—obligations backed by dispute-settlement mechanisms between governmentsand ultimately the deployment of retaliatory trade measures. Before that Bernemay have been little more that a code of polite behaviour. Suddenly it acquiredthe voice of positive command. That this should have happened exactly intime with the greatest revolution in information and entertainment since theinvention of printing is perhaps no coincidence, though the legal developmentsdesigned to impose copyright order on an anarchic Internet came only

v

afterwards—with the self-advertising ‘WIPO’ Treaties and then a spate ofregional and national enactments under grandiloquent titles.

The technologies of information and the commerce they breed have becomeso much more complex that their legal organization appears to have acquired awholly new dimension. The new media hold a vital place in spreading accessaround the world to knowledge, entertainment, and many perquisites of thegood life and the bad. The international dimension of copyright is accordinglyof far greater significance than seemed to be the case even in 1986. Accordinglythis new edition could not be more timely. It will be seized upon by all who takethe subject seriously, whether their background is in a civil law or a common lawsystem. The authors will be not allowed to keep their silence for the nexteighteen years before providing a third edition.

William R CornishFaculty of Law

University of CambridgeApril 2005

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Foreword

PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION

It is almost eighteen years since the first edition of this work appeared, and itseems that a revolution, both technological and legal, has occurred in this time.

The technological revolution comes first, and is usefully illustrated by theexperiences of the authors in writing this work. When Sam Ricketson beganresearch on the first edition in 1984, it was still a hard-copy world: electronictypewriters were still commonly used and the most significant office advancewas the dedicated word processor that allowed draft manuscripts to be morereadily corrected and manipulated. The personal computer was only becomingan everyday reality towards the end of 1986, at least in the UK where the bulk ofthis work was done, and footnoting capabilities really only became user-friendlyin the following year. When Sam returned to Australia at the end of 1986, hewas fortunate enough to have electronic files of all the draft chapters that he hadcompleted, but there was no ready means of transmitting these files back topublishers on the other side of the world. The most helpful technology availableat the time was the facsimile machine, then still in its infancy, and the transmis-sion of hundreds of pages of hard-copy text was a time consuming and dauntingprocess (although relatively instantaneous in comparison to airmail, still themost common form of swift communication at that time, the latter in itselfbeing a vast improvement over the sending of packages by ship and overlandcarrier).

The present edition, by contrast, has been done with all the advantages ofmodern computing and Internet communications, and between two authors,Sam Ricketson and Jane Ginsburg, who, for the most part, have been situatedon two different continents with a publisher located on a third. Such has beenthe blessing of new technology that it has almost seemed that we have beensitting in adjoining offices, or at least just down the passage from each other!

The technological revolution has had another dimension with respect to thecarrying out of research and the gathering of materials. When Sam began hisresearch in 1984, access to many of the original documents meant trips to theWIPO library in Geneva or the Max Planck Institute library in Munich. Hold-ings in London were dispersed and often difficult to track down; photocopyingof original documents was often impossible because of conservation concernsand long hours of tedious transcription were often required. Since 1984, access

vii

to many of these materials has become much easier, beginning with the publica-tion by WIPO in 1986 of most of the original Berne Conference documents inits centenary celebration volume. Since the mid-1990s, WIPO documentationhas become available online and research into current developments in theinternational conventions can be done at the click of a mouse (with the neces-sary Internet access). These developments have certainly made the writing of thesecond edition easier, but with some regrets for the rigours (and delights) ofearlier times when dusty volumes and documents had to be tracked down andstudied in places far from the normal comforts and conveniences of one’s deskand office (one should not overstate here the difficulties involved in being‘required’ to spend time in such places as Geneva and Munich in the pursuit ofscholarship!).

The technological revolution feeds into the legal revolution that has alsooccurred in this area. In 1986, in its centenary year, Berne appeared to be a staticinstitution; to be sure, it had an interesting and illuminating past, but its futureprospects were less than exciting. It was a good time to write a history of thisimportant convention, with a reasonable expectation that updating would notreally be necessary, at least for a long time. But fact is always stranger thanfiction, and, almost as the first edition was published, a series of events beganthat have made this second edition almost indecently overdue. These events arediscussed at some length in Chapter 4, but three, in particular (and not in anyorder of importance) can be given here: first, the beginning of the UruguayRound of GATT and the implementation of the negotiations on trade-relatedintellectual property rights based on the standards of Berne gave the latter amuch greater prominence than had hitherto been the case; secondly, the entry ofthe United States into Berne in 1989, followed soon thereafter by China and theRussian Federation, gave the membership of Berne a universality that it hadpreviously lacked; and thirdly, the technological and communications revolu-tions discussed above gave the impetus to the creation of new internationalinstruments related to Berne. While all these developments—and a number ofothers—took place outside Berne in the strict sense, they took Berne as theirstarting or reference point. Hence, the second edition is concerned as muchwith these ‘beyond Berne’ developments as it is with a reappraisal of the ancienttexts in the light of these new developments.

In terms of substance, some of the original text, particularly that dealing withthe history of the Convention (Chapters 1–3), has been retained, but much ofthe original text has also been reworked or repositioned, with a fresh arrange-ment of topics and chapters (from Chapters 4–13). Some material, such as thatin Chapters 14 (developing countries) and 18 (the Universal Copyright Con-vention) no longer retains the currency of interest that it had in 1987, but hasbeen retained as containing useful insights into matters that have been of

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Preface to the New Edition

particular importance in the development of the present Berne Convention.Considerable amendments were required to the material dealing with theadministrative, financial, and final clauses of the Berne Convention (Chapters16 and 17), although this may be of only limited interest to some readers.Treatment of new international obligations with respect to technological protec-tion measures and copyright management information is given in Chapter 15;there is an enlarged discussion of related rights in Chapter 19 (taking particularaccount of the adoption of the WPPT in 1996); and private international lawissues are dealt with in Chapter 20. Finally, throughout the text, we have soughtto deal sequentially, first, with Berne and, then ‘beyond Berne’, the latter head-ing encompassing the relevant requirements of the TRIPs Agreement and theWCT/WPPT. In this way, we hope that the historical emphasis of the firstedition is blended appropriately with our discussion of the present texts andpossible future developments.

It is trite, perhaps, to remark again that the world has changed greatly since1986, the year of Berne’s centenary. But while Berne itself has remainedunrevised (apart from some minor administrative amendments), its stature andimportance have changed beyond recognition. In 1986, it was still a Eurocentricinstrument, with a number of hangers-on (including Australia). In 2005, it isnow a truly universal instrument that, in reach and effect, must far outstrip theexpectations of those early pioneers of the Association Littéraire et ArtistiqueInternationale (ALAI) who set about drafting a modest instrument for multi-lateral adoption in 1883, beginning with an informal lunch meeting in aRoman trattoria at the Rome Congress of ALAI in 1882 (see Chapter 2). Otherchallenges, of course, remain, but it is still worth celebrating the centrepieceposition that Berne now occupies as the foundation stone of the contemporaryinternational copyright system.

Authorial responsibility for the whole edition is both joint and several,but primary responsibility for individual chapters has been as follows: SamRicketson—Chapters 1–5, 13–14, and 16–19; Jane Ginsburg—Chapters 6–12,15, and 20.

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Preface to the New Edition

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the first edition, many people were thanked whose contributions addedgreatly to the achievement of the final work. These thanks must be expressedagain because the intellectual debt owed continues: particular mention must bemade here of Adi Dietz, Jim Lahore, Bill Cornish, the late Stephen Stewart, andMihaly Ficsor.

Work on the new edition began nearly a decade ago when Sam Ricketsonposed the idea to Jane Ginsburg and was delighted that she was happy toundertake the task. Since this time, the project has been pursued fitfully by bothof us, as other responsibilities have intervened and drawn our attention else-where. Nonetheless, the work has always been resumed with enthusiasm, involv-ing virtual and actual meetings in and across most parts of the globe, from NewYork to Melbourne and even in an orchard in a monastery outside Montreal.

Many students and colleagues have provided advice and research support overthe years of the writing of the new edition. We thank in particular, at theUniversity of Melbourne, Associate Professor Richard Garnett, Dr DavidBrennan, David Lindsay, and Kim Weatherall; at the University of Cambridge,Professors William R Cornish and Lionel Bently; and at Columbia UniversitySchool of Law, June Besek, Executive Director of the Kernochan Center forLaw, Media and the Arts. Columbia Law School students enrolled in theSeminar on International and Comparative Intellectual Property Law offeredresearch assistance and thoughtful criticism; in particular we thank Toby Head-don, Florian Schuhmacher, Yu Cao, Sébastien Evrard, and Maria GonzalezOrdoñez, all LL M Class of 2003. Emma Barrett Prete and Tom Paskowitz,both Columbia JD Class of 2005, and Vigdis Bronder, Columbia JD Class of2007, supplied much appreciated help with cite-checking.

Many thanks as well for administrative support to Gabriel Soto, of ColumbiaLaw School, and to Sarah Ross, of the University of Cambridge Law Faculty, forassistance in assembling the final manuscript.

Sam Ricketson dedicates the book to his wife Rosemary Ayton, and to hischildren Philip, Jon, and Elizabeth, and notes with pleasure the way in whichthe culinary and cultural experiences of the Ricketson family have beenimmeasurably enhanced by the regular visitations of his co-author to this sunnyland! With gratitude for the quality-of-life compliments, and acknowledging

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her co-author’s climatic advantages, Jane Ginsburg observes that the gastro-nomic and intellectual esteem are amply returned. She dedicates the book to herhusband George Spera, and to her children Paul, and especially to Clara, whowill no longer be able to justify her own tardy completion of tasks by referenceto her mother’s.

Sam RicketsonMelbourne

Jane GinsburgCambridge

19 April 2005

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Acknowledgements

CONTENTS—SUMMARY

VOLUME I

Foreword vPreface to the New Edition viiAcknowledgements xiNote on Sources xlviiNote on Terminology liNote as to Translations lvForeword to the First Edition lviiPreface to the First Edition lixAcknowledgements in the First Edition lxiiiTable of Cases lxvTable of National Legislation lxixList of Abbreviations lxxxiList of Abbreviations of Works to which Reference is CommonlyMade in this Book lxxxv

I THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENTOF INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT AND

NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS CONVENTIONS

1. The Development of International Copyright Relations 32. Origins of the Berne Convention 413. The Subsequent Development of the Berne Convention, 1886–1971 844. Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Come of Age:

Digitization and International Trade 134

II PRELIMINARY MATTERS: BERNE AND RELATEDAGREEMENTS IN THE FRAMEWORK OF PUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL LAW

5. Treaty Interpretation and the Concept of Union 179

III THE BERNE CONVENTION AND BEYOND

6. Fundamentals of Protection (articles 3–6 and 18–20) 235

xiii

7. Authorship and Ownership 3578. Works Protected by the Convention (Berne Convention, articles 2

and 2bis; TRIPs Agreement, article 10; WCT, articles 4 and 5) 3999. Duration of Protection (Berne Convention, articles 7 and 7bis;

TRIPs Agreement, article 12; WCT, article 9) 5269A. General Introduction to Chapters 10–12: Rights Protected 57810. The Rights Protected by the Convention: Moral Rights (article 6bis) 58511. The Rights of Reproduction, Adaptation, and Distribution

(Berne Convention, articles 8, 9, 12, 14, 14bis (1), 14ter, and 16;TRIPs Agreement, articles 11 and 14; WCT, articles 6 and 7) 621

12. Rights of Communication to the Public (Berne Convention,articles 11, 11bis, 11ter, 14, 14bis; WIPO Copyright Treaty, article 8) 702

13. Restrictions on the Exercise of Rights: Limitations and Exceptions 755

VOLUME II

14. Developing Countries 87915. New International Obligations: Technological Protection

Measures (WCT, articles 11 and 12), Rights ManagementInformation, and Enforcement 964

16. Administrative and Financial Provisions 99417. Membership, Territory, and Application of the Berne

Convention and Later Agreements (the Final Clauses) 1057

IV OTHER CONVENTIONS ON COPYRIGHTAND NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS

18. The Berne Convention and other Related InternationalConventions on Copyright 1169

19. The Berne Convention and Neighbouring Rights 1204

V PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW ASPECTSOF INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT ANDNEIGHBOURING RIGHTS PROTECTION

20. Private International Law Matters: Jurisdiction andApplicable Law 1291

Appendices 1329

Select Bibliography 1477Index 1513

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Contents—Summary

CONTENTS

VOLUME I

Foreword vPreface to the New Edition viiAcknowledgements xiNote on Sources xlviiNote on Terminology liNote as to Translations lvForeword to the First Edition lviiPreface to the First Edition lixAcknowledgements in the First Edition lxiiiTable of Cases lxvTable of National Legislation lxixList of Abbreviations lxxxiList of Abbreviations of Works to which Reference is CommonlyMade in this Book lxxv

I THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENTOF INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT AND

NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS CONVENTIONS

1. The Development of International Copyright Relations

A. National Copyright Laws Prior to the Berne Convention 1.01(1) The system of privileges and early copyright laws 1.01(2) The development of national copyright laws 1.04(3) The principal provisions of national copyright laws 1.07

(a) Works protected 1.08(b) Duration of protection 1.10(c) Rights recognized 1.11(d) Restrictions on exercise of rights 1.16(e) Formalities 1.19

B. The Problem of International Piracy of Works 1.20

C. The Protection of Foreign Works by National Laws 1.25(1) Protection on condition of reciprocity 1.27

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(a) Material reciprocity 1.27(b) Formal reciprocity 1.27

D. Bilateral Agreements Concerning Copyright 1.29(1) The early agreements 1.29(2) The spread of bilateral agreements on copyright 1.30(3) Contents of bilateral agreements 1.32

(a) Persons protected 1.33(b) Works protected 1.34(c) The principle of national treatment 1.35(d) Translation rights 1.36(e) Restrictions on reproduction rights 1.37(f ) Duration of protection 1.38(g) Internal policing powers 1.39(h) Formalities 1.40(i) General comments 1.41

2. Origins of the Berne Convention

A. Introduction 2.01

B. The Proper Basis for International Copyright Protection 2.02(1) A universal law of copyright 2.02(2) The pragmatic view 2.03

C. The 1858 Brussels Congress on Literary and Artistic Property 2.05

D. The Foundation of the International Literary Association andthe First Moves Towards the Berne Convention 2.07

E. The 1883 ALAI Conference at Berne 2.10(1) Background to the Conference 2.10(2) The work of the Conference 2.12(3) The draft convention 2.13

(a) Persons and works protected 2.13(b) Translation rights 2.14(c) Infringement proceedings 2.15(d) Other provisions 2.16(e) Appraisal of the draft convention 2.17

(4) Developments following the 1883 Conference 2.18

F. The Diplomatic Conference of 1884 2.19(1) The background to the Conference 2.19(2) The Federal Council programme 2.20(3) The work of the Conference 2.21

(a) Countries represented 2.21(b) The delegates 2.22

(4) The preliminary character of the Conference 2.23(5) The German initiative 2.24

(a) The resolution 2.24

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(b) The questionnaire 2.25(c) Responses to the questionnaire 2.26(d) The work of the commission 2.27

(6) The draft convention (and additional article) 2.28(a) Persons and works protected 2.28(b) Translation rights 2.29(c) Restrictions on reproduction rights 2.30(d) Arrangements and performance 2.32(e) Enforcement of rights under the Convention 2.33(f ) Final provisions 2.34

(7) The Closing Protocol 2.35(8) Principles recommended for an ulterior unification and the

procès-verbal final 2.36(9) Evaluation of the work of the 1884 Conference 2.37

G. The Diplomatic Conference of 1885 2.38(1) Preparations for the Conference 2.38(2) The delegates 2.39(3) The work of the Conference 2.40(4) The draft convention 2.42

(a) General comments 2.42(b) National treatment 2.43(c) Translation rights 2.44(d) Restrictions on reproduction rights 2.45(e) Adaptations 2.46(f ) Other changes 2.47

(5) Evaluation of the 1885 draft 2.49

H. The Diplomatic Conference of 1886 2.50

3. The Subsequent Development of the BerneConvention, 1886–1971


B. The 1896 Paris Revision Conference 3.02(1) Background to the Conference 3.02(2) States represented at the Conference 3.03(3) The work of the Conference 3.04

(a) The form of the 1896 Revision 3.06(b) Resolutions of the Conference 3.07

C. The 1908 Berlin Revision Conference 3.08(1) Preparations for the Conference 3.08

(a) States represented at the Conference 3.09(2) Work of the Conference 3.10

(a) Works protected 3.11

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(b) Persons protected; independence of protection and absenceof formalities 3.12

(c) Duration of protection 3.13(d) Translation rights 3.14(e) Newspaper and periodical articles 3.15(f ) Public performance rights 3.16(g) Indirect appropriations and mechanical reproduction rights 3.17(h) Cinematographic works 3.18(i) Other changes 3.19

(3) Assessment of the Berlin Revision 3.20

D. The Berne Additional Protocol 1914 3.21

E. The 1928 Rome Conference 3.22(1) Preparations for the Conference 3.22

(a) The problem of reservations 3.23(b) States represented at the Conference 3.24

(2) The work of the Conference 3.25(a) Reservations 3.26(b) Inclusion of oral works 3.27(c) Moral rights 3.28(d) Radiodiffusion rights 3.29(e) Other changes 3.30(f ) Resolutions of the Conference 3.31

(3) Assessment of the Rome Revision 3.32

F. The 1948 Brussels Revision Conference 3.33(1) Preparations for the Conference 3.33

(a) Membership of the Union 3.34(b) States represented at the Conference 3.35

(2) The work of the Conference 3.36(a) Works protected 3.38(b) Persons protected 3.39(c) Moral rights 3.40(d) Duration 3.41(e) Lawful uses of copyright works 3.42(f ) Public performance, radiodiffusion, and public recitations 3.43(g) Indirect appropriations, mechanical reproductions, and

cinematographic adaptations 3.44(h) Droit de suite 3.45(i) Other changes 3.46(j) Resolutions and votes of the Conference 3.47

(3) Assessment of the Brussels Revision 3.48

G. The 1967 Stockholm Revision Conference 3.49(1) Preparations for the Stockholm Conference 3.49

(a) The Swedish Government/BIRPI programme 3.51(b) Parties represented at the Conference 3.54

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(2) The work of the Conference 3.55(a) Eligibility criteria and country of origin 3.57(b) Right of reproduction and exceptions 3.58(c) Works protected 3.59(d) Moral rights 3.60(e) Duration of protection 3.61(f ) Cinematographic works 3.62(g) Other changes 3.63(h) The Protocol Regarding Developing Countries 3.64(i) Reforms to the administrative and final clauses 3.65

(3) Consequences of the Stockholm Revision: the 1971 ParisConference 3.66

H. A Perspective on the Growth of the Berne Union, 1886–1971 3.68

4. Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Come of Age: Digitizationand International Trade


B. Revising Berne Again 4.04(1) The period 1971–86: a period of reflection and regrouping 4.04

(a) Enforcement and compliance 4.08(b) Gaps in substantive protection: the continuing debate 4.09(c) A conference of revision in the near or medium future 4.12(d) The ‘guided development’ of international practice with a

view to its ultimate confirmation by a revision conference 4.13(2) ‘Guided development’: activities leading up to the Berne

Protocol process, 1991 4.14(3) Beginning the process of revision: 1991 and beyond 4.15

(a) Initial proposals for a ‘Berne Protocol’ 4.15(b) A note about Additional Acts and/or special protocols and

agreements 4.16(c) Beginning the process of revision 4.17(d) The shift to the ‘digital agenda’ 4.19

C. The WIPO Copyright Treaty 4.20(1) The diplomatic conference 4.20

(a) Relationship to Berne 4.21(b) Points of clarification 4.22(c) ‘Agreed statements’ 4.23(d) New exclusive rights in relation to physical copies 4.24(e) Right of communication to the public 4.25(f ) Exceptions and limitations 4.26(g) Collateral protections 4.27(h) Other matters 4.28

D. The WIPO Performance and Phonograms Treaty, Geneva 1996 4.30

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E. Uruguay Round of the GATT and the Influence ofTrade Concerns 4.31(1) In general 4.31(2) The background to the TRIPs Agreement 4.32

(a) The pre-Uruguay Round position 4.33(b) The principal features of the TRIPs Agreement 4.34(c) The requirements of national treatment and most favoured

nation treatment 4.35(d) Specific obligations as to substantive norms of protection 4.36(e) Obligations with respect to enforcement 4.37(f ) Dispute settlement 4.38(g) Institutions and ongoing review 4.39(h) Relationship with WIPO 4.40

F. Unilateral Trade Measures, Regionalism, and the Returnto Bilateralism 4.41(1) The case of the United States of America 4.43

(a) The history of US relations with the Berne Union 4.44(b) The implications of US adherence to Berne 4.47(c) More effective international protection of copyright 4.48(d) The substantive development of the Convention 4.49(e) Effect of other non-Union countries 4.50(f ) Implementation of Convention obligations 4.51(g) The USA, Berne, and beyond 4.52

II PRELIMINARY MATTERS: BERNE AND RELATEDAGREEMENTS IN THE FRAMEWORK OF PUBLIC

INTERNATIONAL LAW

5. Treaty Interpretation and the Concept of Union

I. TERMINOLOGY 5.02

II. TREATY STRUCTURE: THE DIFFERENT KINDSOF PROVISIONS 5.04

III.THE INTERPRETATION OF TREATIES 5.08

A. The Obligations Imposed 5.08

B. The Interpretation of Treaty Provisions 5.12(1) Languages used 5.12(2) The rules in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 5.15

(a) The search for the ‘ordinary meaning’ 5.16(b) The text of the treaty 5.18(c) Agreements and understandings between the parties 5.19(d) Any subsequent agreement between the parties 5.21

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(e) The subsequent practice of the parties in relation to theirtreaty obligations 5.22

(f ) Any relevant rules of international law applicable in therelations between the parties 5.25

(3) ‘Object and purpose’ 5.26(4) Extrinsic aids to interpretation 5.28

(a) ‘Preparatory work’ 5.29(b) Circumstances of the treaty’s conclusion 5.30(c) Other extrinsic aids to interpretation 5.31(d) ‘Authentic sources of interpretation’ 5.32(e) ‘Sources of considerable persuasive weight’ 5.36(f ) ‘Other sources’ 5.40(g) Interpretative declarations by states 5.41(h) Other rules of interpretation 5.42(i) Relationships between different texts of the Berne Convention

and between the Berne Convention and later treaties 5.43(5) The relationship of the Berne Convention to later treaties 5.44

(a) Express provisions of the later text 5.45(b) The provisions of the earlier text 5.49(c) Later ‘clarifications’ of earlier texts: the constitutive/

declarative debate 5.53

IV. THE CONCEPT OF ‘UNION’ 5.60

A. International Unions in General 5.60(1) Introduction 5.60(2) Characteristics of international unions 5.61(3) The Berne Union 5.63

(a) Other meanings of ‘union’ 5.64(b) History of usage of ‘union’ in relation to the Berne Union 5.65(c) The literature 5.67

B. The Meaning of ‘Union’ under the Present Text of the BerneConvention 5.68(1) As an international legal person 5.69(2) As a territorial concept 5.74(3) As a symbol for future development 5.75(4) ‘The countries to which the Convention applies . . .’ 5.76(5) ‘A Union for the protection of the rights of authors in their

literary and artistic works’ 5.79

III THE BERNE CONVENTION AND BEYOND

6. Fundamentals of Protection (articles 3–6 and 18–20)


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I. ADMISSION TO PROTECTION UNDER THECONVENTION 6.03

A. Points of Attachment for Application of the Convention 6.04(1) Nationality or habitual residence of the author 6.04

(a) Union authors 6.04(b) ‘Habitual residence’ 6.05(c) Time at which the habitual residence criterion becomes

applicable 6.07(d) Several places of habitual residence 6.09(e) Works protected 6.10(f ) Historical background 6.11

(2) Non-Union authors: country of first publication 6.13(a) History of the protection of non-Union authors based on

the country of first publication 6.14(b) The development of the present position 6.15

(3) Supplemental criteria of attachment for cinematographic andarchitectural works whose authors are not Union nationals orresidents 6.16(a) Cinematographic works 6.16(b) Architectural works 6.17(c) Successors in title 6.18

(4) Restriction of protection for non-Union authors 6.19(a) Precondition for retaliation 6.20(b) Appraisal of article 6 6.21

B. The Meaning of ‘Published Works’ 6.22(1) History of the definition 6.23

(a) The Berne Conferences 6.23(b) The Paris Revision 6.24(c) The Berlin and Paris Revisions 6.25(d) The Brussels Revision 6.26

(2) The elements of the present definition of ‘published works’ 6.27(a) Its scope of application 6.27(b) The need for the author’s consent 6.28(c) Copies 6.29(d) Meaning of ‘publication’ (‘edition’) 6.31(e) Acts constituting an ‘edition’ 6.32(f ) ‘Quantum necessary’ 6.33(g) ‘Reasonable requirements of the public’ 6.36(h) Place of manufacture of copies and place of publication 6.38(i) The meaning of ‘the public’ 6.39(j) Need for intention 6.40(k) Time of publication 6.41(l) ‘Simultaneous publication’ 6.42

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(3) Acts not constituting publication: the negative aspect of thedefinition 6.43(a) Performance, recitation, communication by wire and

broadcasting 6.44(b) Exhibition of works of art and construction of works of

architecture 6.45(4) Defects in the definition of ‘published works’ 6.46

(a) Digital communications as ‘publication’ 6.52

C. Attributing Nationality to a Work: Country of Origin 6.53(1) Consequences of determining a work’s country of origin under

article 5(4) 6.53(2) Identifying the country of origin 6.54

(a) Operation of rules concerning country of origin 6.56(b) Situations not covered by the rules concerning the country

of origin of works 6.57(c) Country of origin and habitual residence 6.58

(3) Problem Cases: digital publication and country of origin;changes in the country of origin of a work 6.59(a) Changes in the country of origin of a work 6.65(b) Changes in the author’s nationality 6.66(c) Dual nationality 6.68(d) Publication in a non-Union country which later accedes to

the Union 6.69(e) Position of author whose country of nationality leaves

the Union 6.70

II. REGIME OF PROTECTION 6.71

A. General Considerations 6.71(1) A question of choice of laws 6.72

B. Basic Rule: National Treatment 6.74(1) The development of the principle of national treatment 6.74

(a) The Paris and Berlin Revisions 6.76(b) Simultaneous publication under the Berlin Act 6.77(c) The later revisions 6.78(d) Implications of the lack of material reciprocity 6.79

(2) Development of the corresponding principle of minimumprotection 6.80(a) The early Acts 6.81(b) The later Acts 6.82

(3) Development of principles of independence of protection andabsence of formalities 6.83(a) The Berne Act 6.84(b) The Paris Declaration 6.85(c) Evidentiary presumptions 6.86

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(d) The Berlin Revision 6.87(4) National treatment under the Stockholm, Paris Acts 6.88

(a) In general 6.88(b) The application of the principle of national treatment 6.89(c) The relationship between national treatment and ‘rights

specially granted’ 6.90(5) Independence of protection and absence of formalities under

the Stockholm, Paris Acts 6.91(a) Formalities 6.92

C. The Scope of the Principle of National Treatment 6.93(1) Breadth of coverage of the rule of national treatment 6.93

(a) Comparison of the scope of minimum rights with the scopeof national treatment 6.97

(2) Exceptions to the rule of national treatment 6.98(a) Matters other than existence and scope of protection and

remedies 6.99(b) Disjunction between the country where protection is

claimed, and the country for which protection is claimed 6.100

D. Substantive Minima 6.101(1) Absence of formalities 6.101

(a) Policy underlying the prohibition 6.101(b) Meaning of ‘formality’ 6.102(c) Formalities as to the exercise of rights 6.104(d) Requirements outside the scope of prohibited formalities 6.105(e) Reconciling the prohibition on formalities with the goals of

public notification and identification of right holders 6.107(2) Other substantive minima 6.109(3) Limitations or restrictions on protection under the Convention:

a principle of ‘maximum protection’? 6.110

E. Retroactive Application of the Convention upon New MemberState Accessions 6.112(1) The problem 6.112(2) Development of Berne Convention retroactivity rules 6.113

(a) Retroactivity under early bilateral copyright agreements 6.113(b) Retroactivity under the Berne Convention: the Berne Act 6.114(c) The Paris Revision 6.115(d) The later revisions 6.116

(3) The interpretation of the present article 18 6.117(a) The general principle (paragraph (1)): beneficiaries of

protection 6.117(b) Works excepted from the obligation to extend or restore

copyright 6.118(c) No renewal of protection (paragraph (2)) 6.121

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(d) The application of the principle (paragraph (3)) 6.122(e) New accessions and other cases (paragraph (4)) 6.124

III. SUBSEQUENT AGREEMENTS BETWEEN UNIONCOUNTRIES 6.126

A. Background 6.126(1) The effect on existing bilateral agreements 6.127

B. Interpretation of the Present Article 20 6.128(1) ‘More extensive rights’ 6.128(2) Agreements containing ‘other stipulations’ 6.128

C. Agreements Inconsistent with Article 20 6.129(1) Agreements to modify or suspend provisions of the Convention 6.130

(a) The effect of the UCC 6.131

D. The Relationship Between Articles 19 and 20 6.132

E. Beyond the Berne Convention: Interplay of the New TRIPsAgreement and WCT Protections and Berne Convention,articles 5(1), 19, and 20 6.134(1) Consistency of the TRIPs Agreement with Berne Convention,

article 20 6.136(2) Transitional provisions: TRIPs Agreement, article 65; WCT,

article 13 6.138

7. Authorship and Ownership


B. Who is an Author? 7.02(1) The meaning of ‘author’ 7.02(2) Works by multiple authors 7.06(3) Multiple creators: the special case of cinematographic works 7.07(4) The phenomenon of ‘deemed authorship’ 7.10(5) Consistency of ‘deemed authorship’ with the Berne Convention 7.12(6) Proving authorship: presumptions 7.16

(a) Presumptions as to authorship in infringementproceedings 7.16

(b) Presumptions as to the maker of a cinematographic work 7.17(c) Presumption as to the creator of a work of folklore 7.18

(7) Proving authorship and ownership: applicable law 7.19(a) How authorship and ownership are to be determined in

particular cases 7.19

C. Ownership of Rights 7.22(1) Ownership and exploitation of rights 7.22

(a) Effective protection under the Convention: minimumrequirements 7.22

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(b) Effective protection under the Convention: adoption ofcommon rules of applicable law 7.22

(2) Transfers of ownership: ‘successors in title’ 7.23(3) Ownership of rights in cinematographic works 7.24

(a) Background to the problem 7.24(b) The early investigations 7.25(c) The preparations for the Stockholm Revision 7.26(d) The final proposals for Stockholm 7.29(e) The discussions at Stockholm 7.30(f ) Interpretation and critique of article 14bis (2) and (3) 7.31

D. Beyond the Berne Convention 7.42

8. Works Protected by the Convention (Berne Convention, articles 2and 2bis; TRIPs Agreement, article 10; WCT, articles 4 and 5) 8.01

A. Introduction 8.01(1) The meaning of ‘literary and artistic works’: the general definition 8.01(2) ‘Every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain’ 8.02(3) ‘Production’ 8.03(4) Merit and purpose of work 8.04(5) Originality 8.05

(a) ‘Literary, scientific and artistic’ 8.06(b) ‘Whatever may be the mode or form of its expression’ 8.07

B. The Enumeration in Article 2(1) and its Effect 8.08(1) The works specifically addressed by the Convention 8.13

(a) The enumeration of protected works 8.13(2) Works excluded or left to national determination 8.14

C. Specific Categories of Works 8.15(1) Books, pamphlets, and other writings 8.15(2) Lectures, addresses, sermons, and other works of the same nature

(oral works) 8.16(a) History of their protection 8.16(b) The Paris Act 8.18

(3) Dramatic or dramatico-musical works 8.22(4) Choreographic works and entertainments in dumb show 8.24

(a) History of their protection 8.24(b) The Paris Act 8.27

(5) Musical compositions, with or without words 8.28(a) History of their protection 8.28(b) The Paris Act 8.29

(6) Cinematographic works to which are assimilated works expressedby a process analogous to cinematography 8.31(a) History of their protection 8.31(b) The Paris Act 8.38

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(7) Various categories of artistic works 8.42(a) Works of drawing, painting, architecture, sculpture,

engraving and lithography 8.42(b) Photographic works to which are assimilated works expressed

by a process analogous to photography 8.48(c) Works of applied art 8.59(d) Illustrations, maps, plans, sketches and plastic works relative

to geography, topography, architecture or science 8.70(8) Other categories of work required to be protected under the

Convention 8.74

D. Derivative Works: Translations, Adaptations, MusicalArrangements and Other Transformations of a Literary orArtistic Work 8.75(1) Meaning of ‘derivative work’ 8.75

(a) History of article 2(3) 8.76(b) The scope of the present provision: translations 8.78(c) Arrangements of music and adaptations 8.79(d) An historical digression 8.80(e) Adaptations and other alterations 8.81

(2) ‘Without prejudice to the copyright in the original work’ 8.82(3) Works of compilation 8.84

(a) History of article 2(5) 8.85(b) The interpretation of article 2(5) 8.86(c) ‘Intellectual creations’ 8.87

E. Exclusions from the Protection of the Convention 8.104(1) Mandatory exclusion: news of the day and miscellaneous facts 8.104(2) Optional exclusions: official texts 8.107

(a) The meaning of ‘official texts of a legislative, administrativeand legal nature’ 8.108

(b) Official translations 8.108

F. Other Works not Expressly Mentioned in the Convention 8.109(1) Broadcasts, sound recordings, and the interpretations of

performing artists 8.110(a) Sound and television broadcasts 8.111(b) Sound recordings 8.112(c) Interpretations of performers 8.113

(2) Other categories of works not protected 8.115(a) Titles, slogans, and other insubstantial works 8.115(b) Proposals to protect titles at the Brussels Conference 8.116(c) Works of folklore 8.117

G. Beyond the Berne Convention 8.120(1) Computer programs 8.121

(a) The TRIPs Agreement and computer programs 8.121(b) WIPO Copyright Treaty and computer programs 8.126

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(2) Databases 8.128(a) The TRIPs Agreement and databases 8.128(b) WIPO Copyright Treaty and databases 8.132

H. Comparative Table of Works Protected 8.134

9. Duration of Protection (Berne Convention, articles 7 and 7bis;TRIPs Agreement, article 12; WCT, article 9)


B. General Considerations 9.02(1) Reasons for limiting duration of copyright protection 9.02(2) Length of protection 9.07

(a) The dual aspect of copyright 9.13

C. Historical Background 9.14(1) The general term of protection 9.14

(a) Rome proposals 9.22(b) The Brussels Revision 9.24(c) Under the Stockholm, Paris Acts 9.25(d) Proposals for longer terms 9.26

(2) Special terms of protection 9.27(a) Photographic works 9.28(b) Cinematographic works 9.30(c) Works of applied art 9.32(d) Anonymous and pseudonymous works 9.33(e) Works of joint authorship 9.34

(3) Categories of work addressed in earlier texts of the Convention 9.37(a) Posthumous works 9.38(b) Works of corporate persons 9.40(c) Other special terms 9.43

D. The Present Position 9.44(1) In general 9.44(2) Special classes of works under article 7(2), (3), and (4) 9.46

(a) Photographic works 9.46(b) Cinematographic works 9.47(c) The disjunction between ‘made available to the public’

and the definition of ‘published works’ 9.48(d) Works of applied art 9.49(e) Anonymous and pseudonymous works 9.50(f ) Works of folklore 9.51(g) Works of joint authorship 9.52

(3) Calculation of term when some member states’ terms areshorter or longer than others 9.53(a) Accommodation of countries with shorter terms 9.53

(4) Countries with longer terms of protection 9.54

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(5) Comparison of terms 9.55(a) Date for computation of term 9.56

(6) Paying public domain 9.57

E. Beyond the Berne Convention 9.60(1) The TRIPs Agreement: article 4 9.61(2) The TRIPs Agreement: article 12 9.62(3) WIPO Copyright Treaty and the duration of photographs 9.64(4) Proposals for a longer term in general 9.65

9A. General Introduction to Chapters 10–12: Rights Protected

A. Background: The Articulation of Rights in National Legislation 9A.02

B. The Articulation of Rights under the BerneConvention 9A.06(1) Reproduction rights 9A.06(2) Adaptation rights 9A.06(3) Rights pertaining to physical copies 9A.06(4) Rights of communication to the public 9A.06

C. The Articulation of Rights under Later Instruments 9A.07(1) Rights pertaining to physical copies 9A.08(2) Rights of communication to the public 9A.09

10. The Rights Protected by the Convention: Moral Rights (article 6bis)

A. History of Moral Rights and the Berne Convention 10.02(1) Proposals at the Rome Conference 10.07(2) The Brussels Revision 10.11(3) The Stockholm Revision 10.12(4) Moral rights and cinematographic works at the Stockholm

Revision 10.13

B. Interpretation of the Present Article 6bis 10.15(1) Independence of moral rights 10.16(2) Exercise after transmission of economic rights 10.17(3) Transfer of moral rights 10.18(4) The right to claim authorship 10.19(5) The right to protect the integrity of the work 10.20

(a) ‘Any distortion, mutilation or other modification of, orother derogatory action in relation to . . .’ 10.21

(b) Destruction of the work 10.26(c) Prejudice to the honour or reputation of the author 10.27

(6) Duration of moral rights 10.33(a) Duration of moral rights in cinematographic and

photographic works and works of applied art 10.35(7) Mode of protection of moral rights 10.36(8) Right of disclosure 10.37

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C. Beyond the Berne Convention 10.38(1) The TRIPs Agreement 10.39

(a) Genesis of the exclusion of moral rights from TRIPsAgreement, article 9(1) 10.40

(b) Justification for the exclusion of moral rights 10.41(c) Analysis of article 9 10.42(d) ‘[R]ights conferred under article 6bis of that Convention or

the rights derived therefrom’ 10.43(2) Moral rights in the WIPO Treaties 10.47

D. Comparative Table of Moral Rights Provisions 10.48

11. The Rights of Reproduction, Adaptation, and Distribution(Berne Convention, articles 8, 9, 12, 14, 14bis (1), 14ter, and 16;TRIPs Agreement, articles 11 and 14(4); WCT, articles 6 and 7)

A. The Exclusive Right of Reproduction and its Derivatives 11.01(1) Introduction 11.01

B. Reproduction 11.03(1) Development of the right in the Berne Convention 11.03

(a) The basic right 11.03(b) Reproduction in other forms: mechanical, cinematographic,

and translations 11.07(2) The 1967–71 Stockholm, Paris Acts 11.19

(a) The basic right 11.19(b) Reproduction in other forms: mechanical, cinematographic,

and translations 11.21(c) The scope of the present reproduction right 11.26

C. Adaptations 11.28(1) The development of a general principle of adaptation rights 11.28

(a) Background to article 12 11.29(2) The general right of adaptation in the Stockholm, Paris Acts 11.34

(a) Scope of the present article 12 11.34(b) Ambiguities concerning the respective scope of the

reproduction and adaptation rights 11.35

D. Rights Pertaining to Physical Copies 11.38(1) Author’s right of access to a physical copy 11.39(2) Rights of distribution and subsequent disposal 11.40(3) Distribution rights under the Berne Convention 11.45

(a) Right of seizure 11.46(b) Method of seizure 11.47(c) Importation right with respect to mechanical

reproductions 11.48(d) Distribution right with respect to cinematographic

adaptations and reproductions 11.49

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(e) Proposals for a general right of distribution 11.51(4) The droit de suite 11.53

(a) The provenance of the droit de suite 11.54(b) Justifications for the droit de suite 11.55(c) Droit de suite under the Berne Convention 11.59(d) Interpretation of article 14ter 11.62

E. Beyond the Berne Convention 11.68(1) The scope of the reproduction right in the WCT 11.69(2) Rights pertaining to physical copies 11.76

(a) Importation rights in the TRIPs Agreement 11.77(b) Rental rights in the TRIPs Agreement and the WCT 11.81(c) General distribution rights in the WCT 11.88

F. Comparative Table of Reproduction, Adaptation, andDistribution Rights 11.95

12. Rights of Communication to the Public (Berne Convention,articles 11, 11bis, 11ter, 14, 14bis; WIPO Copyright Treaty, article 8)

I. INTRODUCTION 12.01

A. Communication to the Public: Direct (Public Performance)and by Transmission 12.01(1) Meaning of ‘public’ 12.02

II. THE RIGHT OF PUBLIC PERFORMANCE 12.03

A. Relevant Texts 12.03(1) Meaning of ‘performance’ 12.04

B. History 12.07(1) History of article 11 12.07(2) Recognition of performing rights in the case of cinematographic

adaptations and reproductions, and sound recordings 12.08(3) Adoption of a general right of public performance 12.09(4) Right of public recitation 12.12

C. Present Scope of the Public Performance Rights 12.13(1) Present scope of the public performance rights in article 11 12.13(2) Right of public recitation (article 11ter (1), (2)) 12.14(3) Public performance of cinematographic adaptations and

reproductions of works and cinematographic works (articles14(1)(ii), 14bis (1)) 12.15

D. Beyond the Berne Convention 12.16

III.RIGHTS OF COMMUNICATION TO THE PUBLIC BYTRANSMISSION 12.17

A. Relevant Texts of the Berne Convention and Later Instruments 12.17

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B. History 12.18(1) General background 12.18(2) History of broadcasting and cable distribution rights under the

Berne Convention 12.22(3) Cable and other retransmissions 12.24(4) History of satellite transmission rights under the Berne

Convention 12.28

C. Present Scope of the Berne Convention Rights ofCommunication to the Public by Transmission 12.31(1) ‘Any communication to the public’ under articles 11 and 11ter 12.31(2) Communication to the public by wire of cinematographic works 12.32(3) The scope of the present article 11bis 12.33(4) Broadcasting 12.34(5) Satellites 12.35(6) Rebroadcasting 12.36(7) Distribution of broadcasts by cable and other means of wired

transmissions 12.37(a) Cable distribution of FSS transmissions 12.39(b) Webcasting and other digital secondary transmissions 12.39(c) Other public communications of broadcasts 12.41(d) Interpretation of article 11bis 12.42

D. Gaps and Ambiguities in Coverage 12.43(1) Works of visual art (other than cinematographic works) 12.44(2) Rights of public exhibition of artistic works through national

treatment 12.45(3) Text of literary, musical, dramatic, and dramatico-musical works 12.46(4) Communications not clearly covered 12.47(5) On-demand digital transmissions 12.48(6) On-demand transmissions ‘to the public’ 12.50(7) Pay per view 12.52

E. Beyond the Berne Convention 12.53(1) The TRIPs Agreement 12.53(2) WIPO Copyright Treaty 12.54

(a) Communication to the public 12.54(b) ‘Making available to the public’ 12.57(c) Modes of ‘making available’ 12.59(d) Direct and indirect ‘making available’ 12.60

(3) Exclusive rights and compulsory licences 12.62

F. Comparative Table of Performance and CommunicationRights 12.63

13. Restrictions on the Exercise of Rights: Limitations and Exceptions


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B. Permissible Restrictions under the Berne Convention 13.03(1) Development of a general exception concerning reproduction

rights (article 9(2)) 13.03(a) Interpretation of article 9(2) 13.10(b) Instances of uses covered by article 9(2) 13.31

(2) Specific exceptions to reproduction and other rights 13.38(a) Quotation rights 13.38(b) Utilization for teaching purposes 13.43(c) Protection of the right of paternity in respect of lawful

quotations and utilizations for teaching purposes 13.46(d) Exceptions made for the benefit of the press 13.47(e) Reporting of lectures, addresses, and other similar works 13.56(f ) Reservations and conditions with respect of the recording of

musical works 13.59(g) Contributions to the making of a cinematographic work 13.66(h) Conditions on the exercise of broadcasting and other rights 13.67(i) Ephemeral recordings of broadcast works 13.72

(3) Implied exceptions under the Convention 13.78(a) ‘Minor reservations’ 13.79(b) General comments on the scope of ‘minor reservations’ 13.82(c) Implied exceptions with respect to translation rights 13.83

(4) Other limitations on authors’ rights imposed in the publicinterest 13.88(a) The police power under article 17 13.88(b) Limitations in respect of abuses of monopoly 13.91

(5) Illustrative table of limitations and exceptions under Berne 13.93

C. Beyond 13.94(1) Limitations and exceptions under the TRIPs Agreement 13.94

(a) TRIPs Agreement provisions referencing the BerneConvention (articles 9(1) and 3(1)) 13.94

(b) As a specific TRIPs obligation under article 13 of the TRIPsAgreement 13.97

(c) The exclusive reproduction right and article 9(2) of Berne 13.104(d) Other exclusive rights and exceptions 13.105(e) Rights under the TRIPs Agreement 13.106(f ) Rights and exceptions under Berne (other than article 9(2)) 13.107(g) Illustrative table of the relationship between article 13 of the

TRIPs Agreement and Berne 13.115(2) Limitations and exceptions under the WIPO Copyright Treaty 13.116

(a) WCT provisions referencing Berne 13.117(b) Article 10 13.125(c) Illustrative table setting out relationship of article 10 of the

WCT to the Berne Convention 13.128(3) Technological protection measures and exceptions 13.129

(a) The case of quotation rights 13.132

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VOLUME II

14. Developing Countries


B. The Position of Developing Countries Under the Earlier Actsof the Convention 14.03(1) The Stockholm Protocol and its origins 14.05(2) The effect of the Universal Copyright Convention 14.06(3) The first signs of interest in the problems of developing

countries 14.07(4) The Brazzaville meeting 14.08(5) The 1964 Study Group report 14.10(6) The 1965 Committee of Governmental Experts 14.12

(a) The countries eligible to apply reservations 14.12(b) The basis for a claim to eligibility 14.12(c) The time for making of reservations 14.12(d) Duration of reservations 14.12(e) The nature of the reservations 14.12(f ) Special arrangements in derogation of article 20 14.12

(7) The programme for the Stockholm Revision 14.13(8) The prospects of UCC revision 14.15

C. The Stockholm Revision Conference 14.16(1) The parties’ positions 14.16(2) The contents of the Stockholm Protocol 14.18

(a) The definition of a developing country 14.18(3) Reservations permitted 14.19

(a) Duration 14.20(b) Translations 14.21(c) Reproduction licences 14.23(d) Broadcasting 14.24(e) Educational uses 14.25

(4) Length of reservations 14.26(a) Dependent territories 14.27

(5) Countries ceasing to be developing 14.28(6) Provisions to hasten the application of the Protocol 14.29(7) Status of the Protocol 14.30(8) Reservations with respect to translation rights 14.31(9) Proposals for an authors’ fund 14.32(10) The adoption of the Protocol 14.33

D. The Events Following the Adoption of the Stockholm Protocol 14.34(1) The immediate reactions 14.34(2) The steps in the revision of the Stockholm Protocol 14.35

(a) The meeting of the Permanent Committee of the BerneUnion (thirteenth session, Geneva, 12–15 December 1967) 14.36

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(b) The extraordinary sessions of the Permanent Committeeof the Berne Union and the Intergovernmental Committeeof the UCC (Paris, 3–7 February 1969) 14.37

(c) The extraordinary session of the Permanent Committee ofthe Berne Union (Geneva, 20–1 June 1969) 14.40

(d) The meeting of the sub-committee of theIntergovernmental Committee (Paris, 23–7 June 1969) 14.41

(e) The International Copyright Joint Study Group, firstsession (Washington, 29 September–3 October 1969) 14.42

(f ) The Washington Recommendation 14.43(g) Preparations for the Paris Revision Conference 14.45

(3) The programmes for the Paris Revision Conference 14.46(a) The Berne Convention 14.47(b) The UCC 14.48

E. The Paris Act and Appendix 14.49(1) Incorporation of the Appendix into the Paris Act 14.50(2) Definition of a developing country 14.51

(a) Declaration to be made 14.53(b) Duration of declarations 14.54

(3) Countries which cease to be developing 14.55(a) Stock in hand after declaration ends 14.56(b) Application of Appendix to territories 14.57(c) No requirement of material reciprocity 14.58

(4) Translation licences 14.60(a) Works covered by the licence 14.61(b) Licences to be non-exclusive and non-transferable 14.62(c) Who may apply 14.63(d) Circumstances in which an application for a licence may

be made 14.64(e) ‘Language in general use’ 14.65(f ) Further time limits to be observed in the granting of licences 14.66(g) Limitation of purpose of licence 14.68(h) Termination of licences 14.69(i) Works consisting mainly of illustrations 14.70(j) Withdrawal of copies by author 14.71(k) Translations for broadcasting purposes 14.72(l) Use of translations by other broadcasting organizations 14.74(m) Limited aspect of translation licences for broadcasting 14.75(n) Translations of texts incorporated in an audio-visual fixation 14.76(o) Application of remaining provisions of article II to licences

granted under paragraph (9) 14.77(5) Reproduction licences 14.78

(a) Works covered by the licence 14.79(b) Licences to be non-exclusive and non-transferable 14.80(c) Who may apply 14.81

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(d) Circumstances in which a licence may be applied for 14.82(e) ‘Particular edition’ 14.83(f ) Periods of grace for right owners 14.84(g) Restrictions on reproduction of translations 14.85(h) Limitation of purpose of licence 14.86(i) Condition as to price of licensed copies 14.87(j) Termination of licence 14.88(k) Reproductions in audio-visual form 14.89(l) Translation of texts incorporated in audio-visual fixations 14.90

(6) Procedures for applications for licences 14.92(a) Preconditions for the grant of licences 14.93(b) Acknowledgement of author 14.94(c) Export of copies made under licence 14.95(d) Limited exception to the prohibition on exports 14.96(e) Notice on copies 14.97(f ) Payment of compensation 14.98(g) Accuracy of licensed translations or reproductions 14.99(h) The meaning of ‘competent authority’ 14.100

(7) Substitution of reservations in respect of translations forlicences under article II 14.101(a) Accelerated application of Appendix 14.102

(8) Assessment of the Paris Appendix 14.103(a) The immediate responses 14.104(b) Legal consequences 14.105(c) The practical consequences 14.106

F. Beyond the Berne Convention 14.107(1) The TRIPs Agreement 14.107(2) The WCT 14.109

15. New International Obligations: Technological ProtectionMeasures (WCT, articles 11 and 12), Rights ManagementInformation, and Enforcement


B. Technological Protection Measures 15.02(1) The development of WCT, article 11 15.04

(a) The object of the Basic Proposal’s prohibition 15.06(b) The scope of the Basic Proposal’s prohibition 15.07(c) Remedies 15.08(d) From the Basic Proposal to the final text 15.09

(2) Analysis of WCT, article 11 15.10(a) Subject matter protected: ‘effective technological measures’ 15.11(b) ‘Used by authors . . .’ 15.12(c) . . . in connection with the exercise of their rights under

this Treaty or the Berne Convention’ 15.13

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(d) Coverage of access controls 15.14(e) Acts prohibited 15.17(f ) ‘Effective legal remedies’ 15.21

(3) Assessment of article 11 15.22

C. Rights Management Information 15.26(1) Basic Proposal 15.27(2) Amendments made at the Diplomatic Conference 15.29(3) The text of article 12 and its agreed statement 15.30

(a) Subject matter covered: definition of electronic rightsmanagement information 15.31

(b) Conduct prohibited 15.34(c) Knowledge requirements 15.35(d) Scope of ‘induce . . . infringement’ 15.36(e) Remedies 15.38(f ) Relationship to formalities 15.39(g) Other elements of the agreed statement 15.40

D. Enforcement 15.41

16. Administrative and Financial Provisions


B. The Administration of the Berne Union 16.02(1) Conferences of revision 16.02

(a) Background 16.02(b) The obligation to revise the Convention 16.03(c) Time and place of conference 16.04(d) The rule of unanimity 16.05(e) Indirect methods of changing the Convention 16.06(f ) Procedure at conferences 16.07

(2) The Assembly 16.08(a) Functions 16.10(b) Advice of the Coordination Committee 16.11(c) Voting and procedures of the Assembly 16.12(d) Transitional provisions 16.13(e) Conference of Representatives 16.14

(3) The Executive Committee 16.15(a) The Permanent Committee 16.15(b) The Executive Committee 16.16(c) Size of the Committee 16.17(d) Mode of selection of members 16.18(e) Term and re-election of members 16.19(f ) Functions 16.21(g) Advice of the Coordination Committee 16.22(h) Meetings 16.23(i) Voting 16.24

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(j) Observers 16.25(k) Procedures 16.26(l) Transitional 16.27(m) Proposals to abolish the Executive Committee 16.28

(4) The International Bureau 16.29(a) Background 16.29(b) The International Bureau under the Stockholm and

Paris Act 16.32(c) The Director General 16.33(d) Functions of the International Bureau 16.35(e) Relations with other international organizations and states 16.36

C. Finances of the Berne Union 16.37(1) Background 16.37(2) The present financial provisions 16.38

(a) The budget of the Union 16.38(b) Income of the Union 16.39(c) Level and share of contributions 16.40(d) Time for payment of contributions 16.42(e) Arrears in payment of contributions 16.43(f ) Failure to adopt the budget 16.44(g) Fees and charges for services rendered by the Union 16.45(h) Working capital fund 16.46(i) Advances by the Swiss Government 16.47(j) Auditing of accounts 16.48

D. Special Method of Amendment for Berne AdministrativeProvisions 16.49

E. Beyond the Berne Convention 16.50(1) The TRIPs Agreement 16.50(2) The WCT 16.51

(a) In general 16.51(b) The WCT Assembly 16.52(c) International Bureau 16.56(d) Financial provisions (or the lack thereof ) 16.57

(3) The WPPT 16.58

17. Membership, Territory, and Application of the BerneConvention and Later Agreements (the Final Clauses)


B. The Berne Convention 17.02(1) Membership and territory of the Union 17.02(2) Ratification and accession 17.03

(a) In general 17.03(b) The early Acts 17.04

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(c) Adherence to the Stockholm and Paris Acts by Unioncountries 17.05

(d) Entry into force 17.06(e) Adherence to the Paris Act by non-Union countries 17.07(f ) The status of earlier Acts 17.08(g) Ratification of, or accession to, the Stockholm Act 17.15(h) Accession to the Brussels Act in certain circumstances 17.16

(3) The validity of ratifications and accessions 17.17(a) Failure to give effect to the Convention 17.17

(4) Reservations to ratifications or accessions 17.22(a) In general 17.22(b) The Berne and Paris Additional Acts 17.23(c) The Berlin Act 17.24(d) The Rome Act 17.25(e) The Brussels Act 17.26(f ) The Stockholm, Paris Acts 17.27

(5) The current state of reservations under the Convention 17.28(a) Countries still bound by the Berlin Act 17.29(b) Countries still bound by the Rome Act 17.30(c) Countries still bound by the Brussels Act 17.31(d) The Paris Act 17.32

(6) Denunciation of the Convention 17.34(7) Succession of states in Union membership and application of the

Convention 17.35(a) Increases and decreases in territory 17.36(b) The extinction and re-establishment of states 17.37(c) The creation of new states 17.39(d) Creation following dismemberment 17.41(e) Creation following dissolution of a union or federation 17.42(f ) Separation or secession from an existing state 17.43(g) Formation of a union or federation 17.44(h) Grants of independence to former dependant territories 17.45(i) The Berne Act 17.49(j) The Paris Additional Act 17.50(k) The Berlin Act 17.51(l) The Rome Act 17.52(m) The Brussels Act 17.53(n) Paris Act 17.54(o) Application of Convention following independence 17.55(p) The role of the International Office 17.61(q) The effect of state practice 17.63(r) The applicable legal principles 17.64(s) Conclusions 17.66(t) Divided states 17.67

(8) Relations between Union members 17.69

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(a) The application of the different Acts of the Convention 17.69(b) ‘Adaptation’ of protection to the level of the Paris Act 17.75(c) Application in part or whole 17.76(d) Application of the Appendix Concerning Developing

Countries 17.77(e) Application of reservations on an inter se basis 17.78(f ) Continuance of prior reservations where abandoned upon

becoming bound by a new Act 17.79(9) The obligations of Union membership: implementation of the

Convention 17.80(a) Generally 17.80(b) The context in which problems of non-compliance arise 17.83(c) Revision conferences and the Assembly 17.84(d) Settlement of disputes by the International Court of Justice 17.85(e) The applicable rules of customary international law 17.89(f ) Refusal to invite certain states to meetings of Union organs 17.91

(10) The effect of war 17.92

C. Beyond the Berne Convention 17.93(1) The TRIPs Agreement 17.93(2) The WCT and WPPT 17.94

(a) In general 17.94(b) Eligibility (WCT, article 17 and WPPT, article 26) 17.95(c) Rights and obligations 17.100(d) Signature and entry into force 17.102(e) Effective date of becoming a party 17.103(f ) Reservations and denunciation 17.104(g) Languages 17.105

IV OTHER CONVENTIONS ON COPYRIGHTAND NEIGHBOURING RIGHTS

18. The Berne Convention and other Related InternationalConventions on Copyright


B. The Universal Copyright Convention 18.02(1) Origins 18.02

(a) The Montevideo Convention 18.03(b) Subsequent conventions on the American continent 18.04(c) The Caracas Convention 18.05(d) The Central American conventions 18.06(e) The Pan-American Convention of 1902 18.07(f ) The Pan-American Convention of 1906 18.08(g) The Pan-American Convention of 1910 18.09(h) The Pan-American Convention of 1928 18.10

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(i) The position by 1928 with respect to the American states 18.11(2) Moves to merge the Berne Union and the Pan-American

Conventions 18.12(a) The pre-1939 proposals 18.13(b) Amendment of the Berne Convention 18.14(c) A new convention to replace the Berne and Pan-American

Conventions 18.15(d) A ‘bridge’ convention 18.16(e) A third convention 18.17

(3) Progress after World War II 18.18(4) The adoption of the UCC 18.20

(a) Works protected 18.21(b) The principle of national treatment 18.22(c) Formalities 18.23(d) Duration of protection 18.24(e) Rights protected 18.25(f ) Other provisions 18.26

(5) The Berne Safeguard Clause 18.27(a) No effect on the Berne Convention 18.28(b) Sanction for withdrawal 18.29(c) Countries which may be the subject of sanction 18.30(d) Works affected 18.31(e) Countries applying the sanction 18.32(f ) Meaning of ‘withdrawn’ 18.33(g) Application of the Berne Convention in relations between

Berne Union/UCC countries 18.34(h) The 1971 Revision of the UCC 18.37

(6) The Present Relationship between the Berne Convention andthe UCC 18.39(a) The period 1971–86 18.39(b) The period 1986–2005 18.40

19. The Berne Convention and Neighbouring Rights


B. The Rome Convention 19.05(1) Origins 19.05(2) Provisions of the Convention 19.07(3) Performers 19.08(4) Producers of phonograms 19.09(5) Broadcasting organizations 19.10(6) Exceptions 19.11

(a) Private use (article 15(1)(a)) 19.12(b) Use of short excerpts in connection with the reporting of

current events: article 15(1)(b) 19.13

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(c) Ephemeral fixation by a broadcasting organization bymeans of its own facilities and for its own broadcasts:article 15(1)(c) 19.14

(d) Use solely for the purposes of teaching or scientificresearch: article 15(1)(d) 19.15

(e) Limitations contained in domestic laws: article 15(2) 19.16(7) Reservations 19.17(8) Other provisions 19.18(9) Relationship between the Rome and Berne Conventions 19.19

C. The Phonograms Convention 19.22(1) Background 19.22(2) The provisions of the Convention 19.23

D. The Satellites Convention 19.24(1) Provisions of the Convention 19.25(2) Relationship to the Berne Convention 19.26

E. The TRIPs Agreement 19.27(1) In general 19.27(2) Performers (article 14(1)) 19.28(3) Producers of phonograms (article 14(2)) 19.29(4) Broadcasting organizations (article 14(3)) 19.30(5) Rental rights (article 14(4)) 19.31(6) Terms of protection (article 14(5)) 19.32(7) Exceptions and limitations (article 14(6)) 19.33

(a) Article 3(1) 19.33(b) Article 14(6) 19.33

F. The WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty 19.34(1) Preliminary matters 19.35

(a) Origins 19.35(b) Title and preamble 19.36(c) Relation to other conventions 19.37

(2) General provisions 19.38(a) Definitions 19.39(b) ‘Performers’ 19.40(c) ‘Fixation’ 19.42(d) ‘Phonogram’ 19.43(e) ‘Producer of a phonogram’ 19.44(f ) ‘Publication’ 19.45(g) ‘Broadcasting’ 19.46(h) ‘Communication to the public’ 19.47

(3) Eligibility for protection 19.48(4) National treatment 19.49

(a) Limits 19.50(b) Moral rights 19.50(c) Extent of the requirement 19.50

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(d) Application to a contracting party’s own nationals 19.50(e) Rights of remuneration under national laws 19.50(f ) Remuneration right in relation to broadcasting and public

communication 19.50(g) Limited material reciprocity 19.50

(5) Rights of performers 19.51(a) Moral rights 19.52(b) Economic rights 19.54

(6) Rights of producers of phonograms 19.61(a) Right of reproduction (article 11) 19.62(b) Right of distribution (article 12) 19.63(c) Right of commercial rental (article 13) 19.64(d) Right of making available of phonograms (article 14) 19.66

(7) Common provisions 19.67(a) Right to remuneration (article 15) 19.68(b) Limitations and exceptions (article 16) 19.69(c) Term of protection (article 17) 19.70

(8) Obligations concerning technological measures (article 18) 19.71(9) Obligations concerning rights management information

(article 19) 19.72(10) Formalities (article 20) 19.73(11) Reservations (article 21) 19.74(12) Application in time (article 22) 19.75(13) Enforcement of rights (article 23) 19.76(14) Administrative and final clauses (articles 24–33) 19.77

G. Other Relevant Agreements: Past, Present, and Proposed 19.78(1) The Madrid Convention for the Avoidance of Double

Taxation of Copyright Royalties 19.79(2) The 1960 Hague Act of the Hague Agreement Concerning the

International Deposit of Industrial Designs 19.80(3) The Vienna Agreement for the Protection of Typefaces and

their International Deposit and the Film Register Treaty 19.81(4) Audio-visual performers 19.82(5) Databases 19.85(6) Broadcasting organizations 19.87

H. Concluding Comments 19.90

I. Comparative Table of Neighbouring Rights 19.91

V PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW ASPECTSOF INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT ANDNEIGHBOURING RIGHTS PROTECTION

20. Private International Law Matters: Jurisdiction andApplicable Law

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Contents

A. Introduction

B. Jurisdiction to Adjudicate 20.02(1) Judicial power over foreign defendants 20.04(2) Scope of claims adjudicable against foreign defendants 20.05(3) Justiciability of foreign copyright claims 20.07

C. Applicable Law 20.08(1) Introduction: national treatment and choice of law 20.08

(a) Berne Convention, article 5(1) and (2): a choice oflaw rule? 20.08

(b) Inferences to draw from article 14bis(2)(a) 20.12(2) Existence and scope of protection 20.14

(a) Territoriality and the problem of a multiplicity ofpossible laws 20.15

(b) Alternatives to territoriality: law of the country of theinitiating act 20.17

(c) The US ‘root copy’ approach 20.18(d) Objections to the ‘root copy’ doctrine 20.21(e) Communication to the public: the European Union’s

‘initiating act’ approach 20.22(f ) Inferences to draw from WCT, article 8 (‘making available to

the public’) 20.25(g) Alternative points of attachment: author’s residence 20.26(h) Multiple points of attachment 20.29(i) Territoriality bis: presumption that lex fori applies 20.32

(3) Copyright Ownership 20.34(a) Authorship and ownership under the Berne Convention in

general 20.34(b) Private international law choice of law rules 20.38(c) Initial ownership of copyright 20.41(d) Transfers of ownership: basic principle: lex contractus 20.45(e) Derogations from the lex contractus 20.48(f ) Transferability characterized as matter of substantive

copyright law, rather than contract law 20.49(g) Public-policy exceptions 20.51

Appendix 1: Latest text of Berne Convention (1971 Paris Act plusAppendix) 1331

Appendix 2: Miscellaneous Documents relating to the Origins of theBerne Convention and its development 1353

Appendix 3: Universal Copyright Convention, 1971 text 1369Appendix 4: Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers,

Producers of Phonograms and BroadcastingOrganizations 1961 1381

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Appendix 5: Convention for the Protection of Producers ofPhonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication oftheir Phonograms 1389

Appendix 6: Convention Relating to the Distibution of Programme-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite (BrusselsSatellite Convention 1974) 1393

Appendix 7: WIPO Copyright Treaty 1996 1396Appendix 8: WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty 1996 1402Appendix 9: Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual

Property Rights (‘TRIPS’) 1994 (relevant extracts) 1411Appendix 10: Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing

the Settlement of Disputes (Annexe 2 to the WTOAgreement) 1425

Appendix 11: Agreement between WIPO and WTO 1994 1444Appendix 12: Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

(Vienna, 23 May 1969) 1447Appendix 13: Draft Treaty on Databases (Geneva Conference, 1996)

Document CRNR/DC/6 (30 August 1996) 1466Appendix 14: Proposal for Instrument on the Protection of Audiovisual

Performances (WIPO Document IAVP/DC/3, 1 August2000) 1470

All of the Appendices are available as documents to download from thecompanion website for the book. The following documents (listed in italics) areonly available on the companion website of the book, which is freely availableto readers at: http://www.oup.com/uk/booksites/content/9780198259466/

Appendix 15: Berne Convention, 1886: Convention Concerning the Creation ofAn International Union for the Protection of Literary and ArtisticWorks

Appendix 16: Paris Additional Act and Interpretative Declaration, 1896:Additional Act Amending Articles 2,3,5,7,12, and 20, of theConvention of September 9, 1886, and Numbers 1 and 4 of theFinal Protocol Annexed Thereto. Declaration Interpreting CertainProvisions of the Berne Convention of September 9, 1886, and theAdditional Act Signed in Paris on May 4, 1896

Appendix 17: Berlin Act, 1908: Revised Berne Convention for the Protection ofLiterary and Artistic Works

Appendix 18: Berne Additional Protocol, 1914: Additional Protocol to the RevisedBerne Convention of November 13, 1908

Appendix 19: Rome Act, 1928: Revised International Convention for theProtection of Literary and Artistic Works

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Appendix 20: Brussels Act, 1948:Revised International Convention for theProtection of Literary and Artistic Works

Appendix 21: Stockholm Act, 1967: Revised International Convention for theProtection of Literary and Artistic Works

Appendix 22: Records of the International Conference for the Protection of AuthorsRights: Convened in Berne, September 8 to 19, 1884

Appendix 23: Records of the Second International Conference for the Protection ofAuthors Rights: Convened in Berne, September 7 to 18, 1885

Appendix 24: Records of the Third International Conference for the Protection ofAuthors Rights: Convened in Berne, September 6 to 9, 1886

Appendix 25: Records of the Diplomatic Conference: Convened in Paris, April 15 toMay 4, 1896

Appendix 26: Records of the Diplomatic Conference: Convened in Berlin, October14 to November 14, 1908

Appendix 27: Records of the Diplomatic Conference: Convened in Rome, May 7 toJune 2, 1928

Appendix 28: Records of the Diplomatic Conference: Convened in Brussels, June 5 to26, 1948

Appendix 29: Records of the Intellectual Property Conference of Stockholm: June 11to July 14, 1967 Volume II

Appendix 30: Records of the Diplomatic Conference for the Revision of the BerneConvention: Paris, July 5 to 24, 1971

Select Bibliography 1477Index 1513

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NOTE ON SOURCES

A note on sources used for the book is also relevant at this stage. Throughout itslifetime, the Berne Convention has generated an ever-increasing body ofrecords, both from its periodic conferences of revision and from its continuingadministration. Although there is little problem for most readers to gain accessto the records of the last thirty years, those of earlier years are more difficultto locate, particularly outside continental Europe. Yet these records, from theoriginal conferences of 1884–6 onwards, throw important light on the back-ground and meaning of many of the articles of the present Convention, andprovide at least partial explanations for the compromises and concessions thatlie behind them. Such records are by no means complete accounts of thesematters, but they nonetheless constitute an indispensable first tool for any com-prehensive study of the Convention. We have therefore sought to deal withthem as fully as possible throughout the book, in the hope that this will be ofassistance to readers who lack the time and the resources to locate and read theoriginals.

A further vital source for a study of the Convention is to be found in themonthly record of its operations which was published, from its inception, bythe International Office of the Convention which is now administered by theWorld Intellectual Property Organization (‘WIPO’) in Geneva. This record,Le Droit d’Auteur/Copyright, which was only discontinued in 1998, contains allthe official information relating to the Convention (accessions, ratifications,denunciations, and the like), as well as reports of national legislation and juris-prudence relevant to the Convention, and accounts of the activities of nationaland international bodies concerned with copyright matters. It has also carried,from its first year, scholarly commentaries on the Convention, and these form amost important corpus of learning on its interpretation and scope. As with theearly records of the Convention, the early volumes of Le Droit d’Auteur are noteasy to obtain, but WIPO has recently made them available in microfiche.There is, of course, a wide range of other, modern periodical literature dealingwith various aspects of the Convention, but this is all readily available to anyinvestigator (for further details, see the Bibliography).

It should also be stressed, at the outset, that the first edition of the presentbook was by no means the first study of the Berne Convention; nor was it thefirst in the English language. At each stage of its existence, the Convention has

xlvii

attracted a considerable body of sustained, critical writing. As with the earlyrecords and issues of Le Droit d’Auteur, some of these commentaries are nolonger readily available, but it is worthwhile making brief mention here of themore important of them.

A number of short commentaries were written during and immediately afterthe original Berne Conferences of 1884–6, including those of the Frenchscholars Clunet1 and Rivière,2 and the Swiss writers Soldan3 and Droz.4 How-ever, the first major work dealing with the background and events leading up tothe foundation of the Convention was that of Darras which was published justas the Convention was coming into force.5 Another excellent study was pub-lished by Bastide in 1890,6 and in 1906 the first account in English by Briggs7

was published. This was followed in the next year by an extremely thoroughcommentary in German by Ernst Röthlisberger8 who later became Directorof the International Office of the Berne Union. After the revision of the Con-vention in Berlin in 1908, several shorter studies were published by the Belgianwriter Wauwermans9 and the French writer Potu.10 Following the revision inRome in 1928, further important commentaries were written by Raestad (aNorwegian),11 Ruffini (an Italian),12 and Hoffmann (a German).13 However, themost significant work was that written by the distinguished American lawyer,

1 E Clunet, Étude sur la Convention d’Union internationale pour la protection des oeuvreslittéraires et artistiques (1887).

2 L Rivière, La Protection Internationale des Oeuvres Littéraires et Artistiques: Étude de législationcomparé (1897).

3 C Soldan, L’Union internationale pour la protection des oeuvres littéraires et artistiques:Commentaire de la Convention de Berne du 9 Septembre 1886 (1888).

4 N Droz, articles in Journal du droit international privé et de la jurisprudence comparée (Clunet),(1884) vol 11, 441, (1885) vol 12, 163 and 481.

5 A Darras, Du Droit des auteurs et des artistes dans les rapports internationaux (1887).6 L Bastide, L’Union de Berne de 1886, et la Protection internationale des droits des auteurs et des

artistes (1890).7 W Briggs, The Law of International Copyright (1906).8 E Röthlisberger, Die Berner-Uebereinkunft zum Schutze von Werken der Literatur und Kunst

und die Zusatzabkommen: Geschichtlich und rechtlich beleuchtet und kommentiert (1906).9 P Wauwermans, La Convention de Berne (Revisée à Berlin) pour la Protection des Oeuvres

Littéraires (1910).10 E Potu, La Convention de Berne pour la protection des oeuvres littéraires et artistiques . . .

(1914). This appears to have been prepared on the basis of studies which had earlier appeared inLe Droit d’Auteur. See also A Petit, Étude sur la Conférence de Berlin . . . (1911).

11 A Raestad, La Convention de Berne révisée à Rome . . . (1931).12 F Ruffini, De la protection internationale des droits sur les oeuvres littéraires et artistiques

(1927).13 W Hoffmann, Die Berner Uebereinkunft zum Schutze von Werken der Literatur und Kunst

vom 9. September 1886 revidiert in Berlin am 13 November 1908 und in rom am 2 June 1928(1935). See also W Goldbaum, Berner Übereinkunft zum Schutze von Werken der Literatur undKunst, vom 2 juni 1928 (1928); B Marwitz, Die Berner Uebereinkunft und die Römische Konferenz(1928).

Note on Sources

xlviii

Stephen P Ladas in 1938.14 In its account of the origins and development of theConvention up to this time, this last work was previously the most comprehen-sive text, but as it was printed in a relatively limited edition, it is now verydifficult to obtain. Another useful book, which appeared several years beforethat of Ladas was a concise and well-written memoir of the first half-century ofthe Convention published by the International Office,15 and this was sup-plemented fifty years later by the WIPO publication of a collection of commen-tary and primary documents on the centenary of the Convention.16 Severalother commentaries (in German) were published following the BrusselsRevision Conference,17 and the decade preceding the publication of the firstedition of this book saw the appearance of three authoritative works. The first,published by WIPO, was written by the late Claude Masouyé;18 the others werea study in French by Desbois, Françon, and Kéréver,19 and another in Germanby Nordemann, Vinck, and Hertin.20 These last two books also dealt with theother multilateral conventions concerning copyright and neighbouring rights.With respect to the important new international instruments that have emergedin the ‘beyond Berne’ period since the first publication of this book in 1986,there are now a number of English-language commentaries. While it may beinvidious to single out only a few of the most significant of these commentaries,mention should be made of the work of Daniel Gervais;21 Jörg Reinbothe andSilke von Lewinski;22 and Mihály Ficsor.23

The above list only takes account of the major works written in the French,English, and German languages; there have, of course, been further studieswritten in these and other languages. Furthermore, the vast majority of texts on

14 S P Ladas, The International Protection of Literary and Artistic Property (1938).15 L’Union internationale pour la protection des oeuvres littéraires et artistiques: Sa fondation et son

développement, 1886–1936, Mémoire.16 WIPO, 1886–Berne Convention Centenary–1986 (1986).17 A Baum, The Brussels Conference for the Revision of the Berne Convention (1949) (translated

by the US Copyright Office, published originally in [1949] GRUR 1); W Bappert and E Wagner,Internationales Urheberrecht: Kontmentar (1956); W Goldbaum, Verfall und Auflösung der sogen-annten Berner Union und Uebereinkunft zum Schutz von Werken der Literatur und Kunst (1959).

18 C Masouyé, Guide to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works(1978) (also published in French and Spanish).

19 H Desbois, A Françon, and A Kéréver, Les Conventions internationales du droit d’auteur et desdroits voisins (1976).

20 W Nordemann, K Vinck, and P W Hertin, Internationales Urheberrecht und Leistungsschut-zrecht der deutschsprachigen Länder unter Berücksichtigung auch der Staaten der EuropäischenGemeinschaft, Kommentar, Werner, Düsseldorf (1977). Also published in French under the title ofDroit d’auteur international et droits voisins: Commentaire (1983) and in English in 1990.

21 D Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis, 2nd edn (2004).22 J Reinbothe and S von Lewinski, The WIPO Treaties 1996 (2002).23 M Ficsor, The Law of Copyright and the Internet (2001).

Note on Sources

xlix

national copyright laws deal inevitably, at lesser or greater length, with the BerneConvention and related copyright and neighbouring rights agreements, at leastinsofar as they affect these laws. The problem, then, for any student of this areais not the paucity of material, but the sheer bulk of it. Our hope therefore is thatthis book, being concerned solely with the conventions themselves, will drawthis material together and present it in a coherent way.

Note on Sources

l

NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY

A problem of terminology arises before we begin, namely is copyright the cor-rect name by which to describe the rights covered by the Convention? In itsliteral sense, which was that accorded it in the early cases under the first Britishcopyright statute, it is far more limited than the equivalent expression ‘author’sright’ which is used in France, Germany, Italy, and Spain (‘droit d’auteur’,‘Urheberrecht’, ‘diritto di autore’, and ‘derecho de autor’). Nonetheless, in itsgeneral legal usage in English-speaking countries today, ‘copyright’ compre-hends all those rights (apart, perhaps, from moral rights) included within thecontinental concept of ‘author’s rights’. Indeed, in some respects, it goes furtherthan this, being used to describe legal rights conferred on corporate persons,which are usually only covered in European jurisdictions under the rubric of‘neighbouring rights’ (‘droits voisins’, ‘Leistungsschutzrecht’, etc).

Although the latter are not at the centre of the present study (they do receiveseparate treatment in Chapter 19), there can be nothing misleading in usingthe word ‘copyright’ as an equivalent for the expression ‘author’s rights’ as longas this usage is clearly understood. While the term ‘literary and artistic property’might be more appropriate to describe these rights, its use was rejected inthe present context at the very beginning of the Convention’s existence.1 Fromthis time on, ‘copyright’, ‘droit d’auteur’, and ‘Urheberrecht’ have been usedinterchangeably as the terms denoting the subject matter dealt with by theBerne Convention.

Another terminological problem concerns the use of the term ‘performingright’ or ‘performance’ in relation to dramatic and musical works. In French, theword ‘représentation’ is usually adopted in relation to the first (including drama-tico-musical works), while the word ‘éxécution’ is used in relation to musicalworks. While these terms can be directly, and appositely, translated into ‘repre-sentation’ and ‘execution’ in English, for the sake of brevity it seems easier to usethe term ‘performance’ to cover both kinds of act. This is in accordance withlong-established English practice, and imports no difference from the sense inwhich the words ‘representation’ and ‘execution’ are used in French.

1 Actes 1885, 20 (mainly due to objections from the German delegation).

li

A further point of explanation, mainly for English-speaking readers, concernsthe word ‘Act’ which is used throughout the book to refer to the different textsof the Convention which have been adopted by successive conferences of revi-sion. Thus, the expression ‘Berne Act’ is used to refer to the text adopted by theoriginal conferences held at Berne in 1884–6, ‘Berlin Act’ to refer to the textsettled at the revision conference held at Berlin in 1908, and so on.2 To English-speaking lawyers, this usage may appear unusual, as the term ‘Act’ generallyrefers to the highest form of instrument enacted by a sovereign legislative body.In French, however, the term ‘acte’ has a broader meaning. referring to any kindof formal deed or instrument, and it has been used in this sense to refer to thefinal text which has been agreed to by the member nations of the Berne Unionat each successive conference at which the Convention has been revised. Wehave therefore followed this usage in the present text, substituting the Englishword ‘Act’ for ‘acte’. It should also be noted that there is another sense in whichacte is used, and this is to refer to records of proceedings. We have thereforeadopted the abbreviation ‘Actes 1884–6’ to refer to the records of the 1884 to1886 Conferences at Berne, ‘Actes 1908’ to refer to the records of the BerlinRevision Conference of 1908, and so on. Where later conferences’ proceedingswere published in English, they are referred to as ‘Records’.

Another terminological problem is how to refer to the different kinds of legalsystems that are to be found in the various countries of the Berne Union. Broaddescriptive labels, though useful as a form of shorthand, are often inaccurate andmisleading unless their meaning and scope are made clear in advance. Whereappropriate, we have used geographical or regional adjectives to designateparticular groups of countries, for instance ‘Western European’, ‘EasternEuropean’, ‘Asian’, ‘African’, and so on. In a more general sense, we have usedthe expressions ‘civil law’ and ‘common law’ to refer to the main categories oflegal system that are found in most countries of the world. The first term is veryloose, and covers all countries of continental Europe, with the exception of theUK and Ireland, and those countries whose legal systems are derived from thoseof continental Europe, such as Japan, the South American states and African

2 The full fist of expressions used are as follows: Berne Act—text adopted by Berne Conference1886; Paris Additional Act—text adopted by Paris Conference 1896; Berlin Act—text adopted byBerlin Conference 1908; Rome Act—text adopted by Rome Conference 1928; Brussels Act—textadopted by Brussels Conference 1948; Stockholm Act—text adopted by Stockholm Conference1967; Stockholm Protocol—Protocol adopted by Stockholm Conference; Paris Act—textadopted by Paris Conference 1971; Paris Appendix—Appendix adopted by Paris Conference1971; Stockholm, Paris Acts—this composite phrase refers to the substantive articles (arts 1–20)of both the Stockholm and Paris Acts, which are identical. Note, however, that as the Paris Act isan entirely separate Act, it would be wrong to refer to the two Acts as the Stockholm–Paris Act.See further para 14.37 below.

Note on Terminology

lii

states that were formerly French colonies. The expression ‘common law’, on theother hand, refers to those countries whose legal systems are derived fromBritish law, including the United States of America. The adjective ‘Anglo-Saxon’is used by some authors for this purpose, but this hardly seems appropriate inview of the fact that most of the peoples of these countries are not Anglo-Saxonin origin; indeed, the UK itself has component parts that are Celtic in originrather than Anglo-Saxon. Similar objections could be made to the use of theterm ‘Anglo-American’, while the adjective ‘Commonwealth’ would leave outthe USA as well as several other important Berne member countries that are nolonger part of the British Commonwealth. ‘Common law’ therefore seems themost appropriate description to cover all these diverse nations whose legal sys-tems ultimately derive from that of the UK. A third category, no longer relevantfor this edition, was that of ‘socialist countries’, which was used in the firstedition to refer to the USSR and the socialist regimes of Eastern Europe. A finalcategory which cuts across each of those already mentioned is that of ‘develop-ing countries’. This term involves some difficulties of interpretation, and theseare discussed further in Chapter 14 (para 14.51ff ).

The last matter of terminology concerns the use of the expression ‘Inter-national Office’ to refer to the body which undertook the administrative tasks ofthe Berne Union prior to the Stockholm Act. This is in accordance with theusage adopted by WIPO in its English translations of the earlier Acts of theConvention. In these, the French title ‘Bureau del’Union internationale pour laprotection des oeuvres littéraires et artistiques’ was rendered as ‘Office of the Inter-national Union for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works’, and theabbreviated titles ‘Bureau international’ and ‘International Office’ were used.However, these were not ‘official’ translations of the authentic French text,3

and, in new translations published by WIPO as part of the centenary celebra-tions of the Berne Convention in September 1986,4 the expression ‘Bureau’ isused instead of ‘Office’. As these texts are not binding, we have maintained theearlier translation, and therefore refer only to the ‘International Office’ whendiscussing the body that administered the Berne Union prior to the StockholmAct.5 This has the slight advantage that it serves to distinguish this body moreclearly from the ‘International Bureau’ of WIPO which now administers the

3 In this regard, however, it should be noted that in art 31 of the Brussels Act, English wasestablished for the first time as an ‘equivalent text’, and this was done by a committee of English-speaking delegates who adopted the word ‘Office’: Documents de la Conférence réunie à Bruxellesdu 5 au 26 juin 1948, 89, 531.

4 WIPO, The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works from 1886 to1986 (1986), 228–36.

5 The terms ‘Berne Office’, ‘Berne Bureau’, ‘Office of Union’ and the ‘Secretariat’ are also to befound in various writings.

Note on Terminology

liii

Union. In this regard, it should also be noted that, from its inception, theInternational Office was combined with the ‘International Bureau for theUnion for the Protection of Industrial Property’, and these were later known,unofficially, as the ‘Bureaux Internationaux Reunie pour la Protection de la Propri-ete Intellectuelle’ or ‘BIRPI’.6 As for the terms ‘Berne Union’ and ‘Union’, themeaning of these is discussed in detail in Chapter 5.

6 See further Chapter 16 below.

Note on Terminology

liv

NOTE AS TO TRANSLATIONS

As the original language used in the records of conferences and publicationsconcerning the Berne Convention was French, we have supplied English trans-lations of any quotation that has been used in the text. Except where thecontrary is indicated, these translations are our own and, where it seems neces-sary, we have included the French original in the accompanying text or in afootnote. In the case of proper and place names, we have used English transla-tions throughout, except in the case of several well-known and generally usedabbreviations of the original French names, such as ALAI and BIRPI. All titlesof books, monographs, and periodical articles appear in the language of theoriginal text.

lv

FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION

It is a pleasure to welcome this magisterial work by Mr Sam Ricketson, of theMelbourne Law School, on the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literaryand Artistic Works.

We were privileged to have Sam Ricketson with us for over two years as theHerchel Smith Senior Fellow in Intellectual Property Law, and his new workis the product of his prodigious labours during that period. It is the mostcomprehensive work to have been published on the Berne Convention, thecentenary of which was celebrated last year. The author’s treatment of thiscomplex subject is both wide and penetrating, a skilful blend of history, policydiscussion, examination of relevant issues of treaty law and a rigorous analysis ofthe text of the Convention and its effect on national laws. Those who have aserious interest in copyright will find this handsome volume an indispensableguide through this important and complex branch of intellectual property law.

R M GoodeCentre for Commercial Law Studies

Queen Mary CollegeApril 1987

lvii

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

Background to the present study

In September 1986, the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary andArtistic Works was a century old. From an original membership of nine nations,chiefly concentrated in Europe, it now covers all continents, and, as of January1986, had seventy-six member states. These include nations at all stages ofeconomic and social development, and embrace all kinds of political ideologies.At the same time, significant imbalances and gaps remain in the membership ofthe Convention, or the Berne Union (as it is often called). It is still largelyEurocentric in character, and three of the most important countries in the worldhave not yet become members—the USA, the USSR, and the Peoples’ Republicof China. Indeed, the area to which the Convention now applies in 1986 is notmuch larger than was the case in 1886, when it was extended to the vast colonialempires of several of its original members.

In this period, the problems to which the Convention was originally directedhave also radically changed. From an initial, and laudable, concern with therights of authors and the encouragement and reward of intellectual creativity,the present century has witnessed major technological developments whichhave had the contradictory effects of undermining and extending those rights.Furthermore, the pressure from users of copyright material, always strong, hasintensified, with demands for readier access to this material from developingnations. An international convention, conceived at a time when WesternEuropean culture and civilization were in their most dominant and crusadingphase, has had to adapt to changing times and circumstances, and, despite itsperiodic revisions, this process of adjustment has not always been an easy oreven adequate one. Problems of relevance have become more pronounced, and,as with other major multilateral international agreements the differencesbetween member states have become more marked. Moreover, it no longerremains the only major world copyright convention: since 1952, the UniversalCopyright Convention (the UCC) has come to embrace a wider membershipthan the Berne Convention, and includes both the USA and the USSR. Inrecent years, there have come into existence several other important conventionsdealing with subject matter and rights that are closely related to those dealt within the Berne Convention (often referred to as ‘neighbouring rights’): theseinclude the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers ofPhonograms and Broadcasting Organizations 1961 (the ‘Rome Convention’)

lix

and the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms againstUnauthorized Duplication of their Phonograms, 1971 (the ‘PhonogramsConvention’).

None of the above comments should be taken as meaning that the BerneConvention is presently in crisis. The opposite is the case: the Conventionembodies an impressive and uncompromising level of protection for authorsand their works, and its geographical reach is still very considerable. In addition,the UCC and the neighbouring rights conventions are complementary, and notin contradiction, to the Berne Convention system, and have their origins in it.Nevertheless, it is true to say that the development of the Convention has nowreached a plateau, and the questions of where to proceed and how to do thisappear more intractable than in the past.

In the light of what has been said, it will be clear that there is a need to takestock of this century of development, to evaluate what it means, and to considerwhat the future may hold in store for the Berne Convention.1 In the belief thatthe past informs both the present and future, I have attempted to undertakethese tasks in this study, which falls into the following parts. The first examinesthe history and development of the Convention to the present time. This leadsnaturally to the second part, which is a consideration of the present scope andoperation of the Convention. The concluding part seeks, albeit tentatively andbriefly, to give a tour d’horizon of the future problems and challenges facing theConvention.

By its very nature, Part II is the largest section of the book. Unlike someearlier commentaries I have not attempted to provide a chronological account ofthe separate articles of the Convention, but have arranged the study undersubject headings, such as the conditions necessary for protection, the worksprotected, the rights protected, and so on. The focus throughout is on theprovisions of the Convention itself, and no systematic effort is made to examinethe way in which a member country gives effect to its Convention obligations.In view of the large size of the present membership of the Berne Union, such anundertaking would require a study far longer than this one. Accordingly, wherereaders require detailed information on the laws of particular countries, they arereferred, in the first instance, to the relevant publications of WIPO andUNESCO, and then to any of the specialist texts dealing with these countries.To assist readers in this task, a suitable bibliography is provided at the end of thistext. Where national laws are referred to in the present study, this is done onlyby way of background explanation or illustration, and nothing more. On the

1 Note that the description of the structure of the first edition that follows is significantlydifferent from that which has now been adopted in the new edition.

Preface to the First Edition

lx

other hand, in order to ensure that my treatment of the substantive provisions ofthe Convention is as full as possible, I have treated each in a historical way,beginning with a consideration of the origins of each provision and examiningthe changes which have been made to it in each successive revision of theConvention. To a limited extent, this approach means that there is an overlapwith the broader historical survey in Part I. However, I would justify this overlapon the following grounds. First, Part I is intended to set the overall contextagainst which the Convention has developed; it therefore contains a great dealof subject matter that is not directly related to particular provisions of theConvention. Secondly, it is only possible to understand the meaning and scopeto be accorded to many of the present provisions of the Convention by detailedreference to what has preceded them. Thirdly, many Union countries are stillbound by earlier versions of the Convention, and an understanding of theseearlier texts therefore remains of immediate practical importance.

Preface to the First Edition

lxi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IN THEFIRST EDITION

Although I accept full responsibility for everything that appears in this book, Imust give my thanks to all those who helped me with its writing and finalproduction.

At the institutional level, I must express my gratitude to the University ofMelbourne for the extended leave which I was granted for this purpose. In thesame way, I must thank the Centre for Commercial Law Studies of Queen MaryCollege, London, for providing me with the necessary facilities and support.

On a personal level, my debts are far greater. I am particularly grateful to thefollowing persons: Cohn Howard, the former Dean of the Law School at theUniversity of Melbourne, for his assistance in arranging my leave; Roy Goode,the Director of the Centre for Commercial Law Studies, who unflinchingly tookon the burden of publication; and Jim Lahore, the former Herchel Smith Pro-fessor of Intellectual Property Law in the University of London, who was aconstant source of advice and support throughout. Above all, I must givemy warmest thanks to Dr Herchel Smith for funding my position, and thusenabling me to undertake and complete this project without interruption.

I must also thank the following persons for the time that they have taken toread draft chapters and to discuss knotty problems of substance and style:Stephen Stewart, Jeremy Phillips, Bill Cornish, Denis Galligan, Alan Boyle, andPaul Katzenberger. Mihály Ficsor of WIPO gave me great help in relation to theadministrative and financial provisions of the Convention, providing me with agreat deal of necessary information, while Hamish Sandison of Washingtonperformed a similar service in keeping me informed of developments in theUSA concerning the movement in that country in favour of accession to theBerne Convention. In particular, I must thank Adolf Dietz of the Max-PlanckInstitute in Munich for the time and guidance which he so generously affordedme. I benefited greatly from my discussions with him, and these did much toclarify my overall perspective of the subject of authors’ rights.

On a more practical level, I must also express my appreciation to HilaireOmokolo and the library staff at WIPO for their unflagging and courteousassistance during my visits to Geneva, and to the administrative and secretarialstaff at the Centre for Commercial Law Studies here in London for all the helpthey have given. In particular, I must mention Suzanne Emmery, Nicola Jones,

lxiii

Michelle Balgobin, and Janet Bush. Louise Herron, a postgraduate student at theCentre, rendered a most important (and necessary) service in verifying mytranslations, and Toks Williams and John Herbert undertook the onerous taskof editing and preparing the final text for printing. The index was skilfullycompiled by Robert Spicer and the bibliography by Rosemary and John Ayton.I must also pay tribute to the work of Hilary Norman in the design of the book,in particular the cover. In the same way, I must thank Alan Hawkins of TheEastern Press for his advice and assistance throughout the production process.

Finally, my warmest thanks are due to my wife, Rosemary, and my brother-in-law, John, for their help and support throughout the writing of the book.Living with an author while he is in the throes of writing is never easy, and I amsure they will be as pleased as I am that the task is finally completed!

Sam RicketsonLondon

December 1986

Acknowledgements in the First Edition

lxiv

TABLE OF CASES

A&M Records Inc v Napster Inc 239 F 3d 1004 (2001) (9th Cir (US)) .............. 13.33nAcuff-Rose Music Inc v Campbell 510 US 569 (1994) (Sup Ct (US)) ................. 8.83nAllarcom Pay TV Ltd v General Instrument Corp 69 F 3d 381, 387 (9th Cir 1995) .... 20.18nAmerican Geophysical Union v Texaco Inc 60 F 3d 913 (2d Cir 1994) ............... 13.17nAmundsen v Juven, Civil Tribunal, Seine, 28 November 1907 ....................... 8.54nApple Computer Inc v Franklin Computer Corp 714 F 2d 1240

(3rd Cir 1983) ................................................. 8.121n, 8.124nAssociation Generale des Journalistes Professionnels de Belgique v SCRL Central Station

[1998] ECC 40 RB (Brussels) ............................................ 20.46nAtkinson Footwear Ltd v Hodgskin International Services Ltd (1994) IPR 186

(NZ HC) ............................................................ 20.07n‘August Fourteenth’ case [1976] IIC 134; [1975] CRUR Int 361 (FRG) .......... 6.38n, 6.39

Basset v Societe des Auteurs Compositeurs et Editeurs de Musique (SACEM)(C402/85)[1987] ECR 1747; [1987] 3 CMLR 173; [1987] FSR 572 (ECJ) ....... 9.09n

Beggars Banquet Records Ltd v Carlton Television Ltd [1993] EMLR 349 (Ch D) ...... 7.09nBlanchet v Ingram (1873) 3 TLR 687 ............................................ 6.24Blank v Footman Pretty & Co (1888) LR 39 Ch D 678 ............................. 6.24Bodley Head Ltd v Alec Flegon (t/a Flegon Press) [1972] 1 WLR 680; [1972] FSR 21;

[1972] RPC 587; (1971) 115 SJ 909 (Ch D) ................................ 6.38nBoucciault v Chatterton (1876) 8 Ch D 267 ...................................... 6.24Boucciault v Delafield (1863) Hem and Miller 577 ................................. 6.24Bragance v de Grece (1989) 142 RIDA 301 (CA (Paris)) .......................... 20.51nBritish Leyland Motor Corp Ltd v Armstrong Patents Co Ltd [1986] AC 577;

[1986] 2 WLR 400; [1986] 1 All ER 850; [1986] ECC 534; [1986] FSR 221;[1986] RPC 279;(1986) 5 Tr LR 97; (1986) 83 LSG 974; (1986) 83 LSG 1971;(1986) 136 NLJ 211; (1986) 130 SJ 203 (HL) ............................... 8.43n

British South Africa Co v Companhia de Mocambique [1893] AC 602; [1891–94]All ER Rep 640 (HL) ........................................... 11.52n, 20.07n

Capac v CTV Television Network [1968] SCR 676 (Sup Ct (Can)) ................. 12.28nCCNV v Reid 846 F 2d 1489, 1498 (DC Cir 1988) ............................. 20.40nCentury Communications Ltd v Mayfair Entertainment UK Ltd [1993]

EMLR 335 (Ch D) ..................................................... 7.09nCescinsky v George Routledge & Sons Ltd [1916] 2 KB 325 ....................... 20.40nChristensen v Henriksen and Andersen, Sup Ct of Copenhagen, 17 September, 1906 .... 8.47nCollins (Phil) v Imtrat Handelsgesellschaft mbH (C92/92) [1993] ECR I-5145;

[1993] 3 CMLR 773; [1994] EMLR 108; [1994] FSR 166 (ECJ) .............. 11.65nComputer Edge Pty Ltd v Apple Computer Inc [1986] FSR 537; (1986) 6 IPR 1

(HC (Aus)) ............................................................ 8.93nConstant v Ste Warner Bros – 30 May 1984 (Trib Grde Instance de Paris) ............ 20.51nCorcovado Music Publishing v Hollis Music Inc 981 F 2d 679 (2d Cir 1993) ......... 20.48nCreation Records Ltd v News Group Newspapers Ltd [1997] EMLR 444; (1997)

16 Tr LR 544; (1997) 20(7) IPD 20070; (1997) 94(21) LSG 32; (1997) 141 SJLB107 (Ch D) ........................................................... 7.09n

lxv

Creative Technology v Aztech Systems 61 F 3d 696 (9th Cir 1996) .................. 20.21n

Dastar Corp v Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp 123 S Ct 2041 (2003)(Sup Ct (US)) .................................................... 4.54n, 7.45n

David v Showtime/The Movie Channel Inc 697 F Supp 752 (SDNY 1988) ........... 20.18nDefize v Guillemin, Civil Tribunal, Liege, 7 June 1902 ............................. 8.47nDemetriades v Kaufman 680 F Supp 658 (SDNY 1988) ........................... 8.47nDobrecourt v Laegart, Civil Tribunal, Brussels, 28 November 1906 ................... 8.49nDuke of Queensberry v Shebbeare (1758) 2 Eden 329; 28 ER 924 .................. 10.06n

Eldred v Ashcroft 537 US 186 (2003) (Sup Ct (US)) .............................. 9.11nEnoch et Cie v Societe des phonographs (Unreported – 1 February 1905) (CA (Paris)) .... 6.29Estate of Martin Luther King Jr Inc v CBS Inc 194 F 3d 1211 (11th Cir 1999) ......... 6.49nEuropean Union v India (Unreported – 24 August 1998) (WTO) .................... 4.40n

Famous Music Corp v Seeco Records Inc 201 F Supp 560 (SDNY 1961) ............. 20.18nFraser v Edwardes [1905–10] Mac G Cop Cas 10 (KB) ........................... 10.06nFun-Damental Too Ltd v Gemmy Indus Corp 41 USPQ 2d 1427 (SDNY 1966) ...... 20.18n

GA Cramp & Sons Ltd v Frank Smythson Ltd [1944] AC 329 (HL) ............ 7.04n, 8.08nGaste v Kaiserman 683 F Supp 63, 65 (SDNY), affd 863 F 2d 1061

(2d Cir 1988) ......................................................... 20.18nGee v Pritchard (1818) 2 Swans 402; 36 ER 670 ................................. 10.06n‘Gold Rush’ case 19 May 1972 [1973] 4 IIC 245 (FRG) ............................ 6.38Greenwich Films SA v Societe des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs de

Musique (SACEM) (C22/79) [1979] ECR 3275 (ECJ) ........................ 9.09nGriggs Group Ltd v Evans (No.2) [2004] EWHC 1088; [2005] Ch 153; [2005]

2 WLR 513; [2005] ECDR 12; [2004] FSR 48; (2004) 27(9) IPD 27095(Ch D) .............................................................. 11.52n

Group Jose Reinsurance Co SA v Universal General Insurance Co (C412/98) [2000]ECR 1–5925 (ECJ) .................................................... 20.07n

Hanfstaengl v Empire Palace [1894] 3 Ch 109 (CA) 1.14nHawkes & Son (London) Ltd v Paramount Film Service Ltd [1934] 1 Ch 593 (CA) .... 13.54nHeg, Mulder and Stam v De Volkskrant (24 September 1997) (Amsterdam DC) ....... 20.46nHuston v Turner Entertainment [1992] ECC 334 Cass (Fr) ........................ 20.51nHyperion Records Ltd v Sawkins [2005] EWCA CIV 565 .......................... 8.30n

India (Patent Protection for Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Chemical Products)(Unreported – 19 December 1997) (WTO) ................................. 4.40n

Interlego AG v Croner Trading Pty Ltd (1993) 25 IPR 65 (Sup Ct (Aus)) .............. 8.43nInterlego AG v Tyco Industries Inc [1989] AC 217; [1988] 3 WLR 678; [1988]

3 All ER 949; 1 BLR 271; [1988] 2 FTLR 133; [1988] RPC 343; (1988)132 SJ 698 (PC (HK)) .................................................. 8.43n

Itar-Tass Russian News Agency v Russian Kurier Inc 153 F 3d 82 (2d Cir 1988) ....... 20.43n

Jelles v Municipality of Zwolle (Unreported – 6 February 2004) (HR (NL)) ........... 10.25n

Kalem Co v Harper Bros 222 US 55 (1911) (Sup Ct (US)) 8.31

LA News Service v Reuters Television 149 F 3d 987 (9th Cir 1998) ................. 20.18nLadbroke (Football) Ltd v William Hill (Football) Ltd [1964] 1 WLR 273; [1964]

1 All ER 465; 108 SJ 135 (HL) ...................................... 7.04n, 8.05nLauri v Renad [1892] 3 Ch 402 (CA) .......................................... 20.40n

lxvi

Table of Cases

Law Society of Upper Canada v CCH Canadian Ltd (2004) 60 IPR 650; [2004]FSR 44 (Sup Ct (Can)) ............................................ 7.04n, 8.05n

Lewis Galoob Toys Inc v Nintendo of America Inc (1991) 780 F Supp 1283 .......... 11.75nLexmark International Inc v Static Control Components Inc 387 F 3d 522

(6th Cir 2004) ................................................. 11.83n, 15.11nLondon Film Productions v Intercontinental Communications Inc 580 F Supp. 47

(SDNY 1964) ........................................................ 20.07nLucazeau v Societe des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs de Musique

(SACEM) (C110/88C241/88 and C242/88) [1989] ECR 2811 (ECJ) ............ 9.09nLuck’s Music Library Inc v Gonzales 407 F 3d (DC Cir 2005) ..................... 6.138n

Macklin v Richardson (1770) Amb 694; 27 ER 451 .............................. 10.06nMAI Systems Corp v Peak Computer Inc (1993) 991 F 2d 511 (9th Cir) ............. 11.71nMattel Inc v Walking Mountain Productions 353 F 3d 792 (2003) (9th Cir (US)) ....... 8.83nMegalhaes et Moniz c Muroz Escamoz (Trib de Comm de la Seine

13 November 1913) [1914] DA 38, 39 ..................................... 6.92nMerchandising Corp of America Inc v Harpbond [1983] FSR 32 (CA (Civ Div)) ....... 8.43nMetro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios Inc v Grokster Ltd 234 F Supp 2d 1073; 125

S Ct 2764 (2005) ...................................................... 20.23nMillar v Taylor (1796) 4 Burr 2303; 93 ER 201 (KB) .............................. 2.03nMinistere Public v Tournier & Verney (C395/87) [1989] ECR 2521; [1991]

4 CMLR 248; [1991] FSR 465 (ECJ) ...................................... 9.09nMoore v Edwardes [1901–4] MacG Cop Cas 44 ................................. 10.06n

National Football League v Prime Time 24 211 F 3d 10 (2d Cir 2000) ............... 20.18nNational Football League v TV Radio Now Corp d/b/a iCraveTV, No 00–120

(WD Pa, filed 20 January 2000) .......................................... 20.18nNichols v Universal Pictures Corp 45 F 2d 119, 120 (2d Cir 1930) .................. 15.23nNorowzian v Arks Ltd (No.2) [2000] ECDR 205; [2000] EMLR 67; [2000] FSR 363;

(2000) 23(3) IPD 23026; (1999) 96(45) LSG 31; (1999) 143 SJLB 279(CA (Civ Div)) ......................................................... 7.09n

Opera ‘Tosca’, Re (I ZR 50/83) [1987] ECC 455 BGH (Germany) .................. 6.70n‘Oscar’ trade mark [1980] FSR 429 (Ch D) ....................................... 6.39Owusu v Jackson (t/a Villa Holidays Bal Inn Villas) (C281/02) [2005] QB 801; [2005]

2 WLR 942; [2005] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 452; [2005] 1 CLC 246; [2005] IL Pr 25 (ECJ);2005/C 106/02 OJ of 30.04.2005 ........................................ 20.07n

P & D International v Halsey Publishing Co 672 F Supp 1429 (SD Fla 1987) ......... 20.18nPearce v Ove Arup Partnership Ltd (Jurisdiction) [2000] Ch 403; [2000] 3 WLR 332;

[1999] 1 All ER 769; [1999] IL Pr 442; [1999] FSR 525; (1999) 22(4) IPD 22041;(1999) 96(9) LSG 31; [1999] NPC 7 (CA (Civ Div)) ................. 20.07n, 20.32n

Phillips v Eyre (1870–71) LR 6 QB 1 .......................................... 11.80nPlatinum Records Co v Lucasfilm Ltd 566 F Supp 216 (DNJ 1983) ................. 20.49nPlayboy Enterprises Inc v Chuckleberry 939 F Supp 1032 (SDNY 1996) ...... 20.21n, 20.25nPlayboy Enterprises Inc v Frena 839 F Supp 1552 (MD Fla 1993) .................. 20.23nPlayboy Enterprises Inc v Russ Hardenburgh Inc 982 F Supp 503 (ND Ohio 1997) .... 11.94nPlayboy Enterprises Inc v Webbworld Inc 991 F Supp 543 (ND Tex 1997) ........... 11.94nPope v Curl (1741) 2 Atk 341; 25 ER 608 ...................................... 10.06nPotter v Broken Hill Proprietary Co (1906) 3 CLR 479 ............. 11.52n, 20.02n, 20.07nPowell v Head (1879) LR 12 Ch D 686 ........................................ 20.40nPrince Albert v Strange (1849) 1 H & Tw 1; 47 ER 1302; 1 Mac & G 25; (1849)

18 LJ Ch 120 ......................................................... 10.06nPsihoyos v Liberation Inc 42 USPQ 2d 1947 (SDNY 1997) ....................... 11.52n

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Table of Cases

Quality King Distributors v L’Anza International Inc (1998) 118 S Ct 1125 .......... 11.48n

R Griggs Group Ltd v Evans (No.2) [2004] EWHC 1088; [2005] Ch 153; [2005]2 WLR 513; [2005] ECDR 12; [2004] FSR 48; (2004) 27(9) IPD 27095(Ch D) .............................................................. 20.02n

Religious Technology Centre v Netcom On-Line Communications 907 F Supp 1361(ND Cal 1995) ....................................................... 20.23n

Reparations case (United Nations) [1949] ICJ 174 (ICJ) ........................ 5.69, 6.61Robert Stigwood Group Ltd v O’Reilly 530 F 2d 1096, 1100 (2d Cir 1976) .......... 20.18nRooney v Columbia Pictures Inc 538 F Supp 211 (SDNY), affd 714 F 2d 117

(2d Cir 1982) ......................................................... 20.49n

Schott Musik International Gmbh & Co v Colossal Records of Australia Pty Ltd (1997)36 IPR 267 (Fed Ct (Aus) (Full Ct)) ...................................... 10.22n

Sheldon v Metro-Goldwyn Pictures Corp 106 F 2d 45 (2d Cir 1939) ................ 20.18nShelley Films Ltd v Rex Features Ltd [1994] EMLR 134 (Ch D) ..................... 7.09nShevill v Presse Alliance SA (C68/93) [1995] 2 AC 18; [1995] 2 WLR 499; [1995]

All ER (EC) 289; [1995] ECR I-415; [1995] IL Pr 267; [1995] EMLR543 (ECJ) ............................................................ 20.04n

Silberman v Innovation Luggage Inc 67 USPQ 2d (BNA) 1489 (SDNY 2003) ........ 20.43nSociety d’Information RDG Inc v Dynabec Ltee CS 1189, affd 6 CPR (3D) 322

(Canada) .............................................................. 8.93nSony Computer Entertainment Kabushiki Kaisha v Stevens [2002] FCA 906; [2003]

FCAFC 157 (Fed Ct (Aus)) ............................................. 16.17nSony Corp of America v Universal City Studios Inc 464 US 417 (1984)

(Sup Ct (US)) ................................................... 2.03n, 13.33nSpedidame case (Unreported 15 March 1977) (C Cass (Fr)) ........................ 19.04nSun Trust Bank v Houghton Mifflin 268 F 3d 1257 (11th Cir 2001 (US)) ............. 8.83n

Telstra Corp Ltd v Desktop Marketing Systems Pty Ltd (2001) 51 IPR 257; [2002]FCAFC 112 (Fed Ct (Aus) Full Ct) ........................... 7.04n, 8.05n, 19.86n

Thomson v Larson 147 F 3d 199 (2d Cir 1998) ................................. 20.40nTritech Technology Proprietary Ltd v Gordon (2000) 48 IPR 52 .................... 20.07nTwentieth Century Fox Film Corp v iCraveTV, No 00–121 (WD Pa, filed

20 January 2000) ...................................................... 20.18nTyburn Productions Ltd v Conan Doyle [1991] Ch 75; [1990] 3 WLR 167;

[1990] 1 All ER 909; [1990] RPC 185 (Ch D) ................ 11.52n, 20.02n, 20.07n

Union Syndicale des Journalistes Francais CFDT v SA SDV Plurimedia –3 February 1998 (Trib Gde Inst (Fr)) ...................................... 20.46n

Universal Music Australia Pty Ltd v Cooper [2005] FCA 972 ............... 12.60n, 20.23nUniversal Music Australia Pty Ltd v Sharman License Holdings Ltd – The Kazaa Case

[2004] FCA 183 (Fed Ct (Aus) (Full Ct)) .................................. 20.23nUpdate Art Inc v Modiin Publishing Ltd 843 F 2d 67 (2d Cir 1988) ................ 20.18n

Veeck v Southern Building Code Congress International Inc 293 3d 791(5th Cir 2002) ........................................................ 8.108n

Walter v Lane [1900] AC 539 (HL) ............................................ 7.04nWarne & Co v Seebohm (1888) LR 39 Ch D 73 ........................... 3.05n, 11.31n

‘Zola translation’ case 20 September 1930 [1932] GRUR 283 (Germany) .............. 6.38

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Table of Cases

TABLE OF NATIONAL LEGISLATION

ArgentinaLaw No 11723 on Copyright of 28

September 1933art 34 ......................... 9.29n

AustraliaConstitution s 51(xviii) ........... 17.99nCopyright Act 1912 ............... 8.65n

s 3 ............................ 9.18schedule ........................ 9.18

Copyright Amendment Act1933 ...................... 12.09n

Copyright Act 1968 ............ 4.55, 5.10Part VB ...................... 13.37ns 10(1) ........... 8.47n, 9.34n, 11.27ns 10(1)(c)(i) ................... 11.36ns 22 .......................... 8.16ns 22(4)(a) ...................... 7.09ns 31 .................... 8.04n, 8.47ns 31(1)(a) ..................... 9A.04s 31(1)(a)(i) ............ 11.26n, 11.40ns 31(1)(a)(ii) .................. 10.37ns 31(1)(a)(v) .................. 12.38ns 31(1)(a)(vi) .................. 11.26ns 31(1)(a)(vii) ................. 11.36ns 31(1)(b)(ii) .................. 11.40ns 31(1)(vii) ................... 11.35ns 31(3) ....................... 11.34ns 32 .......................... 8.16ns 33(4)(b) ..................... 7.03ns 35(6) ........................ 7.10ns 36(1) ....................... 15.35nss 37–38 ..................... 11.40ns 47(5) ....................... 13.76nss 48–52 ..................... 13.37ns 49(5)(b) ................... 13.132ns 55(2) ....................... 10.22ns 58 ......................... 13.63nss 74–77 ........................ 8.69ss 74–79 ........................ 9.49s 84 ........................... 7.09s 90 .......................... 7.09nss 97–99 ...................... 7.03n

s 98(2) ......................... 7.35s 116A ....................... 15.16ns 116A(2)–(7) ................ 13.131ns 116D(1) .................... 15.38ns 152A ....................... 13.63ns 177 ........................ 8.108ns 182A ....................... 8.107ns 195AZA(1)(e) ................ 15.38n

Copyright Amendment Act1984 ....................... 8.121

s 3(g) ........................ 11.27nPublic Lending Right Act 1985 ...... 6.94nCopyright Amendment (Moral

Rights) Act 2000s 195AF(2) .................... 9.13ns 195AM ..................... 10.34ns 196AC ..................... 10.19n

Copyright Legislation AmendmentAct 2004 ..................... 4.54

US Free Trade AgreementImplementation Act 2004 ....... 4.54

AustriaFederal Act of Vienna of 8 June

1815 ........................ 1.05Law of 19 October 1846 ........... 1.05n

art 3 .................... 1.14n, 1.15nart 4 ........................... 1.12art 4(b) ....................... 1.08nart 5 ..................... 1.12, 1.12nart 5(b) ....................... 1.16nart 6 .......................... 1.15nart 13 ......................... 1.10nart 22 ......................... 1.10nart 36 ......................... 1.26nart 38 ......................... 1.27nart 42 ......................... 1.19nart 43 ......................... 1.19nart 44 ......................... 1.19n

Law of 13 July 1920art 40 .......................... 9.40art 43 ......................... 9.18nart 47(1) ...................... 9.18n

lxix

Federal Law on Copyright andWorks of Literature and Art andon Related Rights 1936

art 21 ........................ 10.10nart 38 .......................... 7.35art 53 ........................ 13.61n

Law of 9 April 1936 ............... 13.54art 16(1) ..................... 11.40nart 38 .......................... 7.24art 60 .......................... 9.24

BelgiumLaw of 22 March 1886 ............ 1.05n,

1.08n, 1.24nart 1 ............... 1.12n, 1.14n, 6.81art 2 ................ 1.10n, 9.14, 9.18art 4 .......................... 1.19nart 11 .................... 1.19n, 9.40art 12 ......................... 1.12nart 13 ......................... 1.16nart 17 ......................... 1.15nart 21 ......................... 1.14nart 38 ............... 1.25, 1.25n, 6.81

Law of 25 June 1921 .......... 6.79, 11.54Law of 23 September 1921 ........... 6.79

BelizeCopyright Act 2000

art 3(1) .................. 7.06, 20.40n

Benelux countriesUniform Benelux Designs Law 1975

art 21(1) ....................... 8.69art 21(2) ....................... 8.69

BeninLaw of 15 March 1984 ........... 14.106n

art 3(a) ....................... 10.17nart 13 ........................ 13.38n

BoliviaDecree of 13 August 1879 .......... 1.05n

art 7 .......................... 1.10nart 10 ......................... 1.10n

Law of 15 August 1879art 8 .......................... 1.12n

BrazilCivil Code 1916/1917

art 649 ........................ 9.18nart 662 ......................... 9.40

Criminal Codeart 261 ........................ 1.10n

Law No 9610 of 19 February 1998art 38 ........................ 11.56n

BulgariaLaw of 11 July 1921

art 11(1) ...................... 9.18nart 11(3) ....................... 9.40art 18 ......................... 9.18nart 33 ......................... 9.43nart 34 ......................... 9.43n

Law of 15 February 1922art 20 ........................ 10.04n

Law on Copyright of 16 November 1951art 18 .......................... 9.32

Burkina FasoOrdinance affording Protection to

Copyright of 29 September 1983art 87 ......................... 9.58n

Law of 29 February 1984 ......... 14.106n

CameroonLaw No 2000/011 of 19 December

2000 on Copyright andNeighbouring Rights

art 14(4) ..................... 10.33n

CanadaCopyright Act 1921

s 5 ............................ 9.18ss 13–14 ........................ 3.21ss 13–15 ...................... 6.21ns 27 ...................... 3.21, 6.21n

Copyright Amendment Act 1931 ... 12.09ns 10 .......................... 6.104

Copyright Act 1985s 2 ............... 7.06n, 9.34n, 20.40ns 3(1) ........................ 9A.04ns 5(1) ......................... 8.04ns 14.2(1) ..................... 10.34ns 77(1)(2) ...................... 6.108s 77(3) ........................ 6.108

Central African RepublicLaw of 5 January 1985

art 2(a) ....................... 10.17n

ChileLaw of 24 July 1834 ............... 1.05n

art 1 .......................... 1.10n

lxx

Table of National Legislation

Law of 24 July 1834 (cont.):art 2 .......................... 1.10nart 6 .......................... 1.26n

ColombiaLaw of 26 October 1879 ........... 1.05nLaw of 26 October 1886

art 39 ......................... 1.12nLaw of 29 October 1886

art 10 ......................... 1.10nLaw No 23 of 28 January 1982 on Copyright

art 21 ......................... 9.55n

CongoLaw on Copyright and Neighbouring

Rights of 7 July 1982art 28 ........................ 11.26n

Czech RepublicLaw No 86 of 14 March 1996

art 4(2) ....................... 7.44n

CzechoslovakiaLaw of 16 November 1926

art 38 .......................... 9.18art 39 .......................... 9.18

Law of 24 November 1926art 16 ........................ 10.04nart 35 ......................... 11.54

Law of 1 March 1927art 35 .......................... 6.79

Law No 35 of 25 March 1965 onLiterary, Scientific and ArtisticWorks ...................... 7.44n

art 33 .......................... 9.53art 34 ......................... 9.29n

Denmark1741 Ordinance ................... 1.03Law of 29 December 1857 .... 1.05n, 1.10n

art 12 ......................... 1.18nart 13(5) ...................... 1.16nart 23 ......................... 1.27n

Law of 31 March 1864 ............. 1.05nart 4 .......................... 1.09nart 6 .......................... 1.14nart 9 .......................... 1.27n

Law of 24 March 1865art 1 .......................... 1.09n

Amending Law of 10 April 1865 ..... 1.05nAmending Law of 23 February 1866 .. 1.05nAmending Law of 21 February 1868 .. 1.05n

art 1 .......................... 1.10n

Amending Law of 24 May 1879 ..... 1.05nart 1 .......................... 1.12n

Law of 23 February 1886 ........... 1.10nAmending Law of 12 April 1889 ..... 1.05nLaw of 1 April 1912

art 3 ........................... 9.40art 21 .......................... 9.18

Act No 157 on Rights inPhotographic Pictures of21 March 1961

art 15 ......................... 9.29nLaw of 26 June 1975 ............. 11.41nCopyright Act 1995

s 2(3)(ii) ..................... 12.44ns 38 ......................... 11.54n

EstoniaLaw of 20 March 1911

art 10 .................... 9.18, 9.43nCopyright Act of 11 November 1992

art 31(2) ...................... 7.44ns 15 ......................... 11.54n

Copyright Act of 15 February2000 ................ 7.44n, 11.54n

FinlandLaw of 15 March 1880 ............. 1.05n

art 9 .......................... 1.16nart 12 ......................... 1.15nart 16 ......................... 1.14nart 17 ......................... 1.09nart 18(3) ...................... 1.14nart 32 ................... 1.26n, 1.27n

Law of 3 June 1927art 25 .......................... 9.18arts 29–34 .................... 10.04n

Law No 404 of 8 July 1961 onCopyright

arts 11–21 .................... 13.03nart 18 ........................ 13.37nart 26i ....................... 11.54n

Law No 365 of 25 April 1997 ...... 11.54n

FranceCivil Code

art 1382 ................ 10.03, 19.04nDeclaration of the Rights of Man ...... 1.04Revolutionary Laws of 13–19

January 1791 ...... 1.04, 1.05n, 10.03Revolutionary Laws of 19 July–6

August 1792 ................. 1.05nRevolutionary Law of 30 August

1792 ....................... 1.05n

lxxi


Revolutionary Law of 19 July1793 ............. 1.04, 1.05n, 6.104

Revolutionary Law of 19–24 July1793 .................. 10.04, 11.14

art 1 .......................... 8.15nRevolutionary Law of 1 September

1793 ....................... 1.05nRevolutionary Law of 13 June

1795 ....................... 1.05nDecree of 22 March 1805 ........... 1.05nDecree of 29 March 1805 ........... 1.05nDecree of 8 June 1806 ......... 1.05n, 8.58Decree of 20 February 1809 ......... 1.05nDecree of 6 July 1810 .............. 1.05nPenal Code 1810 .................. 1.05nOrdinance of 6 June 1814 .......... 1.05nLaw of 6 May 1841 ................ 1.05nOrdinance of 13 December 1842 .... 1.05nLaw of 3 August 1844 .............. 1.05nDecree-Law of 28 March

1852 ................. 1.05n, 1.06n,1.24, 1.30

Law of 8–18 April 1854 ............ 1.05nDecree of 9 December 1857 ......... 1.05nDecree of 6 January 1864 ........... 1.05nLaw of 10 March 1866 ............ 2.35n,

3.02, 11.07nLaw of 16 May 1866 ............... 1.05nDecree of 14 July 1866 ........ 1.06n, 9.14Law of 14 July 1866 ............... 1.05n

art 1 ...................... 1.10, 6.87Law of 16 July 1866 ................ 9.18Law of 29 July 1881 ............... 1.05n

art 3 .......................... 1.19nart 4 .......................... 1.19n

Law of 10 March 1886 .............. 1.13Law of 29 October 1887 ........... 1.05nLaw of 11 March 1902 ............. 8.61nLaw of 20 May 1920 .......... 6.79, 11.54Decree of 17 December 1920 ......... 6.79Law of 11 October 1946 ........... 9.59nDecree No 56–1215 of 29 November

1956 ....................... 9.59nLaw No 57–298 on Literary and

Artistic Property of 11 March 1957art 3 .......................... 8.05nart 17 ........ 7.17n, 7.24, 7.26n, 7.34nart 19 ........................ 13.71nart 23 ......................... 9.39nart 32 ........................ 13.71nart 41 ................. 13.03n, 13.38n

Law No 64–689 of 8 July 1964 ....... 6.48Finance Law of 1976 (No 75–1278)

art 22 ......................... 9.59n

Law 85–600 of 3 July 1985art 1(v) ........................ 8.93n

Intellectual Property Code 1992art L111–1 .................... 9A.03art L111–1(3) ................... 7.03art L111–3 .................... 7.04nart L112–1 ............... 8.04n, 8.16nart L112–2 ............... 8.16n, 8.72nart L113–2 ......... 7.44n, 8.86n, 9.42nart L113–2(1) .................. 7.06nart L113–2(2) ................. 20.40nart L113–2(3) ................. 20.40nart L113–3(2) ................. 20.40nart L113–3(3) ............ 7.06n, 9.34nart L113–3(6) .................. 8.41nart L113–5 ............... 7.10n, 7.44nart L113–7 ............... 7.08n, 9.52nart L121–1 ...... 10.17n, 10.18n, 10.33nart L121–1(3) .................. 20.51art L122–1 ................... 11.28nart L122–3 ............. 9A.03, 11.28nart L122–4 ................... 11.28nart L122–5(3)(d) ............... 13.37nart L122–8 ............ 11.63n, 11.66nart L123–1 .................... 9A.03art L123–4 .................... 9.39nart L131–2 ............... 7.34n, 7.35nart L131–4 ................... 11.52narts L132–1–132–17 ..... 7.22n, 11.52narts L132–18–132–22 ........... 7.22narts L132–23–132–30 ........... 7.22nart L132–24 ............. 7.35n, 7.37narts L132–32–132–33 ........... 7.22n

GermanyLaw of 11 June 1870 ......... 1.05, 1.05n,

1.08n, 10.03art 3 .......................... 1.09nart 5 .......................... 1.12nart 6 .................... 1.12n, 1.19nart 7(a) ........................ 1.16nart 7(b) ....................... 1.17nart 8 .................... 1.10n, 9.14nart 46 ......................... 1.15nart 50(2) ..................... 12.07nart 61 .......................... 1.26

Law of 9 January 1876 .............. 1.05,1.05n, 1.08n

art 3 .......................... 1.09nart 6(2) ....................... 1.14nart 9 .......................... 1.19nart 20 .......................... 1.26

Law of 10 January 1876 ... 2.28, 8.48, 10.03art 6 .......................... 1.09n

lxxii


Law of 19 January 1876 ....... 1.05, 1.08nLaw on Literary and Musical Works

of 19 June 1901 ............. 11.52nart 9 .......................... 10.03art 22 ........................ 13.59nart 22a ....................... 13.62nart 25 .......................... 9.18art 29 .......................... 6.87

Law on Artistic and PhotographicWorks of 9 January 1907

art 13 ......................... 10.03art 25 .......................... 9.18

Law of 22 May 1910 ............... 13.59art 1 .......................... 8.25nart 22 ................. 11.10n, 19.04narts 22–22c ..................... 3.37

Law of 13 December 1932 Relatingto the Prolongation of thePeriods of Protection ofAuthors’ Rights

art 1 ..................... 9.18n, 9.24Law of 4 July 1933 on Performing

Rights ..................... 12.09nLaw of 30 April 1936 .............. 13.54Law of 24 June 1985 ............... 8.57nLaw of 23 June 1995 ............... 8.57nLaw of 22 July 1997 ............... 11.28Law of March 2002 on

Strengthening the ContractualPosition of Authors andPerformers ................... 7.22n

Germany, Federal Republic

Law of 9 September 1965 onCopyright ............... 7.22, 9.03

art 1 .......................... 8.93nart 2 .......................... 8.16nart 2(1) ......................... 8.69art 2(2) .................. 7.04n, 8.05nart 2(7) ....................... 8.72nart 3 ......................... 11.26nart 4 .......................... 8.90nart 5 ......................... 8.107nart 7 .......................... 7.03nart 8 ......................... 20.40nart 8(1) ........... 7.06n, 9.34n, 20.40nart 12 ........................ 13.71nart 17(1) ..................... 11.40nart 18 ........................ 12.44nart 23 ............ 11.26n, 11.28, 11.35art 25(5) ..................... 6.105nart 26 ........................ 11.66nart 27 ........................ 11.41n

art 27(3) ..................... 6.105nart 29(1) ..................... 10.18nart 31(4) ................. 20.49, 20.51art 31(5) ..................... 20.46nart 42 ........................ 13.71nart 46 ........................ 13.71nart 51 ........................ 13.38nart 52 ........................ 12.02nart 54h ....................... 6.106nart 55 ........................ 13.76nart 55(1) ..................... 13.76nart 58 ........................ 13.37nart 61 ........................ 13.63nart 64(1) ................... 6.55, 6.56art 68 ......................... 9.29nart 72 ......................... 8.57nart 72(3) ...................... 8.57nart 89 ......................... 9.52ns 32 ......................... 20.42ns 32(a) ....................... 20.42ns 32(b) ....................... 20.42n

GreecePenal Code 1833

art 432 ......................... 1.10art 433 .................. 1.26n, 1.27n

Law No 2378 of 16 July 1920art 2 .......................... 9.18nart 6 .......................... 9.43n

Law No 2121/1993 on Copyright,Related Rights and Cultural Matters

art 5 ......................... 11.54nLaw No 2435 of 2 August 1996 ..... 11.54n

GuatemalaDecree on Literary Property of 29

October 1879 ................ 1.05nart 5 ........................... 1.10art 21 ......................... 1.18n

HaitiLaw of 8 October 1885 ............ 1.05n

art 5 ............... 9.14n, 1.12n, 9.18art 6 ..................... 9.14n, 9.18

HungaryLaw of 26 April–4 May 1884 .. 1.05n, 1.08n

art 2 .......................... 1.17nart 6(1) ....................... 1.14nart 7 .......................... 1.12nart 9(1) ....................... 1.16nart 9(b) ....................... 1.17nart 11 ......................... 1.10n

lxxiii


Law of 26 April–4 May 1884 (cont.):art 66 ......................... 1.09nart 70 ................... 1.09n, 1.12nart 79 ......................... 1.26n

Law of 31 December 1921art 11 ......................... 9.18nart 12(1) ...................... 9.43nart 14 ......................... 9.43nart 15 .......................... 9.40art 19 ......................... 9.18nart 69 ......................... 9.29n

IndiaCopyright Act 1957

s 2(d) ......................... 17.33s 2(i) ......................... 8.72ns 2(o) ......................... 8.90ns 13(1)(b) ..................... 7.09ns 14 ......................... 9A.04ns 22 ........................... 6.56s 52 ......................... 13.03n

IrelandCopyright and Related Rights Act

2000 ...................... 9A.04ns 22(1) ........... 7.06n, 9.34n, 20.40ns 23(1)(a) ...................... 7.10nss 107–119 .................... 9.13n

ItalyLaw of 10 August 1875 ............. 1.05nLaw of 18 May 1882 ............... 1.05n

art 1(a) .................... 1.09, 8.24art 12(1) ...................... 1.14nart 26 ......................... 1.17nart 28 ......................... 1.19nart 46 ......................... 1.27n

Decree of 19 September 1882 ....... 1.05nart 2 ........................... 9.20art 9 ................ 1.10, 9.14n, 9.57art 10 .......................... 1.10art 12 ......................... 1.12nart 20 ......................... 1.18narts 21–31 ..................... 1.19nart 42 ......................... 1.26n

Law No 1950 of 7 November 1925art 14 ......................... 10.05art 15 .................. 10.04, 10.05nart 16 .................. 10.04n, 10.05art 26 ......................... 9.18nart 28 ......................... 9.34nart 34 ......................... 9.57n

Law 633 of 22 April 1941 on Copyrightart 2(4) ......................... 8.65art 5 ......................... 8.107nart 7 .......................... 7.44nart 11 .............. 7.04, 7.06n, 8.05n,

9.34n, 20.40nart 17 ........................ 11.40nart 38 .......................... 7.04art 45 ..................... 7.11, 7.24arts 45–46 ..................... 7.37nart 46 .......................... 7.38art 47 ........................ 10.13nart 55 ................. 13.73n, 13.76nart 71 ........................ 12.02nart 72 ......................... 19.04art 79 ......................... 19.04art 80(2) ..................... 19.04nart 88 .......................... 7.04arts 118–135 .................. 11.52narts 144–155 ................... 11.54art 152 ....................... 11.56nart 175 ......................... 9.57art 179 ................... 9.57, 9.58n

Ivory CoastLaw No 78–634 of 28 July 1978 on

the Protection of Intellectual Worksart 3 .......................... 9.58n

JapanAct on Copyright of 3 March 1899

art 3 ........................... 9.18art 7 .......................... 9.43n

Copyright Law, No 48 of 6 May 1970art 3(1) ....................... 9.42nart 10(1)(ix) .................... 8.121art 12 ......................... 8.90nart 13 ........................ 8.107nart 15 ......................... 7.10nart 38 ........................ 12.02n

LatviaCopyright Act of 6 April 2000

art 17 ........................ 11.54n

LebanonDecree of 17 January 1924

art 143 ........................ 9.18n

LiberiaLaw of 22 December 1911

art 3 ........................... 9.18

lxxiv


LithuaniaLaw No VIII-1185 of 18 May 1999

on Copyright and Related Rightsart 17 ........................ 11.54n

Law No VIII-1866 of 20 July 2000 .. 11.54n

LuxembourgLaw of 25 January 1817 ............ 1.05nLaw of 10 May 1898 ................ 6.82

art 2 ........................... 9.18

MaltaCopyright Act 1967

s 7 .......................... 13.03ns 9 .......................... 13.03ns 10 ......................... 13.03n

MexicoCivil Code 1871 .................. 1.05n

art 1249 ....................... 1.08nart 1253 ........................ 1.10art 1306 ....................... 1.09nart 1322(17) ................... 1.14nart 1381 ....................... 1.18nart 1383 ....................... 1.26nart 1386 ....................... 1.27n

Federal Law of Copyright of 4November 1963

art 1 .......................... 9.58nart 118(iii) ..................... 9.58n

Federal Law on Copyright 1996art 14(VIII) ................... 8.107nart 29(1) ...................... 9.55nart 85 ........................ 12.44n

MonacoOrdinance of 27 February 1889

art 1 .......................... 1.10nart 4 .......................... 1.12nart 8 .......................... 1.10nart 8(2) ......................... 9.18

MoroccoLaw of 23 June 1916 ................ 6.82

art 21 ......................... 9.18n

NetherlandsCopyright Act 1912

arts 6–7 ....................... 7.10narts 6–8 ....................... 7.03narts 7–8 ....................... 7.04nart 39 ................... 9.18n, 9.43n

art 40 ......................... 9.30ns 6 .......................... 13.44n

Law on Copyright of 28 June1881 ................. 1.05n, 1.08n

art 1 ..................... 1.08, 1.09nart 5 .......................... 1.12nart 7 .......................... 1.17narts 10–11 ..................... 1.19nart 12 .......................... 1.15art 13 .......................... 1.10art 14 .......................... 1.10art 15(1) ....................... 1.10art 15(2) ....................... 1.10art 17 ......................... 1.17nart 27 ......................... 1.26n

New ZealandCopyright Act 1962

s 3(2)(d)(i) ..................... 6.30nCopyright Act 1994 ........ 6.30n, 9A.04n

Part 4 art 106 ................. 10.34ns 22 .......................... 6.56nss 94–110 ..................... 9.13n

NorwayLaw of 8 June 1876 ................ 1.05n

art 2 .......................... 1.12nart 7 .......................... 1.10nart 15 ................... 1.15n, 1.26nart 19 ......................... 1.18nart 46 ......................... 1.27nart 451 ........................ 1.26n

Law of 8 November 1876 ............ 1.05Special Law Concerning the

Protection of PhotographicWorks of 12 May 1877

art 1 ........................... 8.50art 8 .......................... 1.27nart 11 ......................... 1.14nart 11b ........................ 1.14nart 16 ......................... 1.27nart 16b ........................ 1.16n

Law of 20 June 1882 ............... 1.05narts 1–12 ...................... 1.19n

Law of 4 July 1893art 10 .......................... 9.18

Law of 6 June 1930art 13 ........................ 10.10n

ParaguayLaw No 1328/98 on Copyright and

Related Rightsart 17 ........................ 10.33n

lxxv


PeruLaw of 3 November 1849 ........... 1.05n

art 3 .......................... 1.10nCopyright Law (Legislative Decree

No 822) of 1996art 21 ........................ 10.33n

PolandLaw of 26 March 1926

arts 28–30 .................... 10.04nLaw of 29 March 1926

art 20 ......................... 9.18nLaw of 22 March 1935 ............. 11.54Law No 234 on Copyright of

10 July 1952art 26 .......................... 9.53art 27 ......................... 9.29n

Law of 4 February 1994 onCopyright and NeighbouringRights

art 19 ........................ 11.54n

PortugalCivil Code of 1 July 1867 ...... 1.05, 1.05n

art 576 .................. 1.10n, 1.26nart 577 ........................ 1.12nart 578 ........................ 1.27nart 579 .................. 1.10n, 9.18nart 587 ........................ 1.18narts 603–606 ................... 1.19n

Penal Code 1886 .................. 1.05nLaw of 27 May 1927

art 15(1) .................. 9.02, 9.18nart 36 .................... 9.02, 9.18n

Code of Copyright and RelatedRights of 17 September 1985 ... 7.06n

arts 31–39 ...................... 9.02art 56(2) ..................... 10.33nart 61(1) ..................... 20.40nch III(1) ....................... 7.22n

Law 114/9 of 3 September 1991art 16(1) ...................... 7.06n

RomaniaLaw of 28 June 1932

art 1 .......................... 9.18nart 4 .......................... 9.18nart 13 ........................ 10.04n

Decree No 321 of 18 June 1956Relating to Copyright

art 6 ........................... 9.53art 7 .......................... 9.29n

RussiaRegulations of 1857 relating to

Censorship of the Press .... 1.05n, 1.09art 7 .......................... 1.10nart 10 ......................... 1.19nart 16 ......................... 1.16nart 17 ......................... 1.16nart 43 ......................... 1.14nart 44 ......................... 1.19nart 52 ......................... 1.19nart 53 ......................... 1.09n

RwandaLaw of 15 November 1983 ........ 14.106n

SenegalCopyright Act 1973

art 3(a) ....................... 10.17nart 41(b) ...................... 9.49n

South AfricaPatents, Designs, Trade Marks and

Copyright Act 1916s 43 ........................... 9.18

Copyright Act 1978s 1(1)(iv) ..................... 11.34n

SpainDecree of 4 January 1834 ............ 1.05Decree of 5 May 1837 .............. 1.05Law of 10 January 1879 ...... 1.08n, 1.40n

art 1 .......................... 8.48nart 6 ..................... 1.10n, 9.18

Law of 19 January 1879 ............ 1.05nart 1 .................... 1.09n, 1.12nart 2 .......................... 1.12nart 3(1) ....................... 1.17nart 3(3) ....................... 1.14nart 3(4) ....................... 1.14nart 6 .......................... 9.14nart 7 .......................... 1.15nart 10 ......................... 1.12nart 12 ......................... 1.12nart 13 ......................... 1.12nart 14 ......................... 1.12nart 15 ......................... 1.12nart 33 ......................... 1.19nart 34 ......................... 1.19nart 38 ......................... 1.19nart 39 ......................... 1.19nart 40 ......................... 1.18nart 50 ................... 1.26n, 1.27n

lxxvi


Consolidated Text of the Law onIntellectual Property (Royal

Legislative Decree 1/1996 of 12 April1996) ................ 7.06n, 20.40n

art 24 ........................ 11.54nLaw 5/1998 of 6 March 1998

.................... 11.54n, 20.40ns 7(1) ......................... 7.06n

Sri LankaCode of Intellectual Property Law

Act 1979s 7 ........................... 8.04ns 19(5) ........................ 9.49n

SwedenLaw of 3 May 1867 ........... 1.05, 1.05nLaw of 8 May 1867

art 8 .................... 1.26n, 1.27nLaw of 10 May 1877

art 19 ......................... 1.26nLaw of 10 August 1877 ............. 1.05n

art 1 .......................... 1.09nart 2 .......................... 1.12nart 7 .......................... 1.10nart 13 ......................... 1.10nart 14 ......................... 1.10n

Law of 10 August 1879art 13 ......................... 1.10nart 14 ......................... 1.10nart 19 ......................... 1.27n

Law of 10 January 1883 ............ 1.05nLaw of 29 April 1904

art 14 ......................... 9.43nLaw of 30 May 1911 concerning

Works of the Figurative Artsart 1 .......................... 8.47n

Law on Artistic Works of 30 May 1919art 13 .......................... 9.18art 20 .......................... 9.18

Act on Copyright in Literary andArtistic Works 1960

art 2(3) ...................... 11.40nart 26j ....................... 11.54n

SwitzerlandLaw of 23 April 1883 ......... 1.05n, 1.29

art 2 .............. 1.09n, 1.12n, 9.14nart 6 .......................... 1.09nart 7 .................... 1.15n, 12.07art 9 .......................... 8.48nart 9(b) ....................... 1.09nart 10 ............... 1.26n, 1.27, 2.20

art 11 ............. 1.13, 2.35n, 11.07nart 11(1) ...................... 1.16nart 11(4) ...................... 1.17nart 15 ........................ 10.26n

Federal Law of 7 December Relatingto the International Officesof Posts and Telegraphs 1885

art 3 .......................... 16.30Law of 7 December 1922

arts 17–21 .................... 13.60nart 18 ........................ 11.10nart 21 ........................ 13.61nart 36 .......................... 6.55art 37 .......................... 9.18art 41 .......................... 9.18art 43 ........................ 10.04n

SyriaDecree of 17 January 1924

art 143 ........................ 9.18n

ThailandCopyright Act 1994Ch 3 .......................... 14.106n

TunisiaLaw of 15 June 1889

art 2 ..................... 9.14n, 9.18art 4 .......................... 1.12n

Model Law s 8 ................... 13.76n

TurkeyLaw on Artistic and Intellectual

Works of 10 December 1951art 8 .......................... 7.10nart 23 ........................ 11.40nart 29 ......................... 9.29n

United KingdomAct of Anne 1709 ............ 1.02, 1.02n,

1.03, 11.01ns 1 ............................ 8.15

Engraving Copyright Act 1735 ....... 8.45Prints and Engravings Act 1766

s 7 ............................ 1.10Designing and Printing of Linens Act

1787 ........................ 8.58Designing and Printing of Linens Act

1794 ........................ 8.58Union with Ireland Act 1800 ......... 1.21Sculpture Copyright Act 1814 ....... 1.05n

s 1 ....................... 1.10, 1.19n

lxxvii


Dramatic Copyright Act 1833 ...... 11.01ns 1 ...................... 9.43n, 12.07

Lecture Copyright Act 1835 ......... 1.05nDesigns Copyright Act 1839 ......... 8.58Literary Copyright Act 1842 ......... 9.10

s 3 ........... 1.10, 9.14n, 9.43n, 12.07s 5 ....................... 1.10, 1.18ns 9 ....................... 1.10, 1.26nss 11–14 ...................... 1.19ns 20 ................... 11.01n, 12.07

International Copyright Act 1852s 1 ........................... 1.12ns 2 ...................... 1.12n, 1.27ns 3 ........................... 1.12ns 4 ........................... 1.12ns 5 ........................... 1.12ns 57 .......................... 1.17n

Fine Arts Copyright Act 1862 ....... 1.05n,8.45

s 1 .................. 1.09n, 1.10, 8.48s 4 ........................... 1.19ns 7 ........................... 10.06

Copyright (Musical Compositions)Act 1882

s 1 ................ 1.15, 2.32n, 12.07nPatents, Trade Marks and Registered

Designs Act 1883 .............. 1.14International Copyright Act 1886

s 6 ........................... 6.116Copyright Act 1911 ............ 8.65, 9.43

art 3 .......................... 9.18ns 1 ........................... 8.46ns 1(1) ......................... 8.47ns 1(2) ........................ 12.12ns 1(3) .......................... 6.29s 3 ............................ 9.19s 3(1) .......................... 9.18s 4 ............................ 9.19s 16(1) ......................... 9.34s 19 .................... 6.82, 11.10ns 19(1) .................. 9.43n, 19.04s 21 .......................... 9.43ns 22(1) ......................... 8.58s 23 .......................... 6.21ns 35(1) .............. 8.47n, 8.54, 8.58s 35(3) ......................... 6.77

Trading with the Enemy (Copyright)Act 1916 .................... 17.92

Termination of the Present War(Definition) Act 1918 .......... 17.92

Copyright Act 1921s 29 .......................... 6.21n

Dramatic and Musical Performers’Protection Act 1925 .......... 19.04n

Design Rules 1932r 92 ........................... 8.58

Copyright Act 1956 ......... 5.10, 16.06ns 1(1) ......................... 9A.04s 1(5) ......................... 7.09ns 3(1) ......................... 8.54ns 8 .......................... 13.63ns 9 .......................... 13.38ns 12 .......................... 19.04s 13 ............... 7.09n, 7.24n, 7.26ns 14 ...................... 8.39, 19.04s 23 .......................... 13.91s 24 .......................... 13.91s 49(1) ........................ 11.19s 49(2)(a) ...................... 6.30n

Copyright (InternationalConventions) Order 1957 (SI1957/1523) ................. 17.72n

Dramatic and Musical Performers’Protection Act 1958 .......... 19.04n

Performers’ Protection Act 1963 .... 19.04nPerformers’ Protection Act 1972 .... 19.04nPublic Lending Right Act 1979 ...... 6.94n

s 1 .......................... 11.42nCopyright (Computer Software)

Amendment Act 1985 ......... 8.93ns 1(a) ......................... 8.04ns 1(b) ......................... 7.09ns 3(1) ......................... 8.90ns 3(1)(a) ...................... 8.129ns 3(2) ......................... 8.16ns 4(1)(a) ....................... 8.57ns 4(2) ......................... 8.72ns 9(2) ......................... 7.03ns 9(2)(a) ....................... 7.04ns 9(2)(2)(a) .................... 7.09ns 10(1) ........... 7.06n, 9.34n, 20.40ns 11(2) .................. 7.04n, 7.10ns 16(1) ........................ 9A.04s 16(1)(a) ................ 11.28, 11.35s 16(1)(b) .................... 10.37ns 20 ......................... 12.38ns 86 ......................... 10.34n

Copyright, Designs and PatentsAct 1988

s 1 ...................... 7.09n, 8.57ns 3 ........................... 7.09ns 4 ........................... 7.09ns 6 .......................... 12.38ns 5A .......................... 19.09s 6 .......................... 12.38ns 16(1)(e) ......... 11.26n, 11.28, 11.35s 16(2) ....................... 15.35ns 17(3) ....................... 11.34n

lxxviii


Copyright, Designs and PatentsAct 1988 (cont.):

s 21(1) ....................... 11.36ns 21(3)(a)(i) ................... 11.26ns 21(3)(a)(iii) .................. 11.34ns 22 ......................... 11.46ns 22(3)(a)(i) ................... 11.36nss 37ff ....................... 13.37ns 77(1) ........................ 6.104ss 77–89 ...................... 9.13ns 85(5)–(6) ................... 10.19nss 163–166 ................... 8.107ns 173(2) ...................... 20.40ns 175(4) ....................... 6.30n

UruguayLaw No 9739 of 15–17 December

1937 on Literary and ArtisticCopyright

art 9 .......................... 11.54art 62 ......................... 9.58n

USAConstitution art 1 s 8 cl 8 .......... 17.99nAct of 31 May 1790 .............. 11.01n

s 1 .......................... 11.38nAct of 18 August 1856 ............ 11.01nCopyright Act 1870 ............... 1.05n

ss 4948ff ...................... 1.19ns 4952 .................. 1.09n, 1.26ns 4953 ................... 1.10, 1.12ns 4954 ......................... 1.10s 4971 ........................ 1.26n

Law of 18 June 1874 ............... 1.05nAct of 6 January 1897 ............. 11.01nCopyright Act 1909 ........... 3.21, 13.59

s 1(c) ......................... 13.59s 16 ........................... 6.11

Trade Act 1974s 235(e)(1) ...................... 4.55

Copyright Act 1976 (17 USC) ....... 4.51,9A.04, 13.10

s 4(2) ........................ 11.40ns 97 ........................... 4.45s 101 ............. 6.37n, 7.03n, 7.06n,

8.14n, 8.69, 8.93n, 9.49,11.71n, 12.02n, 20.40n

s 102(a) ....................... 8.16ns 102(a)(7) ..................... 19.09s 104 ......................... 9.55ns 104(a) ....................... 6.56ns 104A(b) .................... 20.43ns 104A(d)(3) .................. 6.112n

s 106(1) ......... 9A.04n, 11.26n, 11.35s 106(2) ....................... 11.28s 106(3) ................ 11.40, 11.40ns 106(5) ...................... 12.44ns 106A ........................ 9.13ns 106A(a)(1)(b) ................ 10.19ns 106A(a)(3)(B) ................ 10.26ns 106A(d) ............... 9.13n, 10.34ns 108 ........................ 13.37ns 109(a) ...................... 11.40ns 109(b) ...................... 11.82ns 109(b)(1)(B) ................. 11.83ns 109(b)(1)(B)(ii) .............. 11.83ns 109(c) ...................... 12.44ns 110(5) .............. 12.41n, 13.101ns 111(a)(2) .................... 12.38ns 112(a) ...................... 13.76ns 115 ........................ 20.45ns 115(a)(2) .................... 10.22ns 115(c) ...................... 13.63ns 117 ........................ 11.71ns 121 ........................ 13.37ns 173 .......................... 9.49s 201(b) ............ 7.03n, 7.10, 9.42ns 204(a) ...................... 6.105ns 205(c)(2) ..................... 4.46ns 205(d) ....................... 4.46ns 301(f )(2)(C) ................. 10.34ns 302(a) ....................... 9.49ns 302(c) ....................... 9.42ns 304(a) ........................ 4.45s 401 .......................... 4.45s 402 .......................... 4.45s 405(a) ....................... 4.46ns 405(b) ....................... 4.46ns 407 ......................... 4.46ns 408 ......................... 4.46ns 408(b) ....................... 4.46ns 409 ........................ 15.39ns 410(a) ....................... 4.46ns 410(c) ...................... 6.108ns 411 .................. 4.46n, 15.39ns 412 .................. 6.53n, 6.108ns 601 .......................... 6.11s 602 ................. 11.40n, 11.48ns 602(a) ...................... 11.46ns 602(b) ...................... 11.46ns 1002(c) ..................... 15.02ns 1201(a)(1)(A) ................ 15.11ns 1201(b)(1)(A) ................ 15.11ns 1201(b)(2)(B) ................ 15.11ns 1201(c) ...................... 15.21s 1201(d) .................... 13.131ns 1201(d)–(j) .................. 15.21n

lxxix


Copyright Act 1976 (17 USC) (cont.):s 1201(e) .................... 13.131ns 1201(f ) .................... 13.131ns 1201(g) .................... 13.131ns 1202(c) ..................... 15.33n

Record Rental Amendments Act1984 ...................... 11.82n

Architectural Works CopyrightProtection Act 1990

s 101 ................... 8.46n, 9.34ns 102(a)(8) ..................... 8.46ns 120 ......................... 8.46n

Computer Software RentalAmendments Act 1990 11.82n, 11.83n

Visual Artists Rights Act 1990 ....... 8.46nAudio Home Recording Act 1992 .... 15.02Digital Millennium Copyright Act

1998 .............. 13.131n, 20.23nCopyright Act 2000

s 110(5) .................. 5.20n, 5.33Trade Act 2002

s 2104(e) ....................... 4.55

VenezuelaLaw of 12 May 1887

art 6 .......................... 1.10nLaw on Copyright of 14 August 1993

art 25 ......................... 9.55n

lxxx


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ALAI Association Littéraire et Artistique InternationaleABU Asian Broadcasting UnionACC Authors’ Consultative CommitteeAID International Alliance for Diffusion by WireAIPO African Intellectual Property OrganizationAJIL American Journal of International LawAm Jo Int Law American Journal of International LawASBU Arab States Broadcasting UnionASCAP American Society of Composers, Authors and PublishersAUFFT Archiv fur Urheber-, Film-, Funk- und TheaterrechtBBC British Broadcasting CorporationBerkeley Tech Berkeley Technology Law Journal

LJBFSP British and Foreign State Papers 1812/13–1939BIRPI Bureaux Internationaux Reunie pour la Protection de la Propriete Intel-

lectuelle (unofficial name for the International Office (the body whichundertook the administrative tasks of the Berne Union prior to theStockholm Act) and the International Bureau for the Union for theProtection of Industrial Property, with which from its inception it wascombined

Bull Cop Bulletin of the Copyright Society of the USASoc USA

BUPC Berne Union Permanent CommitteeBurr Burrow’s King’s Bench Reports 1757–1771BYIL British Year Book of International LawCardozo Arts Cardozo Arts and Entertainment Law Journal

& Ent LJCd Command PaperCISAC International Conference of Authors and ComposersCGE Committee of Governmental ExpertsCO country of originColum L Rev Columbia Law ReviewColum-VLA Columbia-VLA Journal of Law and the Arts

J L & ArtsCOMECON Council for Mutual Economic AssistanceCopyright Copyright: Monthly Review of the World Intellectual Property

Organization

lxxxi

DA Le Droit d’AuteurDBS Direct Broadcast Satellitesde Paul L de Paul Law Review

RevDMCA Digital Millennium Copyright Act 1998 (USA)DSB Dispute Settlement BodyEBU European Broadcasting UnionEC European CommissionECJ Court of Justice of the European CommunitiesEEC European Economic CommunityEIPR European Intellectual Property ReviewER English reportsESC European Convention Relating to Questions on Copyright Law and

Neighbouring Rights in the Framework of Transfrontier Broadcastingby Satellite (May 1994)

EU European UnionEYB Europa Year BookFIAD International Federation of Film Distributors’ AssociationFIAPF International Federation of Film Producers’ AssociationsFIEJ International Federation of Newspaper PublishersFIM International Federation of MusiciansFRG Federal Republic of Germany (1949–90)FSS Fixed Satellite ServiceFTA Free trade agreementGATS General Agreement on Trade in ServicesGATT General Agreement on Tariffs and TradeGDR German Democratic RepublicGRUR Deutsche Vereinigung fur Gewerblichen Rechtsschutz und

UrheberrechtHarv L Rev Harvard Law ReviewHastings Hastings Communication and Entertainment Law Journal

Comm & Ent LJ

ICJ International Court of JusticeICLQ International and Comparative Law QuarterlyIFA International Federation of ActorsIFPI International Federation of the Phonographic IndustryIGC Intergovernmental CommitteeIIC International Institute for Intellectual Co-operationILO International Labour OrganizationINTEGRU International Copyright SocietyIPA International Publishers’ AssociationIPRs intellectual property rightsITU International Telecommunications UnionJBL Journal of Business Law

List of Abbreviations

lxxxii

J Copyr Soc Journal of the Copyright Society of the USA (Formerly Bulletin)USA

JDIPJC Journal du droit international prive et de la jurisprudence compare(Clunet) (Clunet)

JPOS Journal of the Patent Office SocietyLQR Law Quarterly ReviewMich J Int’l L Michigan Journal of International LawNGOs Non-governmental organizationsOED Oxford English DictionaryOJ Official Journal of the European CommunitiesPCT Patent Cooperation TreatyPRC Peoples’ Republic of ChinaRIDA Revue internationale du droit d’auteurRome Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of

Convention Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations 1961SACEM Societe des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs de MusiqueSCCR Standing Committee on Copyright and Related RightsSo Cal LR Southern California Law ReviewSOED Shorter Oxford English DictionaryTRIPs Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

Agreement 1994UCC Universal Copyright ConventionUCLA Law University of California Los Angeles Law Review

RevUK United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandUN United NationsUNESCO United Nations Educational and Scientific OrganizationUNIDO United Nations Industrial Development OrganizationUNIDROIT International Institute for the Unification of Private LawURTNA Union of National Radio and Television Organizations of AfricaUSC United States CodeVa J Int’l L Virginia Journal of International LawVienna Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969

ConventionWCT WIPO Copyright TreatyWG Advisory Notes on the implementation of the System of Translation

Guidelines and Reproduction Licences for Developing Countries under theCopyright Convention (1982)

WHO World Health OrganizationWIPO World Intellectual Property OrganizationWPPT WIPO Performances and Phonograms TreatyWTO World Trade OrganizationYale LJ Yale Law Journal

List of Abbreviations

lxxxiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS OF WORKSTO WHICH REFERENCE IS COMMONLY

MADE IN THIS BOOKActes (1884) Actes de la Conference internationale pour la protection

des droits d’auteur reunie a Berne du 8 au 19 septembre1884

Actes (1885) Actes de la 2me Conference internationale pour laprotection des oeuvres litteraires et artistiques reunie aBerne du 7 au 9 septembre 1885

Actes (1886) Actes de la 3me Conference internationale pour laprotection des oeuvres litteraires et artistiques reunie aBerne du 6 au 9 septembre 1886

Actes (1896) Actes de la Conference de Paris de 1896Actes (1908) Actes de la Conference de Berlin 1908Actes (1928) Actes de la Conference reunie a Rome du 7 mai au

2 juin 1928Annales (1858) Annales de la Propriété Industrielle, Artistique et Littéraire

(1858)Bastide (1890) L Bastide, L’Union de Berne de 1886 et la Protection

internationale des droits des auteurs et des artistes (1890)Baum (1949) A Baum, The Brussels Conference for the Revision of the

Berne Convention (1949)BFSP British and Foreign State PapersBogsch (1986) A Bogsch, ‘The First Hundred Years of the Berne

Convention for the Protection of Literary and ArtisticWorks’ [1986] Copyright 330

Bowett (1982) D W Bowett, The Law of International Institutions, 4thedn (1982)

Briggs (1906) W Briggs, The Law of International Copyright (1906)Correspondence (1908) Correspondence Respecting the Revised Convention of

Berne for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works,signed at Berlin, November 13, 1908

Correspondence No 1 (1886) Switzerland No 1 (1886), Correspondence Respecting theFormation of an International Copyright Union, C-4606(1886), Papers presented to Parliament in Jan 1886

Correspondence No 2 (1886) Switzerland No 2 (1886), Further CorrespondenceRespecting the Formation of an International CopyrightUnion, Papers presented to Parliament in Aug 1886

Correspondence No 3 (1886) Switzerland No 3 (1886), Further CorrespondenceRespecting the Formation of an International CopyrightUnion, Papers presented to Parliament in Sept 1886

lxxxv

Darras (1887) A Darras, Du Droit des auteurs et des artistes dans lesrapports internationaux (1887)

J Delalain (1866) J Delalain, Recueil des Conventions conclues par la Francepour la Reconnaissance de la Properiété Littéraire et Artis-tique (1866)

Desbois (1978) H Desbois, Le Droit D’Auteur en France, 3rd edn(1978)

Desbois et al (1976) H Desbois, A Françon, and A Kéréver, Les Conventionsinternationales du droit d’auteur et des droits voisins (1976)

Dietz (1978) A Dietz, Copyright Law in the European Community(1978)

Dock (1963) M-C Dock, Étude sur le droit d’auteur (1963)Documents 1948 (1951) Documents de la Conférence réunie à Bruxelles du 5 au

26 juin 1948 (1951)Duchemin (1948) J-L Duchemin, Le Droit de Suite des Artistes (1948)Ficsor (2003) Mihály Ficsor, The Law of Copyright and the Internet:

The 1996 WIPO Treaties, Their Interpretation andImplementation (2003)

Gervais (2003) D Gervais, The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History andAnalysis, 2nd edn (2003)

Histoire (1889) Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale: SonHistoire, Ses Travaux (1878–1889) (1879)

Holdsworth (1939) W Holdsworth, A History of English Law, 2nd edn,vol VI (1939, reprinted 1966)

Johnson (1970) C F Johnson, ‘The Origins of the Stockholm Protocol’(1970) 18 Bull Cop Soc USA 91

Ladas (1938) S P Ladas, The International Protection of Literary andArtistic Property (1938)

Laddie et al (2000) Hugh Laddie, Peter Prescott, and Mary Vitoria,The Modern Law of Copyright and Designs, 3rd edn(2000)

Lavollée (1887) R Lavollée, Propriété Littéraire et la Convention de Berne(1887)

LCD (1889) C Lyon-Caen and P Delalain, Lois françaises et étrangèressur la Propriété littéraire et artistique . . . (1889)

McNair (1961) Lord McNair, The Law of Treaties (1961)Maillard (1928) G Maillard, ‘Conférence de Rome’, ALAI Bulletin,

Oct 1928Masouyé (1978) C Masouyé, Guide to the Berne Convention for the

Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1978)Mémoire (1936) L’Union internationale pour la protection des oeuvres

littéraires et artistiques: son fondation et son développe-ment—Mémoire 1886–1936 (1936)

Nordemann et al (1977) W Nordemann, K Vinck, and P W Hertin, Interna-tionales Urheberrecht und Leistungsschutzrecht der deut-

List of Abbreviations of Works to which Reference is Commonly made in this Book

lxxxvi

schsprachigen Länder unter Berücksichtigung auch derStaaten der Europäischen Gemeinschaft, Kommentar(1977)

Nordemann et al (1990) W Nordemann, K Vinck, P W Hertin, and G Meyer,International Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Law(1990)

Pataille and Huget (1855) Pataille and Huget, Code internationale, 1st edn (1855)Plaisant and Pichot (1934) M Plaisant and O Pichot, La Conférence de Rome:

Commentaire pratique de la nouvelle Convention pour laprotection internationale de la propriété littéraire et artis-tique (1934)

Records (1967) Records of the Intellectual Property Conference ofStockholm, June 11 to July 14, 1967

Recueil (1904) International Copyright Office, Recueil des conventionset traités concernant la propriété littéraire et artistique,publiés en français et dans les langues des pays contractantsavec une introduction et des notices (1904)

Reinbothe and von J Reinbothe and S von Lewinski, The WIPOLewinski (2002) Treaties 1996 (2002)

Rivière (1897) L Rivière, La Protection Internationale des OeuvresLittéraires et Artistiques: Étude de législation comparé(1897)

Schrader (1970) D M Schrader, ‘Analysis of the Protocol RegardingDeveloping Countries’ (1970) 17 Bull Cop Soc USA 166

Spoor et al (1980) J H Spoor, W R Cornish, and P F Nolan, Copies inCopyright (1980)

Stewart (1989) S Stewart, International Copyright and NeighbouringRights, 2nd edn (1989)

Wildhaber (1971) L Wildhaber, Treaty-Making Power and Constitution: AnInternational and Comparative Study (1971)

List of Abbreviations of Works to which Reference is Commonly made in this Book

lxxxvii