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Interest Group in Coaching Psychology

ISSN: 1750-2764

International Coaching Psychology ReviewVolume 7 No. 2 September 2012

International Coaching Psychology ReviewEditorial Board

Co-ordinating EditorsUnited Kingdom: Stephen Palmer, PhD, Coaching Psychology Unit, Department of Psychology, City University, London, UK.Australia: Michael Cavanagh, PhD, Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, Sydney University, Australia.

Co-EditorsSandy Gordon, PhD, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.Anthony M. Grant, PhD, Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, Sydney University, Australia.Travis Kemp, PhD, International Graduate School of Business, University of South Australia, Australia.David Lane, PhD, Middlesex University, London, UK.Alex Linley, PhD, School of Psychology, University of Leicester, UK.Alison Whybrow, PhD, Coaching Psychology Unit, City University London, UK.

SubscriptionsInternational Coaching Psychology Review (ICPR) is published in March and September. It is distributed free of charge to members ofthe British Psychological Society Special Group in Coaching Psychology and the Australian Psychological Society Interest Group inCoaching Psychology members. It is available to non-members (Individuals £50 per volume; Institutions £60 per volume; single copies£25) from: The British Psychological Society, SGCP, St. Andrews House, 48 Princess Road East, Leicester LE1 7DR. UK.

Abstracting and indexing: The ICPR is abstracted in psycINFO, Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts and Google Scholar. The ICPR is included Cabell's Directory of Publishing Opportunities in Educational Psychology and Administration and Cabell'sDirectory of Publishing Opportunities in Educational Curriculum and Methods.

Notes for ContributorsThe ICPR is an international publication with a focus on the theory, practice and research in the field of coaching psychology.Submission of academic articles, systematic reviews and other research reports which support evidence-based practice are welcomed.The ICPR may also publish conference reports and papers given at the British Psychological Society Special Group in CoachingPsychology (BPS SGCP) and Australian Psychological Society Interest Group in Coaching Psychology (APS IGCP) conferences, noticesand items of news relevant to the International Coaching Psychology Community.

Case studies and book reviews will be considered. The ICPR is published by the BPS SGCP in association with the APS IGCP.

1. CirculationThe circulation of the ICPR is worldwide. It is available in hardcopy and PDF format. Papers are invited and encouraged from authorsthroughout the world. It is available free in paper and PDF format to members of the BPS SGCP, and free in PDF format to APS IGCPmembers as a part of their annual membership.

2. LengthPapers should normally be no more than 6000 words, although the Co-Editors retain discretion to publish papers beyond this lengthin cases where the clear and concise expression of the scientific content requires greater length.

3. ReviewingThe publication operates a policy of anonymous peer review. Papers will normally be scrutinised and commented on by at least twoindependent expert referees (in addition to the relevant Co-Editor) although the Co-Editor may process a paper at his or herdiscretion. The referees will not be aware of the identity of the author. All information about authorship including personalacknowledgements and institutional affiliations should be confined to the title page (and the text should be free of such clues asidentifiable self-citations, e.g. ‘In our earlier work…’).

Continued on inside back cover.

International Editorial BoardHilary Armstrong, PhD, Institute of Executive Coaching,Sydney, Australia.Paul Atkins, PhD, Australian National University,Canberra, Australia.Tatiana Bachkirova, PhD, Oxford Brookes University, UK.Michael Carroll, PhD, University of Bristol, UK.Ian Cockerill, PhD, University of Birmingham, UK.Cary Cooper, PhD, Lancaster University, UK.Sarah Corrie, PhD, CNWL Foundation Trust, Royal Holloway University of London, UK.Paula Cruise, PhD, University of Cambridge, UK.Susan David, PhD, Melbourne University, Australia.Stephen Joseph, PhD, University of Warwick, UK.Carol Kauffman, PhD, Harvard Medical School, USA.

Roy Moodley, PhD, University of Toronto, Canada.Richard Nelson-Jones, PhD, Cognitive Humanistic Institute,Thailand.Lindsay Oades, PhD, University of Wollongong, Australia.Jonathan Passmore, PhD, Evora University, Portugal.James Pawelski, PhD, Positive Psychology Center,University of Pennsylvania, USA.Ernesto Spinelli, PhD, Regent’s College, UK.Catherine Steele PhD, University of Worcester, UK.Reinhard Stelter, PhD, Coaching Psychology Unit,University of Copenhagen, Denmark.Lewis R. Stern, PhD, Harvard University Medical School, USA.Dianne Stober, PhD, Fielding University, USA.Mary Watts, PhD, City University, London, UK.

The British Psychological SocietySpecial Group in Coaching Psychology

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The Australian Psychological Society LtdInterest Group in Coaching Psychology

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InternationalCoaching Psychology Review

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Volume 7 No. 2 September 2012

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www.bps.org.uk/sgcp2012

SGCP Annual Conference 20126-7 December 2012, Lakeside Centre, Aston University, Birmingham

Putting coaching psychology into practice:An evidence based approach

SGCP is delighted to invite you to its annual conference. This event is perfectly suited toCoaching psychologists, psychologists who coach, and coaches who apply psychology eagerto hear the latest evidence coming from the field of coaching psychology. The conferenceworkshops and presentations will be covering four themes: Academic research, practitionerexperience, self knowledge and reflection, and the coaching context and environment.

Stay relevant! Attend the Coaching Psychology Conference!Confirmed Speakers so far:Professor Jack Whitehead, Professor Stephen Palmer, Dr Tatiana Bachkirova, Dr Vicki Vandaveer, Jennifer Liston-Smith & Dr Catherine Steele

oster submission deadline 15th October. Visit the website for submission information.

Each attendee will receive an attendance certificate for their CPD Logbooks.

Registration now open!

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Contents144 Editorial: The development of coaching psychology internationally goes from

strength to strengthStephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh

Papers146 An integrated model of goal-focused coaching: An evidence-based framework for

teaching and practiceAnthony M. Grant

166 Coaching as a learning methodology – a mixed methods study in driver developmentusing a randomised controlled trial and thematic analysisJonathan Passmore & Hannah Rehman

185 What is personality change coaching and why is it important?Lesley S. Martin, Lindsay G. Oades & Peter Caputi

194 Back to Basics II: How the research on attachment and reflective-self function isrelevant for coaches and consultants todayErik de Haan

Keynotes210 Strengths-based approaches to developing mental toughness: Team and individual

Sandy Gordon

223 Looking back to see the future: The influence of humanistic and transpersonalpsychology on coaching psychology todayPatrick Williams

Cross-disciplinary perspectives in coaching psychology237 Editorial

Michael Cavanagh & Stephen Palmer

239 Restoring meaning and wholeness – the role for coaching after a traumaNoreen Tehrani, Diana Osbourne & David Lane

247 The ABCDE of Writing: Coaching high-quality high-quantity writingMaria Gardiner & Hugh Kearns

Book Review260 Creating a Coaching Culture (by Peter Hawkins)

Reviewed by David Lane

Reports262 2nd International Congress of Coaching Psychology – Australia

David Heap

266 Special Group in Coaching Psychology NewsMary Watts

268 Interest Group in Coaching Psychology News David Heap

270 International Coaching Psychology Review – Volume index 2012

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 7 No. 2 September 2012 143© The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764

Editorial: The development of coachingpsychology internationally goes fromstrength to strengthStephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh

144 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 7 No. 2 September 2012© The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764

AHIGHLIGHT of the coaching psycho-logy calendar so far this year has beenthe 2nd International Congress of

Coaching Psychology held in Manly Beach,Sydney Australia. It was an exciting event,with well-known speakers and 100s of dele-gates from all over the world. We were prom-ised by David Heap, the APS IGCP Convenorthat the international congress team wouldchoose a good location. In fact, Manly was agreat location with record breaking goodweather for the time of the year too. Ourcongratulations go to the team for organisinga professional event. The 3rd InternationalCongress of Coaching Psychology will beheld in Israel on 6 September 2012. Both theAPS Interest Group in Coaching Psychologyand BPS Special Group in CoachingPsychology work collaboratively, with theother professional psychology bodies, to holdand to promote these congress events (seewebsite for further details).

This is our second bumper issue of theInternational Coaching Psychology Review for2012 with six papers and keynotes on a rangeof topics plus a new section, ‘Cross-discipli-nary perspectives in coaching psychology’,which includes two articles. Our first paper is‘An integrated model of goal-focusedcoaching: An evidence-based framework forteaching and practice’ by Anthony M. Grant.In this paper Grant discusses a range ofapproaches to understanding the goalconstruct, presents a definition of goals rele-vant to coaching, and details a new andcomprehensive model of goal-focusedcoaching that can be helpful both inteaching and in applied coaching practice.He also gives permission for a diagram of themodel to be used in these contexts which will

no doubt trigger much discussion withstudents.

In our second paper, Jonathan Passmoreand Hannah Rehman describe a mixedmethods study in driver development using arandomised controlled trial and thematicanalysis. The study sought to explore theimpact of coaching as a learning method-ology and to compare this with the tradi-tional instruction-based approach. Thequantitative study revealed that coaching wasa more effective and efficient method forlearning in this context. The coaching groupalso had fewer attempts to pass the assess-ment than the instruction group. For thoseof us interested in the coaching relationship,the qualitative study from this group indi-cated that both learners and ‘instructors’observed positive aspects to the coachingstyle of learning. This was strongest forinstructors who suggested coaching facili-tated an improved relationship and helpedthe learner to learn more quickly.

In the following paper Lesley Martin,Lindsay Oades and Peter Caputi ask ‘What ispersonality change coaching and why is itimportant?’ The aim was to evaluate thefeasibility and desirability of personalitychange, clarify how this fits with coaching,identify a suitable personality model andmeasure, and propose directions for futureresearch. With reference to the literaturethey asked the following questions: Ispersonality change possible and desirable? Is coaching a suitable medium to achievethis? How does this fit with and expand uponthe current coaching literature? Whatpersonality model and inventory would suitthis process? What coaching resources andfuture research are needed? They concluded

Editorial:

International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 7 No. 2 September 2012 145

that personality change coaching appearsboth desirable and possible in a coachingsetting although further research is requiredin a number of related areas.

In our fourth paper, Erik de Haan exam-ines the phenomenon of reflective-self func-tion in terms of its historical understanding.He asserts that reflective-self function is notonly demonstrably linked to secure attach-ment, it is increasingly held to be at the coreof the process and outcome of helpingconversations. He suggests that mentalisingcan be used to co-create meaning, insightand understanding with clients.

The first keynote in this issue is by SandyGordon. It is entitled ‘Strengths-basedapproaches to developing mental toughness:Team and individual’. It was based on anInvited Keynote Presentation at the BritishPsychological Society’s Division of Sport andExercise Psychology Annual Conferencewhich was part of the British PsychologicalSociety’s Annual Conference, 17–21 April2012, in London. Gordon provides a briefsummary of mental toughness research and ashort history of strengths approaches to thedevelopment of human potential. He finisheshis keynote paper by describing how he hasused strengths-based approaches in profes-sional sport, both with teams and individuals.

Patrick Williams looks back to the futurein his keynote paper and highlights the influ-ence of humanistic and transpersonalpsychology on coaching psychology today.The paper is based on his Keynote Presenta-tion at the 2nd International Congress ofCoaching Psychology, 10–12 May 2012, inSydney, Australia. It was an enjoyable andstimulating paper to listen to at the Congressin which Williams highlighted the sometimeszigzag journey coaching and coachingpsychology has taken to get where they aretoday. His conclusion is worth noting:Coaching Psychology plays an increasingimportant role in developing the professionof personal and business coaching. Coachingwill survive because it is effective, it will thrivebecause it can be socially transformational,for us humans and the planet we inhabit.

The next two articles in the publicationare in the new section, ‘Cross-disciplinaryperspectives in coaching psychology’. Thereis an editorial which introduces the newsection and the papers by Noreen Tehrani,Diana Osborne and David Lane, and MariaGardiner and Hugh Kearns. Our thanks goto David Lane for putting forward the idea ofa new section.

The publication concludes with a bookreview, congress and news updates from theBPS Special Group in Coaching Psychologyand APS Interest Group in CoachingPsychology.

The richness and range of the papers inthis issue, and the diversity of authorsinvolved, are testament to the ongoing devel-opment of the field. It is great to see thegrowing sophistication and expandingdialogue in coaching psychology thesepapers represent. We thank our contributorsto this issue of the publication and lookforward to receiving papers on any aspect ofcoaching psychology for the March 2013issue.

CorrespondenceStephen PalmerCoaching Psychology Unit,Department of Psychology,City University,Northampton Square,London, UK.Email: [email protected]

Michael CavanaghCoaching Psychology Unit,Department of Psychology,Sydney University,Sydney, Australia.Email: [email protected]

International Congress of CoachingPsychology websitehttp://www.coachingpsychologycongress.org


LTHOUGH COACHING is typicallythought of as being a goal-focused

activity, the use of goals in coachingis somewhat controversial. Common argu-ments against the use of goal setting incoaching include the propositions that goalsetting is an overly-linear process thatconstricts the coaching conversation andacts as a barrier to working with emergentissues within the complex dynamic systemthat is the coaching conversation; or thatgoal setting is associated with coachescajoling coachees in the blind pursuit of apreviously-set but inappropriate goal,leading to ‘lazy’ join-the-dots mechanisticcoaching; or even that goals typically focuson issues that may be easy to measure but areof little real importance (see Clutterbuck,2008, 2010).

Some coaches say that they never usegoals in coaching, rather they assert that ascoaches their role is to help clients exploretheir values, clarify their intentions, and

then to help them achieve their personalaspirations. Yet others seem to steadfastlyavoid using the word ‘goal’, but talk abouthelping clients chart a course, navigate thewaters of life, foster transformationalchange, or re-author personal narratives.Goal setting has even gained a bad reputa-tion in some sections of the academicpsychology press, with some authors asking ifgoal setting has gone wild, and decrying thesupposed over-prescription of goal setting(Ordóñez et al., 2009).

Whilst, some of these points have merit,goal theory per se has much to offer coachingresearch and practice. There is a consider-able body of literature on goals and goalsetting (Locke & Latham, 2002). A search ofthe database PsycINFO in May 2012 accessingthe broader psychological literature base andusing the keyword ‘goals’ found over 59,530citations. Yet the academic literature on theuse of goals within the area of executivecoaching is far smaller, with the keywords

Paper

An integrated model of goal-focusedcoaching: An evidence-based frameworkfor teaching and practiceAnthony M. Grant

There is a considerable body of literature on goals and goal setting in the psychological literature, but littleof this has found its way into the scholarly coaching literature. This article draws on the goal-settingliterature from the behavioural sciences. It discusses a range of approaches to understanding the goalconstruct, presents a definition of goals relevant to coaching, and details a new and comprehensive modelof goal-focused coaching that can be helpful both in teaching and in applied coaching practice. It alsooutlines new empirical research that highlights the vital role that coaches’ goal-focused coaching skills playin determining successful coaching outcomes. This preliminary research suggests that the use of a goal-focused coaching style is more effective than a ‘common factors’ or person-centred coaching style infacilitating goal attainment in coaching. It is argued that, by understanding the different types of goalsand their relationship to the process of change, professional coaches can work more efficiently with theirclients, helping them to achieve insight and behavioural change that enhances their workplace performance,their professional working lives and, most importantly, their personal well-being and sense of self. Keywords: Goals; goal theory; evidence-based coaching; executive coaching.

A

‘goals’ and ‘executive coaching’ producingonly 30 citations. Most of these report on thevarious uses of goal setting in executivecoaching practice (e.g. Bono et al., 2009;Lewis-Duarte, 2010; McKenna & Davis,2009b; Stern, 2009; Sue-Chan, Wood &Latham, 2012), with a few empirical studiesexamining how executive coaching facilitatesgoal attainment (e.g. Benavides, 2009; Burke& Linley, 2007; Freedman & Perry, 2010;Grant, Curtayne & Burton, 2009; Milare &Yoshida, 2009; Schnell, 2005; Smither et al.,2003; Turner, 2004).

To date there have been surprisingly fewarticles detailing theoretical frameworks thatexplicitly link goal theory to executive ororganisational coaching. Three key exam-ples are Sue-Chan, Wood and Latham’s(2012) work which explored the differnecesbetween promotion and prevention goals asa foci for coaching, and the role of implicitfixed beliefs about ability and implicit incre-mental beliefs on coaching outcomes;Gregory, Beck and Car’s (2011) work whichargues that control theory (in which goalsand feedback are two crucial elements) canprovide an important framework forcoaching; and Grant’s (2006) initial work ondeveloping an integrative goal-focusedapproach to executive coaching.

This paper draws on and extendsprevious work (e.g. Grant, 2002, 2006, 2012;Gregory et al., 2011; Locke & Latham, 2002)and utilising the goal-setting literature fromthe behavioural sciences, discusses theconcept of goal, presents a definition ofgoals that can be helpful in coachingpractice and describes a new model of goal-focused coaching and new preliminaryresearch that highlights the vital role thatcoaches’ goal-focused skills play in deter-mining successful coaching outcomes.

SMART goals can dumb-down coaching Goals and goal constructs have been exten-sively researched within academic psycho-logy (Moskowitz & Grant, 2009), andsophisticated understandings of goals areevident within the broader psychological

literature. This is not the case within thecoaching-related literature. From anoverview of the coaching literature it isappears that many coaches’ understandingof goals is limited to acronyms such asSMART (originally delineated by Raia, 1965)and that typically goals are equated withbeing specific, measureable, attainable, rele-vant and timeframed action plans (note: theexact delineation of the SMART acronymvaries between commentators).

Whilst the ideas represented by theacronym SMART are indeed broadlysupported by goal theory (e.g. Locke, 1996),and the acronym SMART may well be usefulin some instances in coaching practice, I think that the widespread belief that goalsare synonymous with SMART action planshas done much to stifle the development ofa more sophisticated understanding and useof goal theory within in the coachingcommunity, and this point has importantimplications for coaching research, teachingand practice.

It is worth reflecting that acronyms suchas SMART may provide useful mnemonics –mnemonics being memorable surfacemarkers of deeper knowledge structures.However, the use of such mnemonicswithout a clear understanding of the deeperunderpinning knowledge may well result inill-informed decision making, and the culti-vation of inaccurate practice doctrines andmythologies about goals and goal theory.Unfortunately, such misconceptions maymake it even more difficult for practitionersto engage with the broader knowledge-base.Clearly, there is a case here for coach educa-tors and trainers to draw more extensively onthe broader goal theory literature. My hopeis that this paper will make a contribution inencouraging this course of action.

What are goals?If this article is to make a meaningful contri-bution in terms of the more sophisticateduse of goals and goal theory in coaching, it isimportant to develop a clear understandingof the goal construct. The term ‘goal’ is


An integrated model of goal-focused coaching

generally understood as being ‘the purposetoward which an endeavour is directed; anobjective or outcome’ (see, for example,www.thefreedictionary.com). Although suchunderstandings are adequate for everydayuse, a far more nuanced understanding ofthe goal construct is needed in coaching.

In attempting to develop more sophisti-cated understandings of the goal construct, awide range of other terms have been usedover the years including the terms ‘referencevalues’ (Carver & Scheier, 1998), ‘self-guides’ (Higgins, 1987), ‘personal strivings’(Emmons, 1992), or ‘personal projects’(Little, 1993). However, although suchbroad linguistic repertoires can be useful,the lack of precision in such definitionsmake it hard to distinguish between variousaspects of the goal construct such as ‘aims’,‘objectives’, ‘desires’ or ‘outcomes’, and theyalso fail to capture the true essence of thegoal construct.

Goals are defined as playing a key role intransitions from an existing state to a desiredstate or outcome (e.g. Klinger, 1975; Spence,2007). As such the goal construct has beenvariously defined in terms of cognitions(Locke, 2000), behaviour (Bargh et al., 2001;Warshaw & Davis, 1985) and affect (Pervin,1982) (for further discussion on these pointssee Street, 2002). These three domains areof great relevance for coaching, and anunderstanding of goals for use in coachingshould encompass all three domains.

Cochran and Tesser (1996) present acomprehensive description of a goal as ‘acognitive image of an ideal stored inmemory for comparison to an actual state; arepresentation of the future that influencesthe present; a desire (pleasure and satisfac-tion are expected from goal success); asource of motivation, an incentive to action’(as cited in Street, 2002, p.100). This under-standing of goals is particularly useful forcoaching because, as Street (2002) pointsout, it emphasises the role of cognition (interms of cognitive imagery), as well as affectand behaviour, in addition to the notion thatthe purpose of a goal as ‘a source of motiva-

tion and an incentive’. However, whilst thisdefinition is more sophisticated than notionsthat situate goals as being synonymous withSMART action plans, it is still somewhatunwieldy as a working definition.

One definition that is succinct, capturesthe essence of the above issues and is clearlyapplicable to coaching is Austin andVancouver’s (1996) notion of goals as being‘internal representations of desired states oroutcomes’ (p.388).

Goals as ‘internal representations ofdesired states or outcomes’ are centralto coachingAlthough there are many definitions ofcoaching, all capture common themes. TheAssociation for Coaching defines coachingas ‘A collaborative solution-focused, results-orientated and systematic process in whichthe coach facilitates the enhancement ofwork performance, life experience, self-directed learning and personal growth of thecoachee’ (AC, 2012). The InternationalCoach Federation defines coaching as ‘part-nering with clients in a thought-provokingand creative process that inspires them tomaximise their personal and professionalpotential’ (ICF, 2012). The World Associa-tion of Business Coaches defines businesscoaching as a structured conversationdesigned to ‘enhance the client’s awarenessand behaviour so as to achieve businessobjectives for both the client and theirorganisation’ (WABC, 2012). The EuropeanMentoring and Coaching Council definescoaching (and mentoring) as ‘activitieswithin the area of professional and personaldevelopment…to help clients…see and testalternative ways for improvement of compe-tence, decision making and enhancement ofquality of life…with the purpose of servingthe clients to improve their performance orenhance their personal development orboth…’ (EMCC, 2011).

It is clear that there is considerable agree-ment within professional coaching bodiesabout the nature of coaching. All of thesedefinitions indicate that the process of

148 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 7 No. 2 September 2012

Anthony M. Grant

coaching is essentially about helping individ-uals regulate and direct their interpersonaland intrapersonal resources in order tocreate purposeful and positive change intheir personal or business lives. In shortthen, all coaching conversations are eitherexplicitly or implicitly goal-focused, and areabout helping clients enhance their self-regulationary skills so as to better createpurposeful positive change.

Goal-focused self-regulation sits at thecore of the coaching processThe core constructs of self-regulation are aseries of processes in which the individualsets a goal, develops a plan of action, beginsaction, monitors their performance, evalu-ates their performance by comparison to astandard, and based on this evaluationchange their actions to further enhancetheir performance and better reach their

goals (Carver & Scheier, 1998).The coach’srole is to facilitate the coachee’s movementthrough the self-regulatory cycle, andonwards towards goal attainment. Figure 1depicts a generic model of self-regulation(Grant, 2003).

In practice the steps in the self-regulatorycycle are not clearly separate stages. Inpractice, each stage overlaps with the next,and the coaching in each stage should aim tofacilitate the process of the next. Forexample, goal setting should be done insuch a way as to facilitate the developmentand implementation of an action plan. Theaction plan should be designed to motivatethe individual into action, and should alsoincorporate means of monitoring and evalu-ating performance thus providing informa-tion on which to base follow-up coachingsessions (Grant, 2006). This self-regulatorycycle sits at the core of the coaching process.



Figure 1: Generic model of goal-directed self-regulation.

Identify the Issue

Set a Goal

Develop anAction Plan

Act

Change what’s not working MonitorDo more of what works

Evaluate

Success

Knowing how and when to set goals incoaching, knowing how to gauge the client’sreadiness to engage in a robust and explicitlygoal-focused conversation or when to workwith more vaguely defined or more abstractgoals, are skill sets that distinguishes thenovice or beginner coach from moreadvanced or expert practitioners (Grant,2011; Peterson, 2011). Having a solid under-standing of the multi-faceted nature of goalsis thus important in making the novice-expert shift, and are thus of relevance forboth the teaching and practice of coaching.It is to this issue that we now turn.

Goals are not monolithic entitiesIf we are to understand coaching throughthe lens of goal theory, it is important todistinguish between different types of goals.Goals are not monolithic. Indeed, there areover twenty types of goals that can be used incoaching. These include outcome goals,distal and proximal goals, approach andavoidance goals, performance and learninggoals, and higher and lower order goals, aswell as the actual results which the coacheeaims to achieve. These distinctions areimportant because different types of goalsimpact differently on coachees’ perform-ance and their experience of the goalstriving process.

Time framing: Distal and proximal goalsThe time framing of goals is an importantpart of the goal setting process, and timeframes can influence the coachee’s percep-tion of the attainability of the goal (Karniol& Ross, 1996). Distal goals are longer termgoals, and are similar to the vision state-ments often referred to in business ormanagement literature or the ‘broad fuzzyvision’ referred to in the life-coaching litera-ture (Grant & Green, 2004). Proximal goalsare shorter term, and tend to stimulate moredetailed planning than distal goals (Mander-link & Harackiewicz, 1984), and hence areimportant goals when used in action plan-ning. In essence, the action steps typicallyderived in coaching sessions are a series of

short-term proximal goals. Combining bothdistal with proximal goals in the coachingand action planning process can lead toenhanced strategy development and betterlong-term performance (Weldon & Yun,2000).

Outcome goalsMany coaching programmes focus entirelyon setting outcome goals. Such goals tend tobe a straightforward statement of somedesired outcome (Hudson, 1999); forexample, ‘to increase sales of widgets by 15per cent in the next three months’. This is auseful approach to goal setting, because forindividuals who are committed and have thenecessary ability and knowledge, outcomegoals that are difficult and are specificallyand explicitly defined, allow performance tobe precisely regulated, and thus often lead tohigh performance (Locke, 1996). Indeed,many coaching programmes focus purely onthe setting of specific ‘SMART’ goals and thisapproach is indeed supported by some of thegoal-setting literature (Locke & Latham,2002).

However, there are times when overly-specific outcome goals will alienate thecoachee, and may actually result in a declinein performance (Winters & Latham, 1996).For individuals who are in a highly delibera-tive mindset, it may be more useful topurposefully set more abstract or quite vaguegoals and focus on developing a broad ‘fuzzyvision’ (Grant & Greene, 2004), rather thandrilling down into specific details and settingmore concrete goals. For individuals at thispoint in the change process, vague orabstract goals are often perceived as beingless threatening and less demanding(Dewck, 1986).

Avoidance and approach goalsAvoidance goals are expressed as a movementaway from an undesirable state, for example,‘to be less stressed about work’. Althoughthis presents a desired outcome, as an avoid-ance goal it does not provide a specificoutcome target or provide enough details


Anthony M. Grant

from which to define those behaviours whichmight be most useful during the goal strivingprocess; there are almost an infinite numberof ways one could become ‘less stressed’. Incontrast an approach goal is expressed as amovement towards a specific state oroutcome, for example, ‘to enjoy a fulfillingbalance between work demands andpersonal relaxation’, and these can indeedhelp define appropriate goal-strivingbehaviours.

Not surprisingly, there are differentialeffects associated with avoidance orapproach goals. Coats, Janoff-Bulman, andAlpert (1996) found that people who tendedto set avoidance goals had higher levels ofdepression and lower levels of well-being.Other studies have found that the long-termpursuit of avoidance goals is associated withdecreases in well-being (Elliot, Sheldon &Church, 1997), and that approach goals areassociated with both higher levels ofacademic performance and increased well-being (Elliot & McGregor, 2001).

Performance and learning goalsPerformance goals focus on task executionand are typically expressed as being compet-itive in terms of performing very well on aspecific task, receiving positive evaluationsfrom others about one’s performance, oroutperforming others. Performance goalstend to focus the coachee’s attention onissues of personal ability and competence(Gresham, Evans & Elliott, 1988). Anexample of a performance goal in executiveor workplace coaching might be ‘to be thevery best lawyer in my area of practice’.Performance goals can be very powerfulmotivators, especially where the individualexperiences success early in the goal-attain-ment process.

However, it is not so well known thatperformance goals can in fact impedeperformance. This particularly the casewhen the task is highly complex or the goalis perceived as very challenging, and wherethe individual is not skilled or is low in self-efficacy, or where resources are scarce.

Furthermore, in highly competitive situa-tions or when there are very high stakes,performance goals can foster cheating and areluctance to co-operate with peers, and thecorporate and business world is replete withsuch examples (Midgley, Kaplan,&Middleton, 2001).

In many cases learning goals may betterfacilitate task performance (Seijts & Latham,2001). Learning goals (sometimes referred toas mastery goals) focus the coachee’s atten-tion on the learning associated with taskmastery, rather than on the performance ofthe task itself. An example of a learning goalin executive or workplace coaching might be‘learn how to be the best lawyer in my area ofpractice’. Learning goals tend to be associ-ated with a range of positive cognitive andemotional processes including perception ofa complex task as a positive challenge ratherthan a threat, greater absorption in the actualtask performance (Deci & Ryan, 2002), andenhanced memory and well-being (Linnen-brink, Ryan & Pintrich, 1999). Furthermore,individual performance can be enhanced inhighly complex or challenging situationswhen team goals are primarily framed asbeing learning goals, and the use of team-level learning goals can foster enhanced co-operation between team members(Kristof-Brown & Stevens, 2001). One benefitof setting learning goals is that they tend tobe associated with higher levels of intrinsicmotivation which in turn is associated withperformance (Sarrazin et al., 2002).

The differences in the articulation ofthese different types of goals is more than amatter of mere semantics, because the way agoal is expressed has important implicationsfor coachee engagement (Rawsthorne &Elliott, 1999), and coaches need to beattuned to such nuances if they are to workeffectively within a goal-focused coachingparadigm.

Complementary and competing goalsCoaches also need to be attuned to the exis-tence of competing or conflicting goals. Theseoccur when the pursuit of one goal inter-



feres with the pursuit of another goal. Somegoal conflict is easy to identify, for examplein the case of the two goals ‘to spend moretime with my family’ and ‘to put more timeinto work in order to get a promotion’.However, goal conflict may not always beimmediately evident. For example, the goal‘to get my sales force to sell more products’may be in perceived conflict with the goal ‘tohave a more hands-off leadership style’ if thecoachee (a sale manager) finds delegationdifficult and is used to a more controllingmanagement style in dealing with his/hersale force (Grant, 2006).

The skill of the coach here is to help thecoachee find ways to align seeminglyconflicting goals and develop complementarygoals, and Sheldon and Kasser (1995) haveargued that such congruence is important infacilitating goal attainment and well-being.

Unconscious goals?Human beings are goal-orientated organ-isms. Without goals we could not exist asconscious sentient beings. Indeed, Carverand Scheier (1998) argue that all humanbehaviour is a continual process of movingtowards or away from mental goal represen-tations. This is not to say that all goals areconsciously held. Under many conditions,we enact complex outcome-directedbehaviours even though we may not haveconsciously set specific goals.

For example, I might be sitting at homewriting an article on coaching, and decide towalk to the corner store to buy some biscuitsso I can enjoy afternoon tea and biscuits athome. I am aware that I have been sitting atthe desk writing for some hours, and thattaking a walk will help maintain flexibility inmy back, and I am keen to try to prevent thedevelopment of back problems as I get older.However, my overarching and consciously setgoals are to get biscuits and then make andenjoy some afternoon tea. With this goal inmind, I put on my shoes, take my keys fromthe shelf, check my wallet, open the door,close and lock the door (to maintain homesecurity and avoid lose of personal prop-

erty). I then walk to the store, taking care tolook both ways as I cross the road (so as toavoid being knocked over by a car or othervehicles), find my way to the biscuit shelf,select my biscuits from a wide range ofdifferent biscuit products (some of which Idon’t like), chat with the store keeper aboutSaturday’s football match, purchase mybiscuits, return home safely (opening andthen closing the front door behind me) andput the kettle on.

All of these individual actions themselvesinvolve a goal of some kind and all influ-enced my behaviour at any point in time, yethardly any of these goals were consciouslyset.

Because goal-states influence ourbehaviour even though we may not haveconsciously set specific goals, goal theory isparticularly helpful in coaching contexts andas a means of understanding humanbehaviour. Goal theory can provide a frame-work from which to help clients explore,identify and then change unhelpful implicitgoals in order to better facilitate purposefulpositive change (for an informed discussionon how actions are initiated even though weare unconscious of the goals to be attainedor their motivating effect on our behavioursee Custers & Aarts, 2010).

Self-concordant goalsSelf-concordance is important in goal settingbecause goals that are self-concordant and inalignment with the coachee’s core personalvalues or developing interests are more likelyto be engaging and elicit greater effort. Self-concordance theory (Sheldon & Elliot,1998) is a useful framework from which tounderstand and work with the reasons andmotivations associated with goal selectionand goal strivings.

Self-concordance refers to the degree towhich a goal is aligned with an individual’sintrinsic interests, motivations and values.Derived from self-determination theory(Deci & Ryan, 1980) this can be a simple andpowerful framework for understanding thelink between values and goals. The self-


Anthony M. Grant

concordance model emphasises the extentto which individual perceives their goals asbeing determined by their authentic self,rather than compelled by external forces.

The self-concordance approach delin-eates the perceived locus of causality asvarying on a continuum from controlled(external) factors to internal (autonomous)facets. A key point here is that it is the indi-vidual’s perception of the locus of causalitythat is the key in determining the extent towhich the goals are deemed to be self-inte-grated and where they sit on the external-internal continuum. To maximise theprobability of genuinely engaged and moti-vated action, and to increase the chances ofgoal satisfaction upon goal attainment, it isimportant that coachee’s goals are as self-congruent as possible, and coaches mayneed to play quite an active role in helpingtheir coaches align goals in order to makethem personal and congruent. There are atleast four factors from this perspective whichmay influence successful goal alignment(Sheldon & Elliot, 1999).

First, the coachee needs to be able toidentify the enduring and authentic fromtransitory or superficial whims or desires.Secondly, the coachee needs the personalinsight and self-awareness to be able todistinguish between goals that representtheir own interests and goals that representthe interests of others (Sheldon, 2002).Given that there are significant individualvariations in levels of self-awareness(Church, 1997), some coachees may findthis quite challenging. Thirdly, the goalcontent needs be expressed in a way thataligns the goals with the coachee’s internalneeds and values. Fourthly, the coach needsto have the ability to recognise when a goal isnot self-concordant, and then be able to re-language and reframe the goal so that it doesalign with the coachee’s needs and values.

Goal hierarchies: Linking values, goalsand actions steps The relationships between values, goals andaction steps are generally not well under-

stood in coaching, yet these are central tocoaching practice. Goal hierarchy frame-works are one way of making explicit thelinks between values, goals and specificaction steps, and are also a useful way ofoperationalising the notion of goal self-concordance (see Figure 2).

Goals can be considered as beingordered hierarchically with concrete specificgoals being subsumed under higher order andbroader, more abstract goals (Chulef, Read& Walsh, 2001) in a fashion similar to the‘Big Five’ personality traits (Costa & McCrae,1992). Hence, higher order abstract goalssuch as ‘to be a great business leader’ can beunderstood as being situated verticallyhigher than the lower order and more specificgoal ‘to increase business profits by 25 percent in the next quarter’ and there is someempirical support for this notion (Chulef etal., 2001; Oishi et al., 1998).

Higher order goals from this perspectiveequate to values. A valuable model for usinggoal theory in coaching involves thinking ofvalues as higher order abstract goals that aresuperordinate to lower order, more specificgoals, which in turn are superordinate tospecific action steps. Indeed, visualisingvalues, goals and actions as being part of ahierarchy in this way provides coaches withan extremely useful case conceptualisationframework for coaching practice, teachingand supervision, and also makes the notionof values more tangible to many coachingclients.

In using this model in coaching practice,it is important to try to ensure both verticaland horizontal congruency. That is, toensure that goals are aligned with the client’shigher order values, and that any actionsdesigned to operationalise the goals arethemselves similarly aligned (vertical align-ment). It is also important that to try toensure horizontal alignment so that goalscompliment, support and energise eachother rather than being, as previouslymentioned, being competing or conflictinggoals resulting in the pursuit of one goalinterfering with the pursuit of another.



Of course, such alignment may not always bepossible. Nevertheless, simply drawing thecoachee’s attention to the existence of anycompeting or conflicting goals, and high-lighting any disconnect between goals andvalues can provide the coachee with impor-tant insights and alterative perspectiveswhich may in turn facilitate more useful waysof facilitating change.

In addition, in terms of teachingcoaching and coaching psychology, thismodel can be used as a practical template tohelp student coaches develop more sophisti-cated understandings of the goal alignmentprocess.

Goal neglectThe hierarchical model is also very useful tocoaches as it can be used to illustrate theeffect of goal neglect. The notion of goalneglect is not well-known in the coachingliterature, but has very useful implicationsfor coaching practice.

The term goal neglect refers to the disre-gard of a goal or a task requirement despitethe fact that it has been understood or isrecognised as being important (Duncan etal., 1996). In essence goal neglect occurswhen we fail to pay attention to a specificgoal of importance, but instead focus ourattention on some other goal or task,resulting in a mismatch between the actionsrequired to attain the original goal, and theactions that are actually performed.

Human beings are essentially goal-directed organisms. All our behaviour(behaviour here is broadly defined toinclude thoughts, feelings and physicalactions) is shaped and given direction,purpose and meaning by the goals that wehold, and of course much of our behaviouris shaped and directed by goals and valueswhich are outside of our immediateconscious awareness. In relation to the goalhierarchy model, it is the higher order (orsuperordinate) values that give direction,


Anthony M. Grant

Figure 2: The Goal hierarchy framework.

meaning and purpose to the lower ordergoals and actions.

When self-regulation at upper levels of agoal hierarchy has been suspended (forexample, by not enough attention beingpaid to those values), the goals at a lowerlevel become functionally superordinate inguiding overt behaviour and actions (Carver& Scheier, 1998). That is to say that the guid-ance of the human system defaults(regresses) to lower levels (see Figure 3).

This seemingly technical psychologicalpoint has important implications forcoaching practice. This is because, typically,lower order goals in the hierarchy are not inthemselves relatively meaningful in compar-ison to the higher order values. In fact inmany cases the lower order goals and actionsmay not be pleasant activities at all. They areoften on made palatable by the notion thatreaching those lower order goals activatesthe higher order value.

When we fail to consistently pay attentionto the higher order values in the goal hier-archy system, and overly focus on attaininglower order goals, the lower order goalsbecome the superordinate or dominant

values in the cognitive system, and theselower order goals are often inherently dissat-isfying in themselves.

In the example above, the higher ordervalue is ‘to be an outstanding lawyer’, andmany individuals may enter the law profes-sion with the intention of becoming anoutstanding lawyer and ensuring that theirclients receive justice. In order to become anoutstanding lawyer they would need to workhard, make explicit contributions to theirfirm or practice and build a revenue stream.The attainment of these mid-level goals arein turn made possible by the enactment oflower order goals and actions such as dealingwith administration, documenting billinghours and the like. However, frequently indi-viduals place their attention on the lowerorder goals (e.g. revenue building or docu-menting billing hours) over time neglectingtheir higher order values, and this can easilyresult in goal dissatisfaction and disengage-ment.

The hierarchical framework can givecoaches and their coachees very usefulinsights into to the psychological mechanicsunderlying goal dissatisfaction, and can be



Figure 3: The Goal hierarchy framework illustrating the outcomes of goal neglect.

used to develop practical tools and tech-niques to help clients in the coachingprocesses. For example, by helping clientspurposefully re-focus their attention on theirhigher order values we help them reconnectwith the meaning inherent in their higherorder values, redefining their goals ifneeded, with the result that they may wellfeel revitalised and re-engaged in the enact-ment of purposeful positive change.

Putting all this together: An integratedmodel for teaching and coachingpracticeAs can be seen from this brief overview goaltheory has much to offer coaching practice.The question is, how can we organise thisinformation in a way that makes this usefulin coaching practice? It may be that goaltheory has not been widely taught incoaching programmes because there is a vastamount of material on goal and the goalattainment process, and making explicitlinks between these bodies of knowledge andthen relating this material to coachingpractice is not easy.

One way of integrating this diverse bodyof knowledge is to develop a visual represen-tation or model of the various factors relatedto goal-focused coaching, and such a modelis presented in Figure 4. This model may beuseful for teaching coaching and thepsychology of coaching because it attemptsto capture the key aspects involved in thegoal-focused approach to coaching andhighlights some of the factors that a coachmay consider during the coaching engage-ment.

A word of caution: as with all models thisis only a broad representation of some of thepossible ways that these factors relate in thecoaching process. This model represents myown personal experience and under-standing, and I would encourage readers toexplore the limitations of this model byreference to their own understanding andcoaching experience, and then adapt andextend this model in order to create theirown frameworks. Indeed the development of

such personalised models can be usefulteaching aids.

Examining this model, it can be seen thatthe coaching process is driven by needs(represented on the left hand side of themodel). Both individual and contextual/organisational factors play important roles indetermining the perceive need for coaching,which gives rise to the individual’s intentionsto participate in the goal selection process.Individual factors at play here includeperceived deficits and opportunities, psycho-logical needs, personality characteristics andavailable resources (or lack thereof).Contextual or organisational factors includesystem complexity, the social and psycholog-ical contracts, rewards and punishments andavailable resources (or lack thereof).

The goal selection process is often notstraightforward. Even where coaching hasbeen mandated by an organisation withspecific outcomes in mind, the goal settingprocess can be convoluted and complex.The rush to seize and set a specific goal tooearly in the coaching process is a key derailer– a common trap for the novice. Certainlykey issues and broad initial goals should bediscussed quite early in the coaching processin order to give the conversation directionand purpose, but the coach should also bepaying attention to a number of factorsduring the goal selection process. Theseinclude the coachee’s understanding of, andengagement with, the coaching process.

Some coachees arrive for their firstcoaching session with little idea of the natureof coaching. The suitability and clarity of thecoaching agreement (be that formal orinformal) will pay an important role inengaging the coachee in the goal selectionprocess, as will the degree of autonomy thecoachee has in goal selection.

Goal selection moderators: The coachee’s characteristicsThere are a number of moderator variablesthat influence the strength of a relationshipbetween coaching goals and the eventualoutcomes of coaching. These include the


Anthony M. Grant



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coachee’s ability to focus on the tasks athand, their ability to adapt in the fact ofadversity, and the perceived purpose of thegoal and the extent to which they feel thatthey have agency and autonomy in the goalselection process.

Readiness to changeThe coachee’s readiness to change isanother factor that will impact on the goalselection process. Coaches need to considerif the coachee is in the pre-contemplation,preparation or action stage of change (for auseful reference on applying the Transtheo-retical Model of Change to a wide range of goals, see Prochaska, Norcross &DiClemente, 1994). The TranstheoreticalModel of Change posits that change involvestransition through a series of identifiable,although somewhat overlapping stages. Fiveof these stages have direct relevance for goalsetting in coaching. These stages are:1. Pre-contemplation: No intention to change

in the foreseeable future.2. Contemplation: Considering making

stages, but have not yet made anychanges.

3. Preparation: Increased commitment tochange, intend to make changes in thenear future and often have started tomake small changes.

4. Action: Engaging in the new behaviours,but have made such changes for only ashort period of time (usually less than sixmonths).

5. Maintenance: Consistently engaging inthe new behaviour over a period of time(usually six months).

Stage-specific coaching strategiesFor individuals in the Pre-contemplation stagethe general principle is to raise awareness,increasing the amount of information avail-able to the coachee so that they can moveforward into action. There are many ways ofraising awareness including multi-rater feed-back sales, qualitative feedback, sales orperformance data, or other relevant infor-mation.

The key characteristic of the Contempla-tion stage is ambivalence; the conjointholding of two or more conflicting desires,emotions, beliefs or opinions. The generalprinciple for individuals in the Contemplationstage is to help the coachee explore theirambivalence, rather than pushing them intosetting a specific goal before they are ready.Setting specific or stretching goals too soonin this stage often results in the coacheedisengaging from the goal selection process.

In the Preparation stage the coachee isgetting ready to make change. Here the aimis to build commitment to change. In termsof goals, the coach should be helping thecoachee focus on developing a clear vision ofthe future (abstract goals) and using goalsthat involve small, easily attainable butconsistent action steps. Progress throughoutthis stage should be monitored closely andnew desired behaviours positively reinforcedby acknowledging and celebrating the attain-ment of small sub-goals. Clearly, there is aconsiderable art to the effective use of goalsin coaching.

In the Action and Maintenance stages thekey is to build on past successes andmaximise self-directed change, working onusing more stretching goals and developingstrategies to sustain the change overtime.

Coaching session moderators: The coach’s skill setThere are a number of other factors relatedto the coaching session itself that impact onthe goal selection process and act as moder-ator variables. This include the coach’sability to set effective goals and facilitateaction planning, and the coach’s ability tomaximise goal congruency and goal align-ment whilst also facilitating the coachee’sgoal-focused self-regulation.

The success of the above is also depen-dant on the coach’s ability to bring perceivedvalue to the coaching session and develop astrong working alliance with the coachee(Gray, 2007). All the theoretical knowledgein the world about goal theory is of noimportance, unless the coach can put this


Anthony M. Grant

theory into practice, managing the goalstriving process, whilst holding the coacheeaccountable and being solution focused andoutcome focused.

Goal choice and action planningGoal choice and action planning areoutcomes of the goal selection process. It isimportant to note that although the modelrepresents these as linear processes, in realitythese are iterative, with an amount of backand forth movement between stages. Thegoal choice and action planning parametersinclude goal difficulty and goal specificity,whether the goals are approach or avoidancegoals, time framing (distal or proximal) or aperformance or learning orientation.

Goal choice is a necessary, but not suffi-cient part of the coaching process – actionplans must be developed and enacted.Action planning is the process of developinga systemic means of attaining goals and isparticularly important for individuals whohave low self-regulatory skills (Kirschen-baum, Humphrey & Malett, 1981). Thecoach’s role here is to develop the coachee’sability to create a realistic and workable planof action and to help them define task strate-gies that will facilitate the goal strivingprocess, whilst promoting persistence in theface of adversity – in this way clients canenhance their self-regulation abilities andbuild resilience (Grant et al., 2009)

One key outcome of successful actionplanning is the coachee’s transition from adeliberative mindset to an implementationalmindset (Gollwitzer, 1996; Heckhausen &Gollwitzer, 1987). The deliberative mindsetis characterised by a weighing of the prosand cons of action and examination ofcompeting goals or courses of action (Carver& Scheier, 1998). The implementationalmindset is engaged once the decision to acthas been made. This mindset has a deter-mined, focused quality, and is biased infavour of thinking about success rather thanfailure – factors that are typically associatedwith higher levels of self-efficacy, self-regula-tion and goal attainment (Bandura, 1982).

The self-regulation cycle, feedback andgoal satisfactionThe monitoring and evaluation of actionsand the generation of feedback as thecoachee moves through the self-regulationcycle is a vital part of the coaching process.However, self-reflection does not come natu-rally to many people (Jordan & Troth, 2002),and so the coach may need to find ways todevelop action plans that focus on observ-able, easily monitored behaviours.

What is monitored will, of course, varyaccording to the coachee’s goals andcontext. Some behaviours will be easier tomonitor than others. Exercise or physicalactivity-based actions can be relativelystraightforward to monitor. Intrapersonalissues, interpersonal skills or communicationpatterns in the workplace may be more diffi-cult to monitor, and the coach and coacheemay have to be quite creative in devisingmeans of monitoring and evaluating these.

Care should be taken to set the kinds ofgoals that will generate useful feedback,because the right feedback is vital inproviding information about how (or if)subsequent goals and associated actionsshould be modified, and this process, if donewell, will eventuate in successful goal attain-ment (Locke & Latham, 2002). Goals thathave been aligned with the coachee’sintrinsic interests or personal values aremore likely to be personally satisfying whenachieved, and the positive emotions associ-ated with such goal satisfaction may well playan important past in priming the coacheefor engagement in future challenges(Sheldon, 2002).

So what? Does goal theory matter inpractice?Although it is clear from the above discus-sion that goal theory can inform whathappens within coaching sessions and alsohas great relevance for the broader coachingprocess, the question arises: does goal theoryreally matter in actual practice? Is thecoach’s ability to be goal-focused related tocoaching outcomes? This is a key question



for the further development of evidence-based coaching practice.

A significant body of research within thepsychotherapeutic literature holds that themost important factors in determining ther-apeutic outcomes are the so-called ‘commonfactors’ – the ability of the therapist todevelop a working alliance with the clientthat embodies trust, warmth and respect forthe client’s autonomy (Lampropoulos,2000). Not surprisingly it is often assumed inthe coaching literature that this is also thecase for coaching (McKenna & Davis,2009a). However, coaching is not therapy.The aims and process of coaching andtherapy are different.

To date there have been few studies thathave sought to explore the importance ofgoals in the coaching relationship, so I wasinterested to see which aspect of thecoaching relationship was more positivelyrelated to coaching outcomes – a goal-focused approach to coaching, or the so-called ‘common-factors’ associated with theperson-centred approach (Grant, 2012). Toexplore this issue I designed a within-subjects(pre-post) coaching study, in which 49mature age coachees (males=12; females=37;mean age 37.5 years) set personal goals andcompleted a 10- to 12-week, five-session, solu-tion-focused cognitive-behavioural personalcoaching programme using the GROWmodel* (Whitmore, 1992).

Participants were asked to identify theirdesired outcome for the coaching relation-ship (i.e. their goal) and then rated theextent to which they had achieved thisoutcome on a scale from 0 per cent (noattainment) to 100 per cent (completeattainment). Psychological health was alsoassessed using the Depression Anxiety andStress Scale (DASS-21: Lovibond & Lovi-bond, 1995) and an 18-item version of Ryff’s

Psychological Well-being Scales (Ryff &Keyes, 1995). In addition, self-insight wasassessed using the Insight subscale of theSelf-reflection and Insight Scale (SRIS;Grant, Franklin & Langford, 2002).

In order to see which aspect of thecoaching relationship was the betterpredictor of coaching success, two keymeasures of the coaching relationship wereused. The goal-focused aspect of thecoaching relationship was measured usingan adaptation of the Goal-focused CoachingSkills Questionnaire (GCSQ; Grant &Cavanagh, 2007). Items on this scale include:‘The coach was very good at helping medevelop clear, simple and achievable actionplans’; ‘We discussed any failures on my partto complete agreed actions steps’; ‘The goalswe set during coaching were very importantto me’; ‘My coach asked me about progresstowards my goals’; ‘The goals we set werestretching but attainable’.

The ‘common factors’ aspect wasassessed using an adaption of Deci andRyan’s (2005) Perceived Autonomy SupportScale (PASS). Items on this scale included:‘My coach listened to how I would like to dothings’; ‘I feel that my coach cares about meas a person’; ‘My coach encouraged me toask questions’; ‘I feel that my coach acceptsme’; ‘I felt understood by my coach’; ‘I feel alot of trust in my coach’.

The coaching programme appeared tobe effective and successful in helping theclients reach their desired outcomes for thecoaching relationship: there was a significantincrease in goal attainment following thecoaching programme (t 1,48 (11.43); p<.001),as well as insight (t 1,48 (2.61); p<.05), andsignificant decreases in anxiety (t 1,48 (2.89);p<.01) and stress (t1,48 (2.13); p<.05). Nochanges in levels of depression or psycho-logical well-being were observed.


Anthony M. Grant

* The GROW model is a commonly-used way of structuring the coaching conversation by setting a goal for thecoaching session, then discussing the reality of the situation, exploring options and finally wrapping up thesession by delineating some action steps. Although this may appear to be a simplistic linear process, in fact theGROW model can be used in a sophisticated and iterative fashion, with the conversation cycling back and forthbetween steps. For an extended discussion on the use of the GROW model see Grant (2011).

The main area of interest was the rela-tionship between coaching success and thevarious aspects of the coaching styles used bythe coaches. There was a significant correla-tion between coaching success as defined bythe extent to which the client had achievedtheir desired outcome (i.e. goal attainment)and the GCSQ (r=.43; p<.01), and there wasalso a significant correlation betweencoaching success (as defined by the extent towhich the client had achieved their desiredoutcome) and the PASS (r=.29; p<.05). Notsurprisingly there was also a significantcorrelation between the GCSQ and the PASS(r=.61; p<.001). This suggests that both agoal-focused coaching style and a ‘commonfactors’ person-centred coaching stylecontribute to coaching success.

However, and this is a key point, thecorrelation between coaching success (goalattainment) and the goal-focused coachingstyle measured by the GCSQ remainedsignificant even when statistically controllingfor a ‘common factors’ person-centredcoaching style as measured by the PASS(r=.31; p<.05). It should also be noted that,when controlling for the goal-focusedcoaching style as measured by the GCSQ, therelationship between the PASS and coachingsuccess (goal attainment) was not significant(r=.03; p=.81).

These findings strongly suggest that theuse of goals in coaching is indeed of prac-tical importance in that the use of a goal-focused coaching style is more effective thana ‘common factors’ person-centred coachingstyle in the coaching context. This is not tosay that a person-centred relationship is notimportant. Rather, this reminds us that thecoaching relationship differs from the coun-selling or therapeutic relationship, and thatcoaches need to be mindful of the fact thatthey are employed by their clients to helpmake purposeful and positive change intheir personal and professional lives.

ConclusionCoaches may use metaphors such as helpingclients chart a course, navigate the waters oflife or re-author their lived narratives, andsuch metaphors may well be powerful vehi-cles for facilitating change. Some coachesmay prefer to talk about their role in termsof helping clients explore their values, clarifytheir intentions, or working to help them toachieve their personal aspirations, ratherthan using the perceived jargon of goaltheory. Clearly coaches should feel entirelyfree to express themselves and describe theirwork as they choose. However, at its corecoaching is necessarily a goal-directedactivity, regardless of linguistic gymnastics orvariations in meaning-making perspectives,and goal theory can indeed provide a usefullens through which to understand coaching.

The integrative goal-focused modelpresented here is a multifaceted evidence-based methodology for helping individualsand organisations create and sustainpurposeful positive change. Because thecoaching conversation is inherently iterative,and frequently unpredictable and non-linear, the key issue for coaches is one ofinformed flexibility in using goal theory:Goal use in coaching is far more than thesimplistic SMART acronym implies.

By understanding the different types ofgoals and their relationship to the process ofchange, and through facilitating the goalalignment and goal-pursuit processes, skilfulprofessional coaches can work more effi-ciently with their clients, helping them toachieve insight and behavioural change thatenhances their workplace performance,their professional working lives and, mostimportantly, their personal well-being andsense of self. After all, that is surely the over-arching goal of the coaching enterpriseitself.



AcknowledgementsThis article draws on and extends presenta-tions given by the author at the 2012 Inter-national Congress of Coaching Psychologyheld at Sydney, Australia in May 2012, and achapter by the author in Clutterbuck, D.,Megginson, D. & David, S. (Eds.) (2012),Beyond Goals: Effective Strategies for Coachingand Mentoring. Gower Publishing, London

The AuthorAnthony M. GrantCoaching Psychology Unit,School of Psychology,University of Sydney,Sydney,NSW 2006,Australia.

CorrespondenceEmail: [email protected]


Anthony M. Grant

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THE UK GOVERNMENT and othergovernments in the developed worldare faced with a challenge of how to

improve road safety. Despite persistentattempts at reducing accidents throughcampaigns, road design and changes to cardesign, road traffic accidents remain one ofthe largest causes of death in the developedworld. In 2008, it was reported that aroundseven fatal incidents occur per day in theUK. Death through a driving-related inci-dent is the single largest cause of death foryoung people between 17 to 25. Further,around 20 per cent of new drivers are

involved in an incident within the first sixmonths of acquiring their licence (DSA,Learning to Drive consultation paper, 2008).

While drivers are often blamed individu-ally for incidents, behind this are issues ofnational culture, personal attitude anddriver learning. Leading coaching practi-tioners such as Whitmore (2010) have ques-tioned the current methods for learning todrive and have suggested that coaching maybe a more effective method for driverlearning, compared with the currentinstructor-led approach.


Paper

Coaching as a learning methodology – a mixed methods study in driverdevelopment using a randomisedcontrolled trial and thematic analysisJonathan Passmore & Hannah Rehman

Objectives: This mixed methods study reviewed the role of coaching in the driver development environment.The study sought to explore the impact of coaching as a learning methodology and to compare this with aninstruction-based approach. Design: The study involved a mixed methods sequential design. The first part of the study was a randomisedcontrolled trial (RCT) and the second part of the study used semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis. Methods: The RCT element of the study involved participants being randomly allocated to one of twolearning groups. In the first group participants were trained by driving instructors trained in coachingskills using a blended method of coaching and instruction. In the second group participants were trainedby driving instructors using solely an instruction approach. In total 208 participants took part with 24driving instructors delivering the coaching or instruction across the two groups. In the qualitative part ofthe research, four driving instructors and seven learners were interviewed using semi-structured interviewsand the data analysed using thematic analysis. Results: The quantitative study revealed that coaching was a more effective and efficient method forlearning in this context. The independent samples t-tests indicated significant differences with learners inthe coaching group spending less time in training (p<0.01) and being more likely to pass their test on thefirst attempt (p<0.01). The coaching group also had fewer attempts to pass the assessment (p<0.01) thanthe instruction group. The qualitative study suggested that from this group that both learners and‘instructors’ observed positive aspects to the coaching style of learning. This was strongest for instructorswho suggested coaching facilitated an improved relationship and helped the learner to learn more quickly.Keywords: Coaching psychology; RCT; Mixed methods; coaching and learning; coaching impact;pedagogy; adult learning; coaching and driver development.

The Driving Standards Agency (DSA) in aconsultation paper Learning to Drive discussedways of revising the current approach bychanging the system’s focus on merelyteaching the skills required to pass the test,with a view towards developing greater use ofhigher order skills. As part of this process theDSA is engaged in a five-year project to assesswhich methods are more effective inenhancing road safety. Serious questionshave, however, been raised about themethodology of the study even before initialresults have been published (Passmore,2010a; University of East London, 2011).These include questions about cross-contam-ination between the coaching and controlgroup, where it is reported that members ofthe control group have previously receivedtraining in coaching skills.

In the UK, the key requirements foracquiring an LGV (large goods vehicle)licence is that the individual must have a fullcategory B licence (car), meet the eyesightcriteria and be a minimum of 21 years of age.An LGV licence is required for all vehiclesthat weigh over 3.5 tonnes. Similar to drivinga car, the LGV learner must complete atheory, hazard perception and practical test.

The British Army have a large need forLGV drivers which is supplied by theDefence Driving School of Transport (DST)who train British Army learners for cars(category B), lorries (Large Goods Vehicle(LGV) (category C and C+E) and PassengerCarrying Vehicles (category D and D+E), inaddition to special vehicle such as tanks andspecialist off-road vehicles.

The methods for teaching a learner howto drive a lorry and car in the British Armyare the same as a commercial driving schoolwith instructors using instruction-led tech-niques (Defence Instructional TechniquesManual, 2009). This typically involves theinstructor in providing explicit instruction onthe mechanics and operation of the vehicle,instruction on risks, as well as commandsduring the drive on what to do (i.e. ‘use yourmirror before you signal’) and where to go(i.e. ‘turn right at the next junction’).

Training standards are considered high,the DST ‘Road Traffic Accident Statistics’ in2008 reveal there was a decrease of 11 percent of road accidents. However, the totalnumber of ‘vehicle driver’ deaths increasedcompared to 2007. While instruction hasproduced positive outcomes, a pressure forchange was internal financial challenges andthe increasing demand for trained drivers, adirect result of operations in Iraq andAfghanistan.

Coaching was identified as a possiblesolution to improve driver outcomes andDST was interested in exploring these ideas.In parallel other work was underway in otherareas of driver training which has providedevidence of coaching’s potential contribu-tion to driver development (Passmore &Mortimer, 2010; Passmore & Townsend, inpress). These previous studies in the learnerdriver and police advanced driver environ-ments have revealed the perceived value bydriving instructors of coaching in supportingdriving pupil’s learning, improving thelearning relationship between ‘instructor’and learner and the perception that learningwas more effective when the instructor usedcoaching in comparison to instruction.However, not all studies have seen positiveresults (Passmore & Velez, 2012).

At this stage the contribution of coachingto adult learning remains theoretical. Thereare many theories that attempt to explainhow adults learn. The most widely usedtheory is Kolb’s (1984) experiential learningtheory (ELT). Kolb defines learning as ‘the process whereby knowledge is created throughthe transformation of experience. Knowledgeresults from the combination of grasping andtransforming experience…’ (Kolb, 1984, p.41).Kolb emphasises experience as an importantaspect of how adults learn (Kolb & Kolb,2005), within a four-stage cycle of learning(Figure 1). Whilst Kolb notes that learningcan occur at any point of the cycle, it gener-ally begins with the process of ‘concreteexperience’ (Rakoczy & Money, 1995).

According to the ELT, learning involvesdeveloping a theory, forming hypotheses


Coaching as a learning methodology

and then testing those hypotheses. On thewhole, the four stages of the cycle involve thelearner in self-reflect, observation andtesting (Rakoczy & Money, 1995). Kolb high-lights that for learning to be a success, thelearner needs to actively complete all fourstages of the cycle. Argyris (1991) has furtherdeveloped learning theory through his‘double-loop’ analogy. Argyris argues that‘double-loop learning’ consists of askingyourself questions and then testing them.‘Double-loop learning’ occurs at the thirdstage of Kolb’s cycle, whereby adults learn toapply their hypotheses and theories to newconditions.

It can be hypothesised that coachingfurther aids the learning process describedby Kolb (1984), as coaching creates a senseof personal responsibility of the learning andstimulates the double loop learningdescribed by Argyris, as the coachee isencouraged to reflect on their situation andits implications through questions from thecoach. These models of learning suggest thatan individualised coaching approach mighthelp enhance the efficacy of LGV driver

training beyond the traditional directive,instructor lead approach.

A number of previous studies of coachinghave indicated the effectiveness of usingcoaching and training simultaneously tohelp the learner personalise learning andthus enhance application to workplace activ-ities (e.g. Olivero et al., 1997). However, todate no direct comparisons have been madecomparing instructional and coachingapproaches as learning methodologies.Further, the randomised trials which havebeen undertake have tended to focus on thedevelopment of psychological characteris-tics, for example, resilience or behaviouralskills (see Grant et al., 2010, for a fullerdiscussion) rather than a comparison ofcoaching with other developmental inter-ventions.

Research, however, is still limited even inthe area of the development of behaviouralskills and even rarer in using coaching withpeople who may have poor literacy skills.Allison and Ayllon (1980) used a behaviouralcoaching strategy with 23 participants to aidthe learning of specific skills in sports. They


Jonathan Passmore & Hannah Rehman

Figure 1: Kolb’s (1984) Stages of Learning Cycle.

Adapted from Kolb & Kolb (2005)

found that the behavioural coachingapproach enhanced performance and appro-priate use of the skills by an average of 50 percent. The findings of this study suggest that abehavioural coaching approach might besuccessful in driver training with a diversepopulation, as driving involves learning amotor skill, which needs to be executedcorrectly to ensure driver safety beyond thetraining. However, in addition it involveshigher order cognitive skills, such as decisionmaking, which themselves are affected byemotional state, personality and attitudes. Asa results a cognitive behavioural approach,combining both basic behavioural coachingwith an exploration of cognition mayenhance driver development outcomes.

A review of the driver development liter-ature reveals there are currently no empir-ical research looking at the effects ofcoaching on driver training, with the excep-tion of the papers noted above conducted aspart of this wider review of coaching anddriving (Passmore & Mortimer, 2011; Pass-more & Velez, 2012; Passmore & Townsend,in press)

In terms of the wider driver trainingarena, some work has been conducted. Workby Senserrick and Haworth, (2005) hasnoted the central role of attitudes. Stantonet al. (2007) have suggested hazard percep-tion programmes to help improve the effectsof training. Senserrick and Swinburne(2001) noted the value of advanced ‘insight’training courses which made drivers moreaware of the risks involved in driving. Huttonet al. (2002) have highlighted the role offeedback on driver safety behaviours andhave found a positive effect of using feed-back to change negative behaviours.Boorman (1999) found that an advanceddriver training programme conducted withthe Post Office lorry drivers significantlyimproved fleet performance and alsoresulted in a reduction in accidents after theprogramme. These studies lend preliminarysupport to the notion that driver trainingcan be enhanced with the addition ofsupplementary approaches.

Given this context, leading drivingresearchers (Dorn, 2005) have suggestedthat coaching may be an appropriate



Figure 2: A model comparing the outcomes of the coaching and instructional approaches.

Adapted from Kolb’s (1984) Stages of Learning Cycle.

methodology for driver training. Rismarkand Solvberg (2007) proposed a dialoguesimilar to feedback and coaching to improvethe effects of driver training in Norway. Thestudy looked at how to improve drivertraining in terms of its content throughenhancing the communication between theinstructor and learner. This approachhelped enhance self-awareness and reflec-tion in the driver, which led to better drivingbehaviour beyond training. Similarly,Stanton et al. (2007, p.1213) evaluated theeffectiveness of an advanced coachingdriving intervention, training drivers’ in the‘Information’, ‘Position’, ‘Speed’, ‘Gear’and ‘Accelerate’ system (IPSGA). Theyconducted the study with 75 participants,who were either put in the coaching group,an observation group with no coaching or acontrol group with no observation orcoaching being given. The participants wereadults between the ages of 23 to 65 withseveral years of driving experience. Theresearchers found that the experimentalcoaching group significantly improved theirattitudes, situational awareness and skillsrelated to driving. They proposed that theirfindings suggested that a formal one-to-onecoaching course will help produce saferdrivers, emphasising that the content andmethods of an advanced trainingprogramme is the key to its success. Thesefindings indicate that coaching will be usefulfor improving driver development for allvehicles and in particular for lorry drivertraining to help facilitate the acquisition ofthe specific skills and to enhance road safetybeyond the test. Nevertheless, a major weak-ness identified with their study was thenature of participation in the study. Theirsample for the coaching group was self-selected and this group were ‘motivated toimprove their driving’ (Stanton et al., 2007,p.1231). Stanton et al. (2007) and Rismarkand Solvberg’s study (2007) provideevidence and support for the use ofcoaching as an independent and formalprogramme.

These studies were identified by the EUHERMES Project (2007), which hasexplored the role of coaching as a learningapproach for novice drivers. Its report(2010) has suggested ways that drivinginstructors can incorporate coaching intodriver training (see, for example, HERMES,2011). HERMES also highlighted ‘Goals forDriver Education’ (Table 1). The matrixdefines the goals and competencies requiredfor teaching individuals how to drive, using a‘hierarchical approach’. Level 1 ‘vehiclecontrol’ is gaining skills in the basic manualhandling of the vehicle, such as manoeu-vring and general car maintenance. Level 2‘driving in traffic’ consists of gaining controlin traffic situations and different road andweather conditions, it is the mastery ofdriving in varied conditions. Level 3 ‘goalsand context of driving’ and Level 4 ‘goals forlife and skills for living’ are the higher-orderskills required for driving, such as under-standing driver motives and intentions fordriving, factors related to driver personalityand values, ‘self-awareness’, ‘emotions’ andbeing able to understand driver personalstrengths and weaknesses. They can be seenas the ‘what, where, when and how’ of ajourney and understanding the rationale formaking decisions. The matrix can be used tounderstand what the current traditionalapproaches to driver training need to reviseand reconsider.

While the instructor-led approachfocuses on Levels 1 and 2 of the matrix,which are formally assessed on the drivingtest, it is suggested that the coachingapproach helps develop Levels 3 and 4 of thematrix, as coaching helps challenge one’sbeliefs (HERMES, 2010). The evidencesuggests that these factors are important andhave a large impact on driving behaviour,(Dorn & Brown, 2003; Dorn, 2005). TheHERMES Report argues that for drivertraining to be successful it needs to incorpo-rate all levels on the matrix.

It can be questioned whether a moreenhanced coaching approach to drivertraining will enhance its effectiveness.



Driving involves both cognitive skills, such ascalculating other road user speed, intendeddirection and associated risks of manoeuvresand behavioural skills, such as vehiclecontrol. For coaching to be successful indriver training, it needs to adopt approacheswhich enable these aspects of skills develop-ment to be addressed. Grant (2001) foundthat a combined approach of cognitive andbehavioural methods was more effective inenhancing learning for adult learners,finding that it led to ‘deeper’ understanding,as well as reducing anxiety and these effectswere also maintained at follow-up.

The current study aimed to explorewhether coaching could improve the effi-ciency and effectiveness of driver training.Unlike the small number of driving studiesthat focus on young novice drivers, thecurrent study focuses on adult learners whoalready know how to drive and has passedtheir test for category B (motor car).

MethodThis study investigated the impact ofcoaching on Large Goods Vehicle (LGV)driver training with the Defence School ofTransport (DST) in the UK. The first part ofthe study used a randomised controlled trialmethodology (RCT), where participantswere randomly allocated to the coachingexperimental group or the instructioncontrol group. In this study, the inde-pendent variable identified was the coachingstyle of teaching learners how to drive a LGV.The dependent variables were the totalnumber of hours spent in training; the totalnumber of kilometres (kms) spent driving intraining prior to passing the test, thenumber of tests taken to pass the driving testand passing the driving test on the firstattempt. The design of the study was abetween subjects design, as there weredifferent participants in each group. Theexperimental group (‘Group 1’) receivedthe coaching style of teaching and ‘Group 2’



Table 1: Goals for Driver Education (GDE) Matrix.

Adapted from Hatakka, Keskinen, Glad, Gregerson & Hernetkoski, 2002, pp.209–210) and Gregerson (2005, p.9).

Hierarchical levels ofdriver behaviour

Level 4: Goals for lifeand skills

Level 3: Goals andcontext of driving

Level 2: Driving intraffic

Level 1: Vehiclecontrol

Competency 1:Knowledge and skill

● Lifestyle, age, group, culture, social position, etc. vs. driving behaviour

● Modal choice● Choice of time● Role of motives● Route planning

● Traffic rules● Co-operation● Hazard perception● Automisation

● Car functioning● Protection systems● Vehicle control● Physical laws

Competency 2: Risk increasingaspects

● Sensation seeking● Risk acceptance● Group norms● Peer pressure

● Alcohol, fatigue● Low friction● Rush hours● Young passengers

● Disobeying rules● Close-following● Low friction● Vulnerability

● No seatbelts● Breakdown of

vehicle systems● Worn-out tyres

Competency 3:Self-assessment

● Introspective competence

● Own preconditions● Impulse control

● Own motives influencing choices

● Self-critical thinking

● Calibration of driving skills

● Own driving style

● Calibration of carcontrol skills

was the control who received the standardinstruction style of teaching. Participants ineach group were matched according to theirLGV driving test category; whether they weretraining to acquire their category C licence,which is for ‘vehicles over 3500 kg, with a trailerup to 750 kg’ ; or training for their C+Elicence, which is the same as category C withthe exception of a trailer weighing ‘over 750kg’ (Direct Gov, 2010). The data wascollected by members of the DST andsubjected to analysis by the researchers. Thesecond part of the study involved a series ofshort semi-structured interviews, transcrip-tion and thematic analysis to identifycommon themes.

ParticipantsThe RCT part of the study involved 208participants, with 104 participants in eachgroup. Participants were serving members ofthe British Armed forces who were learningto drive a lorry with the DST. The sampleincluded both English as a second language,(mainly from Nepal and Kenya), and nativeEnglish speakers. Participation in the studywas voluntary. Participation of learners ineach group was randomly assigned, throughan ABAB process, following posting to DSA.The driving instructors were all members ofunit D, one of seven units involved in drivertraining. The selection of this group wasrandom. The driving instructors attendedfive days of coach training. The trainingcovered basic skills in coaching and includeda basic coverage of behavioural and cognitivebehavioural coaching models. Participantsalso completed coaching practice duringwhich they were observed and received feed-back, along with a subsequent assessment

The qualitative study involved 11 partici-pants, four instructors and seven learners,who were interviewed by independentresearchers. These were selected at randomfrom each of the groups. Participation wasagain voluntary.

Materials1. Participants: For each participant (learner

driver) a record of the hours spent intraining, kilometres driven, number oftests taken and the date and time of alllessons and tests were recorded usingindividual learner record sheets. Thesummary data for each individual wastransferred to an Excel spreadsheet foranalysis.

Each participant (learner driver) wasgiven a work book, work sheets and aninstructor resource to refer to posttraining (PLD, 2008a, 2008b).

2. Trainers: Twelve DST staff were trained inthe coaching approach. The training wasdesigned to develop the drivinginstructors’ knowledge, skills and attitudeto learners and to be able to undertakecoaching with confidence and compe-tence. The aim of the training pro-gramme was to ensure that the trainers(driving instructors) were skilled in theapproach so that they could then trainother instructors within their organisa-tion. The training contents is summa-rised in Table 2.

3. Data collection: Trainers (driving instruc-tors) were asked to monitor the hoursspent in training, kilometres driven andtest details on a record sheet for eachstudent at the end of each session. Thecollection of such information was part ofthe instructors’ normal role. Data wascollected during January to July 2009.During this period, each instructortrained approximately 10 students.

Trainers (driving instructors) trainedparticipants (learner drivers) in theexperimental group how to drive a lorry,using techniques from both coachingand instruction. Instructors who had notreceived the additional coaching trainingtaught participants (learner drivers) inthe control using the DST’s instructionalstyle.

Participants (learner drivers) wererandomly allocated to a trainer (drivinginstructor). Each participant was



informed that their details would bemonitored during their lessons. Inaddition each received an explanationthat the Army was reviewing its driverlearning methods; although precisedetails were not disclosed as to the typesof training methodology or whether theparticipant was in the experimental orcontrol group.

Eleven semi-structured interviews were alsoconducted with both trainers and learners togain further insight into their experiences ofthe coaching approach. Each interviewlasted between 10 and 20 minutes. Interviewswere conducted with four instructors whohad been trained to use coaching to teachlearners how to drive. The interviewsexplored the effects of the coaching courseon their role as an instructor, in particular,looking at ways in which it might havechanged the way they teach and the effectsthat this teaching style had on their learners.

Seven learners were interviewed. All thelearners interviewed were either doing theirC or their C+E LGV category licence trainingwith the British Army through the Defence

School of Transport. All learners had alreadyacquired their category B (car driving)licence. The learners were asked if they hadnoticed any differences in the way they hadbeen taught between their previousinstructor and the new coaching instructorand about the learning experience.

ResultsQuantitative dataIn this section the findings from the statis-tical analysis are reviewed for each of thefour hypotheses. The level of statisticalsignificance adopted for this study wasp<0.01. An initial review of the data using aOne-Sample Kolmogorov test revealed thatthe data was more or less normally distrib-uted, therefore the Independent Samples t-test was a robust enough test for the dataobtained. The t-test also copes better withoutliers and is the test of significance forcomparing the difference between twogroups.

The comparisons made between theexperimental group (coaching) and controlgroup (instruction) included:



Table 2: Training objectives.

Day Objectives

1 ● Introduce the coaching process – define coaching and how it compares withother forms of learning

● Core coaching skills – listening, questioning, summary and reflection

2 ● Core coaching models, for example, the GROW model, goal setting (SMART goals).● Coaching practice

3 ● Models of adult learning – Learning cycle, social learning and double loop learning ● Learning styles● Supplementary models – Cognitive behavioural approach and techniques● Coaching practice

4 ● Building learning relationships with learners ● Driving lesson planning – combining instruction and coaching● Coaching Practice

5 ● Integrating the skills● Coaching practice ● Personal review and action planning

● The total number of hours in training topass the test.

● The total number of kilometres driven intraining to pass the test.

● Average number of tests taken to pass thedriving test.

● Whether the learners passed their test onthe first attempt.

Hypothesis 1: Learners in the coachinggroup will spend fewer hours intraining compared to the instructioncontrol group. Table 3 shows the average number of hoursspent driving in training in order to pass thetest for the coaching and instruction groups.It can be seen that there is a difference in the number of hours driving between thetwo groups (control M=30.12, coachingM=21.43).

The coaching group spend fewer hoursin training in order to pass their test, indi-cating a mean difference in hours spent intraining of 8.69 (hours). An IndependentSamples t-test was conducted to determinewhether this difference in total hours spent

driving was significant. Levene’s test forequality of variances was p<0.05 (p=0.026).The analysis revealed that the differencebetween these two groups was significant(t=4.014, p<0.01, p=0.0005, one-tailed), indi-cating that the coaching group on averagetake less time in training to pass their test.The null hypothesis can therefore berejected.

Hypothesis 2: Learners in the coachinggroup will drive fewer kilometres topass the test compared to theinstruction control group.Table 4 demonstrates the mean for the totalnumber of kilometres driven in training to pass the driving test for both groups.There appears to be a difference betweenthe mean for the instruction control group(M=449.99) and the coaching group(M=394.44).

The mean difference between the twogroups was 55.55 kilometres. The Levene’stest for equality of variances was p>0.05(p=0.621), using the top row of values for t,the equal variances assumed row. However,



Table 4: Descriptive statistics – total number of kilometres driven in training topass the test for the coaching and instruction control group.

Type of training No. of Min. Max. Mean SDlearners

(N)

Instruction Group (Control) 104 90 1934 449.99 310.76

Coaching Group 93 100 2350 394.44 327.44

Table 3: Descriptive statistics – total number of hours driving to pass the test for the coaching and instruction control group.


(N)

Instruction Group (Control) 104 10.15 106.75 30.12 17.78

Coaching Group 104 7.00 81.00 21.43 13.06

an Independent Samples t-test revealed thatthis difference in kilometres spent driving intraining was not significant (t=1.221, p>0.01,p=0.112, one-tailed), thus the null hypothesisfailed to be rejected, as coaching showed noimprovement in the kilometres driven intraining to pass the test.

Hypothesis 3: There will be a decreasein the number of tests taken to pass thetest for learners in the coaching group.Table 5 shows the average number of teststaken for the learners to pass their test inboth groups. It can be seen that on averagethe coaching group take less driving tests topass (M=1.38).

The difference between the two groupsin the number of tests taken to pass theirdriving test was small (0.33). An Inde-pendent Samples t-test analysis revealed thatthe difference between the number of teststaken for both groups was significant(t=2.659, p<0.01, p=0.005 one-tailed).Levene’s test for equality of variances wasp<0.05 (p=0.004) and so the bottom row ofvalues for t were used. As predicted, there

was a decrease in the number of tests takento pass the test for the coaching group andthe null hypothesis can therefore berejected.

Hypothesis 4: Learners in the coachinggroup are more likely to pass their teston the first attempt. The data for hypothesis 4 was categoricaland thus the Chi-Square non-parametric testwas used for analysis. Table 6 shows theaverage number for whether the learnerspassed their test on their first attempt for thecoaching and control group. It can be seenthat there is a difference between thecoaching group (M=1.00) and instructioncontrol group (M=1.45) for whether theypass their test first time.

Table 7 indicates that all learners in thecoaching group (N=77) passed their test onthe first attempt, indicating that on average acoaching style of teaching will help learnerspass their test first time. A Chi-Squareanalysis revealed that there is a significantassociation between the two groups(χ2=45.294, df=1, p<0.01, p=0.0005, one-



Table 6: Descriptive statistics for passing the driving teston first attempt.

Type of training No. of Mean SDlearners

(N)

Instruction Group (Control) 77 1.45 0.501

Coaching Group 77 1.00 0.000

Table 5: Descriptive statistics – total number of tests taken topass the driving test.


(N)

Instruction Group (Control) 104 1 6 1.71 1.01

Coaching Group 104 1 4 1.38 0.74

tailed). The analysis supports the hypothesisthat learners who receive a coaching style ofteaching are more likely to pass their test onthe first attempt and the null hypothesis can,therefore, be rejected.

Qualitative dataData from the semi-structured interviews wastranscribed and analysed using a thematicanalysis approach. This approach can helpunderstand emerging ideas from onesresearch (Aronson, 1994). ‘Thematic analysisis a method for identifying, analysing, andreporting patterns (themes) within data’ (Braunet al., 2006, p.6). An advantage of using thisapproach is that it allows for flexibility(Braun et al., 2006).

The process of analysing the data firstlyentailed becoming familiar with the inter-view data. The second stage involved identi-fying the themes and patterns from all theinterviews by moving back and forth betweenthe interview data. During this stage, allpatterns and trends found in the data werecoded. The third stage involved a review ofthe patterns and trends to form and definethe specific themes. The fourth stagecombined the common or similar themestogether in order to create sub-themes. Thefinal stage of analysis was to identify the datathat was related to these themes (see Braunet al., 2006).

TrainersTable 8 summarises the key themes thatarose from the interviews with the trainers.The trainers felt that their teaching style hadimproved from using the new coachingmethod and could see marked improve-ments in their learners who had received thisstyle of teaching. Trainers felt that they‘reflected back’ more when using thecoaching style, they gave more feedback,worked in a more collaborative style withtheir student, set clear goals, helped theirstudents to actively learn through practicerather than instructing and that they askedtheir students more questions in order toexplore whether their student understoodthe task. The trainers also mentioned thatcoaching was a useful tool for teaching theirlearners, commenting that this techniquedefinitely worked with their students andwould recommend the wider use of the tech-nique in other areas of training. Commentsfrom trainers included:

‘I think it’s certainly made me a little bit moreenthusiastic in getting out there and doing it. No doubt…well, job satisfaction’. (T5-278-282)‘I’ve got that little bit that’s really helping meand I can see the big difference in my students.’(T3-140-142) ‘You’re getting the answer out of them ratherthan you telling them you’re asking thequestions they’re giving you the answer thenyou’re waiting for the response of that student.’(T3-26-29)



Table 7: A table to show the cross-tabulation for whether both groups pass the driving test on the first attempt.

Coaching orControl Group

Coaching Control Total

Whether they passed Yes Count 77 42 119their test first time Expected Count 59.5 59.5 119.0

No Count 0 35 35Expected Count 17.5 17.5 35.0

Total Count 77 77 154Expected Count 77.0 77.0 154.0



Table 8: Key themes from the interviews with the Trainers.

Themes

Driving instructor–learnerrelationship

Coaching as acomplementarymethodology

Enhanced opportunity forlearner self-reflection

Flexibility with using thecoaching style to teach

Feedback and preparation

Involvement

Exploring throughquestions for deeperunderstanding

Working collaborativelywith the learner

Setting goals andobjectives

Responsibility of thelearner

Active learning

Trainers’ thoughts/comments

Trainers felt that coaching helped to build good relationships withtheir students, creating a good atmosphere to teach in.

Coaching helped to enhance the skills they were already using.

The approach encouraged more self-reflection and helped learners tobecome more tolerant of situations that they are faced with. Usingreflection also helped to find out if the learner understood the issueand provided the opportunity to then cover again material if theconcept was not fully understood.

Trainers felt that they were able to use a variety of methods toteach, which is tailored to the each individual learner’s needs.

These were regarded as an important process in their teachingmethods.

Coaching has made them more aware of ensuring that both learners’needs are met and that they keep them interested through moreinvolvement, for example, by having more conversations with them.

Trainers felt that they now explain more to their learner’s throughasking more questions. They explained that it helps the learnerunderstand and also give an insight into how much help the learnerneeded.

They work in partnership with the learners and that workingtogether towards the same goal helped make the experience moreenjoyable for everyone.

They now set more clear goals with their learners, and reassure themthat they can do it through using positive reinforcement.

Trainers now let their learners take control of their learning, so thatthey’re not constantly telling them what to do. They found that bygiving the learner responsibility of their learning helped them tofocus and learn.

Actively learning through practice helps the learner to hold ontothose skills, making them more able to use those skills outside oftraining.

‘It’s totally different now because now all I’mdoing is I’m bringing the best out of thestudents I’m praising them, everything theydo…the Q & A technique, it’s worked so wellfor me because, now it’s making my job easierthey’re now thinking for themselves a lotearlier.’ (T3-128-136)‘It’s definitely got a place in driver training.’(T2-227)

LearnersFrom interviews with the learners, four ofthe seven learners interviewed noted nodifference in the teaching of the coachingstyle and felt that their experience wassimilar to other instructors. Two out of theseven learners interviewed noticed that therewas a difference in the teaching stylecompared to when they did their category B(car driving) course. They commented thatthe instructors were more careful with themas individuals.

These two learners also noticed thedifference in the teaching style compared totheir previous instructors and commentedthat the coaching style of teaching helpedthem to retain the skills learnt after thecourse and that this would help them whenthey are out in the field. Learners felt thattheir new instructors were very good, gavethem more one-to-one attention, helpedthem to increase their confidence in driving,had more conversations with them andexplained what to do more. Theycommented that they had learnt the impor-tance of safety and checking whilst on theroads. Overall, the learners expressed satis-faction with the course and their trainersand had no negative comments. On average,all the learners interviewed were ready fortheir test within five to eight days of trainingfrom a coached instructor. Comments fromlearners included:

‘It’s more one-to-one as opposed to in aclassroom with 20 other students – I think it’sa lot better.’ (L4-42-43) ‘I’ve got the confidence now…so it’s good.’(L5-50-51)

‘It’s helped me to observe more.’ (L5-85) ‘He kinda knows where he needs to explainthings to you and he…overemphasises on a lotthings so he’ll help you understand things a lotmore.’ (L4-68-71)

DiscussionThe study investigated whether a coachingstyle of teaching learners to drive a heavygoods lorry would improve driver trainingoutcomes. In particular, the study aimed todirectly compare the differences between acoaching style of learning with the tradi-tional instructional approach used to teachlearner drivers.

British Army driver training was selectedas there are clearly defined measures ofsuccess; namely a driving test undertaken byan independent examiner. Further, ratherthan compare coaching with a control groupon a waiting list or a group which receives nointervention, driver training offers acommonly used method of learning(Instruction), which coaching could bedirectly compared with. A third benefit wasthat both instruction and coaching tookplace one-to-two, so there was a directcomparison of the learning time. Finally, byusing a sample drawn from an organisation,such as the British Army, meant that a rela-tively large sample could be collected,ensuring a reliable and that record keepingwas highly accurate and was completed infull by all trainers.

The results indicated that there was asignificant difference between the coachingand instruction (control) group in thenumber of hours they spent in training topass their test (p<0.01). As such, it was foundthat the coaching group spent fewer hours intraining. This finding suggests that thecoaching approach of teaching helpslearners to grasp the techniques required forlorry driving quicker than the instructionalmethod. A possible explanation for thisfinding could be that the use of Socraticquestions and the self-reflection methodsused in coaching aid the learner to makemore meaningful links between their



existing knowledge and new knowledge, andpersonalise the learning so the focus oflearning is on the learners’ needs, ratherthan a fixed course time and content.

The expectation that learners in thecoaching group would drive less kilometresto pass the test compared to the instructioncontrol group, failed to reach significance(p>0.01). It was assumed that coaches wouldspend more time at the side of the roaddiscussing the drive, while instruction wouldtake place during driving. This hypothesisreflected earlier research with learnerdrivers which suggested that it may be diffi-cult on occasions to use coaching while thelearner was driving, due to the cognitivedemands which both learning to drive andreflective questions place on the driversmental workload (Passmore & Mortimer,2011). Whilst the coaching group werefound to drive less kilometres in training inorder to pass their driving test, the analysisrevealed that the difference between the two

groups was in fact small (55.55 kms). One ofthe reasons for such a finding could be thatthe coaches were in practice coaching whiletheir learner was driving. This view is consis-tent with the Experiential Learning Theory(ELT), which highlights that in order foradults to learn effectively, they need toengage in the four stages of learninginvolving observation, reflection and testing(Kolb, 1984). However, the finding that thelearners in the coaching group spent fewerhours in training supports the fact thatcoaching was in fact a more time efficientmethod, as these learners significantly spentless time to procure the necessary skills forlorry driving.

It was hypothesised that the learners inthe coaching group would take fewer tests inorder to pass their driving test compared tothe instruction control group. A significantdifference was found between the twogroups in the number of tests taken to passtheir test (p<0.01). On average, the coaching



Table 9: Key themes from the interviews with the Learners.

Themes

Course quality andInstructor competence

One-to-one learning

Flexible learning

Increased confidence

Conversational

Deeper understanding

New skills

Learners’ thoughts/comments

Learners felt that their instructors and the course were very goodand that they helped them to be ready for their test early.

Some felt that their instructors had more one-to-one time for them,making their experience more personal.

Flexible learning Some felt that there was more flexibility in thecoaching approach to teaching and were given a choice oftechniques.

All learners commented that their instructors helped them toincrease their confidence in their ability to use the skills learnt. Their increased confidence helped to deal with difficult situations.

Some learners felt that their instructors were very approachable,friendly, informal and easy to talk to. They talked to them more,explained things and asked more questions to help enhance theirunderstanding.

All the learners highlighted that their instructors helped them tounderstand why they were undertaking activities.

Some felt they learnt many skills through the style of teaching,specifically to think about safety on the road and interaction withother road users.

group were found to take less driving tests topass compared to the instruction controlgroup. The analysis also revealed that theprediction that those in the coaching groupwere more likely to pass their test on the firstattempt was significant (p<0.01). As high-lighted in the Goals for Driver EducationMatrix (GDE), safe driving behaviourinvolves not only the manual control of thevehicle, but also requires interpersonal andsituational awareness for making safe deci-sions (Hatakka et al., 2002). This studysuggests that a coaching style of teaching canbe used to optimise driver training outcomesby addressing the higher level goals fordriving as outlined in the GDE.

Although coaching improved the processof the training and was found to be a moretime efficient method as opposed to theinstruction approach; the differencebetween both groups was actually small(0.33), thus these significant findings couldhave been due to a type 1 error, wherebyother confounding variables influenced theresults. One of the variables identified is thatindividual characteristics, such as attribu-tions about the driving lessons and culturalexperiences of the learner could have influ-enced the way that they responded to thecoaching and thus the findings of this study.Other possible explanations were individualdifferences. Gregory et al. (2008) discuss theinfluence of individual differences, such asgender and age, on the coach’s questioningskills. In a future study it might be beneficialto match the coach and coachee to try andcontrol for this variable. Weather conditionshave also been reported as anotherconfounding variable that can impact ondriver performance (Gregerson, 1996;2005). However, it could be argued thatthese confounding variables were inevitableand difficult to control in this study. Overall,in light of these difficulties, coaching wasconsistently found to help learners pass theirdriving test with fewer attempts.

As noted above there is limited researchthat evaluates the efficacy of a coachingintervention in learning and specifically

within driver development. Nevertheless, theresults of the study are consistent with theview that coaching can help to enhance theeffectiveness of current driver trainingapproaches by teaching learners the higher-order skills associated with driving (HermesProject, 2007; Senserrick & Haworth, 2005;Dorn, 2005). The wealth of research oncoaching suggests that it helps with knowl-edge and skill acquisition and enhancesperformance of individuals in organisationalsettings (e.g. Olivero et al., 1997; Feggetter,2007; Tee et al., 2009), suggesting thatcoaching is a highly effective methodologyfor adult learning. The results of this studyfurther support the fact that coaching can beused successfully to improve outcomes indriver training with a diverse population.

Clark et al. (2005) and the National RoadSafety Statistics (2008) reveal that lorrydrivers are more likely to display unsafedriving behaviour. Although driver safety wasnot directly measured in this study, nor wasdata collected on subsequent accident ratesfrom both groups (the subject of currentresearch), it can be hypothesised that theresults of the current study suggest that acoaching methodology may help learners tobecome more aware of the risks associatedwith unsafe behaviours. Parallels can bedrawn between the results from this studyand similar findings of research which hasevaluated the impact of advanced drivertraining programmes and shown that theseadditional courses help increase self-aware-ness, thereby leading to a reduction in acci-dents (e.g. Lund & Williams, 1985;Gregerson, 1996; Gregerson & Bjurulf, 1996;Senserrick & Haworth, 2005; Rosenbloom etal., 2009). For instance, Molina et al. (2007)found that a one-day advanced coursehelped promote a ‘safer driving style’ up tonine-months post-training. However, incontrast to other driving studies, this studywe believe is the first to look at the impact ofa formal coaching programme directly ondrivers, whereas the majority of the drivertraining literature assesses the impact of ashort advanced course, such as ‘insight



training’ or ‘hazard awareness’ training.Evidence for such advanced courses is alsomixed, as some studies have revealed thatwhilst they are helpful in targeting unsafebehaviour, their overall effect is ‘weak’ (Keret al., 2005; Lonero, 2008). Thus, whethercoaching does indeed help learners becomesafer drivers requires further investigation.

The weaknesses with the traditionalinstructional approaches of teaching learnersto drive have been well documented (e.g.HERMES Project, 2007). As such, the litera-ture documents that the current approach todriver training does not equip learners withthe skills required to be safer drivers. Thisstudy challenges the current driver trainingteaching methods by providing an alternativeapproach that can help overcome the issue ofsafety and retention of skills beyond the test.It has been highlighted that coaching canhelp address the higher- cognitive skillsrequired for driving safely (HERMES Project,2007). Similarly, Stanton et al. (2007) hassuggested that an advanced coachingprogramme can help improve driver knowl-edge, skills and attitudes.

Grant et al. (2010) have highlighted thatmany coaching studies lack the use of acontrol group, making it difficult to firmlyassert that the changes produced were dueto the coaching itself or some other variable.It is reported that out of the 16 between-subjects studies, there have only been 11RCT coaching studies to date (e.g. Green etal., 2007; Spence & Grant, 2007). However, anumber of these have been with relativelysmall sample sizes. This study was thus un-typical in using an RCT method with anequal and comparable control, which allowsthe placebo effect to be removed, and with arelatively large sample.

There has been growing UK and EUgovernment interest in the use of coachingin driver training as highlighted in theHERMES Project (2007) and the DSAconsultation paper (2008). This researchcontributes to this wider agenda and beginsto provide support for coaching as a usefullearning methodology.

As recommended by Dorn (2005) andRismark and Solvberg (2007), the currentstudy has attempted to answer the questionsraised about the effectiveness of drivertraining. The results in this study demon-strate that coaching improved learningoutcomes, and in this context was more effi-cient and effective than instructionallearning. The results suggest that thecoaching approach of teaching learners todrive has the potential to offer significantbenefits in the driver training domain.

More generally the findings from thestudy provide useful evidence about thevalue of coaching as a learning methodology,when compared to traditional instruction.The paper extends the work of Olivero et al.(1996) through its use of a larger and consis-tent sample and through using comparableinterventions producing statistically signifi-cant results on both learning outcomes(percentage of those reaching the requiredstandard/passing the test) and in the timetaken to reach the standard (learninghours).

Limitations of the study Despite these strengths, a number of limita-tions are acknowledged with the design ofthe current study. No demographic informa-tion about the participants was collected andtherefore the sample could not be matchedaccording to their background. This was dueto constraints placed on the study by theBritish Army regarding publishing data onforces personnel. This barrier leads to aquestion over whether it is reasonable togeneralise the results of this study to othergroups and to learning environments. Ques-tions could also be raised whether these find-ings apply to other drivers, for examplenon-forces personnel, and driving test cate-gories, such as motor cars. A further limita-tion of the study was that learner attitudes,driving behaviour and safety outcomes werenot assessed. The driving literature indicatesthat one of the problems with the currentapproaches to driver training is that they donot produce safer drivers, as accident rates



are still on the rise (National Road SafetyStatistics, 2008; Clark et al., 2005; Senserrick& Haworth, 2005). In order to assesswhether coaching helped produce saferdrivers it was, therefore, important to have ameasure of safety. For example, Boorman(1999) found that an advanced trainingprogramme improved fleet performanceand led to a reduction in accident rates post-training. Similarly, Stanton et al. (2007)measured driving attitudes in the coachingand non-coached group using the ‘MontagDriving Internality Externality (MDIE) LOCQuestionnaire’ developed by Montag andComrey (1987, cited in Stanton et al., 2007,p.1214). Future coaching and driving studiesshould, therefore, assess knowledge, skills,attitudes and behaviour administering asimilar questionnaire pre- and post-trainingor through assessing driver behaviour orinstructor, as well as assessing accident ratesas a measure of safety. Further research isunderway on driver accident rates and alsoof instructor behaviour following coachingtraining using the GDE matrix within apolice driving context, and data is currentlybeing analysed on a fourth study involving‘professional drivers’ and accident rates(initiated by the same research team).

Conclusion This study aimed to explore the effectivenessand efficiency of coaching as an adultmethod of learning with a driver learningcontext. The study provides evidence thatcoaching is a more effective learningmethodology than instruction for drivertraining. Further research is needed toexplore whether coaching may be a moreeffective methodology than instruction forother aspects of learning, such as leadershipdevelopment or presentation skills. Webelieve this study provides is a useful contri-bution to the debate on both driver develop-ment and the wider use of coaching in adultlearning.

CorrespondenceProfessor Jonathan PassmoreEvora University,Portugal.E-mail: [email protected]



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Performance Learning & Development (PLD)(2008b). Peak performance and coaching: A trainingdevelopment resource for peak performers, performancecoaches and attitude change technology practitioners.Wiltshire, UK: PLD.

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Senserrick, T.M. & Swinburne, G.C. (2001).Evaluation of an insight driver-training programme foryoung drivers. Monash University Accident ResearchCentre. Report No. 186. Retrieved 29 November2009, from:www.monash.edu.au/muarc/reports/muarc186.pdf.

Senserrick, T. & Haworth, N. (2005). Review ofliterature regarding national and international youngdriver training, licensing and regulatory systems.Monash University Accident Research Centre. ReportNo. 239. Retrieved 29 November 2009, from:www.monash.edu.au/muarc/reports/muarc239.pdf.

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DOMINANT PARADIGM withinpsychology is that personality traitsare resistant to change, without long-

term intensive interventions (McCrae &Costa, 2003). This article challenges thisassumption, and suggests that individualpersonality change appears both possibleand desirable within a one-to-one coachingcontext, where client motivation exists. Thisargument is developed through discussingthe following questions: (a) Is personalityamenable to change via shorter-term inter-ventions? (b) If change appears possible, is itdesirable? (c) If it appears both possible anddesirable, how does this fit with coaching?(d) What personality model and inventorywould suit this process? and (e) What futureresearch is needed to develop this concept?

1.1 Is personality change possible?As intentional and targeted personalitychange through coaching (i.e. where theclient selects and endeavours to changespecific traits or facets) has not been system-atically studied, some indication of its likelysuccess can be ascertained by reviewing theliterature around personality change versusstability: (a) in response to life events; (b) indifferent social contexts; and (c) in responseto medical, therapy and coaching interven-tions. The hotly debated question of whetherpersonality changes significantly over the lifespan is not discussed, as this article is evalu-ating change over a shorter time frame. It isalso beyond the scope of this article toexplore causal factors of personality.However, Funder (2007) provides a review ofthis personality literature and proposes thatbiology, behaviour and social environments


Paper

What is personality change coaching andwhy is it important?Lesley S. Martin, Lindsay G. Oades & Peter Caputi

Purpose: This article explores the concept of coaching for personality change. The aim is to evaluate thefeasibility and desirability of personality change, clarify how this fits with coaching, identify a suitablepersonality model and measure, and propose directions for future research. Method: The above aim is achieved through reference to the literature around the following questions: Is personality change possible and desirable? Is coaching a suitable medium to achieve this? How does thisfit with and expand upon the current coaching literature? What personality model and inventory wouldsuit this process? What coaching resources and future research are needed? Results: A growing body of research suggests that personality can change in the short-term in response tolife events, in different social environments and via medical, therapeutic and coaching interventions.Although intentional and targeted personality change research is limited, these findings suggest it is indeedpossible. As even small positive changes in personality have been associated with widespread benefits,personality change coaching appears worthwhile. One-to-one coaching provides an environment conduciveto exploring this, in populations without major psychopathology.Conclusions: Personality change coaching appears both desirable and possible in a one-to-one coachingsetting. However, further research is needed to develop practitioner resources, test the hypothesis thatcoaching can achieve such change, understand and manage factors that influence change, and explore theexperience from a client and coach perspective. Keywords: Personality; change; coaching; trait; well-being; Five-Factor model; Big-Five.

A

all interact, and that in order to understandone we need to explore each. The followingdiscussion focuses on the question ofwhether personality can change.

A recent study by Robinson (2009) foundthat personality changes occurred on each ofthe five Big-Five traits as people movedbetween different social contexts (e.g.parents, friends and work colleagues).Roberts and Mroczek (2008) found indi-vidual differences in patterns of trait changein response to a range of life experiences(e.g. significant career and relationshipevents). These findings led the authors toconclude, ‘that personality is not set likeplaster at any point in the life course’ (p.33).Further support for the plasticity of person-ality is provided by the growing evidence thatbiological factors influence personality, andthat neurochemical and neurobiologialchanges achieved through (e.g. psychiatricinterventions) are associated with changes inpersonality (Bloch & Singh, 2007; Funder,2007). The limited literature on targeted traitchange to date has focused on the impact ofpsychological interventions on problematictraits in individuals with personality disor-ders. Although this is a different populationto coaching, focusing on limited types oftraits, it nevertheless provides evidence insupport of the plasticity of personality.

A review of the literature on stabilityversus change in personality disorders(Clark, 2009) concluded that maladaptivepersonality traits are more flexible andamenable to change than is suggested by the‘standard view’ (p.27) (i.e. that maladaptivepersonality traits are relatively stable andunchanging). A 12-week study of 681depressed individuals found that therapy fordepression benefitted individuals with threeseparate diagnosed personality disorders asmuch as it benefited those without thesedispositions (contrary to the study’s hypoth-esis) and that it ameliorated the dysfunc-tional personality traits in the process(Maddux et al., 2009). These findingssuggest that even more extreme dysfunc-tional personality traits respond to psycho-

logical interventions, and that meaningfulchanges in problematic traits (e.g. depres-sion) can be achieved in as little of 12 weeks.

A number of studies suggest that shorter-term psychological and drug interventionsresult in personality change, even whenpersonality change is not the focus of theinterventions. For example, trait changeswere evident during a six-week outpatientdrug rehabilitation programme study (Pied-mont & Ciarrocchi, 1999), and in both aneight-week cognitive therapy group and aneight-week anti-depressant treatment groupfor depression (Tang et al., 2009). A coaching study (Spence & Grant, 2005)found that the openness-to-experience traitincreased during 10 weekly coachingsessions (for both peer and professionalcoaching group participants), while itreduced for control group participants.

Finally, a longitudinal study of 8625Australians using data collected in 2005 and2009 explored whether individuals’ person-alities changed significantly during thisperiod, and whether such change was mean-ingful, in terms of life satisfaction (Boyce,Wood & Powdthavee, in press). The authorsconcluded that although personality wastraditionally considered as stable and non-changing, it did in fact change over time,and that such change was at least as great aschanges in external influences on life satis-faction (e.g. getting married, beingemployed, and earning more money).

In combination these studies providesupport for the concept that personality canchange in response to a range of variables,over relatively short periods of time.Although only one study of personalitychange in a coaching context was identified(Spence & Grant, 2005), the evidence pointsto intentional targeted change via coachingbeing achievable. As these findings suggestthat personality is likely to be amenable totargeted change, it is useful to considerwhether such change is important enough towarrant research exploration. In otherwords, is changing personality likely to leadto significant benefits?


Author nameLesley S. Martin, Lindsay G. Oades & Peter Caputi

1.2 Is personality change desirable? A meta-analysis conducted by Ozer andBenet-Martinez (2006) suggested the answerto this question is likely to be affirmative.The authors found that even small changeson any of the Big-Five personality traits wereassociated with widespread impacts acrosslife domains. For example, higher levels ofthe trait extraversion were associated withpositive changes in subjective well-being,existential well-being, gratitude, inspiration,longevity, coping, resilience, depression (–),personality disorder (–), and majoritycultural identity at an individual level; peeracceptance and friendship, dating variety,attractiveness, and satisfaction with romanticrelationships at an interpersonal level; social and enterprising interests, satisfaction,commitment and involvement at an occupa-tional/performance level; and volunteerismand leadership at a community level. Thissuggests that if coaching interventions couldincrease this trait in motivated to changeindividuals with low scores on extraversion,then benefits are likely to accrue across arange of life domains.

Possibly the trait with the largest poten-tial impact, not only for individuals, but forwider society, is emotionality (neuroticism).An analysis of the economic costs of highemotionality was published in the Archives ofGeneral Psychiatry (Cuijpers et al., 2010),based on data from over 7000 participants ina Netherlands Mental Health Survey andIncidence Study. The study found that thoseindividuals with high scores on emotionalitywere more vulnerable to a host of mentaldisorders (e.g. depression, anxiety disorders,schizophrenia, eating disorders and person-ality disorders) and physical disorders (e.g.medically unfounded physical complaints,cardiovascular disease, asthma, and irritablebowel syndrome) resulting in an enormousimpact on (and economic costs to) thehealth system. Their analysis found that theincremental costs (per one million people)of the highest 25 per cent of scorers onemotionality resulted in US$1.393 billion inhealth care costs. This was two-and-a-half-

times the incremental cost of diagnosedmental health disorders (US$585 million).The study concluded:

‘The economic costs of neuroticism areenormous and exceed those of commonmental disorders. We should startthinking about interventions that focusnot on each of the specific negativeoutcomes of neuroticism, but rather onthe starting point itself.’ (p.1086)

Research findings on each of the otherbroad traits, especially conscientiousness,similarly suggest that huge benefits wouldaccrue from identifying processes and inter-ventions that can positively change certainpersonality traits (Ozer & Benet-Martinez,2006).

A number of studies have exploredpersonality in terms of life-satisfaction, atopic of interest to many coaches. Dienerand Lucas (1999) found that personality hada major influence on subjective well-being.Consistent with this theme, Wood, Josephand Maltby (2008) found that changes inpersonality accounts for 35 per cent ofbetween-person variance in life satisfaction.More recently, a longitudinal study by Boyceet al. (in press) found that ‘personality canchange and that such change is importantand meaningful’, and that ‘personality is thestrongest and most consistent predictor ofhigh subjective well-being’ (p.2). Boycefurther proposes that identifying ways ofchanging personality traits is likely to bemore productive in terms of improving lifesatisfaction and well-being than endeav-ouring to change individuals demographiccharacteristics (e.g. earning more money,getting a job or getting married).

In combination these studies providestrong support for the benefits of exploringpersonality change interventions. Theysuggest that if problematic traits (asperceived by the client) can be identifiedand changed, then widespread benefits canbe achieved. More specifically, individualsare likely to be more satisfied with life, havebetter relationships, contribute more totheir community more, have better employ-


TitleWhat is personality change coaching and why is it important?

ment outcomes, and have better mental andphysical health (Boyce, et al., in press;Diener & Lucas, 1999; Ozer & Benet-Martinez, 2006; Wood, et al., 2008). Theproposition that personality change is bothpossible and desirable raises the question ofhow this fits with coaching.

1.3 How does personality change ‘fit’ withcoaching?This section explores, firstly, what person-ality change coaching involves, and how thisextends the current personality coachingliterature and practice. Secondly, it exploresthe relative fit of coaching versus coun-selling/therapy for personality change inter-ventions, and the merits of one-to-one versusgroup processes?

1.3.1 What is personality change coaching?The concept of personality change coachingwould logically involve taking a measure ofthe client’s personality traits and discussingthe profile with the client, with a view toidentifying problematic facets/traits that theclient wishes to change. For example, aclient may wish to reduce facet Anger orincrease facet Assertiveness, in order toimprove relationships and work prospects.

The literature suggests that considera-tion of personality in coaching to date hasfocused primarily around understandingand ameliorating problematic behaviours,rather than changing facets/traits them-selves. For example, McCormick and Burch(2008) proposed that personality is apredictor of behaviour, and that profiling ofpersonality provides, ‘a useful framework forbehavioural change in executive coaching’(p.267). However, he suggested the aim isnot to change personality. Hicks andMcCracken (2009) similarly discuss prob-lematic behaviours that can flow fromdysfunctional personality traits, andsuggested a range of strategies to coach the‘abrasive personality’.

Sperry (1997) explored the relationshipbetween temperament, character andpersonality in a leadership context, and the

practical application of such measures toassist executive coaching of individuals withdifficult temperaments (based on a psycho-biological model of temperament and char-acter developed by Cloninger, Svrakic andPryzbeck, (1993)). Judge, Piccolo andKosalka (2009) reviewed the literature onpersonality traits and leadership, andproposed extending the consideration ofpersonality to include the positive and nega-tive aspects of both ‘bright side’ and ‘darkside’ traits. Hughes (2002) discussed strate-gies used by 14 psychologists to coach clientswith narcissistic personality features. In thisstudy she concluded that shorter-termcoaching of such clients would rely onbehavioural strategies, and would realisti-cally aim for more ‘superficial’ change,rather than enduring trait change.

Often, the assumption underlying theseapproaches is that personality predictsbehaviour and that through understandingpersonality we can more effectively under-stand and target changes in behaviour(though changes in cognitions and feelingare also considered). No literature was iden-tified that explored in a systematic waywhether personality change is possibleand/or desirable in a coaching context.Furthermore, the vast majority of personalitycoaching literature is based on case studies,leaving a gap in the empirical literaturearound targeted and measured personalitychange in a coaching context.

Given that the psychological andeconomic literature suggests that personalitycan change, and that positive movements inpersonality are associated with wide rangingbenefits, this article proposes takingcoaching one step further by exploring traitchange, and measuring such change in theprocess. Trait change goals can provide aunifying framework for coaching interven-tions designed to modify (e.g. behaviours,cognitions and feelings). Key benefits oftargeting trait change would be provision ofthis over-arching framework for coachinginterventions, increased focus on moreenduring changes in behaviours, cognitions


Author nameLesley S. Martin, Lindsay G. Oades & Peter Caputi

and feelings, and inclusion of objectivemeasurement of such changes. As significantchanges in traits have been demonstrated inclients with extreme personality dysfunctionin 12 weeks (Maddux et al., 2009), it doesnot seem unrealistic to explore trait changein coaching populations without majorpsychopathology in similar time frames.

1.3.2 Coaching versus counselling/therapy forchange processes?If personality change appears to be a worth-while endeavour, then the most appropriateapproach for facilitating this goal needs eval-uation. The following section proposes that:(a) both coaching and counselling/therapyhave a strong evidence base as effectivechange mechanisms; (b) the boundariesbetween coaching and counselling/therapyare not clear cut; (c) that personality changecould arguably fit with either; and (d)whether coaching or counselling/therapy isutilised will be influenced by the nature of theclient/research participant, and the interven-tion style adopted. It suggests that for clientswithout major psychopathology, personalitychange interventions may be more consistentwith coaching, and a ‘coaching’ approachmay offer certain advantages. These argu-ments are presented in turn.

Evidence base for coaching and counselling/therapy. In evaluating the merits of coachingversus counselling/therapy, the literaturesupporting their effectiveness as changeprocesses needs consideration. Findings ofcoaching outcome studies suggest thatcoaching is an effective change mechanismin a range of different formats and contexts(Grant et al., 2010; Greif, 2007; Spence &Grant, 2005). However, counselling/therapyalso has an impressive body of research vali-dating its efficacy in change processes(Lambert & Ogles, 2004; Newnham & Page,2010). These findings suggest that bothcoaching and counselling/therapy couldpotentially be effective professions for facili-tating personality change.

Boundaries between coaching and coun-selling/therapy. The literature proposes thatthe boundaries between coaching and counselling/therapy are currently unclear,and that there is a high level of overlapbetween coaching and counselling/therapyapproaches used (Grant, et al., 2010; Griffiths & Campbell, 2008; Maxwell, 2009).Nevertheless it is widely recognised thatcoaching is not the treatment of choice formajor psychopathology, and disordersrequiring longer-term treatment (e.g. Axis IIdisorders, significant current alcohol anddrug abuse, active psychosis or bipolardisorder). This indicates that this groupwould not be suitable candidates for shorter-term personality change interventions.However, a number of studies propose thatlesser levels of psychological dysfunction ordistress are commonly dealt with in coaching,and that this practice enhances the coachingprocess (Cavanagh & Grant, 2004; Griffiths &Campbell, 2008; Maxwell, 2009). Thissuggests that personality change could befacilitated in either a coaching or coun-selling/therapy setting, even if goals focus onemotionality facets, provided longer-termmajor psycho-pathology is excluded.

Factors suggesting a coaching relationship.Determining where to locate personalitychange interventions is, therefore, not clearcut, and is likely to depend on theclients/research participants, and the focusof change interventions employed. Never-theless, Williams (2003) suggested that thefollowing factors help differential coachingfrom counselling/therapy: (a) goal achieve-ment focus versus psychopathology focus;(b) ‘learning/development model’ focusversus ‘diagnostic medical model’ focus; and(c) the degree of collaboration in theprocess. These considerations are discussedin turn.

According to Williams (2003), coaching isgenerally viewed as being more goal-orientedthan counselling/therapy. As the primaryfocus of personality change interventionswould be on goal oriented trait change,




Author name

rather than identification of psycho-pathology, this suggests a coaching relation-ship. Psychological problems would beconsidered only as they relate to personalitychange goals. Williams further proposed thatcoaching more often employs a ‘develop-ment/learning’ model approach, whilecounselling/therapy more often employs adiagnostically focused ‘medical model’.Personality change interventions are likely tofocus more on growth and development,rather than diagnosing psychological prob-lems, as most personality facets (24 of the 30)are not related to emotionality. Furthermore,diagnosis of psychopathology may not behelpful, even where reduction of emotion-ality facets is a goal. For example, efforts toreduce self-consciousness or impulsivenessare unlikely to benefit from a ‘diagnosis’.Therefore, from this perspective, personalitychange interventions are more likely to alignwith coaching than counselling/therapy.Finally, Williams (2003) proposed thatcoaching is more collaborative. As person-ality change goals would logically be a highlycollaborative process, with the clientchoosing personality change goals andcollaboratively mapping their path forward, acoaching relationship is suggested.

Whereas the coaching versus coun-selling/therapy question remains somewhatmurky, differentiating factors, noted byWilliams (2003), suggest a coaching relation-ship may be preferable for clients withoutmajor psychopathology.

1.3.3 One-to-one versus group change progressesThe personal nature of personality profiles(e.g. revealing levels of depression andanxiety) suggests that group processes (e.g.peer-coaching) could be ethically problem-atic, as individuals may not wish to sharesensitive aspects of their profile with otherrelatively untrained group members.Furthermore, it would be difficult to focus

on the unique profile and goals of individ-uals in group settings. The complexity ofpersonality profiles, and the trainingrequired in their interpretation, suggeststhat it would not be well suited to self-coaching or peer-coaching. However one-to-one coaching with a trained professionalenables the tailoring of personality changeinterventions to the unique profile and goalsof the individual, and provides a safer andmore private environment. This suggeststhat one-to-one coaching would be prefer-able. The processes that personality changecoaching involve are described below.

1.4 Which personality model and inventory? A pre-requisite to investigating personalitychange is determining what approach ortheory of personality (and related measures)is to be adopted. The literature includes ahost of different ways of looking at personality(e.g. the trait approach based on individualdifferences, the biological approach based onphysical mechanisms, learning and cognitiveapproaches underpinning behavioural acqui-sition and change, the humanistic approachbased on conscious free will, and the psycho-dynamic approach based on unconsciousprocesses) (Funder, 2007). It is beyond thescope of this article to explore and evaluatethese alternatives. However, a comprehensiveoverview of this literature is provided inFunder. Suffice to say coaches use a range ofdifferent personality approaches and tools toassess and work with personality, and many ofthese could potentially be used for exploringpersonality change. However, the Big-Five/Five-Factor* model of personality, based onthe trait approach, is considered by mostauthors to be the most investigated and vali-dated model of personality currently available(Barrick, Mount & Judge, 2001; Ozer &Benet-Martinez, 2006; Piedmont, 1998).

The origins of the Big-Five model ofpersonality date back to the 1930s, when

Lesley S. Martin, Lindsay G. Oades & Peter Caputi

* The terms Big-Five and Five-Factor model are used interchangeable. Different authors use different terms. For example, Costa and McCrae use the term Five-Factor in their literature, and in respect to findings basedon their inventory, the NEO PI-R.

Allport and Odbert (1936) identified some18,000 words in an English languagedictionary that described individual charac-teristics. With this as a foundation, a series ofresearch studies attempted to distil this list toa manageable number of meaningful clus-ters that most effectively differentiated oneindividual from another. In the 1980s, aconsensus began to emerge on a Five-Factormodel (Costa & McCrae, 1997). Support forthe Five-Factor model has been furtherstrengthened by a series of meta-analysesconfirming the Big-Five’s predictive validityin terms of behaviours and life outcomesacross a wide range of contexts (e.g. Barricket al., 2001; Ones et al., 2007; Ozer & Benet-Martinez, 2006). Recently, Smewing andMcDowell (2010) proposed that the Five-Factor model is now the ‘most widelyaccepted general model of personality usedtoday’ (p.86). Its wide acceptance and soundpredictive validity suggest client personalityprofiles generated from this model providesound material to reflect on, in terms of lifeoutcomes to date, and how the client’s traitsmight help or hinder future goal attainment.

The Five-Factor model of personalitysuggests that personality can best be organ-ised under five broad traits: EmotionalStability (or Neuroticism), Extraversion,Openness to Experience, Agreeableness andConscientiousness (or similar equivalents)(Costa & McCrae, 1992). Several inventoriesare currently available for measuring BigFive/Five-Factor traits and facets. Piedmont(1998) proposed that the NEO PI-R (Costaet al., 2000) is ‘rapidly becoming one of themost popular measures of normal person-ality in the research literature’ (p.31). Hefurther proposed that the psychometricproperties (including predictive validity) ofthis inventory are ‘uniformly favourable’(p.31), as evidenced by empirical reviews(Botwin, 1995; Juni, 1995; Piedmont, 1997).These factors suggest that the NEO PI-R (ora sound proxy) provides a reputablemeasure for exploring personality change.

The NEO PI-R further divides the fivebroad traits into 30 sub-traits (facets).

For example, the broad trait Conscientious-ness is divided into six facets (i.e. Competence,Order, Dutifulness, Achievement striving, Self-discipline and Deliberation). Measurement atthe more detailed facet level provides theopportunity for building up a more detailedpicture of the individual’s personality patterns,and allows for more accurate targeting ofpersonality change interventions. Forexample, the trait Emotionality consists of thefollowing facets; Anxiety, Anger, Depression,Self-conscientiousness, Impulsiveness andVulnerability. Whereas it is useful to know theoverall emotionality of an individual, it is alsoimportant to understand how the differentindividual facets of emotionality contribute tothis, as facilitating change on individual facetsis likely to require different kinds of coachinginterventions. It is, therefore, suggested thatboth a trait and facets level profile be used forassessing personality, and that personalitychange goals focus primarily on the facet level.

1.5 Conclusions and future research directionsAlthough shorter-term targeted personalitychange has not been systematically studiedin a coaching context, the related literaturesuggests it is both possible and desirable, in aone-to-one coaching context. This articleproposed that such coaching provides theopportunity to extend existing coachingpractice in positive ways, through providinga unifying framework, and focusing on (andobjectively measuring) more enduringtrait/facet change. The absence of studiesdirectly exploring this issue support theneed for research to: (a) develop evidencebased coaching resources designed to facili-tate personality change; (b) establishwhether coaching can facilitate personalitychange in client chosen facets; and (c)clarify what factors affect personality change,and how these can best be managed in acoaching context. Furthermore, it would beuseful to explore if change does in factoccur, the timing of such change over aseries of coaching sessions, and whether itendures beyond the coaching period.




Author name

Further development of the literature inthese areas offers the opportunity forcoaching to provide benefits to the indi-vidual across life domains, and to the widersociety via (e.g. reduced health costs). Froma coaching perspective, such research wouldexpand this literature into a new arena (i.e.targeted personality change). For the disci-pline of psychology, it offers the potential forits practitioners to contribute a unique skillsset, based on their training in personality,psychometrics and skills in dealing withpsychological issues relating to emotionalityfacets.

The AuthorsLesley S. MartinSydney Business School,University of Wollongong.

Lindsay G. OadesAustralian Institute of Business Wellbeing,Sydney Business School, University of Wollongong.

Peter CaputiSchool of Psychology, University of Wollongong.

CorrespondenceLesley MartinPO Box 5059,Wollongong.NSW 2500,Australia.Email: [email protected] Telephone: (02) 4243 1323

Lesley S. Martin, Lindsay G. Oades & Peter Caputi

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Piedmont, R.L. & Ciarrocchi, J.W. (1999). The utilityof the Revised NEO Personality Inventory in anoutpatient, drug rehabilitation context [Study].Psychology of Addictive Behaviours, 13(3), 213–226.

Roberts, B.W. & Mroczek, D. (2008). Personality traitchange in adulthood. Current Directions inPsychological Science, 17, 31–35.

Robinson, O.C. (2009). On the social malleability oftraits: Variability and consistency in Big-Five traitexpression across three interpersonal contexts[Study]. Journal of Individual Differences, 30(4),201–208.

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Spence, G.B. & Grant, A.M. (2005). Individual andgroup life-coaching: Initial findings from arandomised, controlled trial. In M.J. Cavanagh,A.M. Grant & T. Kemp (Eds.), Evidence-basedcoaching (Vol. 1, pp.143–158). Bowen Hills,Australia: Australian Academic Press.

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What is personality change coaching and why is it important?

Mentalisation as both active ingredientand outcome

EXECUTIVE COACHING appears estab-lished as an effective intervention(Grant et al., 2010; De Haan et al.,

2012). Studies of coaching outcome are nowless focused on demonstrating general effec-tiveness, as this is deemed to have been suffi-ciently demonstrated within the limitationsof not being able to conduct large-scalerandomised controlled trials. Instead,coaching effectiveness studies are now morefocused on ‘active ingredients’, that is, onthe aspects of the coaching contract whichare most conducive to effectiveness (Stewartet al., 2008; Boyce, Jackson & Neal, 2010; De Haan, Curd & Culpin, 2011).

In order to understand the value ofcoaching interventions it is important not

just to have indications of positive overalloutcome, but also to know more about: (1) what coaching delivers; and (2) whomcoaching delivers to:1. Assuming the significance of coaching

outcome, what is the nature of thatoutcome? It is often suggested thatcoaching helps with focus and with theright action (e.g. Whitmore, 1992).Similar to sports coaching, executivecoaching would then enhanceperformance itself, or the quality of theeffort, without affecting issues likepreparation or motivation. Others, whoplace executive-coaching interventionsmore in the tradition of ‘helpingconversations’, see coaching as a way tobring out hidden potential (e.g. O’Neill,2000).


Paper

Back to basics II: How the research onattachment and reflective-self function is relevant for coaches and consultantstodayErik de Haan

Purpose: In this study the phenomenon of reflective-self function is explored in terms of its historicalunderstanding – just as the phenomenon of transference was explored in terms of its historicalunderstanding in an earlier instalment (De Haan, 2011). As will be shown, reflective-self function is notonly demonstrably linked to secure attachment, it is increasingly held to be at the core of the process andoutcome of helping conversations.Design/Methodology: This contribution offers a historical summary of the main breakthroughs inattachment research, showing how (in-)secure attachment can be measured reliably and how it can be linkedto reflective-self function – the capacity to mentalise. This capacity is further elucidated with the help ofthree examples from executive coaching and team coaching.Results: It is shown how reflective-self function is related to secure attachment, and how mentalising canbe used to co-create meaning, insight and understanding with clients. Conclusions: Mentalising, as understood by reflective-self function, is a helpful way into awareness, insightand empathetic understanding. Coaches would do well to foster this function within themselves and theirclients.Keywords: Reflective-self function; mentalisation; insight; empathy; coaching outcome; consulting; historyof psychoanalysis and attachment.


Title

2. Which clients, with what challenges, rolesand personalities, would benefit mostfrom coaching? And perhaps moreimportantly: how can we help diverseclients with a broad range of objectives,personalities and motivation, tomaximise the benefit they take fromcoaching conversations? This is thequestion of ‘coachability’ (De Meuse, Dai & Hallenbeck, 2010).

So what is it that we as coaches ‘deliver’ toour clients? What outcome do coachingclients particularly value about the coachingintervention? There is some evidence thatcoaching outcomes that clients mostmention are around new insight and under-standing, or in their own words, around new‘realisations’ (De Haan et al., 2010).Different outcomes of coaching that havebeen proposed are (see Laske, 2004):1. Support for reflection, producing new

motivation and coping;2. Support for sense making, producing

new realisations, insight and under-standing;

3. Support for new behaviour, producingnew focus, energy and action orientation.

These three possible outcomes may very welloverlap, may all be present at the same timeand may all lead to enhanced performancein the leadership role.

The second one of these, new realisationand insight, has a very long tradition inhelping conversations. At the very beginningof the tradition of helping conversations,Breuer and Freud (1885) emphasised under-standing and insight. The founder of non-directive therapy, Carl Rogers (1961) did notfundamentally challenge Freud’s hypothesisabout the mutative power of understandingand insight. Rogers insisted that such new

understanding should come from within, andcan be fostered by empathic understanding.Cognitive and behavioural psychologists alsorecognise the importance of insight, albeitthat they aim to correct distortions of realitybased on erroneous premises by supplantingthem with more realistic cognitions andinsight (Beck, 1975). All three main schoolsof psychotherapy (psychoanalytic, person-centred and cognitive-behavioural) thereforeagree on the importance of (mutative, real-istic, actionable) insight. In newer approaches,such as mindfulness in coaching (Passmore &Marianetti, 2007), we see the same interest inawareness and insight as a potentially crucialingredient.

This article gives an overview of theresearch into the ‘reflective-self’, an ideathat has the power to integrate and refocusschools of thinking about insight and whichholds the promise of:1. Offering a hypothesis regarding

‘coachability’; 2. Providing the first empirical backing for

the age-old hypothesis that understandingand insight might be helpful; and

3. Anchoring these empirical results in well-researched attachment behaviour.

The idea of the reflective-self has immediateappeal for coaches and psychotherapistsalike (see Grant, 2001; Van der Loo, 2007;Wallin, 2007; Drake, 2009). This might bebecause it not only gives a hypothesisregarding an important ‘active ingredient’ inhelping conversations, but at the same timeproposes a new formulation of ‘good’outcome of helping conversations. Thehypothesis of reflective-self function bringstogether attachment theory and psycho-analysis; neuroscience and cognitive psycho-logy1; and also psychotherapist and patient,

Back to Basics II

1 It is worthwhile to compare the cognitive-psychology research on ‘theory of mind’ with the neuroscientific find-ings of so-called ‘mirror neurons’. The former, theory of mind, has been defined by cognitive ethologists andpsychologists as the ability to attribute mental states – beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc. – tooneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires and intentions that are different fromone’s own (Premack & Woodruff, 1978). The latter, mirror neurons, have provided support for the neural basisof theory of mind. Research by Gallese and Goldman (1998) has shown that some sensorimotor neurons, whichare referred to as mirror neurons, first discovered in the premotor cortex of rhesus monkeys, can fire when amonkey performs an action but also when the monkey views another agent carrying out the same task.

or coach and client – suggesting a single,quantifiable ingredient that is wholesomefor both. Wholesome in the sense that theclient develops his or her security in rela-tionships or attachment styles, whilst at thesame time the executive coach develops hisor her ‘reflective-self’ as a helpful way ofholding the client in mind. On top of this,there is the appeal of quantitative research:the fact that this notion has come out ofquantitative empirical research which can beand has been replicated. The rare appeal ofthis function of the mind is rarely touchedon in coaching literature. Nevertheless, it isimportant to understand both the genesis ofthe concept and the claims that can be maderegarding its role in the effectiveness ofcoaching.

Background: Empirical investigations inpsychologyPsychology as the science of mind andbehaviour is the study of the single mostcomplex ‘system’ that we know – the humancentral nervous system – and how it interactswith its environment. We have very few defin-itive and demonstrated facts about thepsyche. Clearly this science is still in itsinfancy and it is no surprise that mostpsychological texts occupy themselves withcompeting theories, models and perspec-tives on mind and behaviour. Nowhere is thismore apparent than in the field ofpsychotherapy, which deals with the treat-ment of mental disorder by psychologicalmeans and therefore mostly with higher-order functions of the mind such as person-ality, mood, communication, meaning-making, adaptation and lifestyle. This stateof affairs makes it all too easy to forget thatthere have indeed been many valuable anduniversally recognised contributions tomaking psychology a ‘proper’ empiricalscience.

Freud, as a neurologist, thought that ulti-mately psychology as an empirical sciencewould base itself on our understanding ofthe inner workings of the central nervoussystem, that is, on neuroscience or ‘brain

science’ (Freud, 1915). He was less inter-ested in another 19th century development,pioneered by Fechner (1860), Wundt (1862)and Von Helmholtz (1867), which focusedon the study of ‘psychophysical’ evidence,evidence from the interaction between themind and its environment(s). These internaland external, intra-psychic and interactionalperspectives are still very much alive today,and both inform the field of executivecoaching (see Rock & Page, 2009, for linksbetween brain science and coaching, andStober & Grant, 2006, or De Haan, 2008, forlinks between psychophysical experimentsand coaching).

It should be noted that this distinctionbetween the interpersonal and the intra-psychic is nowadays, to an extent, adifference in emphasis. Some modernpsychophysical studies measure brain activityconcurrently and modern brain researchlooks at the central nervous system in vivo,that is, whilst it interacts with its environ-ment in the shape of ‘controlled stimuli’. Asin any living system, internal phenomenaand external interaction patterns are inti-mately related and mutually dependent.Findings from both fields should eventuallycomplement and support one another.

Empirical tools in attachment researchAccording to Bretherton (1985, p.14), JohnBowlby made two distinct and importantcontributions to psychology. The first contri-bution is the hypothesis of attachment as acore, biologically based instinct, whichinforms behavioural and motivational drives.The second is that he theorised that indi-vidual differences in the functioning of this‘attachment system’ are linked to individualworking models of self and others (See alsoBowlby, 1969, 1973). Both these ideasreceived much more support when they wereoperationalised in reliable psychophysicaltests which led to further quantitative study.Here is a brief summary of these tests.

The first hypothesis was operationalisedby Mary Ainsworth in 1978 with her design of the ‘Strange Situation’ experiment,


Author nameErik de Haan


Title

a 20-minute experience for caregiver andchild where the caregiver and a strangerenter and leave the room recreating the flowof familiar and unfamiliar presences in thechild’s life. The Strange Situation experi-ment has reliably demonstrated threedifferent attachment behaviours (Ainsworthet al., 1978):1. Secure attachment. The behaviour of the

child during separation and uponreunion is characterised by confidencethat the caregiver will be comforting.

2. Avoidant attachment. The behaviour of thechild during separation and uponreunion is characterised by lack ofconfidence in the caregiver’s availability,and thus by attempts to control ordownplay emotional arousal and to showlimited distress and disinterest.

3. Ambivalent attachment. The behaviour ofthe child during separation and upon

reunion is characterised by attempts toexaggerate or up-regulate affect in orderto secure the caregiver’s attention.

Later, Main and Solomon (1990),upon reviewing hundreds of hours ofvideotape of Strange Situations, wereable to add a fourth attachment style,which may accompany any of the otherthree attachment behaviours, that is, anattachment behaviour which can bedemonstrated in parallel to the otherattachment behaviours:

4. Disorganised attachment. The behaviour ofthe child during separation and uponreunion is characterised by seekingproximity in strange and disorientedways, such as backwards approach,freezing, staring and moving sideways.

Bowlby’s second hypothesis above wassupported in the work of Mary Main andcollaborators, when they created the ‘AdultAttachment Interview’ (AAI; George, Kaplan& Main, 1984), which provided a reliable wayto assess an adult’s internal representation ofattachment. The interview consists of aprompted narrative about childhoodincluding sensitive issues such as separationand loss. The protocols are transcribed andclassified according to a coding system thatprivileges narrative style over content. Thedimension of coherence (comprising: substan-tiation of evidence, succinctness yetcompleteness, relevance to the topic athand, clarity and orderliness) can be associ-ated with1. Attachment security (the ‘Autonomous’

classification): high coherence aboutattachment.

Protocols with low coherence can beordered in three patterns: 2. ‘Dismissing’: idealising or derogatory

about attachment3. ‘Preoccupied’: angry or passive about

attachment4. ‘Unresolved’: unresolved in relation to loss

and abuse. These four classifications map both concep-tually and intuitively onto the four attach-ment categories arising from the Strange

Back to Basics II

John Bowlby. Reproduced by kind permissionof Sir Richard Bowlby BT.© Sir Richard Bowlby BT.

Situation. Moreover, AAI classifications arestable over several months and independentof various IQ ratings, autobiographicalmemory, social desirability, interviewereffects and general discourse styles. In fact,both instruments have high validity and high(short-term) reliability, so experiments soonbegan to test empirically how well theypredict each other. By 1995 it was establishedthrough an 18-sample meta-analysis that thecaregiver’s AAI narrative coding predicts theinfant’s Strange Situation response to aconsiderable extent (Van IJzendoorn, 1995).Moreover, Van IJzendoorn, Juffer andDuyvesteyn (1995) have shown that supportinterventions aimed at changing themother’s sensitivity or attachment represen-tation have a significant positive effect oninfant security as measured by the StrangeSituation.

As Drake (2009) has pointed out, clients’narratives in coaching can also be appreci-ated in terms of their internal coherence,particularly as that will give a coach a‘window’ into the wider narrative patterns intheir work and life. Drake continues tosuggest that ‘the level of coherence inclients’ stories – about the past, present andfuture – often reflects leaders’ own attach-ment experience and the way in which theylead and interact with others at work’. Itseems plausible that secure and autonomousleaders have more coherent life stories, andthat insecure leaders are more at a loss forcoherence in their storytelling. Part of acoach’s job is to study coherence, to look outfor gaps in storytelling and to inquirethoughtfully into the relationships betweenaspects of clients’ narratives.

Both Ainsworth’s Strange Situation andMain’s Adult Attachment Interview madereliable empirical research possible in thefield of attachment which will be discussednext, including Fonagy’s discovery of theimportance of reflective-self function.

Empirical findings of attachmentresearchHere is a short summary of findings fromattachment research, limited to conclusionswhich are well-demonstrated and replicatedthrough various studies.

The most impressive empirical contribu-tion from attachment theory has to beconfirmation that psychopathology is corre-lated from one generation to the next, or, inother words, that we have convincingevidence now that some psychopathologygets passed on between generations. Thereare clear, demonstrable correlations betweenthe attachment patterns described by themother during the AAI and the attachmentpatterns that can be found in the infant withthe help of the Strange Situation experi-ment. The correlation can be demonstratedwhen the AAI is taken contemporaneouslywith the toddler’s Strange Situation experi-ment (Van IJzendoorn, 1995; this has acombined effect size of d=1.06, a strongeffect); when the AAI of each parent iscollected and coded before the birth of thechild and the infant’s Strange-Situation clas-sification is done at 12 and 18 months(Steele, Steele & Fonagy, 1996); and alsowhen a parent’s AAI coding is correlatedwith the child’s security of attachment meas-ured five years previously (Main, Kaplan &Cassidy, 1985). Hence, the strong concor-dance that is found (between 75 per centand 80 per cent on each pair of attachmentcategories), persists in both directions andover at least a six-year time gap. These find-ings lend support to Freud’s hypothesis(Freud, 1940) of the intergenerationalspread of psychopathology.

Another notion of Freud that has beensupported by attachment research is that ofthe ‘repetition compulsion’ (Freud, 1920),that is, the suggestion that those who do notactively remember and come to terms withtheir past are destined (or more likely) torepeat it. Fonagy et al. (1994) demonstratewith a group of relatively deprived mothersthat they have a much higher chance ofsecurely attached infants if their capacity to




Title

reflect on mental states (mentalisation),operationalised by reflective-self function, ishigher.

Interestingly, these findings can also belinked to other psychophysical findings,namely those coming from meta-analyses ofpsychotherapy outcome studies. These meta-analyses have demonstrated a surprisinglysmall contribution coming from the specificmodel or psychotherapeutic approach, andare much more supportive of so-called‘common factors’ (factors common to allapproaches, as suggested by Rosenzweig,1936; see Wampold, 2001) as the ‘activeingredients’ in psychotherapeutic work. Oneof these common factors is the opportunitythat all psychotherapy offers to reflect onand think through challenges, symptomsand complaints. Investigators have distin-guished six broad ‘areas of commonality’amongst the various approaches topsychotherapy: Relationship-related factors;Client-related factors; Therapist-relatedfactors; Change-related factors; Structure-related factors; and External factors outsidetherapy (Grencavage & Norcross, 1990).Obviously, secure attachment, coherenceand reflectivity are common factors in theempirical sense understood by generaloutcome research. Fonagy and Bateman(2006) even claim that this may be the coreactive ingredient of all psychotherapy: ‘It ispossible that psychotherapy in general iseffective because it arouses the attachmentsystem at the same time it applies interper-sonal demands which require the patient tomentalise’.

‘Secure attachment’ is often linked with‘successful containment’ (Bion, 1963) and isthen taken by many as a measure of ‘psycho-logical health’. It is important to point out,as Fonagy (2001) does, that the evidence

linking early secure attachment with ahealthy or balanced life is not strong. Oneneeds to be reminded that the demonstra-tion of predictive power of any psychologicalcontext or relationship over the course ofdecades is extremely tenuous and rarelyachieved.

Notions of ‘the reflective-self’ inattachment researchJoyce McDougal (1978) has said that in earlychildhood the ‘mother functions as thebaby’s thinking system’. This notion of moth-ering as a containing, mirroring and reflec-tive activity is prevalent throughout thepsychoanalytical literature2 and lies at theroot of the idea of the reflective-self.

The reflective-self function is an opera-tionalisation of the capacity to ‘mentalise’(Brown, 1977) or the capacity for ‘metacog-nition’ (Main & Goldwyn, 1990) or ‘psycho-logical mindedness’ (Appelbaum, 1973;Grant, 2001). The reflective-self functionmeasures an individual’s quality of under-standing of another’s intentionality, and is meas-ured on a nine-point Likert scale (Fonagy etal., 1998). The measure confounds under-standing of self and other, so it applies inequal measure to reflections on one’s ownand someone else’s intentionality. Themeasure also confounds ‘true’ under-standing and ‘plausible’ understanding, orin other words ‘accurate’ and ‘habitual’modes of understanding, as no measure for‘objective’ or ‘shared’ understanding isintroduced (Fonagy et al., 1991).

Reflective-self function is not the same asempathy, although empathetic under-standing will have to be based on thiscapacity. Reflective-self function is morefundamental and refers to the capacity tounderstand what goes on within oneself or

Back to Basics II

2 Fonagy (2001) points to the following precursors of the notion of the reflective-self: Bindung, the psycho-logical capacity of linking (Freud, 1911); the depressive position as the recognition of hurt and suffering inanother (Klein, 1945); the caregiver’s psychological understanding of the infant in the emergence of the true self(Winnicott, 1962); containment as the capacity to transform internal events into tolerable and thinkable expe-riences (Bion, 1963); mirroring or mirror transference (Winnicott, 1967; Kohut, 1977); psychological mindedness(Appelbaum, 1973; Grant, 2001); and the idea of mentalisation as the function that links drive excitations withinternal representations (Brown, 1977).

within another, whereas empathy refers tothe understanding from within, the capacityto feel what another person feels, that is, tobecome sympathetic or ‘in tune’ with thosefeelings oneself.

Reflective-self function is also not thesame as mindfulness, although mindfulnesscan be seen as a capacity that reflective-selffunction is based on or draws from. Mindful-ness is a spiritual faculty in Buddhism whichamounts to an attentive awareness of thereality of things and is therefore very close tobeing psychologically awake (‘Buddha’ liter-ally means ‘he that is awoken’). Mindfulness,therefore, extends from understandingpsychological facts to natural phenomenaand even spiritual experience. Nevertheless,mindfulness frequently refers to one’s ownbodily functions, sensations, feelings,thoughts, perceptions, and consciousnessitself – in which case it would appear veryakin to reflective-self function.

To summarise:1. Mindfulness can be seen as attentive

awareness of what is going on in thepresent moment;

2. Reflective-self function, within mindfulness,can be seen as being aware of what isgoing on in the minds of self and others,in the present moment;

3. Empathy, building on reflective-selffunction, can be seen as being aware ofand sharing in states of mind as theyoccur to another person, in the presentmoment.

Peter Fonagy went on to explore cases ofapparently diminished reflective-self func-tion and described the slow and arduousgrowth of reflective-self function in psycho-therapy, see, for example, Fonagy andTarget, 1996 and 2000 (the first is a case-study with a 4-year-old girl described asresistant to the development of reflective-selffunction and the second with a severeborderline-personality-disorder patient inher mid-30s).

This work led to the development of‘mentalisation-based treatment’ (MBT) as a treatment for borderline personality

disorder. In MBT the aim of thepsychotherapy becomes the development ofreflective-self function (see, for example,Fonagy & Bateman, 2006). The therapist isencouraged to focus on the patient’s currentmental state with the aim of building upreflective-self function. The therapist is askedto avoid situations in which the patient talksof mental states that he or she cannot link tosubjectively felt reality; and the inevitableenactments over the course of the treatmentare not interpreted in terms of their uncon-scious meaning but in terms of the situationand affects immediately before the enact-ment (Fonagy & Bateman, 2006). In otherwords, the therapist uses mentalisation tofurther the patient’s mentalisation, and theaim is not so much deep understanding as itis the recovery of mentalisation.

Another later development is the hypoth-esis that the biological need for secureattachment is precisely the development ofreflective-self function as a ‘representationalsystem that has evolved, we may presume, toaid human survival’ (Fonagy et al., 2004),which, therefore, claims that the predictionmight be both ways: reflective-self functionpredicts secure attachment and secureattachment begets mentalisation.

These ideas around reflective-self func-tion and mentalisation have been taken upin adult psychotherapy, where attachmentstyles are taken up as a metaphor forworking-alliance patterns and therapy isconceptualised as a ‘corrective emotionalexperience’ that may help to develop andestablish attachment security and reflective-self function (Wallin, 2007).

Applications in coaching practiceAttachment research seems to be particu-larly useful in coaching practice, as it helpsus to model core relationships which arebound to enter into the coaching relation-ship. Firstly, through the phenomenon oftransference (Freud, 1905; and see thecompanion article, De Haan, 2011), coreformative relationships may enter thecoaching setting. Secondly, the working



alliance as perceived by the client has longbeen shown to be an important ingredientfor effectiveness (Horvath & Symonds,1991). In other words, the coaching rela-tionship has important precursors as well,which will enter the room through thephenomenon of positive transference,‘which is the true motive force of thepatient’s collaboration’ (Freud, 1940).Thirdly, since the 1950s comparisons havebeen made between the presence of thehelper in helping conversations and thepresence of the first caregiver. In theconcepts of a ‘holding environment’ (Winni-cott, 1965) and of a ‘container’ with ‘reverie’(Bion, 1963), we have very similar ideas thatlink the maternal environment (or relation-ship) to the coaching environment (or rela-tionship). In other words, the helpingrelationship from a ‘real’ (non-transferen-tial) perspective has also been intimatelylinked with the earliest core caring relation-ship. Fourthly, and not least of all, attach-ment relationships will invariably be thetopic of coaching sessions, as clients willbring accounts, thoughts and concernsabout both past and present intimate rela-tionships. In summary, ‘attachment’ seemsto figure at a multitude of levels in coaching,namely within: (1) transference patterns; (2)positive transference or working alliance; (3)the ‘real’ relationship; and (4) the contentof the sessions.

One obvious area of application ofattachment research is around what happensbetween client and coach as a result of begin-nings, endings, breaks or alterations in thesetting such as rescheduling, room changes,time changes or sponsor changes. In myexperience some of the most emotionallycharged moments have occurred aroundbreaks and interruptions. Approachingtermination, the definitive ‘break’ incoaching, raw emotions may recur. Manyexamples of what happens around breaksand ruptures in coaching have already beendocumented (Day et al., 2008), and it is clearfrom analysis that mentalising in the form ofshared reflection about what is going on

makes a crucial difference to the outcome ofthose ruptures (ibidem).

Drake (2009) has proposed five ‘narrativestrategies’ for building a strong attachmentrelationship in coaching conversations:1. Provide clients with a sense that the

coaching sessions are like a safe havenand a secure base from which they canexplore issues which affect them.

2. Use the rapport that is gained to helpclients take a good look at how theycurrently relate to others and reflect onthese relationships, and where theymight be biased.

3. Use the coaching sessions as a laboratoryfor the study of clients’ attachment-related behaviour and for theexperimentation with new, more secure,relational patterns.

4. Help clients to reflect on how theirworking models and their subsequentinterpersonal patterns are rooted inchildhood experiences with primaryattachment figures.

5. Position yourself as a coach as a ‘goodenough’ and available caregiver to helpclients experience new attachmentorientations and behaviours.

Here are some examples from my ownpractice which show attachment styles andthe reflective-self function at work. Identi-fying details have been disguised.

1st Case ExampleAn investment manager in a global retail andinvestment bank comes to coaching following anumber of performance conversations where it wassuggested to him that his readiness for promotion tothe next level would be contingent on improvinghis work relationships and that executive coachingmight help to prepare him further. At the firstphone call a meeting was arranged and anotherfour-way meeting with his boss and the HRDirector followed. In the first weeks of this coachingcontract the senior banker sent performance-relatedand multi-party-feedback documentation to hisexecutive coach, and he rang his coach severaltimes on his mobile phone. His motivation seemedhigh. Objectives were established around growing


TitleBack to Basics II

Erik de Haan


his self-confidence and his clarity as to what type ofbehaviour his senior team was expecting from him.Session 5, however, was postponed and thencancelled. Despite time spent together and veritableopenness in sharing sensitive material, the sessionsstill felt aloof and as if lacking in rapport. Theformal contract of six sessions was not completed.A certain distance and formality was present in allthe sessions. When the coach raised this (perceived)aspect of the relationship, the client appearedpuzzled. In the notes from the fourth session thecoach concludes that she only appeared to be‘telling’ the client about their relationship andabout other relationships, without there beingmuch real dialogue between them.Reflection: It was one of those assignmentswith a client who was ‘sent’ by others, doesn’treally know what to expect of coaching, andfinds it quickly irrelevant as he fails to see aclear link between the ‘off-line’ conversa-tions and his personal objectives. Coacha-bility proves low and this is partly due to alimited capacity to mentalise oneself andone’s (working) relationships. Or perhapsthere was a withdrawal from the reflective-self function for fear of something painfulemerging. The only strategy remaining forthe coach appears to be to focus on theclient’s reflective-self directly, however hardit may be to make a change at that level. Inother words, and in retrospect, the coachcould have confronted the client more interms of his limited representations of hisworking relationships, including the onewith his coach. In my experience, this stateof affairs occurs regularly in coaching rela-tionships: intentions are on the whole posi-tive, pressure and willingness to change arehigh, but shared moments of psychologicalunderstanding are so few and far betweenthat outcome remains poor.

2nd Case ExampleEamonn was a Dean in a university. He was veryagitated during the first session. About a year agohe started working with Fiona as his facultydirector. They shared the responsibility formanaging the faculty between them. Their collabo-ration has been, in his words, non-existent. He

thought he might be intimidating her, as anacademic and sharp intellectual, but perhaps evenmore by being a conscientious planner, who turnsup for meetings early and is very results-oriented.Fiona appeared to him tense most of the time. Shecancelled most of their meetings or appearancestogether, and avoided anything that had asemblance of a ‘one-to-one’ with him. She had other‘dotted line’ responsibilities that appeared moreimportant to her than her collaboration withEamonn.

Now Eamonn was extremely dissatisfied withall of this, especially in view of great changes thatneeded to be implemented. He talked about goingback to Ireland, taking up a role in Dublin, wherehe thought there would be ‘more respect’ and abetter salary. He seemed visibly agitated and even-tually spoke about his profound doubts thatanything could be done. ‘Nobody can change theway Fiona works’, ‘nobody in our organisationseems to take real responsibility for the changes thatneed to happen’, etc. The coach jotted down theobjectives for the work and suggested a higherfrequency than he would normally do: once everythree weeks.

The second session had Eamonn much morerelaxed. He related successes in convincing somelead researchers and services that they would haveto change their reporting structures. He reflected onhis tendency to ‘see the grass greener’ on the otherside of the road – and in grassy green Ireland – buthe avoided the topic of ‘Fiona’ altogether. When thecoach raised the topic in the second hour he justsaid that nothing had changed and that Fionahad managed to completely avoid him these threeweeks, and that he perhaps had been guilty ofavoiding too. He then expressed surprise that thenext session would be already in three weeks’ time:unlikely that he would have anything to talkabout…

During the third session Eamonn talked atlength about how as a dean he tried to ‘lead fromthe front’ and how he was very good at taking onprecisely those battles that he could win. Again, inthe last half-hour, the coach asked him aboutFiona. Eamonn said Fiona and he were ‘probably’working well together. They headed the faculty ‘liketwo ships that pass each other in the night’. Theyturned up at different places, barely had a meeting

Back to Basics II


together and if they had, Fiona was always happythat he took the lead and explained ‘what had to bedone’. He was better at that anyway. Then hementioned he had always been good at this ‘co-management’ and that he could usually empowerothers, but somehow Fiona could not be reached.He felt intimidated by her behaviour: she alwaysdetermined where she would be, and in whatcapacity. He did his best to work around that, andthey never spoke about their relationship. He wasvery clear that she would not say anything sincereif he’d ask her about how they worked together, andthat she would try to avoid the topic together.

The coach then asked if Eamonn had encoun-tered any other ‘Fiona’s’ in his career – who shereminded him of? Initially he said ‘nobody’ andthere were long silences. Suddenly, he related howrecently at a party he had met an old fiancée,Cleona, Irish like himself. He was there with hiswife and children. Cleona beamed into their room,looking like the successful business woman shewas, full of ‘executive polish’. She still had thispowerful influence on him, this mixture of intimi-dation and attraction. She had always seemedaggrieved about something, ‘hurt’ by socialgestures, as if someone had invaded her space –when in fact it was usually the other way round.She controls conversations he said, just like Fiona,who had been described to the coach in quitedifferent terms up until now. For a good tenminutes Eamonn continued associating aroundhis partner choices and similarities between Fionaand Cleona.

Here was a source of Eamonn’s confusion, anintimidation and attraction that he couldn’tescape. Eamonn started to understand the real‘infatuation’ the two co-managers were havingwith each other, despite their coldness anddistance. Another element that he discovered for thefirst time was the ‘controlling’ nature of their rela-tionship, how he wanted Fiona to be at placeswhere she wasn’t, and how Fiona controlled him byciting stresses and other obligations. Reflection: Here is a client with a well-devel-oped reflective-self function and with high‘coachability’. In fact he started the contractby naming two other positive experienceswith a coach. He also felt quickly secure inthe sessions. Nevertheless, it does take coach

and client some three sessions to get to thenub (or ‘a’ nub) of an issue and to arrive atreflections that matter to the client. At thatpoint the coach enhances reflective-selffunction by inquiring more deeply into inti-mate relationships, and asking for a parallelexperience in the client’s life. There appearsto be a breakthrough when the client canbegin to see this relationship in terms ofothers in his life, and in terms of otherimportant relationships in his life. It thentakes several sessions more to think aboutthe consequences of this new insight andabout how to improve or reflect differentlyon the particular working relationship.

3rd Case ExampleThis consulting assignment started off with therequest for facilitation of a consulting firm’s awayday, which would include the eight partners andthe head of the secretariat, to mark the transition toa new managing partner. As so often with suchevents, both the wish to be entertained, to have fun,to chill out, and great anxieties about theunspoken concerns in the firm and whether theywill be addressed or even voiced, were palpablefrom the outset. The team of partners establishedthe main formal goal of the away day to be toachieve that frankness and fearlessness that theyprided themselves on with their clients, internally.

The facilitator asked the members of the groupto bring something, an object, which speaks to theirrelationship to the company. They took their turnsfreely – however, in terms of group dynamics, theorder turned out to be ‘reverse seniority’. Whenfinally, one before last, the old managing partnerspoke, she read a poem, something like ‘should Istay or should I go?’ and said that she wasn’t clearabout her next steps. At that point the head of thesecretariat burst into tears, almost wails, whichprompted embarrassed looks and eyes fixed to theground from the consultants. The outgoingmanaging partner seemed to be emboldened andshe consoled her.

Their query had been ‘how to be more frankwith each other internally?’ In the afternoon thefacilitator felt moved to challenge the assumptionsin that statement: ‘Yes, frankness and fearlessnessmay be what clients really need from you, that is,


Author name

they want to trust you will speak out and tell themwhat you see, preferably in a way that they can hearit. However, internally, you are a ‘polis’, a citizen-ship, a political society, however small, and it isperhaps more important to be diplomatic than to bedirect.’ Then he showed concern, ‘Directness maybecome the privilege of the more powerful in thegroup, the ‘prima donnas’ who can both get all theattention and give all the direct feedback, but arethemselves exempt’. At that precise point, when theword prima donna was mentioned, a shiver seemedto go through the group. There was something elec-trical in the air and the facilitator knew he hadsaid something profoundly ‘wrong’ – or perhapsprofoundly ‘right’, which amounts to the samething. There was a long silence and then peoplestarted to debate an earlier point, but just weaklyand without much interest. Soon someone called teabreak and nobody came back to what the facilitatorthought had been a major incident. In fact, he stillfelt utterly rejected and excluded by the group.

During the tea break the facilitator felt tense,guilty, awkward, and disconnected from the group.This in spite of the fact that one of the partnersapproached him briefly to say that it was good thathe had ‘outed’ the prima donnas. Coming backinto the afternoon session he realised it was diffi-cult for him to think and to reflect, and that hemust try to hold the space as this might be true forothers as well. He waited and asked how peoplewere and after a while gathered his wits backtogether sufficiently to say ‘I have the impressionyou do not want to talk about this so this is noteasy to say. I noticed what happened when Imentioned the word ‘prima donna’. There waspossibly some significance in what I said and thiswas perhaps itself one of those frank things thatyou find hard to say to each other. I think thissomehow links with your anxieties around the newleadership of the firm and the dilemmas of your oldmanaging partner about where to go next.’ Grad-ually and without exploring the concept of primadonna much further, the group now returned tothinking about the challenges ahead and peoplefelt freer to speak about their hopes for the futureand for each other.

Reflection: Here is an example of how mental-ising can come under pressure in coachingand consulting assignments. We can identifysuch moments almost on a daily basis, forexample, when we are anxious aboutarriving late, about meeting a new client, orabout what is going on in the conversationsat hand; when we don’t know what the issuesare or how to respond, when we feel we havesaid something wrong or too challenging,etc. To paraphrase Allen3 (2003, p.105), ‘Ofcourse, we coaches must mentalise to fostermentalising in our clients. It is through ourown mentalising that we engage our clientsin the process of mentalising (and,conversely, through their mentalising thatthey engage us in the process). We are in thesame boat with our clients. We, too, must relyon an intact social brain, a secure attach-ment history, and an optimal level of arousal.We bring to the session our developmentcompetence and our current state of mind(based on our feeling of security and level ofarousal at the moment) which may or maynot be conducive to mentalising perform-ance. We, too, know the ‘biology of beingfrazzled’ as our prefrontal cortical func-tioning goes off-line, giving way to our limbicpropensities to fight, flight or freezeresponses.’ Often competent consulting canbe regained just by re-acquiring the space tothink, by stepping back for a moment, andallowing our healthier and calmer reflec-tions to touch on the issues at hand. Para-doxically, important new reflections canarise precisely from those moments wherethe reflective-self is incapacitated, becausethere would have to be something new andimportant for it to have the power to bringus off balance.

Reflective-self function in coachingWhat these examples have in common is asense of ‘plasticity’, a sense that attachmentand mentalisation are gradually formedduring coaching, and that it is possible tobuild up a secure sense in coaching even if

Erik de Haan

3 Changing only the words clinician, therapist and patient into coaching equivalents.

security and understanding were hard tocome by in earlier attachment relationships.This must be encouraging as it shows that‘history’ does not equal ‘destiny’; in otherwords that clients can achieve new outcomesand can learn to build up both a moresecure sense of relationship and the reflec-tive-self function that goes along with secureattachment. In this regard it is perhapsencouraging that the intra-subject reliabilityor stability over longer time periods of theAAI is rather small (see Fonagy, 2001,Chapter 2).

We have to be wary, though, of attachingtoo much importance to the notion of reflec-tive-self function, and that is because of itsenormous appeal. As we have seen attach-ment relationships can be relevant on at leastfour basic levels in coaching (transference,working alliance, ‘real’ relationship andcontent of sessions). Secure attachment canin principle be linked with the reflective-selfon any of these levels. This makes the reflec-tive-self a highly relevant notion for the clienton all levels and even for the coach in his orher approach to the client. Moreover, as hasbeen argued by various authors cited above,the reflective-self is not just seen as a measureof good therapy, as in mentalisation-basedpsychotherapy, it can also be regarded as ameasure of good outcome of helping conver-sations, as in the recovery or strengthening ofmentalisation. This makes the reflective-selfinto a panacea and could lead to the falseimpression of ‘snake oil’, or perhaps inmodern industrial terms, of ‘lactic acid’(which is increasingly used to make foodingredients, conservatives, cleaning productsand plastics that do no harm to the humanbody), a flexible agent of questionable cura-tive value that is natural to the mind/bodyand sold as a cure for many ills, to be appliedin the most generous of doses. Instead, Ibelieve the main lesson to draw from theempirical results at this stage is the impor-tance of investigating further the propertiesof reflective-self function or psychologicalmindedness and establishing empiricallywhat contribution they have in coaching.

ConclusionMentalisation, or the idea that infantsbecome independent subjects only if theyare recognised as such, as beings with minds,intentions and feelings of their own, by theircaregivers, an idea which has been opera-tionalised by reflective-self function (Fonagyet al., 1991), is a very powerful notionprecisely because it goes back to the root ofhelping conversations. It is first and foremosta new and empirically quantifiable way ofexpressing that a client might get betterwhen listened to and understood by athoughtful other who can help him or hermake sense of memories, experiences andchallenges, a phenomenon which is as old aspsychotherapy itself (Breuer & Freud, 1885).This new operationalisation of a classicphenomenon is also distinct in that itemphasises the understanding of another’sintentionality, which by definition includesself-understanding, the understanding ofone’s own intentions. There is a shift inemphasis and an increase in empirically reli-able data concerning the understanding ofself and others. It is fair to say that this devel-opment has afforded new importance to theidea of insight (or interpretation, or realisa-tion) in psychotherapy and coaching.

The history of helping conversationsstarted with recognition of the importanceof self-understanding for healthy func-tioning, be it through recollection (Erinnerung; Breuer & Freud, 1885), inter-pretation (Deutung; Breuer & Freud, 1885)or insight (Aufklärung; Breuer & Freud,1885). Now with the empirical research onreflective-self function providing someevidence for a link with a particular self- andother-understanding – a possible connectionbetween mentalisation and psychologicalhealth, through a demonstrated correlationwith secure attachment – this journey hascome full circle.

We can see reflective-self function as thefirst operationalisation of the Freudiannotion of ‘insight’, just like ‘workingalliance’ (Greenson, 1965) was the first oper-ationalisation of the Freudian notion of


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Author name

‘positive transference’. Both operationalisa-tions led in the next decades to corrobora-tion of the efficacy of the original idea:working alliance correlates with psycho-therapy outcome (Horvath & Symonds,1991), whilst reflective-self function corre-lates with secure attachment (Fonagy et al.,1991). However, as we have seen in this briefoverview, the evidence for reflective-selffunction as an active ingredient of helpingconversations is still limited. It is not at thesame level as that for working alliance.Nevertheless, the psychophysical evidence-base of these and other original hunches ofFreud has now grown to an encouragingdegree.

In this way executive coaches are begin-ning to get an idea of the ingredients thatare potentially effective in coaching conver-sations. Working alliance (De Haan, 2011),as the best predictor of coaching outcome,will come first. And reflective-self function,as a function that correlates with secureattachment, could come second. If nothingelse, this evidence can help coaches to bemore confident in attending as fully as theycan to reflection within the coaching rela-tionship.

The AuthorDr Erik de Haan is Director of the AshridgeCentre for Coaching, Trainee Psycho-dynamic Psychotherapist and Professor ofOrganisation Development and Coaching atthe VU University, Amsterdam.

CorrespondenceDr Erik de HaanAshridge Centre for Coaching,Ashridge Business School,Berkhamsted,Hertfordshire HP4 1NS, UK.Email: [email protected]

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THE PURPOSE of this paper is to intro-duce the reader to a strengths-basedapproach to developing mental tough-

ness in sport, which draws on principles fromapplied positive psychology (Biswas-Diener,2010), appreciative inquiry (Cooperrider &Whitney, 2005), appreciative inquirycoaching (Orem, Binkert & Clancy, 2007)and strengths-based coaching (Linley &Harrington, 2006; Linley, Woolston & Biswas-Diener, 2009). Following a brief overview ofmental toughness research and history ofstrengths approaches, the contrastingassumptions of strengths-based coachingmethods and traditional psychological skillstraining are presented. The paper concludeswith examples of how a strengths-basedapproach to developing mental toughnesswas conducted by the author among profes-sional cricketers.

Mental toughness: A brief summaryFor almost a decade, sport researchers haverecognised the need to empirically examinethe question: ‘What is mental toughness?’Increased attention within the academiccommunity has resulted in efforts focusedon identifying the key components of mentaltoughness, understanding how they aredeveloped, and developing and validatingmeasurement instruments (for a full review,see Gucciardi & Gordon, 2011a).

Recently, Gucciardi and colleagues(2009a) developed a ‘process model’grounded in Personal Construct Psychology(PCP: Kelly, 1991), which encapsulates theexperiential processes of acquiring mentaltoughness. Within this model, the keycomponents of mental toughness are said toinfluence the way in which an individualcovertly and overtly approaches, appraises,and responds to events demanding varyingdegrees of challenge, adversity, and pressure.Subsequently, self-reflection and feedbackfrom others provides information that an


Keynote

Strengths-based approaches todeveloping mental toughness: Team and individual Sandy Gordon

Based on an Invited Keynote Presentation at the British Psychological Society’sDivision of Sport and Exercise Psychology Annual Conference which was part of theBritish Psychological Society’s Annual Conference, 17–21 April 2012, in London.

In sport settings developing mental toughness has become a major focus for athletes, coaches, teams andorganisations. The focus of this paper is on the principal ‘climate engineers’ of sport environments, namelycoaches, and on a strengths-based approach to mental toughness development that was facilitated by a sportpsychologist. A brief summary of mental toughness research and a short history of strengths approaches tothe development of human potential is presented. In the final section the author describes how he has usedstrengths-based approaches in professional sport, both with teams and individuals.Keywords: Applied positive psychology; strengths-based coaching; psychological skills training.

individual may use to evaluate their invest-ment in their experiences and outcomes. Inintegrating research with their processmodel, Gucciardi and colleagues proposed adefinition of mental toughness:

Mental toughness is the presence of someor the entire collection of experientiallydeveloped and inherent values, attitudes,emotions, cognitions, and behavioursthat influence the way in which anindividual approaches, responds to, andappraises both negatively and positivelyconstrued pressures, challenges, andadversities to consistently achieve his orher goals (Coulter et al., 2010, p.715).

The evidence specifically on the develop-ment of mental toughness so far suggeststhat while some mental toughness is simplyinherited, an inestimable amount can becaught (socialised) and taught (coached) (seeClough & Strycharczk, 2012; Gucciardi &Gordon, 2011a). Further research in sportand other performance environments isneeded to pinpoint exactly ‘what’ needs tobe taught ‘by whom’ and ‘how,’ and alsowhat experiences young people should beexposed to and when. In addition, investiga-tions need to determine if these experiencesneed to be activity-specific or even activity-related and/or if there is a role formentoring, story-telling and account-makingin promoting mental toughness?

Recently Gucciardi and Gordon (2011b)suggested that changing mindsets and strengths-based approaches have considerable potential indeveloping mental toughness, and encour-aged experimental evaluations of interven-tions using each procedure separately or incombination, with athletes of all age andability levels. Importantly, Gucciardi andGordon proposed that both methodologiesare consistent with the basic tenets of personalconstruct psychology (PCP: Kelly, 1991),which are described elsewhere (e.g. Gucciardi& Gordon, 2009a, 2009b). Specifically, guidedquestioning and reflection associated withchanging mindsets and strengths-basedprocesses elicit learning and understanding ofan individual’s personal construct system.

Strengths-based approaches: A brief historyPeterson (2006) has described positivepsychology as having ‘a short history but verylong past’. Readers are directed elsewhere(e.g. Linley & Joseph, 2004; Lopez & Snyder,2009; Peterson, 2006) to full histories andphilosophical perspectives of strengthsapproaches, positive psychology, coachingpsychology and their applications. For thepurposes of this paper, the following peopleand their activities represent a briefchronology of some important events andactivities.

Bernard Haldane (1947) has been creditedas the first to refer to ‘human aptitudes’. Hebelieved that the core reason for lack of effi-ciency in the workplace was that seniormanagement was not sufficiently equippedto identify strengths and talent among theirstaff. Abraham Maslow (1954, p.354)commented on the historical focus ofpsychology, which ‘has revealed to us muchof man’s shortcomings, his illness, his sins,but little about his potentialities, his virtues,his achievable aspirations, or his full psycho-logical height’. Also in the mid-1950s DonaldO. Clifton, cited by the American Psycholog-ical Association (APA) as the ‘Father ofStrengths Psychology’, began five decadesstudying what is right about people. Hebought The Gallup Organisation (founded in1958) and later, with Marcus Buckingham(Buckingham & Clifton, 2001) and Tom Rath(Rath & Clifton, 2004), co-authored severalbestselling books on strengths approaches.Peter Drucker (1967), regarded as the ‘Fatherof Management Theory’, claimed that ‘theeffective executive’ builds on strengths –their own strengths, the strengths of supe-riors, colleagues, subordinates, and on thestrengths of the situation. Mihaly Csikszentmi-halyi (1975) described ‘flow’ and elements ofoptimal experiences and enjoyment that arepresent in those activities that consume usand become intrinsically rewarding butdon’t take energy away – in fact they giveenergy to us. David Cooperrider (Cooperrider& Srivasta, 1987) launched a new organisa-


TitleStrengths-based approaches to MT development


Author name

tional development discipline called Appre-ciative Inquiry (AI) and its basic premise is tobuild organisations around what worksrather than fix what doesn’t. In 1998, priorto becoming the APA President, MartinSeligman (Seligman, 1999) gave the field ofPositive Psychology its name, generallyreferred to at the time as ‘the scientific studyof optimal human functioning’. A vast arrayof research directions quickly developedincluding measuring well-being andmapping human strengths spawning severalstrengths identification assessment toolssuch as the VIA Inventory of Strengths(Petersen & Seligman, 2004), StrengthsFinder(Rath, 2007), and Realise2 Strengths (Linley,Willars & Biswas-Diener, 2010). Mike Pegg(2008) and Sir Ken Robinson (2009) claim weare in our ‘element’ when our natural apti-tude and personal passions meet, similar tocharacteristics of ‘flow’ experiences.Recently, Alex Linley (2008) and hiscolleagues at the Centre of Applied PositivePsychology (CAPP) distinguished both unre-alised and realised strengths from learnedbehaviours and weaknesses, which will bediscussed in more detail later.

Strengths-based coaching andpsychological skills trainingHistorically human endeavours have beencharacterised as ‘fixing weaknesses’ (Maslow,1954; Seligman, 1999, 2011) and thecoaching process in sport is no exception(Park-Perin, 2010). Current sport psycho-logy practice and traditional psychologicalskills training typically focuses on identifyinga team’s or athlete’s weaknesses and fixingthem. Strengths-based coaching, on theother hand, is about spotting and exploitingteams’ and athletes’ strengths. A briefsummary of the contrasting assumptions ofstrengths-based coaching and traditionalpsychological skills training approaches ispresented in Table 1.

According to Linley, Willars and Biswas-Diener (2010) the two key characteristics ofstrengths are ‘delivering a high level ofperformance and experiencing a sense ofenergy when you are doing it’ (p.67), so astrength is something athletes are good atand they are also passionate about doing it.During strengths coaching the focus is onwhat is already working because our areas ofgreatest potential are in the areas of our

Sandy Gordon

Table 1: Comparison of strengths-based coaching and traditional psychological skillstraining.

ASSUMPTIONS Strengths-Based Coaching Psychological (Mental) Skills Training

Coach philosophy Strengths spotting Problem identification

Areas of development and Strengths Weaknesseslearning focus for coaching Learn from successes Learn from mistakes

Athletes …are resourceful and have …require expert assistance experienced success in dealing with failures

Type of coaching required Proactive Remedial

Exploit existing strengths Fix existing weaknesses

Learning process Coaching Training‘asking’, self-directed ‘telling’; other-directed(athlete) (practitioner)

Source of expertise and Athlete PractitionerCoach/Athlete relationship Collaboration Coach-led

Behavioural goal type Self-concordant External/Introjected

greatest strengths. Linley and his colleaguesacknowledge that while you can developfrom working on weaknesses, change andimprovement is only possible when you arealso working on your strengths.

Strengths-based consulting in sport canbe regarded as being both an approach toconsulting (i.e. strengths are used moreeffectively in the attainment of goals) and asa value-adding outcome of consulting (i.e.strengths-based consulting is used to enablethe realisation and development of an indi-vidual’s strengths) (Linley & Harrington,2006; Linley, Woolston & Biswas-Diener,2009). Research in non-sport settings hasshown that, in addition to being more confi-dent, having higher levels of energy andvitality (Govindji & Linley, 2007), and beingmore likely to achieve their goals (Linley,Nielson et al., 2010), people who use theirstrengths are more effective at developingthemselves and growing as individuals thanpeople who do not (Sheldon et al., 2002).Research also demonstrates that those indi-viduals who use their strengths more oftenare happier, have higher self-esteem, experi-ence less stress, are more resilient, performbetter at work, and are more engaged at work(Linley, Nielson et al., 2010). The case forusing a strengths-based coaching approach insport, therefore, is quite compelling.

Strengths-based coaching of mentaltoughness in cricketAs a sport psychologist I have consulted inprofessional cricket in Perth, WesternAustralia, since 1987, however, only recentlyhave I introduced strengths-based approachesto facilitate performance enhancement inboth teams and individuals. The processesand activities I am about to describe weremade possible by one coach who believed inthe transformative capacity of strengths-basedapproaches to individual and team perform-ance consulting. I fully acknowledge thatwithout his support for strengths-basedapproaches and his encouragement to others(e.g. senior management, team captains andsenior players) to apply them, my initiatives

may not have been as effective, or evenpossible. The examples come from the work I conducted with the same coach with twoteams: Western Warriors (WW: Perth,Australia) and the Sri Lankan NationalCricket team (SLC).

Appreciative Inquiry: The purpose of thisactivity with SLC in January 2006, held inAustralia (Melbourne), was to introduce anAppreciative Inquiry (AI) approach to under-standing the concept of high performingteams. AI is regarded as a positive, strengths-based operational approach to change,learning, and development, which begins byobliging athletes and management to choose‘the positive’ as the focus of inquiry, and asthe launching point for all that follows. I recently reported an AI case study thatfeatured a cricket operations strategic plan-ning event at the Western Australian CricketAssociation (Gordon, 2011). According toSloan and Canine (2007):

The AI philosophy and practice is in andof itself the ideal process for bothenabling people in organisations tobecome more aware of their ownstrengths and abilities in ways thatincrease their effectiveness in all parts oftheir life and to create robust support forchange in the client’s social system (p.1).

The following assumptions about life, peopleand the change process itself, form the basisof an AI approach (Cooperrider & Whitney,2005):● In every society, organisation, group or

individual, something works;● What people focus on becomes their

reality;● Reality is created in the moment, and

there are multiple realities;● The act of asking questions of an

organisation, group, or individual,influences the group or individual insome way;

● People are more confident andcomfortable in their journey to thefuture (the unknown) when they carryforward parts of the past (the known);



● If people carry parts of the past forward,those parts should be what is best aboutthe past;

● It is important to value differences;● The language people use creates their

reality. Prior to the squad leaving Sri Lanka for thisAustralian tour (January 2006), the coachand I asked both management and players topartner up and collect data on highperforming teams using the interview guideillustrated in full in Table 2. Upon theirarrival in Australia, I facilitated a two-hourmeeting focusing on the data collectedduring interviews that were universallyenjoyed by interviewees as well as by bothmanagement staff and players. This meetingwas concluded with a discussion on goalsetting specifically for touring Australia.

Two months later (April, 2006), prior tothe first warm-up game of the Sri Lankantour of England, during which Sri Lankadrew the three Test series 1–1 and white-washed England 5–0 in the One-Day Inter-national (ODI) series, I conducted a squadsession that I have described in greater detailas a case study in a special issue on perform-ance psychology in the Australian Psycholog-ical Society’s InPsych magazine (Gordon,2008). The focus of the meeting was ‘Discov-ering What Gives Life To SLC When It Is AtIts Best’, which featured a combination offacilitation techniques, including NamingElephants (Hammond & Mayfield, 2004)and Open Space Technology (Owen, 1997),as well as Appreciative Inquiry (AI). NamingElephants is a metaphor for bringing undis-cussable issues into the open and makingimplicit ‘difficult’ conversations explicit. Themain ‘elephant’ identified by all players wasintimidation, negative and pessimisticcommunication to junior players by seniorplayers, which had a negative behaviouralimpact on the team such as lowered moraleamong junior players, who switched offemotionally during both team meetings andgames and suppressed ideas and thoughts ofvoicing contributions. Open Space Tech-nology is a group facilitation method

comprised of four principles and one ‘law’that allows small (or large) teams of playersto say and do what they want in the timeavailable and have self-organised discussionson anything that is important to them in ashort time.

During this session coaches and playerscreated a meeting agenda around the theme‘What Gives Life To Sri Lankan Batting,Bowling and Fielding When It Is At Its Best?’During a five-hour session (three hours overschedule) they had mapped out theirEngland tour preferences for both trainingpriorities and match tactics. The sessionwitnessed players and staff speaking to eachother freely and in a solution-focusedmanner. One additional important outcomewas a record of on-field, off-field anddressing room habits associated with bestperformances. This list, entitled Habits SLCHas When At Its Best, was finalised at theconclusion of the England tour and becamean agenda item to re-visit during each of thesubsequent three meetings that I facilitated.Core habits and attitudes associated withmanaging tournaments included ‘leadershipfrom within the team’, ‘team goals alwaystrump individual goals’, ‘no excuses to lose(e.g. weather, travel, food)’, ‘respect weakeropposition (e.g. English County sides)’, and‘focus on fundamentals.’

A few months later (December, 2006) I arrived in Wellington, New Zealand, intime to see the last wicket fall on Day 4 of the2nd Test, won by Sri Lanka. Later that day I met with the coach and staff to discuss theagenda for a strengths-based strategic plan-ning team session that would characterisethe team’s focus and efforts for the next sixmonths leading up to the Cricket World Cupin June 2007. Next day, to facilitate thisthree-hour session, I began by remindingeveryone of the strengths-based AI processused in England that resulted in Habits SLCHas When At Its Best. However, since strategicplanning specifically for the forthcoming sixmonths was required, I introduced theSOAR technique, which stands for Strengths,Opportunities, Aspirations, and Results


Author nameSandy Gordon



Table 2: Interview guide for an inquiry into high performing cricket teams.

You are going to pair up with another player and ask each other the questions that follow. As an interviewer, your job is to read the introduction to the topic, then ask the first question.Listen to what your partner tells you and make notes so you can share the information with the larger group.

Question 1: High Performing Teams● Tell me about a time when you observed or were part of a high performing team.

What did it look like, feel like? ● What stands out in your mind about how the team worked with each other?

Question 2: Trust● Think of a time when there was high trust in a team or partnership. What factors were present

to make trust possible?● Think of a leader you trusted. Why did you trust him or her? What did they do that made

trust possible?● When have you worked in a team or organisation that operates under the assumption that

people can be trusted? What did they do differently from a team or organisation that operates under the assumption that people can’t be trusted?

Question 3: Relationships● When you have been a part of, or observed this type of team, how did the team manage

relationships?● How did this team handle conflict - how did they manage it?

Question 4: Expect and Respect Differences● How did the team show respect and appreciation for the diversity within the team?● When the team had differences, how did they deal with those differences?

Question 5: Results● What was the process the team used to set their goals and divide the roles and responsibilities

necessary to achieve those results?● Who or what was the team? What was the situation? What did the team do to gain clarity?

How did this clarity help the team achieve top performance?

Question 6: Leadership● Describe the qualities, characteristics, behaviours, activities, and/or practices of the team that

foster a ‘leaderful’ environment.● Think of a leader who demonstrates leadership that supports a leaderful environment.

Specifically, what does he/she do?

Question 7: Learning/Mistakes/Celebration● Tell me about a time you were a part of a team that demonstrated they could learn together.

Specifically how did they do it?● If there was an ‘after-action’ review or an apology, who initiated it? How did the team react?● How did the team put the lessons to use?● How did this team celebrate success?


Author name

(Stavros & Hinrichs, 2009). SOAR incorpo-rates AI principles and players were simplyasked to pair up and discuss responses toeach of the questions illustrated in Table 3. Afinal document prepared by the players, enti-tled Api Wenuwen Api (God Bless Sri Lanka),was sent to the coach, who prepared a formaltemplate for everyone to refer to and applyimmediately.

Developing mental toughness. In an attempt todevelop mental toughness among WesternWarriors (male professional cricketers) acolleague and I first collected mental tough-ness data from 22 contracted players usingthe 15-item Cricket Mental Toughness Inven-tory (CMTI: Gucciardi & Gordon, 2009c),which is comprised of five key facets as illus-trated in Table 4. How we and the coachaddressed results from these data is dealtwith later in this paper. To facilitate perform-ance enhancement generally, we applied theCAPP Realise2 Model (Linley, 2008; (Linley,Nielson et al., 2010).

Briefly, the Realise2 model (Linley et al.,2010) considers strengths as things that wedo that we are good at and that energise us,

such as Realised Strengths that we get to doregularly, or Unrealised Strengths that we don’tget as much opportunity to use so much andyet are our greatest areas for development.Learned Behaviours, on the other hand, areactivities we are good at but drain us ofenergy, which is particularly relevant forelite/professional athletes because if activi-ties are not energising doing them repeat-edly can lead to an increasing sense offeeling disengaged, disenfranchised andeven burned out. Finally, our Weaknesses arethings we are not good at and also drain us.Subsequently, from the model, the bestadvice is to marshal realised strengths, by usingthem differently to best effect; maximise unre-alised strengths, by finding opportunities touse them more; moderate learned behaviours, bynot using them too much; and minimise weak-nesses, by finding ways to stop having to focuson them at all. Unlike other aforementionedstrengths finding approaches, however, ifweaknesses matter for performance andcannot be ignored, the Realise2 Modelprovides five ideas on how to minimise theirrelevance and impact on performance, asillustrated in Figure 1.

Sandy Gordon

Table 3: The SOAR Process.

Element Questions

Strengths What can we build on – what are our strengths in fielding, bowling and batting? What is already happening that works?What do we already do that is world class?

Opportunities From our existing strengths, what other opportunities are provided that weshould focus our efforts on?What new skills do we need to move forwards?

Aspirations Reflecting on our strengths and opportunities, who are we, who should webecome?What innovations or initiatives (i.e. tactics) would support our aspirations?

Results How will we know we are succeeding?Considering our strengths, opportunities, and aspirations, what meaningful measures would indicate that we are on track to achieving our goals?What indicators would create a score card that addresses our process goals? What are the best rewards to support those who achieve our process goals?


Title

To apply this model, prior to an indoorcricket net practice, we asked the coaches todetermine individual perceptions ofstrengths related to general cricket ability(technical, physical, tactical as well as mentalskills) by having players respond tostrengths-based questions about theirbatting, bowling and fielding. The questions,and responses from a top-order batsmanwho is also a spin bowler, are illustrated inTable 5, which also includes his response toa question asking how he could use hisstrengths more at practice. Subsequently,with the head coach we facilitated an opendiscussion on what the implications fromthis exercise were for each player’s self-regu-lated performance enhancement andtraining priorities.

Several players expressed embarrassmentand discomfort when asked to read out theirresponses and every player agreed that theyhad never been asked to consider these ques-

tions previously. Additionally, discussioninevitably led to concerns about ignoringweaknesses and the importance of workingto improve them. Subsequently, based on themodel, players were asked to consider if theycould reshape their role on the team so thatthey could play in their ‘element’ moreoften, rather than have to bat, bowl or fieldat times and in positions in which they feltvulnerable; second, they considered usingtheir strengths to compensate for their weak-nesses, such as being more decisive aboutshot selection with both short and full-lengthquick deliveries (fast bowling); third, playerswere asked to consider finding a complemen-tary partner, someone who was strong in areasthey were weak so they could buddy-up attraining and during games and learn vicari-ously from watching strengths in action;fourth, players and the coaches were asked toconsider grouping certain players accord-ingto their strengths and weaknesses, thereby

Strengths-based approaches to MT development

Table 4: Cricket Mental Toughness Inventory (CMTI): Factors and example item(Gucciardi & Gordon, 2009c).

CMTI Factors Description Item example ‘I…

Affective Intelligence The ability to regulate one’s Am able to deal with anxiety.emotions and moods in anycircumstance to facilitateperformance.

Desire to Achieve An internalised, insatiable desire In general, display a hard and commitment to consistently work ethic.improve one’s performance levels and achieve success.

Resilience The ability to withstand and Am able to deal with setbacksbounce back from situations in associated with cricket.which negative outcomes are experienced (i.e. pressure, adversity, challenge).

Attentional Control The ability to manage one’s Remain focused despiteattention and focus over extended cricket-related distractions.periods of play involving various distractions.

Self-Belief An unshakeable self-belief in your Never experience doubts.physical ability to perform in any circumstance.


Author nameSandy Gordon

Figure 1: Minimising weaknesses to make them irrelevant(adapted from Linley, Willars & Biswas-Diener, 2010).

Weakness IdentifiedIs the weakness irrelevant?

1. Reshape your role on the team

2. Use your strengths to compensate

3. Find a complementary partner

4. Adopt strengths-based team work

5. Undertake training and development to mitigate the weakness (e.g. psychological skills training).

Mission accomplished –the weakness is minimised

and is no longerundermining performance.

Is this a workable solution?Has this been effective?

Try a different solution.

Yes

Yes

No

No

chunking up a level from ‘complementarypartner’, and adopt strengths-based team workoff-field as well as during training andgames; and finally, when none of the abovestrategies was possible players were invited toconsider undertaking specific training and devel-opment sessions with coaches, with the aim ofbecoming as good as they needed to be orgood enough, but not excellent.

While all participants reported greatbenefits from making their weaknesses lessrelevant using all five ideas, they were partic-ularly impressed with the overall value of a

strengths-based approach to specificallytechnical development. One senior NationalTeam cricketer remarked, ‘This was verydifferent to what I’m used to. I much preferthe idea of spending the majority of my timerealising my strengths rather than trying tofix weaker areas.’

To further facilitate the development ofmental toughness all players were invited toeither discuss their CMTI (Gucciardi &Gordon, 2009c) data with each other and/ortheir coaches, or individually in person withme. During individual consultations I used



Tabl

e 5:

Iden

tifi

cati

on o

f st

reng

ths

of a

top

-ord

er b

atsm

an.

BATT

ING

My

stre

ngth

s ar

e…I f

eel s

tron

g w

hen

I am

…(d

oing

thi

s).

Wha

t is

you

r be

st s

hot?

How

do

you

get

mos

t of

you

r ru

ns?

I del

iver

my

best

and

feel

in m

y el

emen

tdo

ing

thes

e ac

tivi

ties

…

My

favo

urit

e ro

le(s

)th

at I

find

mos

tst

imul

atin

g is

(are

)…

Thin

gs I

can

do t

o bu

ildon

my

batt

ing

stre

ngth

s, p

ut m

ysel

fin

to s

itua

tion

s w

here

Iam

in m

y el

emen

t ar

e…

Resp

onse

s

‘I fe

el s

tron

g w

hen

I am

com

ing

into

bat

whe

nth

e in

ning

s ne

eds

resc

uing

or

a ga

me

is t

obe

won

.’

‘Str

aigh

t dr

ive.’

‘Reb

uild

ing

an in

ning

sw

hen

the

team

is in

trou

ble.

Gui

ding

the

team

to

vict

ory

usin

g a

calm

and

cle

ver

min

dse

t. In

volv

ing

mys

elf

inth

e co

ntes

t.’

‘Bei

ng t

he p

laye

r th

atst

ands

up

durin

g th

eto

ugh

tim

es a

nd m

ost

diff

icul

t pe

riods

of

play

.’

‘To

trai

n m

ostl

y by

sim

ulat

ing

gam

esi

tuat

ions

und

er g

reat

erpr

essu

re,’

BOW

LIN

G

My

stre

ngth

s ar

e…I f

eel s

tron

g w

hen

I am

…(d

oing

thi

s).

Wha

t is

you

r be

stde

liver

y? H

ow d

o yo

uge

t m

ost

of y

our

wic

kets

?

I del

iver

my

best

and

feel

in m

y el

emen

tdo

ing

thes

e ac

tivi

ties

…

My

favo

urit

e ro

le(s

)th

at I

find

mos

tst

imul

atin

g is

(are

)…

Thin

gs I

can

do t

obu

ild o

n m

y ba

ttin

gst

reng

ths,

put

mys

elf

into

sit

uati

ons

whe

re I

am in

my

elem

ent

are…

Resp

onse

s

‘Bow

ling

to a

gam

epl

an.’

‘By

build

ing

pres

sure

on b

atsm

an a

ndex

ecut

ing

my

bow

ling

plan

. Rea

ding

bat

smen

and

thei

r ga

me

plan

s.Br

eaki

ng p

artn

ersh

ips.’

‘By

bein

g pa

tien

t an

din

volv

ing

mys

elf

in t

heco

ntes

t.’

‘Tyi

ng a

tea

m d

own,

slid

ing

unde

r th

eir

rada

r, be

ing

unde

rest

imat

ed.’

‘Rit

ualis

e m

y pr

e- a

ndpo

st-d

eliv

ery

rout

ines

thro

ugh

sim

ulat

edpr

essu

re p

ract

ice

at t

hene

ts.’

FIEL

DIN

G

My

stre

ngth

s ar

e…I f

eel s

tron

g w

hen

I am

…(d

oing

thi

s).

Wha

t is

you

r be

stpo

siti

on?

Whe

re a

ndw

hen

do y

ou f

eel m

ost

effe

ctiv

e?

I del

iver

my

best

and

feel

in m

y el

emen

tdo

ing

thes

e ac

tivi

ties

…

My

favo

urit

e ro

le(s

)th

at I

find

mos

tst

imul

atin

g is

(are

)…

Thin

gs I

can

do t

o bu

ildon

my

batt

ing

stre

ngth

s, p

ut m

ysel

fin

to s

itua

tion

s w

here

Iam

in m

y el

emen

t ar

e…

Resp

onse

s

‘My

stre

ngth

s ar

e m

yha

nds,

slip

cat

chin

g or

catc

hing

in g

ener

al.’

‘2nd

slip

and

m

id-w

icke

t.’

‘Fie

ldin

g at

2nd

slip

.’

‘Bei

ng a

cap

tain

.’

‘To

impr

ove

my

catc

hing

unde

r gr

eate

r pr

essu

reat

tra

inin

g.’


Author name

an appreciative coaching approach, which isillustrated in Table 6 and uses an example ofa player’s perceived weakness in self-belief.The AIC approach to developing mentaltoughness represents a significant departurefrom traditional approaches to psychologicalskills training typically used by performancepsychologists. The first step in this approachis crucial and involves identifying andexploring what mental toughness terms (e.g.self-belief) mean to each coachee. Thisexploration is a necessary first step becausecoaches need to help coachees understandwhat mental toughness is and is not, when itis required and when it is not required, andhow, in general, coachees personallyconstrue their realities. Consistent with ourprevious research using a Personal ConstructPsychology (PCP) framework and interviewprotocol to understand mental toughness(for a review, see Gucciardi & Gordon,

2009a) this approach can be embedded inthe AI 4-D cycle to guide athletes in theirexplorations of mental toughness. In addi-tion to sport psychologists, coaches can alsoask these questions from the 4-D Model inturn – allowing plenty time for reflection(Connaughton, Hanton & Jones, 2010;Connaughton et al., 2008) – and summarisethe mutual understanding in each part of thecycle prior to proceeding to the next one.

ConclusionI am excited about the activities and strate-gies described in this paper that proved to beboth popular and effective in developingmental toughness in my practice with eliteadult performers, however, I acknowledgethat a single approach is unlikely to beappropriate for all age and competitivelevels. Sport psychologists and coaches willneed to consider the developmental stage of

Sandy Gordon

Table 6: Appreciative coaching questions (adapted from Orem et al., 2007).

AI 4-D cycle Strengths-based coaching questions

Discovery Describe what you consider self-belief to be – and not be. When recently did you display self-belief? What attitude(s) did you adopt at that time?Describe your emotions. How did you react? What did you do?What would others have noticed?

Dream Overnight a miracle occurred, and when you woke up your self-belief was justas you’ve described. How would you know? What would be different?What has changed in your habits?Who would be the first to notice these changes?What will they say or do, and how will you respond?

Design So, how will you act differently to make the dream reality? How best can you develop and sustain your self-belief?Are there ‘significant others’ whom you feel play a crucial role in thedevelopment of your self-belief?What do you think these individuals could do to help? What should they not do?

Destiny/Delivery Reflecting on what you really want and where you are right now regardingself-belief, what do you see as the most significant behavioural changes youcould make that would help you get what you want?What one small behavioural change could you make right now, no matter howsmall, that would improve your self-belief? Can you just try it?



their athletes when promoting the develop-ment of mental toughness (Connaughton etal., 2008, 2010). For example, early in anathlete’s career, and based on previousresearch (Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock,2009; Gucciardi et al., 2009), I would antici-pate that a strategy designed to combinetraditional psychological skills training withstrengths-based approaches to be optimal.Nonetheless, I encourage all practitionersand coaches to consider using strengths-based approaches to developing mentaltoughness at any age and at any competitivelevel because I believe ‘realising ourstrengths is the smallest thing we can do tomake the biggest difference’ (Linley, 2008,p.47).

CorrespondenceProfessor Sandy GordonThe School of Sport Science, Exercise and Health, The University of Western Australia,Perth,Australia.Email: [email protected]

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Sandy Gordon

IN 1968, the first class I took at the Univer-sity of Kansas was Psychology of Satisfac-tion. (Psych 101 was full as I was late to

enroll). That was a turning point in my viewof the field of psychology. This course, aboutwhat made people become happy and satis-fied in their life, was an early precursor orwhat Positive Psychology would focus on 30years later! I began to choose other coursesin the years to come that eschewed Freudianpsychology and instead learned of Maslow,Rogers, Jung, Assagioli and other theoristsand researchers in human potential. Imoved from my undergraduate degree toget a masters in Humanistic Psychology anda doctorate in Transpersonal Psychology andCounseling…all of which I point to today asmore applicable to coaching that to psychotherapy.

In the 1960s, when psychology wasstrongly rooted in a battle between psycho-dynamic theory and behaviourism, Human-istic psychology arose as the Third Force,followed shortly by Transpersonal Psycho-logy, the Fourth force. The influence ofMaslow, Rogers, Esalen Institute, Tavistock,Findhorn, and Omega greatly influence theHuman potential movement as an antidoteto the mechanistic, analytic, and reductionisttheories of the first half of the 20th century.That humanistic movement, while somewhat

chaotic and experimental paved the way forCoaching Psychology today and the rise ofpositive psychology, appreciative inquiry, andhuman systems theory as underpinnings for21st century personal and business coaching.

The history and evolution of LifeCoaching: The influence of the HumanPotential Movement of the 1960s andbeyond.Historical information provides current andprospective coaching psychologists with botha framework for understanding their profes-sion and insights into future opportunities.This framework also helps life coaches toplace themselves squarely within the largercontext of a profession that is still devel-oping, changing, and evolving. As we castour eyes across the diverse threads of thepast, perhaps we will come to understand thepresent more accurately and will be betterprepared as life coaching (and coachingpsychology) expands in the 21st century. I believe an examination of the evolution oflife coaching also helps those trained as ther-apists or counsellors to make the transitionto life coaching by further clarifying the simi-larities and differences between lifecoaching and other helping professions.


Keynote

Looking back to see the future: The influence of humanistic andtranspersonal psychology oncoaching psychology todayPatrick Williams

Based on an Keynote Presentation at the 2nd International Congress on CoachingPsychology, 10–12 May, 2012, in Sydney, Australia.

Keywords: Coaching; coaching psychology; humanistic psychology; transpersonal psychology.

Life Coaching as an operating systemPersonal and professional coaching hasemerged as a recognised career in the lastdecade and it has created new options forpeople who seek help with life transitions infinding a guide to partner with them indesigning their desired future. Whilecoaching has grown to incorporate a variety ofspecialised applications, the case can be madethat life coaching as a whole-person, client-centred approach is the foundational oper-ating system. As an operating system, thewhole life approach is a system always in thebackground of the conversation, just like anOS in a computer system. Invariably, anyspecific focus of a coaching relationship willbe interconnected to other areas of a person’slife. If you have a client who wants to be abetter manager, or make a career transition,you will find that conversations about theirsignificant relationships, or their personalwellness, or their stress level could and shouldcome up in the conversation. They are allintertwined in a whole person approach. Foryour coaching practice, this means that youneed to be willing to open up conversationsthrough asking questions about other areas ofthe client’s life. What is working well? What isless than satisfying? How do energy drainers inone area of the client’s life bleed over intoeffecting their stated goals

This presentation documents the rise oflife coaching within the broader movementof personal and professional coaching andits roots in psychology. And let’s not forget tohonour the fact that the University of Sydney’sMasters in Coaching Psychology (led by AnthonyGrant and colleagues) was the first recogniseddegree in professional coaching!

The psychological roots of LifeCoaching aka Coaching PsychologyPsychological theorists in the early part ofthe 20th century set the framework for lifecoaching’s ‘whole and healthy person’ view.The shift from seeing clients as ill or patho-logical toward viewing them as ‘capable andwhole’ and seeking a richer life is paramountto understanding the evolution of life

coaching. Life coaches view clients as wholeand uniquely capable persons and focus noton pathology, but on optimal living and apurpose- focused life.

Most people would agree that SigmundFreud had a dramatic influence on society’sview of mental illness and a deeper under-standing of behaviour. While much of Freud’stheory has little applicability to life coaching,he did profess that driving influences inpeople’s lives were not conscious (ego-driven)but unconscious forces – the id (libido) andthe superego (social conscience), which hebelieved were symbols for analysis and dreaminterpretation. It is this emphasis on symbolicthinking that is beneficial for life coaching.Life coaches help clients discover their great-ness or brilliance, which often lies masked orburied in their unconsciousness and can beexperienced when they begin to design theirlives consciously and purposely. (NB: bril-liance as a diamond whose facets are cut andebullient.)

But colleagues from Freud’s inner circle,such as Carl Jung and Alfred Adler andRoberto Assagioli, broke away from histheories of neuroses and psychosis and positedtheories that were more teleological and opti-mistic about human potential. Although thereremains a significant distinction betweentherapy approaches and coaching, many ofAdler and Jung’s theories are antecedents tomodern-day coaching psychology.

Adler, for example, saw himself as moreof a personal educator, believing that everyperson develops a unique life approach,which shapes their goals, values, habits, andpersonal drives (Adler, 1956) He believedthat happiness arises from a sense of signifi-cance and social connectedness (belong-ing), not merely individual objectives anddesires. Adler saw each person as the creatorand artist of his or her life and frequentlyinvolved his clients in goal setting, life plan-ning, and inventing their future – all tenetsand approaches in life coaching today.

Similarly, Carl Jung (Jung, 1953) believedin the power of connectedness and relation-ships, as well as a ‘future orientation’ or tele-


Author namePatrick Williams


Title

ological belief that we create our futuresthrough visioning and purposeful living.Jung’s writings really focused on life after theage of 40 and he concentrated on many ofthe life issues of our later years. This is partic-ularly appropriate for life coaches becausewe work primarily with adult learners. Jungoften coached adults through a ‘life review’and encouraged his clients to consciouslylive their lives by expressing their naturalgifts and talents and moving toward self-indi-viduation by living life ‘on purpose.’

Jung’s theories and approaches alsoemphasised spirituality and values expressedas one goes though the process he calledindividuation – the progression and develop-ment of the spiritual self (Jung, 1976). Thisis particularly prevalent in the second half oflife, a time when life coaches are most likelyto experience this themselves and with theirclients. Jung also described the importanceof myths and rituals, which are increasinglybecoming important components of our lifecoaching clients’ lives. I believe psychologi-cally-trained coaches are particularly quali-fied to assist clients in these important stagesof adult development

And Roberto Assagioli with his Personaland Spiritual Psychosynthesis maintainedthat Freud had not given sufficient weight tothe higher aspects of the human personality,and recognised a need for a more inclusiveconcept of humanity and human potential.(Assagioli, 1965)

The Boulder Conference: Psychology comes of ageClinical psychology, as a profession separatefrom research and academia, was catapultedinto the latter half of the 20th centurybecause of the historical Boulder Confer-ence in 1949 – the first national meeting everheld in the US to discuss standards of grad-uate training in psychology, despite the factthat doctoral programmes in America hadbeen around more than 60 years (Albee,

2000). Up to that point, the emphasis was ontheory and human behaviour, not so muchon clinical or psychotherapeutic applicationsin a systemised, integrated approach. Thedemand for psychologists and counsellorsgrew after World War II for treating post-traumatic stress, the psychological impact ofwar injuries, and the military’s need toprepare soldiers with improved emphasis onmental health and the hope for a kind of‘stress inoculation’. Looking back now at theBoulder Conference, it is easy to see that theteaching of clinical psychology includedmuch of what today is found in counsellingpsychology and even the offshoots of coun-selling and marriage and family therapy.

Influences of Humanistic Psychologyand the Human Potential MovementDuring this time period, counselling andpsychotherapy actually were starting to beviewed by many as arts more than sciences.The influence of the theories of Maslow andthe emergence of humanistic, client-centredapproaches saw the client as full of potentialand possibility rather than as one withneuroses or pathology.

In 1951, Carl Roger’s book, Client CentredTherapy, really defined counselling andtherapy as relationships in which the clientwas assumed to have the ability to changeand grow by the clinician creating a thera-peutic alliance (Rogers, 1951). This allianceevolved from a safe, confidential spacegranting the client or patient what Rogerscalled unconditional positive regard. I believethis shift in perspective was a significantprecursor to what is called life coachingtoday.

In the years after World War II, Americanpsychologists began to be influenced byEuropean schools of thought, namelyphenomenology and existentialism. Thesepoints of view laid much of the philosophicalfoundation for what was to become theThird Force* in psychological thought,

Looking back to see the future

* There are Four Forces: The First Force was Freudian Psychology; the Second Force was BehaviouralPsychology; the Third Force was Humanistic Psychology; and the Fourth Force was Transpersonal Psychology.

humanistic psychology. (The early work ofCarl Rogers, Kurt Lewin, Prescott Lecky,and, eventually, Abraham Maslow, alsoserved as great influences.) Emphasis is nowon studying the whole person, not frag-mented parts. Although the philosophiesand values of humanistic psychology unifiedthe whole field of psychology, it alsopolarised the profession. Humanisticpsychology arose largely as a reaction againstbehaviourism’s mechanistic view ofhumanity and was once again concernedwith human experience and intrapsychicmotivations as it had been in psychology’searliest years, but these concerns wereviewed as nonobservable, nonmeasurable,intervening variables according tobehavioural psychology’s precepts.

Abraham Maslow, considered by manythe father of humanistic psychology, waslargely responsible for injecting much credi-bility and energy into the human potentialmovement of the 1960s with the publicationof his seminal treatise, Toward a Psychology ofBeing (1968). In this work, Maslowsummarised his research of ‘self-actualisingpeople’ (a term first coined by Kurt Gold-stein) and coined terms such as ‘full-human-ness’ and wrote about ‘being’ and‘becoming.’ Maslow studied the ‘healthypersonality’ of people who he termed self-actualisers; he researched, questioned, andobserved people who were living with a senseof vitality and purpose and who wereconstantly seeking to grow psychologicallyand achieve more of their human potential.It is this key point in history that I believe setthe framework for the field of life coaching(and now Coaching Psychology) to emergein the 1990s. Persons seeking personal evolu-tion and ways to live their life more fully donot need psychological counselling; lifecoaching is a more accurate paradigm forthe improved outcomes or creative achieve-ments the client seeks.

Maslow was instrumental in giving greatvalue and importance to the idea of personalgrowth and its necessity for the healthypersonality. However, Maslow was not the

first with these ideas. Many early psychiatristsand psychologists revolted against theorthodox approaches to mental problemsand their emphasis on the person’s patho-logical or pathogenic components. I assumeyou in this audience have already been intro-duced to the influential work of Adler andJung, and Assagioli as contemporaries ofFreud, but Gordon Allport, James Bugen-thal, Kurt Goldstein, Karen Horney, SidneyJourard, Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir, Rollo May,and Carl Rogers also influenced psychology’smove toward a wellness perspective that laidmuch of the groundwork for moderncoaching theory, perspective, and tech-niques.

Third Force Psychology has found itsplace in mainstream psychology and is repre-sented by an international organisation.Abraham Maslow’s ideas were central to thebeginnings of both the journal and the asso-ciation, but the AHP was not organisedsimply to promote his philosophy. The AHPrepresents a broad viewpoint, but it emergedas the third major force in psychologybecause of its unitary revolt against mecha-nistic, deterministic psychology. I believe thisphilosophical shift took root in a generationthat now rejects the idea of sickness andseeks wellness, wholeness and optimal livinginstead. Hence the emergence of lifecoaching!

Another unique influenceInfluences of Milton Erickson and Solution-Focused Approaches also evolved in the1970s and beyond.

The work of Milton Erickson (the fatherof American hypnosis) is a key precursor tothe methods in coaching today. MiltonErickson, a creative and unique psychiatrist,believed in the inherent ability of individualsto achieve wellness if the reason for an illnesscould be thwarted. Erickson often achievedseemingly ‘miraculous results’ from just afew sessions with a patient. Jay Haley (1986)coined the term ‘uncommon therapy’ todescribe Erickson’s approach.



More recent psychological approachesthat have evolved from Ericksonian andother wellness approaches are the solution-focused therapies. These approaches are notinsight – or depth psychology – dependent andare also powerful influences on moderncoaching practices and theory. Most notably,Glasser’s reality therapy, Ellis’s rationalemotive therapy, systemic family therapies(Haley, Madanes, Satir), neuro-linguisticprogramming (NLP) (Bandler & Grindler),modern psychosynthesis (Assagioli), andmany other hybrids of these lend themselvesto coaching strategies. In all of these, themain focus is not pathology but behaviourchange through increased awareness andchoices to allow for desired future resultsand solutions to current ‘problems in living.’Personal coaching has really developed fromthree streams: (1) helping professions suchas psychotherapy and counselling andrelated theoretical perspectives as notedabove; (2) consulting and organisationaldevelopment and industrial psychology; and(3) personal development training such asEST, Lifespring, Landmark Forum, andAnthony Robbins.

The personal development courses listedabove all focus on taking personal action andresponsibility for one’s life choices. Theyoften include one-to-one coaching as part oftheir service or recommend it to those whodesire sustainable results from the weekendtraining experience.

Life coaching is a 20th century phenom-enon with roots in early psychologicaltheories. It is a profession still experiencingdynamic growth and change. Life coachingand coaching psychology will no doubtcontinue to interact developmentally withsocial, economic, and political processes,draw on the knowledge base of diverse disci-plines, enhance its intellectual and profes-sional maturity, and continue to establishitself internationally. Co-operative effortsamong diverse professional groups willenable life coaching to develop in moreunified and collaborative ways in order tostrengthen its influence.

The Life Coach operating system:Foundations in psychologyIt is important to chart the course of some ofthe psychological theorists of the 20thcentury who laid the groundwork for theemergence and evolution of personal andprofessional coaching and coachingpsychology as well. Relevant evidence-basedresearch and theories will be noted alongwith their application and significance incoaching today. It is important for profes-sional coaches to know that quality coachtraining and education is based in a multi-dimensional model of human developmentand communication that has drawn from thebest of humanistic psychology, positivepsychology, integral psychology and othersin this field. Coaching also draws from otherfields such as organisational development,adult learning theory, and systems theory,but they are not the focus of this presenta-tion.

It is important to cite the theories andresearch from the established field ofpsychology and note how specific techniquesand/or skill sets that can be applied incoaching conversations so that coaches candevelop a greater variety of tools in commu-nicating with clients. Many of the same tech-niques that originated in clinical psychologyare useful in assisting clients to reframe theirexperience and to discover their strengths.These techniques include powerful ques-tions, guided imagery (Psychosynthesis),empty chair technique (Gestalt therapy),time lines and future pacing (NLP), and eventechniques and theory from TransactionalAnalysis (Eric Berne), client-centred coun-selling (Carl Rogers) and life stage awareness(Carl Jung, Frederic Hudson, Carol Gilligan,and Robert Kegan among others). Thisdiscussion focuses particularly on the philos-ophy and practice of life coaching as it relatesto high-quality human communication thatempowers the client. Some nuances requireadaptations for various cultures, but sincecoaching is a co-created conversation toempower the receiver of the coaching, anexpert/client paradigm is intentionally absent.


TitleLooking back to see the future

Many of the theories and techniques cited inthis discussion are unique to Westerncultures but can be adapted for use in mostother cultures as well.

Coaching has a unique paradigm, butmuch of the foundation of coaching goesback many decades and even centuries. Thedraw to pursue life improvement, personaldevelopment, and the exploration ofmeaning began with early Greek society. Thisis reflected in Socrates’ famous quote, ‘Theunexamined life is not worth living’. Sincethen, people have developed many ways ofexamining their lives, some useful and somenot; some grounded in theory and evidence-based, while others are made up and incon-sistent in their helpfulness. What persists,however, is that people who no longer needfocus on the pursuit of basic human needs –such as food and shelter – are beginning topay attention to higher needs such as self-actualisation, fulfilment, and spiritualconnection. This is also why much of theworld that lives in poverty and on the edge ofsurvival does not always concern themselveswith future possibilities and big goals fortheir lives. Those often have to be put on theback burner.

I have spent much time in ThirdWorld/developing countries and see that thecoach approach can be helpful in empow-ering local villagers to be more resourceful,but they still need the resources to becomeavailable. The NGOs and non-profit groupsthat supply food, water, housing, etc., couldbenefit from a holistic coaching approach inorder to create and empower sustainablechanges that the resource poor villagers cancontinue with assistance from resource richcountries and foundations Taking this globaland integrative perspective for the power ofcoaching, we could do much for the viewthat coaching is mostly elitist and serves therich and powerful primarily. As such, moreand more people have an intense desire toexplore and find personal meaning, whenthe blocks to survival are eliminated and theability to thrive supplants survive. Moreabout this later.

Coaching today is seen as a new phenom-enon, but as a field it borrows from andbuilds on theories and research from relatedfields such as psychology and philosophy. As such, coaching is a multi-disciplinary, multi-theory synthesis and application of appliedbehavioural change. As coaching evolved inthe public arena it began to incorporateaccepted theories of behavioural change asthe evidence base for this new helping rela-tionship.

Contributions from psychologyWhat has the field of psychology brought tocoaching and what and who are the majorinfluences?

We have already cited the historical influ-ence of four major forces in psychologicaltheory since the emergence of psychology in1879 as a social science. These four forcesare Freudian, Behavioural, Humanistic, andTranspersonal. Both the Freudian andbehavioural models grew out of biology andphilosophy and were focused on pathologyand how to ‘cure’ it. The humanisticapproaches of Carl Rogers and AbrahamMaslow were a response to the pathologicalmodel; they attempted to make space inpsychology for those elements of beinghuman that create health and happiness.Finally, the transpersonal movement arose inthe late 1960s in a further attempt to includemore of what allows human beings to func-tion at their best. Its focus was on mind,body, and spirit and included studies andexperiences of states of consciousness, tran-scendence, and what Eastern traditions andpractices had to teach Western theorists andpractitioners. A more recent approach, theintegral model of Ken Wilber and others, isemerging and may become a fifth force, inte-grating all that has come before and offeringa holistic and even multilevel view of thevarious modalities for understanding humandevelopment and our desire to evolvementally, physically, spiritually, and socially.

In recent years, several other approacheshave arisen as adaptations of one or more ofthe original four and have been taken up



by many coaches. Cognitive-behaviouralpsychology grew from a mix of thebehavioural and humanistic schools. I saythis because much of cognitive psychologyembodied wisdom and leanings from behav-iourism and even operant conditioning. Butwhen the humanistic aspect was included, itbecame a way to use those techniques andtheories of change to increase choice for theindividual. In coaching, then, you can utilisewhat we know about shifting mindset andbehaviours by using a process of inquiry andpowerful questions that guide the client tounderstanding their ability to respond ratherthan react to their personal situations.Responding comes from viewing themultiple choices available in cognition andbehaviour rather than just reacting habitu-ally. Positive Psychology builds on two keyprinciples from humanistic psychology: anon-mechanistic perspective and a view ofpossibility as opposed to pathology as theessential approach to the client. Humanisticpsychology arose as a counterpoint to theview of Freudian psychology and Behav-iourism that people could be viewed ascontrolled by unconscious and conditionedresponses. Humanistic psychology arose topromote the emphasis on personal growthand the importance of beingness and thephenomenology of the human experience.Along with each revolution in psychology, achanging image of human nature hasevolved along with greater insights into howto effectively work with people. As notedabove, Wilber’s Integral theory is adding tothe holistic knowledge base upon whichprofessional coaches can draw.

The birth of psychologyThe field of psychology began as the investi-gation of consciousness and mental func-tions such as sensation and perception.Webster’s New World College Dictionary(Indexed 4th edition) defines psychology as:(a) the science dealing with the mind andwith mental and emotional processes; and(b) the science of human and animalbehaviour’. Much of the early influence on

psychology came from the philosophicaltradition and early psychologists adopted thepractice of introspection used by philoso-phers. The practice of introspection intoone’s desires, as well as noticing andobserving behaviours, thoughts, andemotions are core practices for increasingclient awareness and, as such, are corner-stones of a solid approach to coaching.

The growing body of coaching-relatedresearch greatly assists the profession inmeeting this need to have evidence that whatcoaches do with their clients actually works.Coaches today have a rich resource of studiesand published research that can inform theirpractice and help articulate the efficacy ofwhat they offer to clients. As a context forthis research, let’s take a quick tour of thegrowth of psychology and how its majorthinkers set the stage for the coaching revo-lution.

William James was the father of Americanpsychology. James preferred ideas to labora-tory results and is best known for his writingson consciousness and his view that humanscan experience higher states of conscious-ness. He wrote on such diverse topics as func-tions of the brain, perception of space,psychic and paranormal faculties, religiousecstasy, will, attention, and habit.

The First Wave: Freudian PsychologySigmund Freud influenced the first force inpsychology. While psychology in the US wasstruggling for an identity and striving forrecognition by the scientific community,European psychology was being reshaped bythe theories of Sigmund Freud. Freudcreated quite a stir in the medical commu-nity with his ideas and theories, but he finallygained acceptance in psychiatry with the‘talking cure’ breakthrough – psycho-analysis. Some of Freud’s followers went onto become well-known theorists as well –most notably Carl Jung (e.g. archetypes,psychological types, individuation, activeimagination and the shadow), Alfred Adler(e.g. the social self, compensation, and infe-



riority/superiority), and Karen Horney (e.g.a neo-Freudian view of neuroses, isolationand helplessness as the root of anxiety).Over the years, as more people worked withFreudian ideas, the practice of psycho-analysis became more refined and moreeffective.

Many American psychologists began tocombat Freudian theories as another non-verifiable, subjective pseudo-science of themind. What was happening in almostparallel times were two major attempts toexplain what ‘a piece of work is man’ and tounderstand what would explain pathologicalbehaviour and what would prevent or createchange in aberrant behaviours – the focusthough was primarily still on the negative,the pathology, and the problems of humanlife, not the positive drives that would cometo be emphasised later in the 20th century,especially with the rise of the Humanistictheories and now in the 21st century thepopularity of positive psychology (Seligman,2002).

The Second Wave: BehaviouristsAs Freudian thought was taking shape inEurope and the US, other theorists began tofocus on measurable behaviour. Thus, thetime was ripe for the emergence of Behav-iourism as the second major force inpsychology, a movement led by B.F. Skinnerand John Watson. Hundreds of years previ-ously, Shakespeare had commented, ‘What apiece of work is man?’ The Behaviouriststook this literally and looked upon humansin the early 20th century as Homo mechanicus,an object to be studied as any machine. Homomechanicus was a machine whose mind wasignored and instead the focus was onbehaviours that arose via automaticprocesses, leaving the humanity out of theequation.

The Third Wave: Humanistic PsychologyIn the 1950s, Abraham Maslow and CarlRogers initiated the third force in psycho-logy, Humanistic Psychology, which focusedon the personal, ontological, and phenome-

nological aspects of human experience asopposed to the mechanistic and reductionisttheories of Freudianism and Behaviourism.Rogers was more concerned with the ‘fullyfunctioning person’ than he was withpathology. He believed that people neededlove and acceptance from others in order tobe fully functioning, and his work resulted inwhat came to be known as client-centredtherapy. Likewise, Maslow was interested inhow people find value and meaning in theirlives, which resulted in his ‘hierarchy ofneeds’ model, and his use of the term selfactualisation.

The Fourth Wave: Transpersonal PsychologyTranspersonal Psychology was originally amajor theme in the writings of Roberto Assa-gioli, who spoke of transpersonal conscious-ness. There are many who believe thatpsychosynthesis actually represents a fifthforce, but for the purposes of this presenta-tion, it is included in transpersonalpsychology. Abraham Maslow eventuallyposited the fourth force, TranspersonalPsychology, which included mind, body, andspirit. It delved into altered states ofconsciousness that were both naturallyinduced by esoteric spiritual practices suchas meditation, chanting, dancing and chem-ically induced by LSD and other hallucino-gens (as experienced and researched byStanislov Grof, Timothy Leary, and RichardAlpert (aka Baba Ram Dass) as a way toexplore the transpersonal realm. Thisresearch opened up our knowledge of thehuman mind and expanded our windows ofperception and possibility.

Maslow suggested this new model whenhe designated the Humanistic approach as athird force. As he emphasised that human-istic psychology was a major developmentdistinct from psychoanalysis and behav-iourism, he also anticipated fourth and fifthforces, which he labelled ‘Transpersonal’and ‘Transhuman’ (Goble, 1970). In recentyears, Transpersonal Psychology has joinedforces with Humanistic Psychology in



studying states of consciousness, spiritualityand positive aspects of human life. In factwhen Positive Psychology emerged in the1990s, it seemed that many had forgottenthe early influences of these two schools ofthought and their positive approaches tohuman understanding and change.

Major figuresSo who were the major figures from thesefour forces in psychology and what do theybring to modern day coaching? What followsis a historical review of the influence ofpsychology and the theories that relate tocoaching. Through works such as ThePsychopathology of Everyday Life (1901),Sigmund Freud brought us the unconscious,transference, counter-transference, defensemechanisms, and resistance. His theories,although strongly pathology based, did allowthe pursuit of our unconscious desires andunconscious mechanisms that influencedbehaviour. Coaches, of course, today speakof the unconscious frequently, and probablyoften ask their clients to look inside or at leastto be more aware of thoughts desires and motivesjust out of conscious awareness.

Carl Jung made many important contri-butions to the development and terminologyof psychology, including the spiritual realm,symbolism, the relevance of ancient wisdom,archetypes, life reviews, synchronicity,transpersonal consciousness, stages of life,individuation, the shadow, and spiritualquests. Jung broke away from Freud inpursuing a more holistic, spiritual under-standing of human motivation. He is quotedas saying ‘who looks outside dreams…wholooks inside awakens.’ That is a powerfulquote for coaching today. Jung’s views wereoften called teleological and future driven.He became very much involved with whatcould clients learn from their life journey asthey continued to create their desiredfuture. A major theory that tracks well withcoaching is his concept of individuation…theprocess of becoming whole and realisingone’s unique purpose and path.

Alfred Adler worked on social connec-tions, humans as social beings, the impor-tance of relationships, family of originthemes, significance and belonging, andlifestyle assessment. His exploration of thebig question (‘What if…?’), and the possibil-ities of ‘acting as if’ are techniquescommonly used in coaching today. Forcoaches who work on issues related to social,corporate or family cultures with theirclients, his theories of human nature areenlightening. He identified five key areas ofinfluence on our everyday existence: social,love, self, work, and spiritual; and three lifetasks as he called them: (1) love and sexualrelationship; (2) relationship to work andoccupation; and (3) relationship to othersand the culture. Both he and Jung believedhumans had a teleological pull, a pull tocreate a desired future – a view at the heartof what professional coaches work towardwith their clients! Roberto Assagioli, thefather of Psychosynthesis, wrote about ourability to synthesise our various aspects inorder to function at higher levels ofconsciousness. He introduced such terms assubpersonalities, wisdom of the inner self, higherself, and the observing self. He would beconsidered in the Humanistic and Transper-sonal camps.

Karen Horney was an early, influentialfeminist psychiatrist. Her key theoriesinvolved irrational beliefs, the need for secu-rity, early influences on rational-emotivetheory, and modelling the goal of ‘self-help.’She was a contemporary of Adler and anearly influence on Carl Rogers. She wasconsidered a theorist that supported human-istic psychology.

Fritz Perls, founder of Gestalt therapy,worked with personality problems involvingthe inner conflict between values andbehaviour (desires), introducing terms suchas top dog and underdog, and practices such aspolarity (black-and-white thinking), the emptychair technique, and awareness in the moment.Gestalt theory also valued the whole-personexperience of the client, including mind,emotions, physicality, and spirituality. Perls



was influenced by Kurt Lewin’s changetheory and his work in figure-groundperspectives. He was a major influence inhumanistic psychology and the holistic viewof a person as an interaction of body, brain,and being and that unconscious thoughtsand feelings manifested themselves in manyways that could be understood with presentfocused inquiry.

Carl Rogers developed a client-centredapproach that suggested clients have theanswers within them. He brought us theterms unconditional positive regard and human-istic psychology He championed the practiceof listening, reflecting, and paraphrasing,and the value of silence and sacred space:and this influence carries over to coachingand its value for deep listening, co creatingthe coaching space, client-driven processes,and viewing coaching as a partner to clientsin their exploration of desired change.

Abraham Maslow introduced his hier-archy of needs and values. He reflected onbeing needs versus deficiency needs, the higherself, and our transpersonal potential. He isconsidered the father of HumanisticPsychology and did much research into theprocess of self-actualisation. His theoriesapply well to positive psychology andcoaching today leading toward an emphasison thriving more than surviving or even juststriving.

Virginia Satir can be seen as the motherof family therapy, as was experienced when I heard her say to those of us in attendanceat Esalen Institute in 1970 that she could notexplain the magic herself – she just did whatshe felt and intuited and let the family’sissues surface in ways that she had fun withbut also provoked deepening their aware-ness. She began to be called Columbus offamily therapy because she did not arrivewhere she started to go and did not reallyknow where she was when she got there. Shebelieved that a healthy family affection, feel-ings, and love. She was well known fordescribing family roles, for example, therescuer, the victim, or the placator that functionto constrain relationships and interactions in

families. Her work, an early systemic look atrelationships, has had a strong influence oncoaching in the business context becausemany of the consultants at that time began torealise that her system theories and tech-niques for families were just as effective withdysfunctional work teams and managers. I personally used much of her techniques inmy early executive coaching with executivesat major corporations in the later 1980s andearly 1990s.

Viktor Frankl developed Logotherapyout of his personal experience during WorldWar II. Influenced by existential philosophyand his own existential crisis, Frankl wroteMan’s Search for Meaning (1959) while in aNazi prison camp and later published it fromthe notes he had made on scraps of paper.He is quoted as saying that the one freedomthat could not be taken from him while inprison was his freedom to think, dream, andmentally create. Frankl introduced paradox-ical intent into psychology – ‘what you resistpersists’ or ‘what you give energy to is whatyou manifest’. Coaches today use these sameprinciples to assist their clients to focus onwhat they want and on creating desiredoutcomes. Frankl is cited today by manycoaches as an exemplar of the importance ofintention and the necessity of findingmeaning in work and life.

Milton Erickson investigated hypno-therapy as well as languaging and the double-binding of the client. From his work, coacheshave learned to focus on possibility and lookfor the uncommon approach to change,including the use of evocative and powerfulquestions as well as creative requests thatwere made of clients. Erickson is the fatherof American hypnotherapy and, along withGregory Bateson, an early influencer ofNeuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)created by Bandler and Grindler. Theystudied and recorded the techniques thatmade Erickson and Satir as well so creativelysuccessful and masterful in a way that theydid not even know what it was they did thatcreated the magic, a framework that is usedby many coaches.



Jeffrey Zeig and Bill O’Hanlon, studentsof Milton Erickson, introduced pattern inter-ruption, the confusion technique, forcedchoice, assumption of the positive path, non-trance hypnosis, and unconscious compe-tence. Reframing is another importantcoaching tool based in their work, used tohelp clients shift their view of a situation.

In the 1970s, solution-focused approachesemerged; they put less focus on the problemand instead focused their energy into discov-ering and highlighting what works.

Fernando Flores is a philosopher whotook Austin and Searle’s work (Solomon,2001) on speech act theory and applied it tohuman interaction through conversations.One aspect of his legacy is among one of themost useful coaching tools, makingrequests…and is a legacy of his explorationof how language brings action into being.Flores was an early influence on WernerErhard, and the EST training, which laterbecame Landmark Education, programmeswhich influenced Thomas Leonard and hisearly curriculum at Coach University andLaura Whitworth and the curriculum of theCoaches Training Institute. Both Leonardand Whitworth worked closely with WernerErhard in his organisation in the 1980s. JulioOllala and James Flaherty, both earlycreators in the ontological coaching theoriesand practices, are important figures here aswell greatly influenced by Flores.

Martin Seligman promotes PositivePsychology as a strength-based approach tohuman fulfillment. In doing so, Seligmanbrought new emphasis to principles fromHumanistic Psychology in looking at positiveand generative aspects for human living. Itsconsistent focus is on building and utilisingstrengths rather than weaknesses, and it canbe applied to therapy as well as coaching andeducation. Seligman’s work is highly usefulto coaches and it is based in decades ofresearch to back up the theories. Lifecoaching can certainly be viewed as appliedpositive psychology.

ConclusionThe core of the coaching profession isgrounded in sound academic and scholarlytheories that preceded coaching, and it willbe strengthened by the validation of theoriesand evidence-based research as the profes-sion moves forward. All the amazing toolsthat have grown out of modern psychologyoffer support to coaches in assisting clientsto change as desired. As the recent emer-gence of Positive Psychology demonstratesand now as Coaching Psychology takes itsplace of influence new developmentsbecome available all the time.

The hallmarks of coaching are itssynthesis of tools from other fields and itsproclivity for innovation. With all theresearch going on today, coaching is devel-oping its own evidence-based theories. It hasborrowed from what has gone before, muchas psychologists borrowed from philoso-phers. As coaching grows as a profession, itwill develop its own research base of effectivestrategies and tools within the unique rela-tionship that is the coaching alliance.

Coaching has arisen as a profession, I believe, because of the shortage of reallistening in our society today and for the lackof true connection that many people experi-ence. All of these factors arise from thesocioeconomic conditions of rapid change,technology advances, and the instant avail-ability of information. Carl Rogers said thatcounselling was like buying a friend; hiring acoach is similar. But, of course, it is muchmore than that. A coach is a partner who ishired to assist the client in going for great-ness in any and all domains of their life.People may not always need a coach, but Ibelieve they do deserve a coach. And like alltrue professions, there are different levels ofmastery and competence.

In the context of my presentation on theinfluence of Humanistic and Transpersonalluminaries on the field of CoachingPsychology, I posited the importance of awhole person perspective: Mind, Body, Spirit(or Body, Brain and Being) and yet we mustnot forget the Social aspect of a holistic view




Author name

of humanity and where coaching psychologycan be effective.

In that vein, I founded a non-profitorganisation in 2006 called Coaching theGlobal Village, and I end here with apersonal perspective of where this fits in thelandscape of what coaching can be in theworld today!

Coaching Psychology plays an increasingimportant role in developing the professionof personal and business coaching.Coaching will survive because it is effective, it will thrive because it can be socially trans-formational, for us humans and the planetwe inhabit.

CorrespondenceDr Patrick WilliamsDepartment Chair of the Coaching Psychology Program,The International University of Professional Studies.Email: [email protected]

Founder, Institute of Life Coach Training.www.LifeCoachTraining.com

Website linkswww.CoachingTheGlobalVillage.org

Patrick Williams

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RESEARCHERS in biology and naturalsystems tell us that one measure of thehealth of a system is the diversity it is

able to sustain (Cardinale et al., 2012).Indeed, diversity is not just a ‘nice to have’,but a sine qua non of sustainability in anysystem. While diversity brings with it tension,it is also the vehicle by which new informa-tion, energy, and innovation is created. Thefield of coaching and coaching psychology isno exception to this rule. It was this under-standing that inspired the successful‘Debate’ section of this publication (startedin 2011 and to be continued in futureissues). It is also the thinking is behind a newsection that is commencing in this issue –‘Cross-disciplinary perspectives in coachingpsychology’.

In this section we are looking to publishwork that is applicable to coaching, butwhich has its foundation in disciplinesoutside coaching and coaching psychologyproper. This may include work that isgrounded in the wider field of psychology, orindeed work that emanates from disciplinesfar removed from psychology.

We have two excellent articles to kick offthe ‘Cross-disciplinary perspectives’ section.The first, by Noreen Tehrani, Diana Osborneand David Lane, looks at the issue of traumain people’s lives and its relation to coaching.It is often said that coaching deal withhealthy populations – though for some timea range of research suggests this is not alwaysthe case (see Cavanagh, 2005; Spence &

Grant, 2005; Green, Oades & Grant, 2007).Tehrani and her colleagues suggest thatcoaches need to be cogniscent of the signsand symptoms of trauma, so that they candeal effectively with clients for whom past orpresent trauma is an issue. In their veryinformative paper they provide tips andguidelines for supporting, and referringclients suffering from trauma, and for selfcare on the part of the coach.

In the second article launching this newsection, Maria Gardiner and Hugh Kearnsdraw on their work in helping professionalskick start their writing for academic, profes-sional and general audiences. Drawing fromthe therapeutic literature and their work onthe psychology of writing, they suggest thatcognitive behavioural coaching may be auseful intervention to help academics andother clients commence and sustain highquality, high quantity writing.

Both of these articles bring new under-standings and knowledge from the widerfield of applied psychology, and we welcomethem as contributing to the knowledge basein coaching. We would also welcome futurecontributions, drawn from areas evenfurther afield, that are able to inform thecoaching process. After all, the capacity toengage with a wide range of perspectives inthe service of valued outcomes is at the heartof the coaching project, and the heart ofprofessional coaching psychology.



Cross-disciplinary perspectives in coaching psychology

EditorialMichael Cavanagh & Stephen Palmer

ReferencesCardinale et al. (2012). Biodiversity loss and its

impact on humanity. Nature, 486, 59–67.Cavanagh, M.J. (2005). Mental health issues and

challenging clients in executive coaching. In M.J. Cavanagh, A.M. Grant & T. Kemp (Eds.),Evidence-based coaching: 1. Theory, research andpractice from the behavioural sciences (pp.21–36).Brisbane: Australian Academic Press.

Green, L.S., Oades, L.G. & Grant, A.M (2006)Cognitive-behavioural, solution-focused lifecoaching: Enhancing goal striving, well-being,and hope. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(3),142–149.

Spence, G.B. & Grant, A.M. (2005) Individual andGroup Life Coaching: Initial findings from arandomised, controlled trial. In M.J. Cavanagh,A.M. Grant & T. Kemp, (Eds.), Evidence-basedcoaching, Vol 1: Theory, research and practice from thebehavioural sciences (pp.143–158) Bowen Hills,Queensland: Australian Academic Press.




Trauma is everywhere!

EXAMINING the epidemiology of trau-matic incidence it soon becomes clearthat trauma is all around us all of the

time. Even the most extreme forms oftrauma which meet the criterion required asa prerequisite for a diagnosis of Post-trau-matic Stress Disorder (PTSD) are notuncommon. Breslau (1998) reported on thelifetime prevalence of traumatic exposuresin a national survey and found that 61 percent of men and 59 per cent of women hadexperienced a traumatic event ranging fromrape, sexual assault, war, accidents, threat-ened with a weapon, physical attack, beingshot or stabbed or dealing with an unex-pected death. Despite the incidence of trau-matic events, around a quarter of peopleexposed experience an acute or longer termresponse with most of these symptoms beingresolved within two years. As you read thispaper, you may be able to think back toevents in your own life during which you feltthat your life or well-being was in danger, youobserved a horrific event or suffered apersonal attack. Biomedical researchers arerecognising that childhood events have longterm impacts in terms of mental, physicaland emotional health. Incidents of maltreat-ment of various types in childhood are also

high with up to one in four children beingaffected. (Lanius et al., 2010; NSPCC, 2012).

The workplace can also be a dangerousplace with some workers being affected bypersonal traumas such as industrial acci-dents, violence or bullying or they may beexposed to the trauma of others throughtheir role of nurse, social worker, policeofficer, ambulance or fire & rescue personnel(Tehrani, 2004, 2012). The sudden death ofa much loved colleague or the slow demise ofa close friend from cancer can be traumaticdue to the nature of the relationships whichbuild up in the workplace.

Coaches work with a wide range ofclients, whilst it may be obvious that somehave come to coaching as a result of adistressing event such as a redundancy,bullying, conflict or relationship breakdown.However, it is sometimes the case that theunderpinning issue is trauma related and atthese times it would be valuable for coachesto have some understanding of traumaticstress and how it is similar to and differentfrom everyday stresses and strains of life.

What is psychological trauma? Perhaps the easiest way to understand trau-matic stress is to look at it from an evolu-tionary and biological perspective. This


Restoring meaning and wholeness – the role for coaching after a traumaNoreen Tehrani, Diana Osborne & David Lane

Trauma affects most people at some time in their lives, even where a traumatic event occurred a long timein the past, it may be reactivated by another event in life. Coaches, need to be aware of the signs andsymptoms of trauma so that, if they choose they can work with it to provide appropriate support anddirection for their clients. This article gives an outline of trauma, helps coaches to see where their skills maybe helpful, provides guidance on when to refer on to a trauma therapist and gives some hints on how toprevent secondary trauma and compassion fatigue. There are some ideas for finding out more abouttraining which would be suitable for coaches in this important work.Keywords: Psychological trauma; coaching; competence; training.


approach is relatively easy to understand andlargely eliminates the suggestion that peoplewho become traumatised are somehow weakor inferior to those who can withstand a trau-matic exposure (Figure 1 shows the mainareas of the brain involved in the traumaresponse). During a traumatic exposure theperson is faced by a situation which over-whelms their normal coping mechanismsalerting their amygdala (trauma centre) tothe features of the traumatising event. Theamygdala is a primitive part of the brain andis highly sensitive to danger. Unfortunately,the amygdala has no language and is unableto discriminate between things that aredangerous from those that are merely associ-ated with a danger. For example, a bankclerk held up by a raider wearing a leatherjacket may become upset of fearful ofanyone wearing leather jackets. The role ofthe amygdala is to trigger the arousal systemto respond to danger, a task which it canfulfil in a fraction of the time that would be

required by higher centres in the brain, thisclearly has an advantage in a traumatic situa-tion where there is no time to think. Theamygdala’s holds a range of traumatemplates created throughout life, sometemplates relate to real dangers and arehelpful others involve random features oftraumatic events which were not in them-selves dangerous but cause anxiety, distressor fear. The activation of these templatesoften causes panic attacks or phobicresponses. The brain has a mechanism toprevent the amygdala taking over at the timeof a traumatic exposure; metaphorically thisis like a fuse which blows between the amyg-dala and the hippocampus. The later has therole of creating new memories. When the‘fuse’ blows there is a tendency to feelemotionally detached from the traumaticevent. People often describe this as feeling asif they are watching a film or being on automatic pilot.

Figure 1: The brain’s response to trauma.

Noreen Tehrani, Diana Osborne & David Lane


Restoring meaning and wholeness – the role for coaching after a trauma

Most people recover from a traumaticexposure providing they have an opportu-nity to reflect and make sense of their expe-rience and are able to recognise that some oftheir symptoms may be related to the amyg-dala trying to ‘communicate its anxiety’ bycreating flashbacks, dreams or illusions fromthe trauma templates or by setting off thearousal system when faced with any sensoryfeature of the trauma.

When are coaches competent to helppeople who have gone through atraumatic event?In some ways coaches may be in a better posi-tion to assist someone who has gone througha traumatic event than some counsellors.Allowing time for the person to tell theirstory without the need to challenge orexplore the emotional responses is an impor-tant skill for the trauma support worker. We need to recognise that coaching psychol-ogists often have competence in other areas.They may be clinical or counselling psychol-ogists as well as coaches. Here we areaddressing the role that non-clinically quali-fied coaching psychologists might play. Table 1 shows the different skills and activi-ties involved in dealing with a traumatisedclient.

The safe and effective process for dealingwith a traumatised client is quite structuredand involves going through what hashappened in a safe and structured way,concentrating on factual and sensory infor-mation rather than the thoughts andemotional responses (Hawker et al., 2011).

The aim is to act as a psychological first aiderwhere there is an opportunity to acknowl-edge and gain closure to traumatic experi-ences rather than opening up otherpossibilities which can overwhelm. A traumasupporter will accept the story and impres-sions of their client rather than challengingtheir recollection and provide the client withopportunities to dictate the speed andcontent of what they wish to describe. Unlikecounselling which generally will not includeproviding information or advice traumasupport requires the supporter to provideinformation, education and exercises to helpreduce the trauma symptoms. While somecoaching psychologists reject an advicegiving role for others it makes sense whenappropriate to the client. This is one of thoseoccasions.

It is important for the coach to recognisethe limits to their knowledge and compe-tence in dealing with some of the deeperissues which may be present in a client expe-riencing significant levels of trauma symp-toms or where the traumatic events arecomplex or go back to early life abuse orlosses. Coaches should also recognise that inorder for them to work effectively with aclient there has to be a reasonable level ofself-awareness and willingness to work onthose activities which will reduce theiranxiety and levels of arousal. Social supportis extremely important to someone experi-encing trauma symptoms; research hasshown that where a trauma victim has thesupport of their family, colleagues or friendsthey have a much better chance of recovery

Table 1: Difference between Trauma Support Coaching and Counselling.

Trauma Support Coaching Counselling

● Structured ● Generally less structured● Closing down ● Opening up● Acceptance ● Challenging● Limited focus ● Wide focus● Client control ● Client risk taking● Information provided ● Non-advisory

(Bryant & Harvey, 2000). Coaches dealingwith a traumatised client would, therefore,need to be mindful of the need to encouragethe building or re-establishment of socialnetworks and support.

What help can coaches provide?When working with a traumatic event it isimportant to concentrate on the issue thathas been raised by the client. Whilst theremay be parallel issues or other factors it isnot helpful to try to deal with everything thathas a resonance with the issue of concern.For example, if a client was involved in a carcrash it is important to focus on the featuresof the crash and not explore other timeswhen the client may have feared for his orher life or felt out of control. Whilst intherapy it may be appropriate to explore thesignificance of the date, people involved ormeaning of the crash or early life experi-ences and attachments, this is not helpful toa traumatised person who need to deal withthe trauma in a more straight forward way.

Processing trauma memories, particu-larly when these memories are difficult toaccess as they have become embedded in theamygdala in a sensory rather than verbalform can be a slow process. Teaching clientsrelaxation skills to help them remain calmduring the retelling of their experience ishelpful but may take time. The amygdaladoes not release the sensory memories to theconscious awareness on demand, sometimeswaiting for opportunities to disclose theencrypted fear in flashbacks, nightmares,recurrent thoughts and behaviours. For atraumatised client these re-experiences ofthe traumatic event are regard as frighteningsymptoms of a trauma disorder rather thanthe key to help them regaining wellbeing.Coaching clients need to recognise acceptthese post trauma responses as naturaloutcomes of their experience. This takesaway fear and allows the meaning of the trau-matic event to be created.

A common feature of post-traumabehaviour is the avoidance of all remindersof the traumatic event. This avoidance

behaviour is a natural outcome of theanxiety or panic created by exposure to thereminder. For many victims of traumaticexposure this can develop into phobiaswhich can become generalised to restrictmany areas of life. Although this traumainitiated phobic process begins with a pre-conscious recognition of a danger whichcreates the avoidance behaviour, there isoften an accompanying self-deprecatingtrauma thought or belief (Foa et al., 1999).By understanding the trauma response andthe role of the post-trauma cognitions thecoach can begin to help their client to chal-lenge this irrational thinking and addressthe anxiety, panic and phobic responses.

Although much of the emphasis intrauma psychology has been on the negativeimpact, there is an increasing body ofevidence to demonstrate that trauma canlead to personal growth (Joseph, 2009).Within many coaches toolkits are the skills toundertake skills assessments (Linley &Minhas, 2011), these skills enable theirclients to become aware of their inherentabilities and strengths which may be tapped.This can help to create new learning andempowerment which can result in the post-trauma self growing as a result of their sense-making of their distressing experience.

How can their ‘coaching skills’ helpprovide support?Coaching can be a process for supportingclients to achieve a valued goal or objective.Coaches, therefore, employ a range of skillsall of which are useful when dealing with atraumatised client. Table 2 highlights someof the skills and shows how they can be usedin dealing with a traumatic memory.

When do coaches need to pass cases toa trauma therapist/GP?Some victims of trauma may not be suitablefor coaching as they require a much more in-depth psychotherapeutic approach to helpthem deal with their traumatic experience. Itis important to undertake an assessmentprior to coaching to see if the traumatic





Table 2: Coaching skills and post-trauma support.

Description

Coaches need to be able to identifyclear and well defined goals.

Taking perceived problems andpresenting the problem in a differentlight/framework.

Being aware of body language andhaving an intuitive sense.

Active listening which includes, openand closed questions, paraphrase andsummary help to get into the clientsworld.

The ability to get into the traumavictim’s world and to respondaccurately to their experiences.

Providing clear and specific feedbackon the clients actions and responses inthe session.

Checking out how the client is feelingand what they want shows respectand also gives the client some controlover the session.

Making sure that targets aremanageable, efforts are rewarded andsupport is available.

Example

Traumatised people find it hard tofocus on the future, the use of SMARTgoals gives a direction and sense of afuture which can be influenced.

The reframing for a client who isnervous about meeting people ‘That isreally interesting – your reactions arehelping you to think about how to dealwith this meeting in a different way.’

Body language in people who haveexperienced trauma gives an insightto their inner experiences. Watch theirposture, expression, skin tone andmovements to help you understand.

A traumatised person can find theexperience of being listened andresponded to accurately and non-judgementally extremely helpful inthe process of teasing out pre-conscious trauma memories fromthe Amygdala.

Empathy helps clients to feel lessisolated and alone. There are somedangers for the coach in becomingemotionally empathetic as this canlead to burnout or compassionfatigue.

This skill is used to test out hunchesand intuition as well as to providepositive feedback on achievement. Thefeedback should be observational andnon-judgemental.

For many victims of trauma controlhas been taken away. Showing respectand consideration gives back controland enables them to decide on howthey would like to work with theircoach.

Change is not easy for anyone, evenmore so for a trauma victim. Buildingin rewards, acknowledgement ofeffort and believing in your client’sability to recover is essential.

Coaching Skill

Goal setting

Reframing

Observing

Activelistening

Empathy

Immediacy

Respect

Supportingchange


Table 3: Trauma support available from a Coach, Trauma Psychologists and Psychiatrist.

Coaching Psychologist

Increase potential toachieve post-traumagrowth.

People can learn skillsto deal with issues/situations throughsystematic engagementand reinforcement.

Forward looking inIncreasing the range ofskills and abilities basedon the needs of theindividual.

Most coaching modelsdo not deal with thecomplexity of trauma.Coaches may notrecognise thepsychological/psychiatric problems.

When there is anopenness to explore andself-awareness and anability to accept someresponsibility foractions.

Trauma Psychologist

Identify and removeblocks to psychologicalwell-being.

People are resourcefuland given support willsolve their problems andachieve their goals.

Recognises andaddresses patterns ofbehaviour which mayget in way of achievinggoals.

Some traumapsychologists may notpay attention toorganisational issues orbe aware of thepersonal skills requiredto deal with traumaresponses.

Where there are someunresolved issues fromthe past which may begetting in the way ofpositive solutions andpersonal growth.

Psychiatry

Diagnose and treatpsycho-pathology.

Some mental conditionsare caused byunderlying medical or psychiatric malfunctions and need treatment.

Can identify and treatpsychiatric disorderswhich may contributeto unwanted symptomsor behaviours.

Psychiatrists may adopta medical modelapproach, ignoring theimpact of the traumaticevent or other socialissues.

Where the underlyingproblem is relates to apsychiatric disorderwhich has caused orbeen caused by thetrauma.

Domain

Intention

Underpinningbeliefs

Benefits

Disadvantages

Whenappropriate

memories and responses require a morespecialist approach. Recognising thefeatures of acute stress, anxiety, depression,traumatic stress and dissociation and makingan appropriate referral will help the client toget the most effective support. Coachesshould also monitor their clients and iden-tify where, despite their best intentions thetrauma symptoms begin to increase or wherethere are other concerning features such assubstance abuse, self harming or dissocia-tion. For most people there should be animprovement within a month, coachesshould consider referring a client to atrauma psychologist or their GP if there is no

obvious improvement within a relativelyshort period. Table 3 provides an indicationof the help that can be provided by coaches,trauma psychologists and psychiatrists.

Importance of supervision whencoaching traumatised clients?While it is recognised that supervision isimportant for coaches (Carroll, 2006) it isnot fully understood or used by somecoaches. (Lane,2011) Working with trauma,perhaps more than any other form ofcoaching requires the coach to be supervisedby someone aware of the dangers in under-taking this kind of work. It is likely that this


will be a coaching supervisor with qualifica-tions in clinical or counselling psychology(McNabb, 2011). As coaches listen to theaccounts of their clients empathetic links arecreated to the trauma stories to such anextent that the coach may begin to havethoughts, dreams or experiences similar tothose of their client (Figley, 2002; Morris-sette, 2004). The development of secondarytrauma, compassion fatigue and burnout areclear signs of the coach becoming vicariouslyaffected by their work with trauma. (Taylor &Lane, 1990). Before engaging in this kind ofwork with coaches should find a coachingsupervisor who is qualified in clinical orcounselling psychology and has experiencein dealing with trauma. However, the coachshould also take personal responsibility forthemselves and their need to build theiremotional resilience and emotionalresources. They need to be sure that they donot have any unresolved or ongoing traumasand that they have a well-balanced lifestylewith a wide range of social support. Whenselecting a supervisor coaches need toensure that the supervisor is prepared to:● Assess whether you have the personal

characteristics and personal strengths toengage in the work.

● Identify and deal with signs of emotionaldistress and to explore these duringsupervision.

● Recognise and handle parallel process,transference and countertransferenceplayed out in the relational dynamics ofthe supervision.

● Help you to build a range of personalcoping strategies and networks.

● Debrief particularly difficult ordistressing stories.

● Reward successes and recognise goodwork.

● To tell you when they feel a case needs tobe referred on for trauma therapy.

Is there any training available forcoaches wanting to work with trauma?In the medical field there are long estab-lished specialities in dealing with physical

aspects of trauma. Ongoing training andMasters degrees exist. There is no coachspecific training available. However, thereare now a number of programmes whichenable coaches and coaching psychologiststo develop their skills in this area. Short-termcourses in the UK include those in PTSDfrom a CBT perspective through the Centrefor Coaching and one-day workshopsthrough Noreen Tehrani Associates. Thereare also now Masters degrees on offer fromthe universities in Chester and Nottinghamand a joint Masters between NoreenTehranai Associates, Professional Develop-ment Foundation and Middlesex University.It is worth coaches searching for trauma-related courses as more are becoming avail-able. In Australia there is widespread interestin the field including training in workingwith refugees, soldiers, fire-fighters onmanaging the psychological stress involved.Again these are emerging all the time and itis worth searching. Some university curriculain Australia also include courses on PTSDand Crisis Intervention. However, as for theUK those specific to coaching or coachingpsychology are harder to find.

Coaching psychologists looking todevelop their skills in this area will need toseek training alongside colleagues in sisterdisciplines.

In conclusionThere is a role for coaching psychologists tofacilitate recovering a sense of wholenessand meaning following traumatic events.The role is not psychotherapeutic but one ofproviding a structured support process. Thisis an area in which the skills that are devel-oped within a coaching process add value toa client seeking to come to terms with suchevents. It is important to recognise theboundary issues and the benefits and disad-vantages of a coaching offer as outlined butwe believe that this is an area to whichcoaching psychology can increasingly make acontribution.




The AuthorsNoreen Tehrani, PhDDean of Faculty of Applied TraumaPsychology,Professional Development Foundation &Noreen Tehrani Associates Ltd.Email: ntehrani@btinternet,comwww.noreentehrani.com

Diana OsborneEmail: [email protected]

Professor David A. LaneProfessional Development Foundation.Email: [email protected]

CorrespondenceNoreen Tehrani, PhDEmail: ntehrani@btinternet,com

Breslau, N. (1989). Epidemiology of trauma andpost-traumatic stress disorder. In R. Yehuda(Ed.), Psychological trauma (pp.1–29).Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.

Bryant, R.A. & Harvey, A.G. (2000). How to diagnoseacute stress disorder. In R.A. Bryant & A.G.Harvey, Acute stress disorder: A handbook of theory,assessment and practice (pp.43–58). Washington,DC: American Psychological Association.

Carroll, M. (2006) Key issues in coaching psychologysupervision. The Coaching Psychologist, 2(1), 4–8.

Figley, C.R. (2002). Treating compassion fatigue. New York: Brunner-Routledge.

Foa, E.B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D.M., Tolin, D.F. &Orsillo, S.M. (1999). The Post-traumaticCognitions Inventory (PTCI): Development andvalidation. Psychological Assessment, 11(3),303–314.

Hawker, D.M., Durkin, J. & Hawker, D.S.J. (2011). To debrief or not to debrief our heroes: That isthe question. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy,18(6), 453–463.

Joseph, S. (2009) Growth following adversity: Positivepsychological perspectives on post-traumaticgrowth. Psychological Topics, 18(2) 335–344.

Lane, D. (2011). Ethics and professional standards insuperviso. In T. Bachkirova, P. Jackson & D.Clutterbuck (Eds.), Coaching and mentoringsupervision: Theory and practice (pp.91–107).Maidenhead, Open University Press

Lanius, R.A., Vermetten, E. & Pain, C. (2010). The impact of early life trauma on health and disease:The hidden epidemic. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Linley, P.A. & Minhas, G. (2011). The strengths of thestrengthspotter: Individual characteristicsassociated with the identification of strengths inothers, International Coaching Psychology Review,6(1) 6–15.

Morrissette, P.J. (2004). The pain of helping:psychological injury of helping professionals.New York: Brunner-Routledge.

NSPCC (2012). Prevalence and incidence of child abuseand neglect – key child protection statistics.Downloaded 2 May 2012, from:www.nspcc.org.uk/Inform/research/statistics/prevalence_and_incidence_of_child_abuse_and_neglect_wda48740.html

Taylor, A.J.W. & Lane, D.A. (Eds.) (1991).Psychological aspects of disaster: Issues for the1990s. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling,Special Issue, 19(1).

References


COACHES work with coachee’s onmany aspects of the latter’s career, forexample, the team, performance or

effectiveness. One aspect not often specifi-cally singled out in coaching is writing. Yet,for the vast majority of coachees (and oftenfor the coaches) who work in professionalroles, writing is a core element of their job(National Commission on Writing, 2004). Ifthe coachee is a student, perhaps completinga research higher degree such as a PhD, oran academic, they will be unable to succeedin their jobs unless they are productivewriters. Despite the importance of writing ineducation and careers, very little is knownabout the internal psychology of writing.Although there are many courses, books andso on about writing, it is generally assumedthat people will somehow work out how tomanage themselves to write productively andwell. Most of these courses and books areabout the mechanics of writing, such as hownot to split one’s infinitives. In the scholarly

literature, the majority of research andcomment focuses on a developmental orcompetency approach to writing (e.g. Camp,2012; Grigorenko et al., 2012). There is alsosubstantial scholarly literature on improvingwriting skills, of which the vast majority tendsto take a very behavioural- and skills-basedapproach, which is largely driven by thedevelopmental literature (e.g. Kellogg, 2009;Martinez et al., 2011; Porritt et al., 2006).While these approaches have been shown tobe of some use to writers, we claim thatwithout reference to the internal psycholog-ical world or belief systems of the writer, suchbehavioural approaches may be less effective(cf. Boice, 1985; Wellington, 2010).

As such, there has been little focus onhow writers can use an understanding ofthemselves and their beliefs to improve theirwriting. A recent commentary on this topicpublished in the leading science journalNature (Gardiner & Kearns, 2011) was themost-read piece in the journal during the



The ABCDE of Writing: Coaching high-quality high-quantity writingMaria Gardiner1 & Hugh Kearns2

Coaching has been used for many purposes, and the scholarly literature demonstrates its efficacy inimproving performance and well-being. However, to date, there has been no specific literature aboutcoaching as a tool to increase the quality and quantity of writing in adult writers. We argue that writingis a significant component on many professional people’s working life (e.g. academics or PhD students),and as such, success in this area can have a major impact on career progression. The foundation ofcognitive behavioural coaching, the ABCDE model, provides the basis for a discussion about how to coachhigh-quality, high-quantity writing. In this article we discuss what aspects of writing are most likely to giverise to unhelpful beliefs and consequences. Using evidence from the scholarly literature on writing,inaccurate beliefs are disputed and more effective behaviours are suggested. The authors conclude that thereis much to be gained from coaches having a specific understanding of the psychology of writing, assuccessful writing may make the difference between people’s careers flourishing or stagnating. Keywords: Cognitive behavioural coaching; Academics; PhD students; Coaching psychology; Writingproductivity

1 School of Psychology, Flinders University, Co-Director, ThinkWell.2 School of Psychiatry, Flinders University, Co-Director, ThinkWell.

week the journal was released. This indicatesthat, despite the deficiency in academicapplication to the internal world of thewriter, there is clearly a great deal of interestin the topic. The interest from the writersthemselves stems largely from the produc-tivity to be gained from understanding theinternal processes involved in high-qualityhigh-quantity writing. As will be demon-strated, many of the beliefs and consequentbehaviours in which people engage directlyaffect the quality and quantity of theirwriting. Using evidence-based principles tochange beliefs and behaviours as a way toimprove performance has mostly been thedomain of coaching psychology. Coachingpsychology has demonstrated reliableimprovements in both performance andaffect (e.g. see Grant, Cavanagh et al. [2010]for a discussion on the achievements ofcoaching research). As such, coachingpsychology is an ideal methodology to applyto writing productivity and quality, for bothour own jobs and those of our coachees.

Coaching psychology and writingThere has been a significant increase in theevidence base for coaching psychology, asdemonstrated by the increase in the numberof publications in recent years (see Grant[2011] for an annotated bibliography thatshows this increase). More than half of thescholarly publications in coaching haveappeared in the last 10 years. General conclu-sions are now being made about some of thepsychological and behavioural impacts ofcoaching (Grant & Cavanagh, 2011; Spence& Grant, 2011). The majority of coachingpractice involves coachees in executive orbusiness roles, and research supports the effi-cacy of coaching in these settings (Passmore& Fillery-Travis, 2011). These researchstudies have focused on performance withinbusiness or commercial environments. Stern(2004) notes that executive coaching focuseson enhancing the executive’s abilities andpotential, particularly as regards leadershipand organisational outcomes. However, manypeople work or study in highly demanding

roles with limited traditional leadership orcommercial responsibilities. Often, thecentrepiece of such a role is writing of somedescription. For example, academics, PhDstudents and professionals who must writereports and other documents. To date, therehas been little in the coaching literature toguide the coach working with such clients.Grant, Green et al. (2010) make this point inthe first randomised controlled trial (RCT)examining coaching in an educationalsetting.

Many professional coaches and consultantsnow have considerable experience inconducting executive and leadership coachingengagements in commercial and organisa-tional settings. Such experiences have much tooffer the broader social enterprise, includingthe educational sector. We encourage executivecoaches and consultants to extend theirresearch and practice and look for newapplications in such areas, and in doing so tocontinue to further contribute to society’sdevelopment and well-being. (p.165)

The aim of this paper is to attempt to high-light and contribute to redressing this situa-tion.

Evidence-based coaching psychologyDespite some mixed findings, a number ofquasi-experimental studies have shown avariety of positive outcomes for coaching. Forexample, Gyllensten and Palmer (2005)found that workplace coaching reduced someaspects of strain (anxiety and stress) in acoaching group compared with a controlgroup. Kochanowski et al. (2010) found thatthe participants in a feedback and coachinggroup had higher levels of collaborationcompared with a feedback-only controlgroup. Evers et al. (2006) found thatmanagers who received coaching increasedtheir self-efficacy beliefs in relation to settingtheir own goals and expectations about actingin a balanced way. Similarly, Leonard-Cross(2010) found that participants who hadreceived coaching had higher levels of self-efficacy compared with those who had notreceived coaching. In a within-subject single-


Author nameMaria Gardiner & Hugh Kearns

case study design, Libri and Kemp (2006)found that an executive was able to improvehis sales performance, self-evaluation andglobal self-ratings of performance after partic-ipating in an executive coaching programme.Although these studies do not relate towriting per se, they demonstrate the efficacy ofcoaching as a change methodology.

While the quasi-experimental studiesshow some support for coaching psychology,RCTs provide a higher level of rigour and,therefore, allow for more robust conclusionsabout the efficacy of coaching. Of the 15between-subject outcome studies that existin the coaching literature, 11 utilised arandomised controlled design and largelysupport the efficacy of coaching psychology(see Grant & Cavanagh [2011] for a list thesestudies). For example, Taylor (1997) foundthat coaching was more effective thantraining for reducing stress in medicalstudents preparing for exams. Miller et al.(2004) found that coaching, together withfeedback, was more successful than trainingstyle interventions in improving the inter-viewing skills of mental-health workers.Gattellari et al. (2005) found that GPs madebetter clinical decisions about a screeningtest after they had been coached by peers,relative to a control group. Spence et al.(2008) found that coaching and mindfulnesstraining led to better goal attainment thandid health education alone. Grant (2002)found that combined cognitive andbehavioural training was more effective atimproving performance and mental healthover a 12-month period than either cognitiveor behavioural coaching alone. Green et al.(2006) found that solution-focused (asopposed to problem-focused) coachingincreased goal attainment and well-being,with gains maintained at 30-week follow-up,and (Spence & Grant, 2007) found that solution-focused cognitive behaviouralcoaching) more effectively increased goalcommitment and goal attainment than didpeer coaching. More recently, in the firstRCT involving executive coaching, Grant etal. (2009) found that solution-focused CBC

improved goal attainment, resilience andwell-being, and reduced depression andstress. Again, despite these studies havinglimited reference to writing specifically, theydo provide a high level of support for theability of coaching psychology to assistpeople to change.

In a high-school setting, a setting moresimilar to the non-commercial or non-lead-ership environment under discussion in thispaper, Grant, Green et al. (2010) found thatteachers who underwent cognitivebehavioural solution-focused coaching hadhigher levels of goal attainment, workplacewell-being and resilience, and lower levels ofstress, when compared with the controlgroup. Although this was the first RCT tofocus on the impact of coaching on goalattainment and well-being in an educationsetting and outside the commercial organi-sational settings observed in executive-coaching studies, there was no focus onspecific aspects of the non-commercialsetting, such as writing.

In summary, all of the RCTs conducted todate that have utilised a goal-focused or solu-tion-focused coaching approach support theefficacy of coaching across a wide variety ofoutcomes (ranging from goal attainment towell-being, mental health and hardiness)and over an extended period. It would bereasonable to conclude that these findingswould extend to a job-related activity such aswriting.

Although writing is not directly related toprofitability or team management, writing isan integral part of many people’s jobs thatcould benefit from coaching. Recently, Vitae,the body responsible for the support anddevelopment of researchers and doctoralstudents across the UK, released the reportCoaching for Research in UK Higher EducationInstitutions (2012). The report concludedthat coaching was a promising methodologyfor achieving sustainable research careers.Given that one of the biggest predictors ofcareer success for these groups is the abilityto produce high-quality high-quantitywriting, focusing coaching specifically on


TitleThe ABCDE of Writing: Coaching high-quality high-quantity writing


Author name

writing, is likely to provide much benefit.Therefore, this current paper attempts toapply existing knowledge about coaching towriting. For many people, the ability toimprove their writing productivity and theeffectiveness of their writing could make thedifference between having a successful or justokay – or even failed – career.

Cognitive behavioural coachingAs evidenced by the studies just reviewed,cognitive behavioural coaching (CBC) is oneof the most highly utilised approaches (atleast by coaching psychologists) to coaching(Grant & Cavanagh, 2011; Spence & Oades,2011; Whybrow & Palmer, 2006). CBC isbased on the most well-validated andevidence-based intervention in clinicalpsychology: cognitive behaviour therapy(CBT) (Hollon & Beck, 2004; NICE, 2008).Neenan (2008) (see also Neenan & Palmer[2001]) describes how CBT can be, and hasbeen, adapted to the field of coaching. Thebasic underpinning of CBC is the ABCDEcognitive model, which proposes that Acti-vating events elicit Beliefs that give rise toConsequences, such as unpleasant andunhelpful emotions and behaviours; toreduce these consequences, it is necessary toDispute the inaccurate beliefs or thoughts,which in turn leads to an Effective newoutlook (Dryden & Neenan, 2004; Neenan &Palmer, 2001). Many of the other frame-works used to guide coaching sessions, forexample, PRACTICE (Palmer, 2007, 2011),can be incorporated into a cognitivebehavioural framework. More sophisticatedversions of the basic CBC model have beendeveloped, such as the SPACE model, whichtakes a bio-psycho-social approach(Edgerton & Palmer, 2005). The basicpremise of cognitive behavioural models is ifyou can change people’s beliefs (in this case,about writing), you will change theirbehaviour, which will lead to more produc-tive attitudes and behaviours. Coaches canutilise any of these models when coachingwriters. However, we argue that coaching awriter without reference to the underlying

Maria Gardiner & Hugh Kearns

Figure 1: The ABCDE model of CBC asapplied to writing.

Activating event● Writing that is going to be evaluated● Writing that has important consequences

Beliefs● I’m not ready yet● I’ll get it clear in my head first● I don’t have enough time● It won’t be good enough

Consequences● Don’t do anything (procrastinate)● Do everything else (overcommit)● Do anything else (busyness)

Disputation● You have to write before you feel ready● Writing clarifies your thinking● Small amounts of time work● What you have written before has

been okay

Effective new outlook and behaviours● Get started (Action-Motivation-Action)● Stay started● Snack writing● 80/20 rule



beliefs held by the writer will lead to short-term or sporadic results. Figure 1 illustrateshow the foundation of all CBC models, theABCDE model, applies to writing. The nextsection explains this model in detail.

Activating eventClearly, the activating event for writing iswriting. However, not all writing is equal.Some types of writing are more likely thanother types to give rise to unhelpful beliefsand behaviours. Writing that has an evalua-tive component is the most likely to induceinaccurate thoughts and production-slowingbehaviours. The more significant the evalua-tion, the bigger the unhelpful reaction.Martin et al. (2003) discuss the ways in whichcompetitive academic environments canlead to unproductive self-protection strate-gies. In education settings, all writing will beevaluated, that is, ‘marked’. This is a centralelement of why so many students suffer frompoor study behaviours, such as overcommit-ting (Koszegi, 2006), busyness (Silvera,2000), perfectionism (Greenberg, 1985),procrastination (Martin et al., 2003;Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Solomon & Rothblum,1984), disorganisation (Norem, 2001), notputting in effort (Urdan & Midgley, 2001)and choosing performance-debilitatingcircumstances (Sanna & Mark, 1995). Theeducational pathway that involves the mostrigorous and highest level of evaluation isthe PhD. Submission rates across Westerncountries sit between 50 and 60 per cent(Jaschik, 2008; Jiranek, 2010); more recentlyin the UK at some institutions, submissionrates have been higher (Economic andSocial Research Council, 2010). The attri-tion rates in these research higher degreesare extremely high, as are the unhelpfulbehaviours. A number of researchers arguethat it is the unhelpful behaviours, ratherthan the difficulty of the task, which isresponsible for these low completion rates(Kearns, Forbes et al., 2008; Kearns,Gardiner et al, 2008; Manathunga, 2005).

The traditional study environment is notthe only activating event for unhelpful

beliefs and behaviours in relation to writing.Many professional careers involve a signifi-cant amount of writing and significant pres-sure to write. Academia is one suchprofession. In a major study of 15 Australianuniversities, Gillespie et al. (2001) foundthat academic staff perceived a sizeableincrease in job demands over the precedingfive years and that, among other things, taskoverload was a significant contributor (seeKinman & Jones [2008] for similar findingsin the UK). Winefield (2003) (see also Court& Kinman [2008]) noted that this task over-load consisted of increasing pressure to liftperformance in the areas of publishing andacquiring external grants. Bakker et al.(2010), who presented further analyses fromthe Winefield (2003) cohort, showed that‘personality characteristics’ contributed tothe pressure and lack of success experiencedby some academics and they suggested therewas ‘the need to tailor interventions at theindividual, not just the workplace, level’(p.633). In essence, Bakker et al. recognisedthat the issues did not rest entirely with theworkload; the ways in which individualsresponded to the pressure to write made asubstantial difference. Writing when underpressure to do so and when it is importantfor one’s career is a significant activatingevent for unhelpful beliefs. Other profes-sions also involve a high level of writing andthe need to write under pressure; as such,people working in these professions arelikely to suffer similar issues.

BeliefsWhen writers are faced with a writing taskthat they know someone else will read andjudge or when they have multiple competingdemands or both, the dominant response ofmany writers is to not write at all, or to writevery slowly. Writers have a plethora of veryplausible and convincing beliefs to supportthis inaction. We have coached thousands ofwriters (individually, and in small and largegroups), and the following beliefs are themost common and most strongly held beliefsthat we have encountered.

I’m not ready yetCommonly, writers will say that the reasonthey are not writing is they do not feel ready.They have a belief that they cannot writeunless they feel ready. In fact, they tell them-selves that they will lower the quality of theirwriting by ‘forcing’ their creative thoughts orideas to flow. Writers often believe that ifthey just wait a bit longer they will feel ready.

I’ll get it all clear in my head firstAnother very commonly held belief amongwriters is a misconception about the writingprocess. There is a belief that writing is arecording process; therefore, they try to getit all clear in their heads first. They believethat when it is ‘all clear’, they will start towrite. Of course, it is never all clear andconsequently they delay writing.

I don’t have enough timeThis belief is that unless they have big blocksof time in which to write, it is a waste of timetrying to write. Writers often believe thatbecause writing is a complex and demandingtask, to try to write in small blocks of timesimply would not work. They, therefore,think it is better to write nothing at all. In anexamination of why academic staff struggledwith writing productivity, Boice and Jones(1984) found this type of belief to be a signif-icant cause of poor writing output.

It won’t be good enoughFinally, there is the nagging belief that dogsmost writers at some point in the writingprocess: their writing is not very good, sothere is not much point in continuing.Writers often believe it would be better towait until it felt easier or until it was clearer,because it is a waste of time writing ‘rubbish’.

ConsequencesThese beliefs lead to a variety of behaviouralconsequences among writers. Any difficultsituation could lead to the type of avoidancebehaviours described below; however, theseare the most common consequences we haveobserved among writers. The consequences

listed are mainly behavioural. This is becausemost of the discomfort associated withwriting is avoided by engaging in thebehaviours described below.

Don’t do anything – ProcrastinationA very common behavioural consequence ofthe above beliefs is to do nothing or, at least,not to do anything that would constitutewriting. When people procrastinate, they arepostponing until later an action they knowthey should be taking now. Persaud (2005)estimates that up to 20 per cent of the adultpopulation suffer from chronic procrastina-tion. It is estimated to be even higher amongstudent populations, who generally have anabundance of writing tasks to complete. Forexample, Solomon and Rothblum (1984)found that 46 per cent of undergraduatesreported high levels of procrastination inrelation to writing. Further, they procrasti-nated about the task of writing more than anyother task. Coaching psychology has beenfound to be an effective tool in helping toreduce procrastination (Dryden & Neenan,2004; Karas & Spada, 2009; Neenan, 2008,2012).

Do anything else – Displacement activitiesWriters may not be writing, but this does not(usually) mean they are doing nothing.Generally, they engage in a range ofbehaviours that keep them busy: displace-ment activities. Displacement activities arebehaviours that displace the guilt people feelfor not doing what they should be doing – inthis case, writing. Common displacementactivities among writers include reading,sourcing more information, data and so on,referencing, formatting, editing and evenhousework (Ahern & Manathunga, 2004;Boice, 1990; Wellington, 2010).

Do everything else – OvercommittingFinally, when all else fails, writers who haveunhelpful beliefs, such as ‘I’m not ready yet’or ‘It won’t be good enough’, often becomeovercommitted. They volunteer to organise aconference, to help with the office move or




Title

to re-write the curriculum. O’Donaghue andRabin (2001) found that the more importantor desirable the goal, the more likely it wasthat people would choose to work on othertasks. This is counter to common sense; mostpeople would expect that when they have achoice they would choose to work on theirimportant goals. In relation to writing, manywriters become so overcommitted that it isessentially impossible for them to write.

DisputingWhat is the truth about writing? Shouldpeople wait until they feel ready? Shouldthey or try to get it all clear in their headsfirst, or only write when they have big blocksof time available? Perhaps as a writer your-self, you are wondering whether these beliefsare true. If you are a coach, you will certainlyneed to know whether they are true. As is thecase with all good CBC, the answer lies in theevidence.

You have to write before you feel readyWriters often do not feel ready to startwriting, but they may never feel ready. Infact, a writer has to start writing before theyfeel ready. If this is not true, why is it thatmost writers miraculously become ready towrite as soon as a deadline appears? Asfurther evidence, a study of academicsshowed that those who were forced to becreative had twice as many creative ideas asthose who were allowed to have them in

their own time, and there was no discernibledifference in quality (Boice, 1983). Table 1provides examples of ways to dispute beliefsrelated to waiting until a writer feels ready.

Writing clarifies your thinkingWaiting until things are clear in one’s head isa misunderstanding about how writingworks. Writing is actually creative and inter-active. As people write, they begin to see theflaws and holes in their arguments that theycould not see when it was in their heads. Thetruth is that the process of writing clarifiesthe writer’s thinking (Mandel, 1980; Perl,1980). In fact, we would go even further andsay that writing is a form of rigorousthinking. Table 2 provides an example ofdisputing these beliefs.

Small amounts of time are effectiveAlthough writers often feel it is necessary tohave big blocks of time in which to write, theresearch does not support this. In a land-mark study by Robert Boice (1983), whichwas re-analysed by Krashen (2002),academics who wrote for 30 minutes a dayproduced more peer-reviewed publicationsacross a year than did academics who wrotein big blocks of time. When coaching writers,it is important to address this issue; if not, itis likely to become a major block to writing(Boice, 1985, 1990, 2000). The easiest way todispute this belief is to have writers conducta behavioural experiment whereby they

The ABCDE of Writing: Coaching high-quality high-quantity writing

Table 1: Disputing beliefs related to having to feel ready before writing(from Gardiner & Kearns, 2010).

Thoughts What’s Accurate

I can’t write if I’m not feeling creative. Apparently, once I start writing that will createmore ideas than if I wait for inspiration to strike.

I don’t feel in the mood for writing. Sometimes you have to do things you don’t like,to get what you want. Maybe once I start, I’ll get in the mood.

I shouldn’t have to force myself. That would be nice but most writers struggle atIt should come naturally. some point. There are very few lucky people

where it all comes naturally.


Author name

agree to write for 45 minutes every morning(our replication of Boice’s research showsthat 45 minutes in non-test conditions worksbetter, but 30 minutes is still effective). If, at the end of one week of writing, thewriter feels they are less productive, they arefree to return to writing in big blocks of time.In 15 years of coaching writers, less than oneper cent have made a conscious decision toreturn to writing in big blocks of time.

If it was okay before, it is likely to be okaythis timeUnderlying many of the beliefs is the corebelief that the writing produced is not partic-ularly good. Worse, when others see how‘bad’ it is, the writer will be exposed as afraud. This is commonly referred to as theimposter syndrome – the belief that you are onemistake away from being exposed as acomplete and utter fraud. To create effectivenew beliefs and behaviours, it is importantfor the coach to challenge the inaccuraciesin such thoughts. The most effective form ofdisputation for the coach to use is, alongwith the coachee, to look at past evidence ofwriting abilities. If people have written wellin the past (most writers have), it is likelythey will be able to write well in the future.Table 3 provides an example of disputingthese beliefs.

Effective new outlook and behavioursOnce inaccurate beliefs have been disputed,it is possible for effective new beliefs andbehaviours to be utilised. To effectively estab-

lish the new outlook, it is necessary forwriters to start their writing and to practise itregularly. This achieves two things; first, itacts as a form of exposure and ensures thatthe inaccurate thoughts are fully disputedand, second, it allows writers to build agenuine sense of self-efficacy as their skillsimprove. Following are the new attitudes andbehaviours that are most effective.

Get startedWriters usually don’t start writing becausethey don’t feel like it – they don’t feel moti-vated. Most people fundamentally misunder-stand how motivation works in practice. Theybelieve that in order to start they have to feellike doing the action in question. In essence,they believe that motivation leads to action,but this is not how motivation works. Motiva-tion is triggered by taking action. Therefore,action leads to motivation, which, in turn,leads to more action (Kearns & Gardiner,2011; Schwarz & Bohner, 1996). Thisrequires the writer to make a start before theyfeel like starting. In return for this smallforced step, the writer soon feels motivated tocontinue (as demonstrated in Figure 2). Thecoach needs to explain to writers that despitenot feeling motivated, after a small amountof action, (in our experience, approximately10 to 15 minutes), it is likely they will begin tofeel more motivated. The coach can use abehavioural experiment to demonstrate thisto writers: ask them to write for 30 minutes,and if they are not motivated by the end ofthat time, they may stop. They then need to


Table 2: Disputing beliefs related to having to ensure it is all clear in one’s head beforeone can write (from Gardiner & Kearns, 2010).


I need to get my ideas clear in my head Writing things down will help me clarifybefore I can write. my ideas.

There’s no point in starting if I don’t know I won’t know what I’m going to say if I don’twhat I’m going to say. get started!

I just need to think it through for a bit longer. What if I write first and then I can thinkabout it afterwards. At least I will have something to think about.



Table 3: Disputing beliefs related to concern over the quality of writing(from Gardiner & Kearns, 2010).


This is not written well enough. How do I know? What about previous stuffI’ve written – that was okay.

There is no argument – it’s just descriptive. How do I know? Check it out. I can work on the argument once I get some feedback.

It’s got mistakes. Of course. All work does. What specifically am I worried about? What can I do about it?

It’s not good enough to get published. But this is still a draft.

It’s not as good as what gets published. It’s not fair to compare my draft with a finished manuscript.

I’ve fooled people up until now, but this will If I’m smart enough to fool them for this long, prove how bad I am – that I am barely literate, then I’m probably smart enough to be here.never mind clever!

Figure 2: The relationship between action and motivation(from Gardiner & Kearns, 2010).

come back to the writing the next day andwrite for another 30 minutes. The vastmajority of writers will begin to feel moremotivated by writing than they will by waiting.

Stay startedAt this point, it is useful for coaches toexplain to writers about the physiologicalproperties of anxiety: if you avoid it (avoid-ance), it gets worse. If you stay with it (expo-sure), it gets better (Linnenbrink & Pintrich,2002). Although many writers may not neces-sarily experience anxiety, an underlyingphysiological discomfort often drives writersto avoid writing. Many writers are not expe-riencing anxiety because they are engagingin displacement activities instead of writing.Therefore, the effective new behaviour thatthe coach needs to explain to the writer is‘staying put’ for at least 45 minutes. Thisallows the anxiety or discomfort associatedwith writing to abate. We sometimes say thatif writers keep writing they can even experi-ence ‘negative anxiety’, more commonlyreferred to as fun!

Snack writingFor most people, their motivation to keepwriting will not be sustained if the task isopen-ended or too long. Given the evidencefor higher productivity when people write insmall blocks of time rather than large blocksof time, ‘snack writing’ is an ideal effectivenew behaviour. Snack writing increases bothmotivation and productivity (Kearns &Gardiner, 2011). The main feature of snackwriting (as opposed to ‘binge writing’) is thatsnacks are regular. Coaching writers to writefor 30 to 45 minutes every day is most likelyto lead to increased productivity (Boice,1989). This is different from the points madeabove about motivation and anxiety. Thecoach needs to share with writers the tech-niques for making a start (do not wait untilyou feel like it) and for continuing with theirwriting (the discomfort will go away).However, snack writing helps writers under-stand that it is not a waste of time to write insmall blocks of time and that it is probably

the most effective and productive way towrite. The purpose of coaching is to helpwriters accept this proposition and then tocoach the various pitfalls (and there will bemany) that occur along the way.

Apply the 80/20 ruleOnce a coach can get a writer to the desk andconvince them to stay for at least 30 to 45minutes, the 80/20 rule (or the Pareto Prin-ciple) is one of the easiest ways to increasewriters’ productivity. The 80/20 rule is basedon the work of the Italian economist VilfredoPareto who noted that 80 per cent of thewealth in Italy was owned and produced by 20per cent of the population. The essence of therule is that 80 per cent of output is created by20 per cent of the input – the rest is mostlywindow dressing. The 80/20 rule applies tomany aspects of life: 20 per cent of peopletake 80 per cent of doctors’ appointments, 20per cent of students consume 80 per cent ofteachers’ time and 20 per cent of academicsproduce 80 per cent of the publishedresearch (Ito & Brotheridge, 2007). How doesthis knowledge help with the coaching ofwriters? When some of the beliefs describedabove have been disputed, writers can beencouraged to write – not to perfect as theywrite, but simply to write. Twenty per cent of awriter’s effort will lead to 80 per cent of thefinished product (particularly if the writerdoes not edit or read or format during thewriting process). If the writer only writes, theargument and the structure will appearquickly. It will take time to edit, format, checkfacts, find references and so on (theremaining 80 per cent of the work); however,the most difficult work (and the most likelywork to be avoided) is done.

SummaryWe contend that coaching psychology, andCBC in particular, is an extremely effectivemethodology for assisting the many peoplewho have to write as part of their profession oreducation. Although there is a growing andincreasingly positive evidence base for theeffectiveness of CBC, to date there has been




Title

no study (or paper of any kind) on the appli-cation of coaching to writing. In fact, the vastmajority of coaching focuses on leadershipand commercial responsibilities. There is noreason to believe that the positive resultsdemonstrated in these domains would notalso apply in relation to writing. This paper isa first attempt to show how CBC might beapplied to the specific task of writing. Fromour work with thousands of writers, we knowthat the application of CBC to their writinggoals (and sometimes lack thereof) hasfostered, and saved, many a person’s career.

The authorsMaria Gardiner & Hugh KearnsFlinders University,Bedford Park,South Australia, Australia.

CorrespondenceMaria GardinerThinkWell,PO Box 560 Unley Business Centre,SA, 5061, Australia.Tel: 61-8-2935000Email: [email protected]


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260 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 7 No. 2 September 2012260 International Coaching Psychology Review ● Vol. 7 No. 2 September 2012© The British Psychological Society – ISSN: 1750-2764

Creating a Coaching CulturePeter HawkinsMaidenhead: Open University Press (2012)ISBN: 978-0-33523-895-8216 pp; Paperback; £23.99.Reviewed by David A. Lane

This is excellent and like all Peter Hawkinsbooks combines practicality with appropriateengagement with the literature and originalresearch.

Peter starts with a powerful question thatat first seems shocking but quickly becomescentral to any attempt to deliver valuethrough coaching. He asks, ‘What cancoaching uniquely do that the world oftomorrow needs?’.

In attempting to explore this it rapidlybecomes clear that coaching must movefrom a model of individual transactions to anintegrated strategy aligned to a wider organ-isational change culture. This radically altershow we view the role of coaching. Thechange of perspective is profound.

In helping his readers to negotiate thatshift he explores the key ingredients of acoaching culture and ways in which acoaching strategy may be aligned with thewider organisation. This provides a contextfor understanding what he sees as seven keysteps in moving from individual issues suchas selecting a panel of coaches to a final stepin which coaching becomes how the organi-sation does business with all it’s stakeholders.He provides many case examples of organi-sations at various stages in this process. Henotes that none have completed all the stepsbut all are actively engaged in trying toreevaluate the place of coaching in theirorganisation.

The case examples are embedded in theframework he outlines which adds to thevalue they bring to the reader struggling withtheir own change processes. He outlines theissues but then provides clear guidance on

ways forward. His seven steps are not a blue-print but rather a way to make sense of theemerging field. Organisations will not gothrough each step in turn but will be able torecognise where they stand and use this toconsider where they might go next. Theonward journey is assisted in the bookthrough a consideration of ways to integrateand give depth to the ideas. He explores howto bring elements together to create a rela-tional value chain. He expand on this indiscussion on improving the quality ofcoaching activities though supervision andcontinuous development. He addresses thecritical issue of evaluation and return oninvestment and finally talks to some of thechallenges going forward.

Readers will find the debate enlighteningand the framework a helpful friend for theprocess of change.

Book Review


Title

So the aim is to find out what coachingcan uniquely do that the world of tomorrowneeds. The book is centred on coachingcultures within a particular range of organi-sations. Briefly mentioned is attempts atcollaboration between some UK-basedprofessional bodies. Yet the global attemptsto bring organisations, professional bodiesand coaches together to in the words of theGlobal Coaching Convention in 2008 in theDublin Declaration to ‘step into the power ofcoaching to make a difference to the world’is ignored as are many efforts by a variety ofbodies to learn from engagement with issuesinternationally. For example the detailedefforts to run parallel events in differentcountries under the International CoachingPsychology Conferences have created thesharing he seeks. This limits the potentialscope of the book. Another limiting factor isany substantial debate on dealing with thecomplexity of rapid change. The approachfeels linear at times when the need manyorganisations face is for radically newapproaches to address complexity.

Those caveats apart this is a book that willprovide essential guidance for those organi-sations seeking to enhance the impact oftheir coaching and move from individualtransactions to a strategic collectiveapproach.

He concludes with the hope that thosesuccessfully developing coaching cultureswill network with others to learn and extendpractice. He notes that this is increasinglyhappening and hopes this book will help. I am sure that it will.

CorrespondenceProfessor David A. LaneProfessional Development Foundation.Email: [email protected]

Book Review


OVER THREE DAYS IN EARLY MAY,the APS Coaching Psychology InterestGroup (IGCP) hosted the 2nd Inter-

national Congress on Coaching Psychologyin Manly, Sydney.

The IGCP invited an array of interna-tional and Australian expert practitionersand authors to contribute their ideas andinsights to the Congress theme,

‘Exploring the Contribution of Psychology toCoaching’.

The keynote presentations and workshopsgenerated an exceptional response fromdelegates. Their feedback was uniformlypositive and the frequently recurring phrasewas that it was the best conference they hadbeen to in many years. Credit for this successshould be given to everyone involved in theCongress; the presenters, those involved inplanning and running the Congress as wellas the positive and receptive tone of the audi-ence. The Congress Organising Committeeshould be recognised for making it allhappen the way it did under the leadershipof David Heap, IGCP National Convenor,and Nic Eddy, IGCP National Events Co-ordi-nator.

The keynote speakers were each asked topresent their individual perspectives on thecontribution of psychology to coaching.Their presentations reflected the diversityand depth of coaching psychology.

Lew Stern challenged Congress delegatesto expand their influence and contributetheir skills on a greater scale, bringing socialaction to their practice. Stephen Palmer rein-forced the invaluable contribution of compe-tencies and knowledge base in psychology, toenrich the diverse world of coaching. PatrickWilliams explored the influence of human-istic and transpersonal psychology oncoaching. Donna Karlin discussed the bene-fits of ‘shadow coaching’ in the world ofinternational political challenges.

Jim Bright provided an entertaining andprovocative insight into the application ofchaos theory to careers coaching and change.Tony Grant shared pre-publication results onhis latest research on the relative contributionof solution and positive psychologyapproaches to coaching out-comes. Leon vanVuuren addressed the role of the coach andcoaching psychology in ethical leadershipcompetence from a social and politicalperspective. David Peterson provided theclosing keynote on what differentiates greatfrom good coaches and what we each can doto transform our own practice.

From the perspective of the IGCP, webelieve the Congress aim of exploring thecontribution of psychology to coaching wasfully achieved. Delegates told us this hadbeen an outstanding event leaving them witha clearer insight into the richness psychologybrings to the practice of coaching togetherwith abundant new information and ideasthey keenly anticipated incorporating intotheir own practice.

Report

2nd International Congress of CoachingPsychology – AustraliaDavid Heap

2nd International Congress of Coaching Psychology: 10–12 May, 2012, Sydney, Australia.


2nd International Congress of Coaching Psychology – Australia

We are very pleased to have re-invigor-ated the enthusiasm in the coachingpsychology community and look forward tocontinue to stimulate and inform.

National Committee of theCoaching Psychology Interest Group, Australian Psychological Society

‘Coaching Psychology: The science of achievingyour goals.’

Dr Lew Stern

Dr Anthony M. Grant

The following photographs were taken at the Congress by Aaron McEwan.



Professor Leon van Vuuren

From L to R: Nic Eddy, Peter Zarris & David Heap (Members of the Congress Team).



From L to R: Dr Lew Stern, Donna Karlin & Dr David Drake.

Dr David Peterson


RECENTLY I chaired my third meetingof the SGCP and came away feelingenergised. The energy and enthusiasm

of the group had been infectious! Two daysago I watched the final of the men’s doublesat Wimbledon and had the same feeling. I was delighted that Yorkshire man JonathanMarray, together with Freddie Nielson hadwon. This is in part because Marray is thefirst British player to win the Wimbledonmen’s doubles for 76 years but predomi-nantly because of something I felt the pairexuded whilst on the court. They entered ona ‘wild card’ rather than ranking and thenwent on to prove their worth. Whatimpressed me was the partnership spirit thatthey showed and I was intrigued by theirobvious, but secretive strategising beforeserving and at other critical times during thematch. Throughout the match their bodylanguage and facial expressions were upbeatand they were clearly enjoying themselves.As a pair they were dynamite exuding posi-tivity. Watching it led me to reflect on myrole as a coaching psychologist and I felt thatif, through my coaching, albeit it in a verydifferent context and setting, I can help facil-itate something of what I saw in these twoplayers, I will be very satisfied. I was power-fully reminded of the value of coaching –including self-coaching – positivity, also ofthe importance of good teamwork.

Returning now to the SGCP, we werereminding ourselves at the meeting last weekthat in December 2014 it will be the 10thAnniversary of our coming into being. I remember it well as I had the privilege ofopening the inaugural conference which washeld at City University, London. A lot hashappened since then and we have grownconsiderably in stature, size and I hope in

knowledge and wisdom too. During themeeting we tossed around ideas of how tocelebrate our 10th birthday and thought thatat the very least the 2014 conference shouldbe a special international one – to mark bothour own ‘coming of age’ and also to recog-nize the very significant international devel-opments in coaching psychology during thepreceding 10 years.

During the next two years we have time toprepare and to engage widely with members.Stage one of this is in preparation and wehave decided to embrace more fully the everchanging and developing approaches tosocial media communications. We will usethese in the run up to the 2012 SGCP confer-ence and beyond with the intention oflinking the various activities of the SGCPmore closely with the very wide and stillgrowing membership. Many of us have a lot

Report

Special Group in Coaching Psychology NewsMary Watts


Title

to learn about how to use these, whilst othersare busy learning about how to introduceand manage them on behalf of members.

Sticking for the moment with the relativesimplicity of this newsletter for sharing infor-mation, please keep 6th–7th December freein your diary. The SGCP 8th AnnualCoaching Psychology Conference will thisyear be held at the University of Aston, Birm-ingham, on Friday 7th December (pleasenote the earlier date than usual). There willbe an interesting selection of keynotespeakers, papers and workshops and the daywill also include the AGM. On Thursday 6th December there will be an excellentrange of master classes followed by anetworking event – important for updatingon news and connections that make a realdifference to our work and social life! Weinvite you to stay linked in with the SGCPboth in real terms via attendance at theconference and other events heldthroughout the year – the last was a wellsubscribed to and very well received event onmindfulness facilitated by MichaelChaskalson – and also through the new (forus) approaches to social networking about tobe launched. You can now join us ontwitter@SGCP. We’ll communicate furtherwith members about our social media linksas we progress further down this road.

Continuing with the theme of communi-cation a SGCP Newsletter will be launched verysoon. In fact by the time you read this letterit may already have reached you. TheNewsletter, in electronic format, will be shortbut regular to help keep members informedabout SGCP news and activities.

With a sense of enthusiasm and optimismfor the coming pre-conference masterclassesand conference (6 and 7 December) and thebuild-up to our big birthday, I now need togo and prepare myself for the new wave ofcommunication approaches.

Best wishes to you all.

Professor Mary WattsChair, British Psychological SocietySpecial Group in Coaching Psychology

www.sgcp.org.uk

Special Group in Coaching News


Report

Interest Group in Coaching Psychology NewsDavid Heap

THE MAJOR ACTIVITY for the InterestGroup in Coaching Psychology the first half of 2012 was, of course, the

2nd International Congress on CoachingPsychology at Manly Beach.

The Congress was an outstanding successwith consistent feedback that it was aninspiring experience and the best conferencedelegates had attended for many years. A detailed report is available elsewhere in thispublication but on behalf of the NationalCommittee I would like to thank severalgroups of people who made this achievementpossible. First there are the presenters of thekeynotes and workshops who exceededeveryone’s expectations with the quality ofinsight, usefulness and humanity of what theyshared with us. I’d also like to express myappreciation to the international presenterswho made the considerable effort to inter-rupt their demanding schedules and come allthe way to Australia: Lew Stern, StephenPalmer, Patrick Williams, Donna Karlin, Leonvan Vuuren, Pauline Wills, David Clutter-buck, David Lane, and David Peterson. Theircontributions made the Congress live up toits international title and was much richer asa result.

I’d like to express our gratitude to theCongress Organising Committee; PeterZarris, Aaron McEwan, Claire Nabke-Hattonand particularly, the Chair of the CommitteeNic Eddy, who applied his experience andcreativity along with a great deal of effort tomake the Congress what it was.

Members of the National and StateCommittees also made a great contributionon the day helping to make sure everythingran smoothly. Students from the Universityof NSW and Australian College of AppliedPsychology also provided sterling support.

Last of all, I’d like to thank everyone whoattended; our own IGCP members but alsoall the members of the broader coachingcommunity who came along in largenumbers and whose enthusiastic responseassured us that coaching psychologists canplay a strong leadership role in advancingthe quality of coaching in the broadercoaching community.

With the Congress behind us, we are nowarranging a series of National and State-based PD activities for the rest of 2012 and2013.

We have been approached by manypeople to bring back Donna Karlin and weare very happy to announce that she will becoming out in February 2013 to present aseries of two-day workshops on ‘Shadow andLaser Coaching’ in Sydney, Melbourne, Bris-bane and Adelaide.

We’ve closed a large gap in our nationalcoverage and re-established IGCP Branchesin West Australia and South Australia.


Title

I’d like to welcome our two new State Co-ordinators and members of the NationalCommittee; Vanessa Franzen in WA, andNanette McComish in SA.

We’re also undertaking major updates toour website including the distribution of theInternational Coaching Psychology Review. We’llkeep you updated on all these develop-ments.

Thank you to all our members for yourcontinuing support for the IGCP with all ournational and state activities. We can all bevery proud of what we have achieved so farthis year and we are looking forward to aneven more successful year ahead.

David HeapConvener, Interest Group in Coaching Psychology.

Interest Group on Coaching Psychology News

Manly Pacific Hotel, Manly Beach, host to the2nd International Congress of Coaching Psychology.

Sydney Opera House


International Coaching Psychology Review– Volume index 2012

Volume 7, No. 1, March 2012

4 Editorial: Coaching psychology coming of age in the 21st centuryStephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh

Papers6 Teaching coaching psychology to undergraduates – perceptions and experiences

Catherine Steele & Jane Arthur14 When feedback is not enough: The impact of regulatory fit on motivation after

positive feedbackAnn-Marie Jarzebowski, Josephine Palermo & Robert van de Berg

33 The long-term independently assessed benefits of coaching: A controlled 18-month follow-up study of two methodsJohn Franklin & Alicia Franklin

39 Line management involvement in coaching: Help or hindrance? A content analysis studyHelen Ogilvy & Vicky Ellam-Dyson

55 Moderating factors of the Van Egmond Coaching Model (VECM)Johan Bouwer & Jacoba van Egmond

64 The Managerial Gap and how coaching can helpChristine Porter & W. David Rees

Debate72 Editorial: Coaching Psychology Coming of Age

Alison Whybrow, Anthony M. Grant, Stephen Palmer & Travis Kemp75 Coaching Psychology Coming of Age:

The challenges we face in the messy world of complexity? Michael Cavanagh & David Lane

91 Comment on debate article:Coaching Psychology Coming of Age:The challenges we face in the messy world of complexity?Ralph Stacey

97 Coaching Psychology Coming of Age:The challenges we face in the messy world of complexity? A responseTatiana Bachkirova; Paul W.B. Atkins; David B. Drake; Bob Hodge; Lesley Kuhn; Julie Allan; Gordon B. Spence

127 Coaching Psychology Coming of Age: A response to our discussantsMichael Cavanagh & David Lane

Reports130 1st International Congress of Coaching Psychology – Sweden

Liv Hök & Jonas Mosskin133 Special Group in Coaching Psychology News

Mary Watts135 Interest Group in Coaching Psychology News

David Heap


Volume 7, No. 2, September 2012

144 Editorial: The development of coaching psychology internationally goes fromstrength to strengthStephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh







Sandy Gordon223 Looking back to see the future: The influence of humanistic and transpersonal

psychology on coaching psychology todayPatrick Williams


Michael Cavanagh & Stephen Palmer239 Restoring meaning and wholeness – the role for coaching after a trauma

Noreen Tehrani, Diana Osbourne & David Lane247 The ABCDE of Writing: Coaching high-quality high-quantity writing

Maria Gardiner & Hugh KearnsBook Review260 Creating a Coaching Culture (by Peter Hawkins)

Reviewed by David LaneReports262 2nd International Congress of Coaching Psychology – Australia

David Heap266 Special Group in Coaching Psychology News

Mary Watts268 Interest Group in Coaching Psychology News

David Heap270 International Coaching Psychology Review – Volume index 2012


Notes

4. Online submission process(1) All manuscripts must be submitted to a Co-ordinating Editor by e-mail to:

Stephen Palmer (UK): [email protected] Cavanagh (Australia): [email protected]

(2) The submission must include the following as separate files:● Title page consisting of manuscript title, authors’ full names and affiliations, name and address for corresponding author.● Abstract.● Full manuscript omitting authors’ names and affiliations. Figures and tables can be attached separately if necessary.

5. Manuscript requirements● Contributions must be typed in double spacing with wide margins. All sheets must be numbered.● Tables should be typed in double spacing, each on a separate page with a self-explanatory title. Tables should be comprehensible

without reference to the text. They should be placed at the end of the manuscript with their approximate locations indicated inthe text.

● Figures can be included at the end of the document or attached as separate files, carefully labelled in initial capital/lower caselettering with symbols in a form consistent with text use. Unnecessary background patterns, lines and shading should be avoided.Captions should be listed on a separate page. The resolution of digital images must be at least 300 dpi.

● For articles containing original scientific research, a structured abstract of up to 250 words should be included with theheadings: Objectives, Design, Methods, Results, Conclusions. Review articles should use these headings: Purpose, Methods, Results,Conclusions.

● Overall, the presentation of papers should conform to the British Psychological Society’s Style Guide (available at www.bps.org.uk/publications/publications_home.cfm in PDF format). Non-discriminatory language should be used throughout. Spelling should beAnglicised when appropriate. Text should be concise and written for an international readership of applied psychologists.Sensationalist and unsubstantiated views are discouraged. Abbreviations, acronyms and unfamiliar specialist terms should beexplained in the text on first use.

● Particular care should be taken to ensure that references are accurate and complete. Give all journal titles in full. Referencingshould follow BPS formats. For example:Billington, T. (2000). Separating, losing and excluding children: Narratives of difference. London: Routledge/Falmer.Elliott, J.G. (2000). Dynamic assessment in educational contexts: Purpose and promise. In C. Lidz & J.G. Elliott (Eds.), Dynamic

assessment: Prevailing models and applications (pp.713–740). New York: J.A.I. Press.Palmer, S. & Whybrow, A. (2006). The coaching psychology movement and its development within the British Psychological

Society. International Coaching Psychology Review 1(1), 5–11.● SI units must be used for all measurements, rounded off to practical values if appropriate, with the Imperial equivalent in

parentheses.● In normal circumstances, effect size should be incorporated.● Authors are requested to avoid the use of sexist language.● Authors are responsible for acquiring written permission to publish lengthy quotations, illustrations, etc. for which they do not

own copyright.

6. Brief reportsThese should be limited to 1000 words and may include research studies and theoretical, critical or review comments whose essentialcontribution can be made briefly. A summary of not more than 50 words should be provided.

7. Publication ethicsBPS Code of Conduct – Code of Conduct, Ethical Principles and Guidelines.Principles of Publishing – Principle of Publishing.

8. Supplementary dataSupplementary data too extensive for publication may be deposited with the British Library Document Supply Centre. Such materialincludes numerical data, computer programs, fuller details of case studies and experimental techniques. The material should besubmitted to the Editor together with the article, for simultaneous refereeing.

9. Post acceptancePDF page proofs are sent to authors via e-mail for correction of print but not for rewriting or the introduction of new material.

10. CopyrightTo protect authors and publications against unauthorised reproduction of articles, The British Psychological Society requires copyrightto be assigned to itself as publisher, on the express condition that authors may use their own material at any time withoutpermission. On acceptance of a paper, authors will be requested to sign an appropriate assignment of copyright form.

11. Checklist of requirements● Abstract (100–200 words).● Title page (include title, authors’ names, affiliations, full contact details).● Full article text (double-spaced with numbered pages and anonymised).● References (see above). Authors are responsible for bibliographic accuracy and must check every reference in the manuscript and

proofread again in the page proofs.● Tables, figures, captions placed at the end of the article or attached as separate files.

St Andrews House, 48 Princess Road East, Leicester LE1 7DR, UKTel 0116 254 9568 Fax 0116 227 1314 E-mail [email protected] www.bps.org.uk

© The British Psychological Society 2012Incorporated by Royal Charter Registered Charity No 229642

Contents144 Editorial: The development of coaching psychology internationally goes from

strength to strengthStephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh







Sandy Gordon

223 Looking back to see the future: The influence of humanistic and transpersonalpsychology on coaching psychology todayPatrick Williams



239 Restoring meaning and wholeness – the role for coaching after a traumaNoreen Tehrani, Diana Osbourne & David Lane

247 The ABCDE of Writing: Coaching high-quality high-quantity writingMaria Gardiner & Hugh Kearns

Book Review260 Creating a Coaching Culture (by Peter Hawkins)

Reviewed by David Lane

Reports262 2nd International Congress of Coaching Psychology – Australia

David Heap

266 Special Group in Coaching Psychology NewsMary Watts

268 Interest Group in Coaching Psychology News David Heap

270 International Coaching Psychology Review – Volume index 2012