instructor resource guide -...

Instructor Resource Guide

Human AnatomySixth Edition

Leslie HendonUniversity of Alabama at Birmingham

Editor-in-Chief: Serina BeauparlantProject Editor: Sabrina LarsonAssistant Editor: Nicole GrazianoEditorial Assistant: John MaasManaging Editor: Deborah CoganProduction Manager: Michele MangelliProduction Supervisor: Leslie AustinCopyeditor: Sally PeyrefitteCompositor and Interior Designer: Cecelia G. MoralesProofreader: Martha GhentCover Design: Riezebos Holzbaur Design GroupSenior Manufacturing Buyer: Stacey WeinbergerMarketing Manager: Derek Perrigo

Cover Credit: Anatomical Travelogue/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Copyright © 2011, 2010, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings, 1301 Sansome St.,San Francisco, CA 94111. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication isprotected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction,storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written requestto Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, 1900 E. Lake Ave., Glenview, IL 60025. For informationregarding permissions, call (847) 486-2635.

Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed astrademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademarkclaim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps.

ISBN 10: 0-321-65131-6; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-65131-01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10–SCI–13 12 11 10

Preface iv

1 The Human Body: An Orientation 1

2 Cells: The Living Units 11

3 Basic Embryology 22

4 Tissues 31

5 The Integumentary System 44

6 Bones and Skeletal Tissues 54

7 Bones, Part 1: The Axial Skeleton 65

8 Bones, Part 2: The Appendicular Skeleton 77

9 Joints 87

10 Skeletal Muscle Tissue 99

11 Muscles of the Body 110

12 Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue 129

13 The Central Nervous System 141

14 The Peripheral Nervous System 156

15 The Autonomic Nervous System and Visceral Sensory Neurons 166

16 The Special Senses 178

17 The Endocrine System 190

18 Blood 202

19 The Heart 212

20 Blood Vessels 225

21 The Lymphatic and Immune Systems 238

22 The Respiratory System 248

23 The Digestive System 261

24 The Urinary System 275

25 The Reproductive System 286

Appendix A—Key to Media Distributors 302

Contents

This Instructor Resource Guide accompanies the textbook Human Anatomy, Sixth Edition, byElaine N. Marieb, Patricia Brady Wilhelm, and Jon Mallatt, and it is devoted solely to supplyingteaching suggestions and resources that augment the use of the textbook in the classroom.

ORGANIZATION AND FEATURES

The Instructor Resource Guide follows the organization of Human Anatomy, Sixth Edition, chap-ter for chapter. Within each chapter you will find the following new and revised resources groupedin five sections: (1) Lecture and Demonstration, (2) Art Resources, (3) Supplemental Course Materi-als, (4) Answers to Textbook Questions, and (5) Supplemental Student Materials.

• Lecture and Demonstration The opening section of each chapter in the Instructor ResourceGuide is devoted to helping you structure and augment your classroom lectures and activities.Five features are offered.

Objectives The objectives focus on the principal themes and topics that should be covered foreach chapter.

Suggested Lecture Outline The outlines generally correspond to the sequence of headings thatappear in each textbook chapter. Key page, figure, and table numbers appear next to most ofthe entries in each outline.

Lecture Hints This feature is composed of a list of key lecture points, which follows the orderof the suggested lecture outline. In addition to calling attention to the main concepts of eachchapter, the lecture hints identify ideas or topics that students may have difficulty mastering intheir reading or during lecture.

Classroom Discussion Topics and Activities This popular feature consists of activities, demon-strations, and discussion topics that can be used to augment and enliven your anatomy lecturesand laboratories.

Clinical Questions This section of each chapter provides additional clinically focused, criticalreasoning questions like those that appear at the end of each textbook chapter. The answersfollow each question.

• Art Resources This section is provided to help you utilize the updated illustration program inthe Sixth Edition of Human Anatomy in your classroom teaching. This section includes:

Transparency Index/Instructor Resource DVD This list details which figures in the chapterare available on the Instructor Resource DVD and the color transparency package. (Call yourBenjamin Cummings representative for information about how to obtain these supplements.)The transparency package includes enlarged and color-enhanced versions of all the illustra-tions and photos in the textbook.

Teaching with Art This section is designed to facilitate your lecture presentations about keyfigures in each chapter, and it is also aimed at encouraging students to become activelyengaged with the textbook illustrations in order to strengthen their understanding of majortopics. Each Teaching with Art section consists of a checklist of major discussion points abouta figure and a list of concepts that students sometimes find difficult to understand or fail toperceive when they interpret a figure on their own. Finally, this section includes an art-basedexercise that is designed to help students to better understand the anatomy depicted in a fig-ure. Teaching with Art concludes with a visual critical reasoning challenge in which studentsare asked to synthesize a response based on the visual evidence presented in a figure.

Preface

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

iv

Preface v


• Supplemental Course Materials This section of each chapter of the Instructor ResourceGuide consists of materials that you may use to augment your classroom presentations orassign for student completion. This section consists of the following:

Library Research Topics These term paper or report topics can be assigned for extra creditor to help deepen students' understanding of anatomy.

Media Revised and updated, this section lists videos and software in addition to those offeredby Benjamin Cummings. A key to the abbreviations used to identify the audiovisual and elec-tronic media distributors in each list can be found in Appendix A.

Suggested Readings Revised and updated for this edition, this feature lists classic readings,advanced anatomy textbooks, and current journal articles. This bibliography can be used tointroduce your students to scientific literature and to the research process in addition toenhancing their knowledge of human anatomy.

• Answers to Textbook Questions This section provides answers to the Short Answer andEssay Questions section and the Critical Reasoning and Clinical Applications Questionssection, both located at the end of each textbook chapter.

• Supplemental Student Materials This feature consists of a student-oriented introduction tothe mission of each chapter and a description of the practical importance of its coverage. Anextended series of learning checkpoints follows that students may use to chart their progresswhile reading the chapter. This feature is formatted to be easily photocopied and distributedto your students.

GUIDE TO SUPPLEMENTS

ACCOMPANYING THE TEXTBOOK

The suite of supplementary materials developed by Benjamin Cummings for the Sixth Edition ofHuman Anatomy is more innovative and thorough than ever before—in print, on CD-ROM, and onthe Web—for you and your students alike. Here is a description of the new electronic and printedsupplements that are specifically dedicated to the textbook.

Electronic Media SupplementsPractice Anatomy Lab™ 2.0 (PAL) Each new copy of Human Anatomy, Sixth Edition, includesaccess to the resources that have made PAL 2.0 an indispensable study tool. Five comprehensivemodules include histology slides, anatomical models, human cadaver images, fetal pig dissections,and cat dissections, and an easy-to-use interface guides students to images by body system. Self-review activities, self-study quizzes, and lab practical exams help students track their progress.The Instructor Resource DVD for Human Anatomy includes additional images and assessmenttools for PAL 2.0.

myA&P™ From the home page of myA&P™ (www.myaandp.com), you and your students canaccess the companion website for Human Anatomy, Sixth Edition, which features the followingresources and activities:

• Get Ready for A&P, Second Edition, helps students get up to speed with basic study skills, mathskills, anatomical terminology, basic chemistry, cell biology, and other essentials of the human body.

• A&P Flix animations provide carefully developed step-by-step explanations of difficult-to-teachanatomy concepts, depicting action and movement through dramatic three-dimensional images.Each animation includes a gradable quiz.

• PAL 2.0 provides online access to the images and quizzes available on the CD-ROM (see the PAL sec-tion above for a full description).

• Chapter Guides organize all chapter material on one convenient start page.

vi Instructor Resource Guide for Human Anatomy


• Chapter Quizzes and Practice Tests help students assess their understanding of the chapter andprepare for exams.

• Chapter Games and Activities feature art labeling exercises, memory games, and crossword puz-zles, as well as review materials for histology, bones, and muscles.

• Ask an Expert allows students to e-mail their questions for answers from the author.

• The password-protected Instructor Resource Section contains materials from the InstructorResource DVD, including JPEG and PowerPoint® files of art from the text.

A free 12-month subscription to this powerful website is included with each new student copy ofthe text. A 3-day trial option is also available at the website. Access directions, along with studentaccess codes, are attached inside the front cover.

myA&P with Course Compass™ myA&P with CourseCompass™ combines the strength ofBenjamin Cummings content with state-of-the-art eLearning tools. CourseCompass™ is a national-ly hosted, dynamic, interactive online course management system powered by Blackboard, leadersin the development of Internet-based learning tools. This easy-to-use and customizable programenables professors to tailor content and functionality to meet individual course needs. The courseincludes all of the content found on the myA&P website. Visit www.coursecompass.com for moreinformation or to see a demo.

Instructor Resource DVD (0-321-65130-8) This powerful media tool contains all of the text'sillustrations, photos, and illustrated tables, both with and without labels and in JPEG and Power-Point® format. Also included are fully customizable lecture slides in PowerPoint with text and artintegrated for each chapter, all of the photos from A Brief Atlas of the Human Body, Second Edi-tion, and the full set of images and assessment tools for PAL 2.0.

TestGen® (0-321-68136-1) The computerized test bank that accompanies the Sixth Edition fea-tures questions in multiple formats, including figure, multiple-choice, matching, true/false, shortanswer, and essay questions. Page references to the main text and difficulty levels are provided foreach question. All of the questions are available electronically on a cross-platform TestGenCD-ROM that allows instructors to generate tests via a user-friendly interface where it is easy toview, edit, sort, and add questions.

Course Management Systems and Special Student ServicesWebCT and Blackboard Both course management systems are useful for developing and manag-ing online distance learning courses. They are available by themselves or packaged with the text-book. The content provided with either system includes selections from myA&P™ as well as theentire computerized test bank. Contact your Benjamin Cummings representative for more informa-tion about how to link your course to WebCT or Blackboard.

The Tutor Center Free tutoring is available to students who purchase a copy of Human Anatomy,Sixth Edition. The Tutor Center is staffed by qualified anatomy instructors who can tutor studentson all the material covered in the textbook, including the art and the multiple-choice/matchingquestions at the end of each chapter. Tutoring content is restricted to textbook material, and tutorswill only discuss answers that are provided in the textbook. Students can contact the Tutor Centerby phone, fax, or e-mail Sunday through Thursday, between 5:00 PM and 12:00 AM EST. You mustauthorize access to the Tutor Center for your students. To do so, please contact your localBenjamin Cummings sales representative for information or visit the Tutor Center website atwww.aw-bc.com/tutorcenter.

Revised Printed SupplementsFull-color Transparency Acetates (0-321-68315-3) The transparency acetates package has beenexpanded to include all of the photos from the text, in addition to all of the illustrations and illus-trated tables—approximately 800 images in all. The colors in all of the illustrations have been

Preface vii


enhanced, and all of the labels have been enlarged for easy viewing in the classroom or lecturehall. The transparency acetate package is available free to adopters of the text.

A Brief Atlas of the Human Body, Second Edition (0-8053-7373-X) This full-color atlas includes107 bone and 47 soft-tissue photographs with easy-to-read labels. The second edition of the atlas con-tains a comprehensive histology photomicrograph section featuring over 50 slides of basic tissue andorgan systems. The atlas superbly compliments the Sixth Edition, is referenced in appropriate figurelegends throughout the text, and is packaged free with each new copy of the text.

Human Anatomy Laboratory Manual with Cat Dissections, Sixth Edition (0-321-66706-9)Elaine N. Marieb's widely used laboratory manual, Sixth Edition (2011), accompanies thistextbook. The manual contains 30 gross anatomy and histology exercises for all major body sys-tems. Illustrated in full color, with a convenient spiral binding, the lab manual has an accompany-ing Instructor Guide (0-321-66771-9).

Additional Supplements Available from Benjamin Cummings

For the Classroom and Laboratory:

Histology Slides for the Life Sciences by Bell and Eroshenko (0-8053-4410-1)

Human Cadaver Dissection Videos by Rose Leigh Vines, et. al. Human Musculature Video (0-8053-0106-2)Human Cardiovascular System: The Heart Video (0-8053-4289-3)Human Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels Video (0-8053-4297-4)Selected Actions of Hormones and Other Chemical Messengers (0-8053-4155-2)Human Digestive System Video (0-8053-4823-9)Human Reproductive System Video (0-8053-4914-6)Human Urinary System Video (0-8053-4915-4)Human Respiratory System Video (0-8053-4822-0)Human Nervous System: The Brain and Cranial Nerves Video (0-8053-4012-2)Human Nervous System: The Spinal Cord and Nerves Video (0-8053-4013-0)

Student Video Series for Anatomy and Physiology, Volume I (0-8053-4110-2)

Student Video Series for Anatomy and Physiology, Volume II (0-8053-6115-4)

For Your Students:The Anatomy Coloring Book, Third Edition by Kapit and Elson (0-8053-5086-1)

Bassett Atlas of Human Anatomy by Robert Chase (0-8053-0118-6)

A Color Atlas of Histology by Dennis Strete (0-673-99190-3)

I thank the whole Pearson team for their exquisite abilities in keeping me on track and organizedthroughout the revision process. I particularly thank John Maas for his enthusiasm and patiencethrough the entire process of editing and updating the Instructor Resource Guide for HumanAnatomy, Sixth Edition.

Leslie HendonBiology DepartmentUniversity of Alabama at Birmingham

LECTURE AND DEMONSTRATION

Objectives1. Define anatomy, and describe the subdivisions of anatomy.

2. Define physiology, and explain how physiology complements anatomy.

3. Identify the levels of increasing complexity in the human body, from chemical to organismal.

4. List the organ systems of the body, naming major structures and describing main functions.

5. Emphasize the importance of the metric system in understanding the relative and actual sizeof cells, tissues, and organs. Encourage students to use Appendix A in the main text regularly.

6. Describe the body in anatomical position, and explain why it is important as a visualreference.

7. Define standardized terms of direction, regional terms, and planes of the body.

8. Describe why humans are vertebrates sharing several basic features with animals such asfish, birds, amphibians, and mammals.

9. Distinguish the dorsal body cavity from the ventral body cavity. List major organs in each cavity.

10. Contrast each of the serous cavities: pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal.

11. Describe relationships of ventral cavity membranes to each other, the body wall, and associatedorgans.

12. Describe the organization of the abdominopelvic cavity into regions and quadrants, and identifysome of the major viscera located in each region or quadrant.

13. Distinguish among light microscopy (LM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), andscanning electron microscopy (SEM).

14. Describe the conventional use of X rays and advanced X-ray techniques, such as computedtomography (CT) and digital subtraction angiography (DSA), to visualize structures in thebody.

Suggested Lecture OutlineI. An Overview of Anatomy (pp. 2–6)

A. Anatomical Terminology (p. 3)

1. Ancient Greek and Latin provide the origins for most anatomical terms.

B. Branches of Anatomy (p. 2)

1. Gross anatomy studies the human body structures with the naked eye, and dissection isthe major technique. Regional, systemic, and surface anatomy are the major approaches.

2. Microscopic anatomy (also called histology) uses the microscope to study specially pre-pared tissue slides.

3. Developmental anatomy explores how body structures form, grow, and mature through-out the life span.

4. Embryology is the study of how the human body structures form and develop beforebirth.

C. The Hierarchy of Structural Organization (pp. 3–6, Figs. 1.1, 1.2)

1. Structural Organization (pp. 3–6)


The Autonomic Nervous Systemand Visceral Sensory Neurons 24

1

The Human Body:An Orientation 1

a. The levels of structural organization, from the simplest to the most complex, are asfollows: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and the human organismitself.

b. Organ systems are organs working closely together to accomplish a common func-tion. Organ systems will be studied in detail in succeeding chapters. Briefly, systemsinclude integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lym-phatic, immune, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive.

D. Scale: Length, Volume, and Weight (p. 6)

1. The metric system provides precision for measuring the dimensions of cells, tissues, andorgans.

II. Gross Anatomy: An Introduction (pp. 6–13)

A. The Anatomical Position (p. 6)

1. Learning the anatomical position is essential because directional terminology used inanatomy refers to the body in this position.

B. Regional and Directional Terms (p. 6, Fig. 1.3, Table 1.1)

1. Regional terms name the specific body areas.

2. The standardized terms of direction are: superior/inferior, anterior (ventral)/posterior(dorsal), medial/lateral, superficial/deep.

C. Body Planes and Sections (pp. 6, 7, and 9, Fig. 1.4)

1. The body and/or organs are cut into sections along a flat surface called a plane.

2. Planes are identified as sagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse (horizontal), and oblique.

3. Sagittal planes are midsagittal (median) planes or parasagittal planes.

D. Anatomical Variability (pp. 7 and 10)

1. Anatomical structures do not always match the textbook descriptions.

E. The Human Body Plan (pp. 10–11, Fig. 1.6)

1. Tube-within-a-tube

2. Bilateral symmetry

3. Dorsal hollow nerve cord

4. Notochord and vertebrae

5. Segmentation

6. Pharyngeal pouches

F. Body Cavities and Membranes (pp. 11–12, Figs. 1.6, 1.7)

1. The dorsal body cavity is subdivided into the cranial cavity and the vertebral cavity.

a. The cranial cavity houses the brain.

b. The vertebral cavity runs through the vertebral column and encloses the spinal cord.

2. Three serous cavities are all enclosed body cavities with no openings to the externalsurface of the body.

a. The pericardial cavity surrounds the heart.

b. The pleural cavity surrounds the lung.

c. The peritoneal cavity surrounds abdominopelvic viscera.

G. Abdominal Regions and Quadrants (pp. 12–13, Fig. 1.8)

1. The abdomen is divided into nine regions: the right and left hypochondriac region, theepigastric region, the right and left lumbar regions, the umbilical region, the right andleft iliac region, and the hypogastric region.

III. Microscopic Anatomy: An Introduction (pp. 14–15, Fig. 1.9)

A. Microscopy is the examination of the fine structure of organs, tissues, and cells. (pp. 14–15)

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Chapter 1 The Human Body: An Orientation 3


B. Preparing Human Tissue for Microscopy (pp. 14–15)

1. Specimens for LM or TEM must be fixed (preserved) and then cut into sections (slices)thin enough to transmit light or electrons.

C. Scanning electron microscopy provides three-dimensional pictures of whole, unsectionedsurfaces. (p. 15)

D. Preserved tissue that has been exposed to many procedures can show minor distortionscalled artifacts. (p. 15)

IV. Clinical Anatomy: An Introduction to Medical Imaging Techniques (pp. 15–18, Figs.1.10–1.14)

A. X-Ray Imaging (pp. 15–16, Fig. 1.10)

1. Traditional X-ray images continue to play a major role in medical diagnoses involvingbone and abnormal dense structures, such as a tumor.

B. Advanced X-Ray Techniques (p. 16, Figs. 1.11, 1.12)

1. Computed tomography (CT) or computed axial tomography (CAT) produces improvedX-ray images that are computer enhanced for clarity.

2. Mammography is an imaging technique that uses low-dose radiation to examine thebreast for tumors.

3. Xenon CT is used to diagnose a stroke (a blockage or cutting off of blood flowing to thebrain).

4. Angiography is an imaging technique that utilizes a contrast medium injected into ablood vessel to produce clear images of blood vessels. Angiography is important fordiagnosing diseases and disorders of blood vessels.

5. Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) is an important specialization of angiography inwhich images are taken of specific blood vessels both before and after injection of con-trast medium. Computer technology allows for the “before” image to be “subtracted,”yielding clear images of potential blockages in vessels to the heart or brain.

C. Positron emission tomography (PET) tracks radioisotopes in the body, locating areas ofhigh energy consumption and high blood flow. (pp. 16–18, Fig. 1.13)

D. Sonography (ultrasound imaging) provides sonar images of developing fetuses and internalbody structures, such as an enlarged liver. (p. 18, Fig. 1.14)

E. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) subjects the body to strong magnetic fields and radiowaves, producing high-contrast images of soft body parts. (pp. 18–19, Fig. 1.15)

Lecture Hints1. Discuss the terms anatomy and physiology. Describe how scientists use these terms and how

the terms complement each other.

2. Explain the relationship of structure to function in the study of anatomy.

3. Describe advancements in each of the branches of anatomy. Offer examples of specific careersamong the branches.

4. Distinguish systemic anatomy from regional anatomy. Certain professions use one or the otherapproach to studying the human body. Note that professional texts usually take a regionalapproach, whereas undergraduate studies usually take a systemic approach to anatomy.

5. Establish the significance of anatomical terminology at the beginning of the course. Studentsmust understand they are learning a “new language” and will be successful academically inanatomy if they master this language.

6. Teach students word origins (Greek and Latin roots) as much as possible. Use terms withwhich they are familiar, for example: hand, manus, manual. Emphasize the use of dictionariesas well as the glossary and word root origins summary from the back cover of the text.

7. Point out that multiple terms exist for some anatomical structures (e.g., eustachian tube, audi-tory tube, pharyngotympanic tube, otopharyngeal tube). Explain that some anatomical termsare structural designations whereas others are functional. Finally, explain that some terms areeponyms that denote the discoverer’s name (e.g., Bartholin’s gland).

8. Point out that a system is an artificial grouping of structures that work toward a common goal.Explain how organs and systems interact together to form the entire organism, the human body.

9. Caution students that there is a difference between the cardiovascular system and circulatorysystem. Explain the difference and their relationship to the lymphatic system.

10. Explain to students how the terms superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, and dorsal/ventralrefer to different body regions for humans versus four-legged animals. Point out that morethan one word can be used to correctly describe the position of a structure.

11. Stress to students that most body cavities are potential spaces filled with viscera, tissues, andfluids.

12. In addition to the dorsal and ventral body cavities, cite other cavities such as the pleural cavity,abdominal cavity, pelvic cavity, and the pericardial cavity.

13. Contrast the types of images obtained with X-ray machines, CT scans, MRI scans, and ultra-sonography. Show actual examples of X-ray films, if possible, and keep in mind the potentialuse of X-ray images to demonstrate anatomy in other chapters.

Classroom Discussion Topics and Activities1. Reinforce concepts of structure and function by asking students to explain the relationships

between muscle and bone, circulatory system and respiratory system, and muscles and nerves.

2. Have students discuss the relative vulnerability of the organs in the dorsal and ventral bodycavities by asking, “Why do you think a dog instinctively curls over and protects its abdomenwhen that body region is threatened by a blow or even during play?”

3. Ask students to write down 12 body parts that consist of three letters (e.g., eye, ear, leg). Fol-low up with the anatomical term for each part (e.g., arm—brachium). Alternatively, have stu-dents use the index in the text and simply search for three-letter words. This encourages themto become familiar with the text. And tell them to keep it clean!

4. Demonstrate preserved human specimens if available. A simple statement, “This is a heart (orkidney or brain or bone)” is all that is necessary. Ask the class what the specimens have incommon. Muscles? Nerves? Blood?

5. Assume the anatomical position, and ask the students how that position differs from the“usual” standing position. Ask students to explain the importance of the anatomical positionwith regard to their studies.

6. Call out regional terms (e.g., buccal, femoral), and have the students (as a group) point out thenamed regions on their own bodies.

7. Ask students to describe the purpose of directional terms. Why are these terms used in pairs?Ask students to demonstrate their understanding; “My elbow is _______________ to my shoul-der.” Get the students to act these out as a group, or choose a volunteer to demonstrate at thefront of the classroom.

8. Placing a chair in front of the class, ask a volunteer to show how the chair would be cut alongthe sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes.

9. Use a dissectible model of a human torso to point out the dorsal and ventral body cavities andthe main organs in each cavity.

10. Remove all the viscera from the ventral body cavity of a model of the human torso. Ask forvolunteers or assign students to return the viscera to their proper anatomical locations. Aseach organ is properly repositioned, have the rest of the students call out its name andidentify its organ system.



11. Demonstrate plastinated sections of the human body, which are available for purchase. Alter-natively, project sections on an overhead projector for viewing by the entire class.

12. Thrust your fist into an inflated balloon to illustrate the two layers of the serous membrane.

13. Explain to the class how tissues are cut into thin sections for microscopic viewing. You candescribe this in a general way, or you might obtain a microtome and demonstrate how aparaffin-embedded rat liver is sectioned. Remind students that their glass slides possess onlya small, thin slice of an organ.

14. Obtain slides to show the types of stains used for light microscopy, such as hematoxylin andeosin, Sudan black B, and methylene blue.

15. Show the class transmission electron micrographs, scanning electron micrographs, and lightmicrographs. Have the students explain how to distinguish among these.

16. Offer examples of medical conditions, and have the students explain which medical imagingtechnique they would use to diagnose that condition.

Clinical Questions1. A surgeon removed a section of tissue along a transverse plane for microscopic examination.

What would the section be called?

Answer: A cross section.

2. Which medical imaging technique has been studied most extensively for its effects on humanhealth?

Answer: The traditional X-ray technique, because it has been used the longest. MRI andultrasound are such new techniques that long-term studies of their effects have not yet beenpossible.

ART RESOURCES

Transparencies Index/Instructor Resource DVDFigure 1.1 Levels of structural complexity in the cardiovascular system.

Figure 1.2 Summary of the body’s organ systems and their major functions.

Figure 1.3 Anatomic position and regional terms.

Figure 1.4 Planes of the body with corresponding magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.

Figure 1.5 Basic human body plan, indicated by structures shared among all vertebrates.

Figure 1.6 Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions.

Figure 1.7 The serous cavities and their associated membranes.

Figure 1.8 Abdominal regions and quadrants.

Figure 1.9 Cells viewed by three types of microscopy.

Figure 1.10 X-ray images.

Figure 1.11 Computed tomography (CT).

Figure 1.12 Digital subtraction angiography (DSA).

Figure 1.13 Positron emission tomography (PET).

Figure 1.14 Ultrasound image of a fetus in the uterus.

Figure 1.15 Magnetic resonance image (MRI) of the head in sagittal section.

Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms



Teaching with ArtFigure 1.7a–d The serous cavities.

Textbook p. 12; transparencies; Instructor Resource DVD.

Checklist of Key Points in the Figure• In each part, indicate that the visceral layer is in direct contact with the surface of an organ

and that the parietal layer is in contact with the wall of the body cavity.

• Comment on the function of fluid in the cavities.

• Describe the relationship of the pericardium to the heart, the pleura to the lungs, and the peri-toneum to the abdominal organs.

• Explain how the visceral peritoneum and parietal peritoneum form a framework of double-layer folds called mesenteries.

Display Figure 25.1, Reproductive organs of the male, saggital view.

• In (d), explain how mesenteries support abdominal organs.

Common Conceptual Difficulties Interpreting the Art• Explain the differences between mucous membranes and serous membranes.

• Explain why the pleural and pericardial cavities are “potential spaces.” Tell students that theart exaggerates the space between the membranes and that, in a healthy body, only a thinlayer of fluid separates the two membranes.

• In (d), explain the difference between an abdominal and retroperitoneal organ.

Display Figure 23.5a,b, The peritoneum and peritoneal cavity, to demonstrate how organsbecome retroperitoneal. Display Figure 24.2a, Position of the kidneys abutting the posteriorabdominal wall, for a detailed view of retroperitoneal organs.

Art ExerciseTo help students understand the continuity of the parietal and visceral peritoneum, ask students totrace a continuous line around the serous membrane in (d). The same demonstration is possibleusing the overhead transparency with an overlay and colored marker. In theory, the markerremains in continuous contact with the drawing of the line.

Critical ReasoningPleurisy is an inflammation of the pleural layers characterized by the abnormal production ofpleural fluid. Referring to Figures 1.6 and 1.7, ask students where they think the excess pleuralfluid might collect.

Answer: The pleural fluid collects by gravity in the space between the diaphragm and the ribcage called the costodiaphragmatic recess. Medical professionals can extract the excess fluidusing a syringe.

SUPPLEMENTAL COURSE MATERIALS

Library Research Topics1. Research the historical development of gross anatomy.

2. Research the historical development of the techniques of microscopy and histology.

3. Explore the modern-day definitions of life and death.





MediaSee Appendix A of the Instructor Resource Guide for Key to Audiovisual Distributors.

Video1. The Human Body: Systems Working Together (WNSE; 16 min., 1993). Animation, X-ray

images, motion pictures, and micrographs help explain the workings of the human body. Stu-dents learn that some organs belong to more than one system, and that all of the systemsmust work together to support all of their activities.

2. The Human Body: Pushing the Limits (Discovery Channel, series, 2008). This series focuses onthe human body’s abilities under stress and include documentaries of survival situations. EachDVD in the series (Sight, Strength, Sensation, and Brain Power) is choreographed to bring theinner workings of the human body to life. The photography, digital technology, and computerimagery offer a substantive look at facts about the body.

3. The Incredible Human Machine (National Geographic, 90 min., 2007). This DVD shows theintricacies of the “human machine.” The tour of the body includes photography and videogra-phy of the human body.

4. The Universe Within (CBS; 60 min., 1995). NOVA takes viewers through the microworld of thehuman body. The coordination of muscles, bones, heart, and circulatory systems is revealedby microphotography.

Software1. A.D.A.M.® Interactive Anatomy 4.0 (AIA; CD-ROM, DVD). Comprehensive, precise, and

anatomically correct database of the human body gives the student an opportunity to explorehuman systems and structures within the context of the whole body.

2. A.D.A.M.® MediaPro (AIA; CD-ROM, DVD). Provides clinical illustrations for classroomcurriculum and presentations. Contains more than 2000 images in JPEG format.

3. Bodyworks (WNSE; Windows). An economical CD of anatomy and physiology, which includeslesson plans and quizzes that can be printed.

4. Explorations in Human Biology (WNSE; Win/Mac). This CD contains a set of 15 animated,interactive lessons. It features clearly written topic information, colorful graphics, and animat-ed illustrations.

5. The Ultimate Human Body (CBS; Win/Mac). A blend of high-quality 3-D images, animation,sounds, and text. Students can explore the body through three search paths: “The BodyMachine,” “The Body Organs,” and “The Body Systems.”

Suggested ReadingsBirnholz, J.C., and E. Farrell. Ultrasound images of human fetal development. American Scientist

72 (1984): 608–613.

Cahill, D.R. Lachman’s Case Studies in Anatomy. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Clemente, C.D. Anatomy: A Regional Atlas of the Human Body. 5th ed. Baltimore: LippincottWilliams & Wilkins, 2006.

Dunning, A. Lessons from the dead. (An article on autopsy.) New Scientist (January 30, 1993): 44–47.

Lester, David S., and James L. Olds. Biomedical imaging: 2001 and beyond. The AnatomicalRecord 265 (2001): 35–36.

Moore, K.L., and Arthur F. Dalley, II. Clinically Oriented Anatomy. 6th ed. Philadelphia: LippincottWilliams & Wilkins, 2009.

Morris, D. The Naked Ape: A Zoologist’s Study of the Human Animal. New York: Dell PublishingCo., 1999.

Raichle, M.E. Visualizing the mind. Scientific American 270 (April 1994): 58.

Roach, Mary. Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers. New York: W.W. Norton & Company,Inc., 2003.

Sivitz, Laura B. Beyond imaging. Science News 159 (1) (Jan. 2001): 12.

Weiss, Peter. Magnetic whispers. Science News 159 (Jan. 2001): 42–44.

ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS

Answers for multiple-choice and matching questions 1–12 are located in Appendix B of the textbook.

Short Answer and Essay Questions13. In the anatomical position, the body stands erect, the arms hang at the sides, the palms face

anteriorly, the thumbs point away from the trunk, and the feet are flat on the ground with toesforward. It is necessary to use this standard position because most directional terms refer tothe body in this position, regardless of its actual position. (p. 6)

14. (a) The thymus, thyroid, ovary, and pancreas have endocrine system components. (b) Thenasal cavity, larynx, bronchi, and lungs are parts of the respiratory system. (c) The kidney,ureter, and urethra are components of the urinary system. (Fig. 1.2)

15. (a) Bilateral symmetry means that the structures on the right half of the body are essentiallymirror images of those on the left half. (b) Organs of the abdomen that are not bilaterally sym-metrical include the stomach, spleen, intestines, liver, and gallbladder. (pp. 10 and 13)

16. (a) Only CT uses X rays. (b) MRI uses magnetic fields and radio waves. (c) PET uses radioiso-topes. (d) CT, PET, sonography, and MRI display body regions in sections; angiography, whichis based on traditional X-ray images, does not use sections. (pp. 15–19)

17. See Figure 1.3.

18. All the photos were taken through a light microscope. This is demonstrated by the fact thatthey are colored. Also, they show many cells grouped into tissues, so they are low-magnifica-tion pictures—the specialty of light microscopy. (p. 14 and Chapter 4)

19. Here are some examples of correct usage of directional terms:

a. The cephalic region is superior to the cervical region.

b. The scapulae are dorsal to the breastbone.

c. The pubic region is ventral to the gluteal region.

d. The nose is medial to the ears. (Or, the nose is intermediate to the ears.)

e. The skeletal muscles are superficial to bones.

f. The liver is deep to the skin.

g. The knee is proximal to the ankle.

(p. 6)

20. Here are some examples: abdominal cavity—small intestine, stomach, liver; pelvic cavity—bladder, some sex organs, rectum. (pp. 11 and 13)

21. Your injuries occurred in your armpit, base of the skull, or finger (or toe). (p. 7)

22. Three organs that are part of the inner tube are any of the digestive organs, such as the stom-ach, esophagus, and small intestine. Components of the outer tube show evidence of segmen-tation, such as the bony vertebral column, ribs, and muscles between the ribs. (pp. 10–11)

Critical Reasoning and Clinical Applications Questions1. MRI is very effective at peering through bones and at distinguishing tumors from surrounding

tissues on the basis of their water content. (CT scans also are used to find tumors.) (pp. 18–19)



2. The abdominal organs are susceptible to injury because the walls of the abdomen are not pro-tected by bone, as are the thoracic organs (by ribs) and the pelvis (protected by the hip bones).In the automobile accident described here, the seat belts squeezed the children’s abdominalviscera upon impact, harming these organs. (p. 13)

3. The inguinal region is the groin, or most inferior part of the anterior abdomen just above thethigh. The lumbar region is the loin or back of the abdomen. The perineum is the regionaround the anus and external genitalia. (p. 7)

4. The axillary region is the armpit. The coxal region is the hip. The sacral region is in the lowerback between the hips. The acromial region is the top point of the shoulder. The peronealregion is the lateral part of the leg. (p. 7)

5. The spinal column and spine are the same thing (i.e., the bony vertebral column). The spinalcord, by contrast, is the nerve cord that runs through the vertebral canal.

6. (1) The meanings of the following roots: super- = above/upon; contra- = against; para- = nextto, beside, near; ante- = preceding, before; mamm- = breasts; epi- = over, above, on top of;peri- = around; -graph = instrument for recording data or writing; trans- = across, through.

(2) Examples of terms used in Chapter 1 derived from each root listed: superior or superficial,contralateral, parasagittal, anterior, mammary, epigastric, perineum, micrograph, and trans-verse.

(3) Definitions of words based on the meaning of the root word: superior = above the point ofreference; contralateral = the other side; parasagittal = adjacent to the midsagittal plane; ante-rior = in front of the point of reference; mammary = pertaining to the breast; epigastric =above the gastric region; perineum = around the anus; micrograph = picture of a small struc-ture; transverse = a plane crossing the body from side to side. (p. 8)



SUPPLEMENTAL STUDENT MATERIALS

to Human Anatomy, Sixth Edition

Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

To the Student The concepts in this chapter will orient you to the human body and introduce you to the science ofanatomy. Mastering the vocabulary in this chapter will help you to understand basic anatomicalrelationships and help you to communicate effectively with anatomists and those working in thehealth care professions.

Step 1: Learn the organ systems of the human body.

■■ Name the 12 basic organ systems.

■■ Give examples of organs for each system.

■■ Which organ systems are located in the head? Thorax? Abdominal cavity? Lower extremity?

■■ Do you perceive one system as more important than another? Why or why not?

Step 2: Master the professional vocabulary of the science of anatomy.

■■ Describe how a man sitting with hands on his lap moves his body into anatomical position.

■■ Using the regional terms and names of specific body areas in Figure 1.3, write comparativestatements for the following directional terms: superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, ventral/dorsal, medial/lateral, and proximal/distal. (Example: “The fingers are distal to theshoulders.”)

■■ Demonstrate the difference between frontal, transverse, and sagittal planes using your own body.

■■ Make vocabulary flash cards.

■■ Make copies of text figures without labels for review and test preparation.

Note: Your instructor can print any illustration in the text without labels using the InstructorResource DVD that comes with the instructor’s copy of the textbook.

Step 3: Differentiate the major and minor body cavities.

■■ Name two major body cavities.

■■ List the subdivisions of each cavity.

■■ Name the organs associated with each subdivision.

■■ Referring to Figure 1.6, identify the distinctive structure that separates the abdominal cavity.from the thoracic cavity.

■■ Relate serous membranes and fluids to the subdivisions of the ventral body cavity,



LECTURE AND DEMONSTRATION

Objectives1. Describe the important contributions of Robert Hooke, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor

Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow to cell biology.

2. Define cell, and comment on the differences between an actual animal cell and the generalizedcell depicted in Figure 2.1.

3. Describe the basic cellular activities required to sustain life.

4. Identify and describe the structure and function of the three main regions of a cell: plasmamembrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.

5. Explain how molecules move across the plasma membrane.

6. Describe the cytosol.

7. Compare the structure and function of ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum.

8. Explain the relationship between the Golgi apparatus and rough endoplasmic reticulum.

9. Describe the unique structure of mitochondria and the roles the mitochondria play in the cell.

10. Compare and contrast lysosomes with peroxisomes.

11. Describe the structure and function of the cytoskeleton.

12. Explain how microtubules relate to the centrosome and centrioles.

13. Explain the structure of glycosomes and lipid droplets.

14. Describe the structure and function of the nucleus and nuclear envelope.

15. Identify the relationship between chromatin and chromosomes.

16. Explain the function of nucleoli.

17. Identify some specific cell types, and explain the relationship of cell shape to cell function.

18. Explain the cyclic relationship between interphase and cell division.

19. Define and describe interphase and its subphases. Include a key event for each subphase.

20. Define and describe mitosis and its stages, including key events for each stage.

21. Discuss cell differentiation and explain the major theories of aging.

Suggested Lecture OutlineI. Overview of Cells (pp. 24–25, Fig. 2.1)

A. Revolutionary discoveries in the 1800s overturned the theory of spontaneous generation.Scientists assert that organisms are composed of cells that arise from other cells. (p. 24)

B. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living things. (pp. 24–25)

1. Major cellular regions are the plasma membrane, the cytoplasm, and the nucleus.

2. Most cell types contain each of the requisite organelles, but in differing abundancesbased on the cell’s type and its function.

II. The Plasma Membrane (Plasmalemma) (pp. 25–28, Figs. 2.2–2.5)

A. Structure (pp. 25–26, Fig. 2.2)

1. Double layer, or bilayer, of lipid molecules (phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids)with protein molecules dispersed within it.


11

Cells: The Living Units 2

B. Functions (pp. 26–27, Fig. 2.2)

1. Separates two major fluid compartments: the intercellular fluid within the cells and theextracellular fluid, which lies outside and between cells.

2. Some membrane proteins act as receptors and are part of the body’s cellular communi-cation system.

3. Substances that enter and leave the cell are determined by the plasma membrane.

C. Membrane Transport (p. 27, Fig. 2.3)

1. Small uncharged molecules pass through the lipid bilayer by diffusion.

2. Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane.

3. Faciliatated diffusion is the movement of molecules down their concentration gradient,diffusing through the plasma membrane by moving through specific integral proteins.

4. Moving molecules across the plasma membrane against their concentration gradient isan energy-requiring process called active transport.

D. Movement of Large Macromolecules (pp. 27–28, Figs. 2.4, 2.5)

1. Two types of vesicular transport, called endocytosis and exocytosis, move the largestmacromolecules.

2. Three types of endocytosis occur in cells: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-medi-ated endocytosis.

a. Hormones, low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), viruses, and some toxins enter cells byreceptor-mediated endocytosis.

3. Exocytosis is the process by which substances move from the cytoplasm to the outsideof a cell.

III. The Cytoplasm (pp. 30–35, Figs. 2.6–2.12)

A. The three major elements of the cytoplasm are the cytosol, organelles, and inclusions. (p. 30)

B. Cytosol (also termed cytoplasmic matrix) is the jelly-like fluid that suspends cytoplasmicelements. (p. 30)

C. Cytoplasmic organelles perform different cellular survival functions. (pp. 30–35, Figs.2.6–2.12, Table 2.1)

1. Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.

2. Endoplasmic reticulum makes proteins (rough ER) and is the site of lipid and steroidsynthesis (smooth ER).

3. Golgi apparatus packages and modifies proteins.

4. Mitochondria synthesize ATP.

5. Lysosomes are the sites of intracellular digestion.

6. Peroxisomes detoxify toxic substances.

7. Cytoskeleton supports cellular structures.

8. Centrioles act in forming cilia and flagella, and organize microtubule networks duringmitosis.

D. Inclusions are not permanent structures in cells; examples are food storage units for fatsand sugars, as well as pigments. (p. 35)

IV. The Nucleus (pp. 35–38, Figs. 2.13–2.15)

A. The nucleus is the control center of the cell; it contains the DNA that directs protein synthe-sis. (pp. 35–36)

B. Two parallel membranes separated by a fluid-filled space form the nuclear envelope thatsurrounds the nucleus. (pp. 36–37)

C. Nucleoli contain parts of several chromosomes and assist in assembling ribosomalsubunits. (p. 37)



D. Chromatin is composed of DNA and histones located in the nucleus. (pp. 37–38, Figs. 2.14,2.15)

1. The DNA molecule is a double helix made up of four types of nucleotides with bases ofadenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.

V. The Cell Life Cycle (pp. 38–39 and 40–41, Figs. 2.16, 2.17)

A. The two major divisions of the cell cycle are interphase and cell division (mitotic phase).Cytokinesis occurs at the end of the M (mitotic) phase of the cell life cycle. (p. 38, Fig. 2.16)

B. Interphase is divided into G1, S, and G2 subphases. DNA replication occurrs during the Ssubphase. (pp. 38–39, Fig. 2.16)

C. During G1 and G2 of interphase, “checkpoints” evaluate cellular activity. G1 checkpointassesses cell size and G2 checkpoint verifies accuracy of replication. (pp. 38–39, Fig. 2.16)

D. Nuclear material divides during mitosis. (pp. 39–41, Fig. 2.17)

E. During cytokinesis, an entire cell is divided into two daughter cells. (pp. 39–41, Fig. 2.17)

VI. Developmental Aspects of Cells (pp. 39 and 42–43, Fig. 2.18)

A. Cell differentiation is the development of specific and distinctive features of human body cells.(p. 39)

B. Evidence supports the theory that aging occurs because mitochondria are damaged by freeradicals and/or genetically influenced processes. (pp. 42–43)

Lecture Hints1. Explain why the cell in Figure 2.1 is described as a “generalized” cell. Emphasize that many

body cells have a different structure, and relate shape to function. (Example: Mature red bloodcells are anucleate, and skeletal muscle cells are multinucleate. RBCs are biconcave discs thatlack organelles and are packed with hemoglobin for oxygen transport.)

2. Display slides of electron micrographs to augment text diagrams. Comment on preparation ofanimal tissues for microscopy and on different types of microscopes.

3. Relate the function of the plasma membrane to its location at the interface between the cell’sinterior and exterior.

4. Describe the structure and functions of integral and peripheral proteins.

5. Explain diffusion and osmosis. Comment on how diffusion and osmosis differ from activetransport mechanisms, such as exocytosis, endocytosis, and phagocytosis.

6. Describe the roles of v-SNARES and t-SNARES in exocytosis. Note that SNARE is an acronymfor a group of proteins known as “soluble NSF attachment receptors.”

7. Explain the characteristics and content of cytoplasm, and distinguish it from cytosol.

8. Discuss the specific roles of cytoplasmic organelles and inclusions.

9. Present a summary list of cellular organelles organized as membranous, microtubular, or“other,” and briefly comment on functions of each organelle.

10. Explain the role of mitochondria as the source of most cellular energy. Refer to Figure 2.10.

11. Relate a molecule of glucose (food energy) to ATP production.

12. Using specific cellular examples, comment on why some cells have larger numbers of mito-chondria and some have fewer mitochondria.

13. Discuss protein synthesis within cells.

14. Correlate the role of the nucleus as the source of information for protein synthesis, with theribosome as the site of protein synthesis and the Golgi apparatus as the site of packaging anddelivery of proteins within cells.

15. Explain why the rough ER is considered the cell’s “membrane factory” by tracing the flow ofmembrane components from the rough ER to the plasma membrane.

Chapter 2 Cells: The Living Units 13


16. List components of the cytoskeleton.

17. Explain how the various elements of the cell’s skeleton differ from each other in structure andfunction.

18. Discuss the role of the nucleus as the control center of the cell.

19. Explain the importance of DNA, and describe the design of the double helix. Tell students theywill not confuse complementary base pairing if they simply remember “A-T” as the only wordpossible from the base symbols, G, C, A, and T.

20. Describe the relationship of the nuclear envelope to rough ER.

21. Explain differences between chromatin and chromosomes.

22. Describe the structures and functions of the nucleus and nucleolus. Stress that the two aredifferent entities within the cell.

23. Introduce the concept of cellular diversity by relating the shape of a cell to its function. Figure2.18 is excellent for this concept.

24. Emphasize the cell cycle as a continuous process using the stages as discrete events.

25. Contrast cellular changes during interphase with changes during mitosis.

26. Describe the functions of “checkpoints” during interphase of the cell cycle.

27. Ask students why telophase is the reverse of prophase.

28. Explain cytokinesis, and clearly distinguish it from mitosis.

29. Point out that mitosis is possible without cytokinesis, using multinucleated skeletal muscle cells for an example.

30. Make sure students can distinguish genes, chromatin, chromosomes, DNA, and proteins.

31. Discuss the free-radical and mitochondrial theories of aging in relation to environmental pol-lution and the current craze for ingesting antioxidants such as vitamins C and E.

32. Discuss telomeres and telomerase in reference to the genetic theory of aging.

33. Distinguish apoptosis from senescence.

Classroom Discussion Topics and Activities 1. Using Plastilene™ (a reusable modeling clay available in many colors) and contrasting paper,

organize students into groups of three with instructions to model the plasma membrane. Usingtext Figure 2.2, p. 25, instruct students to include phospholipids, cholesterol, glycocalyx, andone membrane protein. Then have brief group presentations covering the structure and func-tions of the chosen proteins.

2. Illustrate a cell by using a hypothetical Jell-O® fruit salad. The Jell-O® is the cytosol; an orangeis the nucleus; and nuts, raisins, and other fruits are the organelles.

3. Ask students to name common examples of diffusion, osmosis, and filtration.

4. Use a model of an animal cell to demonstrate the various organelles and other cell features.

5. Instruct students to list all parts of a generalized cell that are involved in the following func-tions: respiration, digestion, excretion, transportation, reproduction, food acquirement, ener-gy production, protein formation, and internal support.

6. Instruct the students to construct a chart that lists the membrane-bound organelles in one col-umn, and in another column, the organelles that are not membrane-bound.

7. Use a Slinky™ to demonstrate the helical nature of DNA. Demonstrate the relationshipbetween chromatin and the chromosome states by stretching or tightly coiling the Slinky™.

8. Beginning with a typical diploid human body cell containing 46 chromosomes, have studentsidentify the number of chromosomes and chromatids present in each stage of mitosis.

9. Use models of chromosomes with detachable chromatids to illustrate mitotic phases. (Makesimple models using strands of colored yarn with sewn-on snaps or colored pipe cleaners.)



10. Assign the following questions to be answered at the next class meeting:

a. Why is damage to the heart or brain more damaging than injury to the liver?

b. Why is precise division of the chromosomes during metaphase of mitosis so important?

c. Is mitosis without cytokinesis possible? What would be the result?

11. Discuss why certain body cells (e.g., muscle and nerve cells) “lost” their ability to divide.

12. Ask students why they survive even though they lose billions of cells daily.

13. Ask students to consider possibilities of growing organs from “scratch.” What ethical issues oftissue engineering and regenerative medicine are involved? Supplemental video: Spare Parts:Growing Human Organs (FHS; 28 min., 1999)

14. Pique students’ interest by discussing topics such as the cell biology of cancer or theories on aging.

15. Describe telomeres as “pencil erasers”; once the “eraser” is gone, the cell undergoes senescence.

Clinical Questions1. A patient receiving treatment for testicular cancer was told that the chemotherapy drug he

received inhibits the division of cancer cells. What could the drug be, and how would it stopcell division?

Answer: One chemotherapy drug considered in this chapter, vinblastine, inhibits the forma-tion of microtubules and mitotic spindles required for cell division. Because cancer cellsdivide rapidly, the drug will preferentially affect these cells. Unfortunately, normal cells thatdivide rapidly will also be affected.

2. A small boy received a cut on his arm, and his mother applied hydrogen peroxide to thewound. The wound bubbled! Why?

Answer: The hydrogen peroxide was degraded to water and oxygen (which bubbled off) by the action of the intracellular enzymes in peroxisomes. (Bacteria in the cut produce a simi-lar enzyme.)

ART RESOURCES

Transparencies Index/Instructor Resource DVDFigure 2.1 Structure of a generalized cell.

Figure 2.2 The plasma membrane according to the fluid mosaic model.

Figure 2.3 Membrane transport mechanisms.

Figure 2.4 The three types of endocytosis.

Figure 2.5 Exocytosis.

Figure 2.6 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and ribosomes.

Figure 2.7 Golgi apparatus.

Figure 2.8 The sequence of events from protein synthesis on the rough ER to the final dis-tribution of these proteins.

Figure 2.9 Electron micrograph of a cell containing lysosomes (93,000X).

Figure 2.10 Mitochondria.

Figure 2.11 Cytoskeletal elements.

Figure 2.12 Centrosome and centrioles.

Figure 2.13 The nucleus.

Figure 2.14 Molecular structure of DNA.

Figure 2.15 Chromatin and chromosome structure.



Figure 2.16 The cell cycle.

Figure 2.17 Focus on mitosis.

Figure 2.18 Cellular diversity.

Table 2.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function

Teaching with ArtFigure 2.2 The plasma membrane.

Figure 2.4 The three types of endocytosis.

Figure 2.5 Exocytosis.

Textbook pp. 25–28; transparencies; Instructor Resource DVD.

Checklist of Key Points in the Figure • Explain the “fluid” nature of the fluid mosaic model.

• Explain why the fluid mosaic model is a “mosaic.”

• Define intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid.

• Correlate Figures 2.2–2.5 to differentiate bulk transport concepts, exocytosis, and endocytosis.Students often do not understand the important point that endocytosis involves taking in thedissolved solutes in the fluid, not just the solvent itself.

• Explain the terms cell-eating and cell-drinking.

• Describe the difference between nonselective pinocytosis and highly selective receptor-mediated endocytosis.

• Illustrate the importance of phagocytosis using white blood cells.

• Illustrate exocytosis with the production of salty, protein-containing solution by cells in tearglands when weeping occurs.

Common Conceptual Difficulties Interpreting the Art • Remind students that Figure 2.2 focuses on the molecular level.

• Cellular components are recycled and reused.

• Energy is required. Where does it come from?

• Point out relationship of plasma membrane to vesicle formation during endocytosis andexocytosis.

• Point out that because the membrane is “highly selective” in receptor-mediated endocytosis,this does not mean harmful substances such as toxins and viruses are kept out of the cell.

Art Exercise Using Figure 2.4 for reference, instruct students to represent phagocytosis with a simple drawing.Follow a highlighted segment of plasma membrane to its incorporation into a phagosome. Addlysosomes to the drawing. Ask students where the highlighted membrane finally ends up. A simi-lar demonstration is possible using Figure 2.4 with an overlay and colored marker.

Critical Reasoning Ask students why lymph nodes become swollen and tender when there is an infection in the body.

Answer: Lymphocytes are white blood cells that fight infections in the body. A swollen nodemeans a proliferation of lymphocytes and is evidence of the body’s fight against infection.



SUPPLEMENTAL COURSE MATERIALS

Library Research Topics1. Can protein molecules move within the cell membrane? What research supports your findings?

2. Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a highly selective mechanism to ingest molecules. How canit be used to kill cancer cells?

3. Do chemical carcinogens cause all cancers? What other things cause cancer?

4. Review the evidence for and against the theory that mitochondria evolved from bacteria thatcame to live within primitive eukaryotic cells.

5. Read about the newest research on aging.

6. Research current use of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

MediaSee Appendix A of the Instructor Resource Guide for Key to Audiovisual Distributors.

Slides1. Cell Structure Set (CBS)

2. Onion Mitosis 35mm Slides Set (CBS)

Video1. The Aging Process (FHS; 19 min.). This program explains the effects of aging on the mind and

body and explores the theories about why cells wear out.

2. Cancer (FHS; 23 min.). Provides a look at how cancers form and some of the weapons used inthe fight against them. Some of the treatments demonstrated include chemotherapy, radiationtherapy, surgery, photochemotherapy, and monoclonal antibodies.

3. Exploring the Living Cell (GP; 180 min., 2007). This DVD includes high-resolution animationsand electron microscopy images. Also included are narrations about each organelle andimagery of cellular organelles.

4. An Introduction to the Living Cell (CBS; 30 min.). This program takes students on a visual tourof a cell. Subcellular organelles are shown working together. Computer animation and micro-scopic images are used to visualize the complexities of the cell.

5. A Journey Through the Cell (IM; 25 min. each, 1997). Contains computer graphics and anima-tions, and includes presentations by scientists introducing ideas central to understanding cells.

6. Living Cells: Structure and Function (CBS; 36 min., 1996). This DVD shows both real-time andtime-lapsed video of cellular components, mitosis, cell division, and structure and function ofcells.

Software1. Animal and Plant Mitosis SMARTSlides (WNSE; Win/Mac). Your classroom computer

becomes a microscope with a library of 20 prepared slides. The program presents all phasesof plant and animal mitosis.

2. The Cell: Structure, Function, and Process (IM; Win/Mac). Introduces the microscopic world ofthe cell and explores various cell processes.

3. Exploration of Cell Process (IM; Win/Mac). Helps students to visualize and understand essen-tial cell processes.



4. The Plasma Membrane and Cellular Transport (CBS; Win/Mac). This CD provides a detailedstudy of membranes and cell motility. Introduces the fluid mosaic model. Students can explorecell biology at their own pace.

5. Practice Anatomy Lab™ 2.0 (PAL) (BC; CD-ROM, Website). An interactive study and labassessment tool. The cytology module illustrates and tests understanding of mitosis through aseries of histology images.

Suggested ReadingsBartek, Jiri, and Jiri Lukas. Order from destruction. Science 294 (5540) (Oct. 2001): 66–67.

Biello, D. Genes governing embryonic stem cell “immortality” discovered. Scientific American(June 12, 2006).

Cavanee, W., and R. White. The genetic basis of cancer. Scientific American (March 1995): 72–79.

Cormack, D.H. Ham’s Histology. 9th ed. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1998.

Finkel, Elizabeth. The mitochondrion: Is it central to apoptosis? Science 292 (5516) (April 2001):624–626.

Graham, S. Studies provide additional insight into abilities of stem cells. Scientific American (June21, 2002).

Glick, B.S., and V. Malhotra. The curious status of the Golgi apparatus. Cell 95 (December 23,1998): 883–889.

Hayflick, L. How and Why We Age. New York: Ballantine Books, 1996.

Hentze, Matthias W. Believe it or not—translation in the nucleus. Science 293 (5532) (Aug. 2001):1058–1059.

Hunot, Stephane, and Richard A. Flavell. Death of a monopoly? Science 292 (5518) (May 2001):865–866.

Kipling, D., and R.G. Faragher. Telomeres: Aging hard or hardly aging? Nature 398 (March 18,1999): 191, 193.

Rusting, R. Why do we age? Scientific American 267 (December 1992): 131–141.

Scientific American Special Issue. What you need to know about cancer. (September 1996).

Sinclair, D., and L. Guarente. Unlocking the secrets of longevity genes. Scientific American (Febru-ary 20, 2006).

Sprong, H., et al. How proteins move lipids and lipids move proteins. Nature Reviews: MolecularCell Biology 2 (July 2001): 504–513.

Suh, Y.A., et al. Cell transformation by the superoxide-generating oxidase Mox1. Nature 401 (Sep-tember 2, 1999): 79–82.

Thweatt, R., and S. Goldstein. Werner syndrome and biological aging: A molecular genetic hypoth-esis. BioEssays 15 (June 1993): 421–426.

ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS

Answers for multiple-choice and matching questions 1–12 are located in Appendix B of the textbook.

Short Answer and Essay Questions13. Membrane-lined organelles: mitochondria, rough ER (and nuclear envelope), smooth ER, Golgi

apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes (nucleus too). Organelles that have no membrane: cen-trioles and centrosomes, microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. (p. 29,Table 2.1)



14. A nucleolus is a dark-staining structure within a nucleus, much smaller than the nucleus itself.Whereas the nucleus contains many chromosomes, the nucleolus consists of parts of severalof these chromosomes that work together to manufacture the basic subunits of ribosomes.(pp. 35–37)

15. Mitochondria are the only organelles that have a complex, double-unit membrane and theirown DNA and genes. (Although it was not mentioned, mitochondria also contain their ownribosomes and RNA.) (pp. 32–33)

16. A chromosome is one of 46 long, single molecules of DNA (with the associated protein) in thenucleus of typical human cells. When a cell is dividing, its chromosomes are maximally coiled,so they appear as thick rods. In nondividing cells, the chromosomes are partially uncoiled fortranscription. (Fig. 2.15)

Critical Reasoning and Clinical Applications Questions1. Experiments on rats and other animals indicate that slightly underweight and undernourished

animals have prolonged life spans. (p. 42) (See “Aging,” Chapter 2.)

2. Hyperplasia means the cells have proliferated into a thick layer of structurally normal cells;dysplasia means that a few of the cells show abnormal size or shape; lack of neoplasia meansthat the cells were not proliferating uncontrollably (no tumor or cancer was evident). There-fore, Kareem did not have cancer of the mouth. (See “Related Clinical Terms,” p. 43.)

3. G1, S, G2, and M are all phases of the cell life cycle. (Fig. 2.16) G1 is a growth phase followedby S, the phase in which DNA is replicated in preparation for cell division. G2 is when the finalpreparations for cell division are made, and M is the mitotic phase leading to division of thenucleus. Clearly, the tumor-suppressor genes are halting various phases of the cell life cycle inprecancer cells that would otherwise multiply uncontrollably. (pp. 38–39)

4. Peroxisomes. (pp. 33–34)

5. Long-term use of phenobarbital causes proliferation of smooth endoplasmic reticulum in theliver because the smooth ER acts to detoxify poisons and drugs. Proliferation of smooth ER isnecessary because, as phenobarbital is repeatedly ingested, the body must manufacture moresmooth ER in order to combat the poison. In the user, this is perceived as “tolerance” to thedrug and the user needs higher doses of the drug to achieve the original result. (p. 31 andTable 2.1)

6. Without microtubules, the mitotic spindle cannot form, and without the mitotic spindle, mito-sis and cell division are impossible. (pp. 34–35)

7. Describing cellular structures in terms of their roles in a “manufacturing factory” gives thefollowing results: (pp. 29–35)

a. Plasma membrane—allows only specific substances into the factory.

b. Mitochondria—provides energy for the factory.

c. Nucleus—the manager/leader of the factory.

d. Golgi apparatus—shipping and receiving in the factory.

e. Ribosomes—makes the products in the factory.

f. Lysosomes—the “demolition crew” of the factory.

g. Peroxisomes—toxic waste removal system of the factory.



SUPPLEMENTAL STUDENT MATERIALS

to Human Anatomy, Sixth Edition

Chapter 2: Cells: The Living Units

To the StudentThe cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things. The human body has 50 to 60 tril-lion cells consisting of some 200 different types that are amazingly diverse in size, shape, andfunction. Mastery of basic knowledge of the cell leads to fuller understanding and comprehensionof tissues, organs, organ systems, and ultimately, the human organism.

Step 1: Learn basic concepts about cells.

■■ Define cell.

■■ List three major regions of a “generalized” animal cell.

■■ Indicate the general function of each region.

Step 2: Correlate plasma membrane structure and function.

■■ Describe the composition of the plasma membrane.

■■ Relate the composition of the plasma membrane to the movement of substances into and outof the cell.

■■ Differentiate passive from active transport mechanisms.

■■ Describe transport processes relative to energy source, substances transported, direction ofmovement, and mechanisms.

Step 3: Summarize basic structural and functional relationships about thecytoplasm.

■■ Describe the composition of the cytosol.

■■ List ten organelles, including vaults and inclusions, found in the cytosol.

■■ Define inclusions, and list several kinds.

■■ Explain the structure and function of mitochondria.

■■ Explain the structure, function, and interrelationships of ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticu-lum, and the Golgi apparatus.

■■ Compare the functions of lysosomes and peroxisomes.

■■ Name and describe the structure and function of cytoskeletal elements.

Step 4: Summarize basic structural and functional relationships aboutthe nucleus.

■■ Describe the structure and function of the nuclear envelope.

■■ Explain the structure and function of chromatin.

■■ Explain the structure and function of a nucleolus.

Step 5: Understand events of cell growth and reproduction.

■■ List the phases of the cell cycle.

■■ Describe the events of each phase.

■■ Explain the significance of interphase.



Step 6: Recognize cell diversity.

■■ Name specific cell types.

■■ Relate the shapes of different cell types to the functions of the cells.

Step 7: Understand the developmental aspect of cells.

■■ Describe how cell differentiation leads to structural and functional variation.

■■ Describe how cells differ in function based on specific requirements.

■■ Explain the current theories of aging.



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