1

Table of Contents

Introduction 3

1.0 Problem Solving

1.1 What is Problem Solving? 4

1.2 How to apply Problem Solving in Lesson? 7

1.3 Example 9

1.4 References 12

2.0 Concept Mapping

2.1 What is Concept Mapping? 14

2.2 How to apply Concept Mapping in Lesson? 18

2.3 Example 20

2.4 References 21

3.0 Concept Formation

3.1 What is Concept Formation? 22

3.2 How to apply Concept Formation in Lesson? 23

3.3 Example 25

3.4 References 29

4.0 Concept Attainment

4.1 What is Concept Attainment? 30

4.2 How to apply Concept Attainment in Lesson? 32

4.3 Example 33

4.4 References 35

5.0 Inquiry

5.1 What is Inquiry? 36

5.2 How to apply Inquiry in Lesson? 38

5.3 Example 41

5.4 References 44

2

6.0 Reading for Meaning

6.1 What is Reading for Meaning? 44

6.2 How to apply Reading for Meaning in Lesson? 45

6.3 Example 48

6.4 References 50

7.0 Reflective Discussion

7.1 What is Reflective Discussion? 51

7.2 How to apply Reflective Discussion in Lesson? 55

7.3 Example 56

7.4 References 57

8.0 Cloze Procedure

8.1 What is Cloze Procedure? 58

8.2 How to apply Cloze Procedure in Lesson? 59

8.3 Example 61

8.4 References 63

9.0 Case Studies

9.1 What are Case Studies? 64

9.2 How to apply Case Studies in Lesson? 65

9.3 Example 66

9.4 References 68

3

INTRODUCTION

As there are many categories of instructional strategies, this e-book focuses on indirect

instruction. Indirect instruction is mainly student- centred and emphasizes on allowing

students to get involved throughout a lesson by observing thus seeking their own

meaning of the lesson.

In this e-book, the methods of indirect instruction that can be used in class will be

discussed and explored.

The methods that will be discussed include:

1. Problem Solving

2. Concept Mapping

3. Concept Formation

4. Concept Attainment

5. Inquiry

6. Reading for Meaning

7. Reflective Discussion

8. Cloze Procedure

9. Case Studies

Under each topic, the methods will be divided into 4 subtopics, which is introduction,

how to apply in lessons, example and references. With this e-book, we hope that

educators can have a clearer understanding of the methods and integrate into their

lesson in class. This would lead to more effective learning among students and promote

interaction between students as well as with educators.

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1.0 PROBLEM SOLVING

1.1 What is Problem Solving?

Problem Solving is the ability to find a solution to a given problem by applying

appropriate skills or concepts, either from existing knowledge, or newly acquired

knowledge. Problem Solving involves the process of first obtaining information on the

problem in its current state to its goal state, then generating new knowledge on methods

to achieve the goal state, and lastly making the decision to select the most suitable

method to its goal state. This scenario is explained in the figure below.

Figure 1.1: Process of Problem Solving

PROBLEM IN CURRENT

STATE

PROBLEM IN GOAL STATE

PROBLEM SOLVER

PROCESS OF PROBLEM SOLVING

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Mayer and Wittrock (2006), defines problem solving as "cognitive processing related at

achieving a goal when no solution method is obvious to the problem solver". There are

four parts to this definition, as described in the diagram below:

Figure 1.2: Definition of Problem Solving from Mayers & Wittrock.

Many views of problem solving stem from two theories, i.e. Gestalk Theory or

Information Processing Theory. According to Gestalk Theory (Duncker, 1945 and

Wertheimer, 1959), problem solving occurs with a flash of insight. Insight occurs when

the problem solver devise the way to solve the problem. According to this theory,

several things happen during the insight that gives raise to the solution. They are:

1) Building a schema that fits all the parts of the problem together

2) Reorganizing the visual information to solve the problem

3) Restating the problem in a new way that is easier to solve.

4) Removing mental blocks

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5) Finding a problem analog, which is a similar problem which has been solved

by the problem solver before.

In the Information Processing Theory (Newell & Simon, 1972), the process is described

based on the human computer metaphor which involves a series of mental

computations on mental representations. It involves solving the problem in stages by

applying an operator suitable to solve the problem at that stage, then proceeding to the

next stage, until the desired goal state in achieved.

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1.2 How to Apply Problem Solving in Lesson?

There are several ways on how problem solving can be incorporated into the classroom.

Among them are:

1. Brainstorming

Provide a certain problem that needs to be solved and encourage students to

brainstorm on the possible solutions.

2. Group Problem Solving

Assign students in groups and give them problems that they need to solve together as a

group. This method allows the students to listen to ideas and insights from their friends

that they themselves may not have thought about before.

3. Game-based Problem Solving.

Create games such as playing detectives where they need to solve a case using clues

given. Apart from problem solving, this activity encourages critical thinking and

teamwork among the students.

4. Scenario-based Problem Solving

What would you do if you are stranded on an island with just a knife? Create scenarios

where the students need to think of possible survival solutions using their creativity and

thinking skills.

5. Real-life Problem Solving

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What are the current issues that the school or community is facing? How do we help

solve these issues? These are questions that can be posed to the students to get them

to find solutions to real-life problems that they may face every day.

Applications of problem solving the classroom can be done in a variety of ways which

are fun and interactive.

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1.3 Example

Here are some examples of activities related to problem solving suitable for

children in kindergarten or lower primary school.

Example 1. These are problems related to real-life scenarios that need to be solved by

the students either using Brainstorming or Group Problem Solving approach.

Figure 1.3: Example 1

Example 2: These are maths related problems that are presented in an mini mystery

form. There are a few "mysteries" to be solved that are based on mathematical

concepts. This example is the application of Scenario-based Problem Solving.

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Figure 1.4: Example 2 - Cover of Mini-Math Mystery

Figure 1.5: Example 2 - Problems to be solved in the mystery

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Depending on the age of students and their level of knowledge, the teachers can create

a few variation of the same problems to suit the student's level. After each activity,

teachers are encouraged to discuss the methods of problem solving with the students.

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1.4 References

5 Problem-Solving Activities for the Classroom. (2013, February 13). Retrieved August

19, 2015, from http://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/teaching-strategies/5-

problem-solving-activities-for-the-classroom

Duncker, K. (1945). On problem solving. Psychological Monographs, 58(5), Whole No.

270.

Fredericks, A. (2005). Problem-Solving. Retrieved August 19, 2015, from

https://www.teachervision.com/problem-solving/teaching-methods/48451.html

Problem-Solving

Helper, A. (n.d.). Logical Leprechauns - a game to work on problem solving. Retrieved

August 19, 2015, from https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/Logical-

Leprechauns-a-game-to-work-on-problem-solving-570367

Lewis, H. (n.d.). Corrected-Mini-Math Mystery-Jogging Gingerbread-Grade 3-Freebie.

Retrieved August 19, 2015, from

https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/Corrected-Mini-Math-Mystery-

Jogging-Gingerbread-Grade-3-Freebie-189837

Mayer, R., & Wittrock, M. (2009, December 23). Problem Solving. Retrieved August 19,

2015, from http://www.education.com/reference/article/problem-solving1/#A /

13

Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice Hall.

Wertheimer, M. (1959). Productive thinking. New York: Harper & Row.

14

2.0 Concept Mapping

2.1 What is Concept Mapping?

Concept mapping is a way to organize conceptual information by using graphical tools.

A typical concept map contains a particular concept usually enclosed in circles or

boxes. The related ideas or concepts will be linked by a connecting line and sometimes

linking words are written on the line to specify the relationship between those two

concepts (Novak & Canas, 2008). According to Novak and Canas, there are several

features of concept mapping:

1. The concepts are represented in hierarchical fashion. The most general concepts

were put at the top of the map followed by the less general concepts below.

2. Cross links is included to show relationship between concepts from the different

segments of the concept map.

3. Specific examples might also be included to help clarify the meaning of the

concept.

Figure 2.1: Sample of concept map and its features (Zeilik, 2008).

LEVE

L 1

LEVE

L 2

Key Concept

General Concept

Concept

Example

Concept

Example

General Concept

Concept

Example

Concept

General Concept

Subconcept

Specific Concept

Subconcept

Specific Concept

LEVE

L 3

LEVE

L 4

Links

Cross links

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Concept mapping was first developed in 1970s by Joseph D. Novak and his friends

from Cornell University. This instructional strategy emerged from David P. Ausubel‘s

Assimilation Theory of meaningful verbal learning. According to this theory,

―meaningful human learning occurs when new knowledge is consciously and

purposively linked to an existing framework of prior knowledge in a non-arbitrary,

substantive fashion.‖ (n.d.)

There are several types of concept mapping:

1. Spider Concept Map

Use to show data that relates to a central idea or theme. The data is arranged

surrounding the centre of the map.

2. Hierarchy Concept Map

Use to show hierarchical relationships. The map could either progress

horizontally or vertically.

Concept

Idea

Idea

Idea

Idea

Concept

Idea

Idea Idea

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2.1 Narrow and Deep Hierarchy

Consist of one main category followed by several sub-categories linking

which become more specific as it goes down.

2.2 Wide and Shallow Hierarchy

Consist of one main category broken down into a few smaller categories.

2.3 Trees

Categories linked with lines to its subtopics.

2. Flowchart Concept Map

The information is organizes in a linear order.

Concept

Idea

Sub-idea

Sub-idea

Idea Sub-idea

Concept

Idea Idea Idea

Concept

Idea

Idea

Idea

Idea 1 Idea 2 Idea 3

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3. System Concept Map

The information is organizes similar to flowchart concept map except that this

type of concept map contains the input and output functions.

Process 1 Process 2

Process 3 Process 4

Process 5

Input

Output

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2.2 How to apply Concept Mapping in lesson?

Constructing a Concept Mapping could follow this procedure:

1. Define a focus question or central idea that the concept map would represent.

The central idea should be clearly explains the ideas that should be linked to it.

2. Identify the key concepts that is related to the central idea. Rank the concepts

according to most general concept first, down to the most specific concept. Link

the central idea to the most general concepts.

3. Link the most general concept to the less general concepts. Label the connecting

line to show the relationship between concepts if necessary.

What Animal Eat?

What Animal Eat?

Carnivore Herbivore Omnivore

ANIMAL'S DIET

Carnivore

Only eat meats

Lion

Tiger

Dog

Herbivore

Only eat plants

Cow

Goat

Monkey

Omnivore

Eat both meat & plant

Human

Chimpanzees

Chicken

Characteristi

c

Characteristi

c

Characteristi

c

Exam

ple

s Exam

ple

s Exam

ple

s

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4. Keep on revising the concept map by adding necessary or cutting down

unnecessary information until it reach satisfactory condition.

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2.3 Example Here is an example of concept map for science subject:

Figure 2.2: Science of Global Warming. (Mappio, n.d.)

Here is an example of concept map in history subject:

Figure 2.3: Christopher Columbus (Learning Fundamentals, n.d.)

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2.4 References

Inspiration Web Inc. (n.d.). Explorer Web: Christopher Colombo. Retrieved from

http://www.inspiration.com/Kidspiration-social-studies-examples

Learning Fundamentals. (2008, September 1). The Science of Global Warming.

Retrieved from http://mappio.com/mindmap/learning-fundamentals/the-

science-of-global- warming

Novak, J.D. & Canas, A.J. (2008). The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How to

Construct and Use Them. Retrieved from http://cmap.ihmc.us/docs/theory-of-

concept-maps

Zeilik, M. (n.d.). Classroom Assessment Techniques-Concept Mapping. Retrieved

from http://www.flaguide.org/cat/conmap/conmap7.php

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3.0 CONCEPT FORMATION

3.1 What is Concept Formation?

Concept formation is ―an inductive teaching strategy that helps students form a clear

understanding of a concept (or idea) through studying a small set of examples of the

concept‖ (Parker, n.d.). That is how our brain works, by constantly observing and

classifying things or events around us to form a concept. By using concept formation,

the teacher does not directly communicate the targeted concept or idea but instead

he/she provides students with some examples. Students will figure out the concept or

idea by looking for common attributes within those examples given.

A lot of people confused concept formation with concept attainment and concept

learning. While it looks almost similar, concept formation is actually the opposite of

concept attainment. In concept attainment, students are provided with a set of positive

examples and negative examples classified by the teacher in a way that he/she would

like the student to view it. Whilst in concept formation, students are presented with just a

list of examples and they decide the way how to classify those (Kaur, 2009). Concept

learning in the other hand is a learning process on how to classify things.

Concept formation is suitable for teaching any concepts in all subjects. There are

various instructional strategies that could be used for concept formation. It could be

through direct or indirect instruction, experiential learning, interactive instruction or

independent study (Kaur, 2009). Concept formation is good as it promotes creative and

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critical thinking. By using this instructional strategy, it is easier for them to remember the

concept as they learn it thoroughly rather than just remembering the definition given.

3.2 How to Apply Concept Formation in Lesson?

Applying Concept Formation in classroom could follow this procedure:

PLANNING THE LESSON:

1. In planning the lesson, select and decide on a concept that will be taught and list

its critical attributes.

2. Develop a good set of examples. Make sure that all those examples has all

critical attributes required to form the concept.

3. Produce a data organization chart. Below is the examples of such chart:

Questions

Examples

What types of

foods that these

animal eats?

Does these animals

have sharp claws or

teeth?

What is the

characteristic of

their digestive

system?

Tiger

Cat

Dog

Shark

Diagram 1: Example of data organization chart for learning about carnivore

The questions at the top row is the focus question, in which it should help

students to list the critical characteristics from the examples given.

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CLASSROOM LESSON:

1. Introduce the concept formation process by simulating using simpler concept that

students have mastered before.

2. Once students get hold of the process, let them know that the teacher is going to

teach them a new concept. Instead of directly giving them terminology or

definition of the concept, the teacher will do it by using concept formation.

3. Present the examples using the data organization chart.

4. Ask student to discuss and gather data until they could recognized the critical

attributes of those examples given.

5. Introduce the rule or a name for the concept. Discuss the process of thinking with

class.

6. Evaluate their understanding. Be preparde to explain further to help them refine

their knowledge.

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3.3 Example

An example of science lesson using concept attainment as the instructional strategy:

PLANNING THE LESSON

Step 1: Define concept and its attributes.

Concept: Physical change of matter

Important attributes:

Physical change does not change the identity of the substance itself.

Physical change does not produce new substance, unlike chemical change.

Could either be change in size, texture, volume and mass.

Step 2: Develop a good set of example.

Examples

Crushing a can

Melting an ice cube

Boiling water

Mixing sand and water

Breaking a plate

Dissolving sugar and water

Shredding paper

Chopping wood

Dicing vegetables

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Mixing different coloured marbles

CLASSROOM LESSON

Step 3 Introduce the process

Introduce the idea of concept formation of carnivore animals.

Read the examples to the class. Ask student what similarities they recognize

from the list of examples of animals given.

Example:

Lion and tiger have claws and sharp teeth. Lion and tiger eat meat

Ask student to suggest more examples that have similar critical attributes

Ask if anyone in the class recognize the concept and define it.

‗Lion and tiger are carnivore. Carnivore only eat meats.‘

Explain that you will maintain similar process for the actual lesson after this.

Step 4 Present the examples

Remind students that they are now in a topic on matter and how they have

discussed about physical properties in previous lesson. Let them know that today

you are going to introduce a new concept.

Handout a data organization chart to each student. Ask student to discuss and

answer the questions for each of the examples.

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Examples

Is there any

chemical

reaction

involved?

Is it reversible?

Why?

Is there any

new

substance

produced?

Sample of data organization chart on physical changes of matter

Step 5 Develop the concept

Let a few students share their answers with the class. Reveal more examples for

them to examine.

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Let students attempt at giving definition to the concept. Ask them to suggest their

own examples to represent the concept.

Verify their understanding of the concept. If they have not reach the correct

answer, ask guiding questions to bring them to the intended concept.

Examples:

What is involved when we crushed the can?

Does the substance change when ice melts?

What makes the nails rust?

Once most of students in class reach the intended understanding of the concept,

explain in details of the concept, giving the correct definition.

Example:

The photographic examples shows change in size, shape or state of the matter.

The change involve maybe reversible. The melted ice could be freeze back into

ice for example. This is physical change.

Chemical change is when chemical reaction is involved during the process and

the change is irreversible. For example, the burning of woods involve

combustion reaction.

Step 7 Discuss the process

Ask question about the process of reaching the understanding of the concept.

Examples:

After which photo you start to figure out the category?

Does the examples have clear attributes of the concept?

Step 8 Evaluate

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Evaluate their understanding by giving more practices.

3.4 References

Kaur, R. (2009) Concept Formation. Retrieved from

http://teacher-educator.jimdo.com/social-science/concept-formation/

Parker, W. (n.d.) Concept Formation. Retrieved from http://teachinghistory.org/teaching-

materials/teaching-guides/25184

Secondary Science 2010. (2010) Physical Changes – Concept Attainment Lesson.

Retrieved from https://sites.google.com/site/secondaryscience2010/excel-

grade-sheet/physicalchanges

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4.0 CONCEPT ATTAINMENT

4.1 What is Concept Attainment?

Concept attainment is a method that uses an indirect yet structured inquiry process.

Generally, it is a tool for learners to categorise or group attributes or characteristics

given. It is a search and identify of attributes to recognize differences in the examples.

Leaners figure out by comparing and contrasting example attributes by referring to

concepts given or learnt. Examples are then separated and categorised into groups.

It is also known as concept learning, category learning and concept formation, usually

based on the research of Jerome Bruner, the cognitive psychologist. According to

Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin (1967) defined concept attainment as the search, listing and

categorising of characteristics observed and found, used to differentiate and separate

examples or evidences.

Simply put, concepts are mental categories to simplify the phenomenon that happens

around us. It helps us to classify objects, events or ideas to a set of common relevant

features. It is a strategic process of ‗making sense of things that are around us‘.

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Beginnings: Theories & Models

Jerome Bruner pioneers and researched in the field of cognitive psychology and

educational psychology. He coined the term ‗scaffolding‘, meaning the process children

go through to build information that they acquired and familiar with.

He also proposed a model of integrated three modes of representation: action-based,

image-based and language-based. He further explains that when learners (children or

adults) face with new material of information, they organized it through a progression

from action to image then language. He suggests that a learner is able to understand

and remember provided that the instruction is organized.

He refers to Bloom‘s Taxonomy as a good example of a coding system for learners to

form and arrange categories and relate to it. With each specific category level, learners

arrange knowledge acquired and related subjects, topics and ideas in a ‗scaffolding

fashion‘.

Bruner further proposed with spiral curriculum, an approach to teach subjects or skills

recalled at intervals with a more specific or ‗narrowing down like a funnel‘ level each

time. The teaching of basic knowledge of a subject (the concept), add specifics at levels

of intervals while reinforcing the basics. Most concept learning theories are based on

the knowing of examples.

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4.2 How to use Concept Attainment in Lesson

One, choose and define a concept. Give a definition of a concept. Example, ‗What

makes us human?‘

Two, select the attributes or characteristics. Learners to list the appropriate attributes of

a human being.

Three, develop positive and negative examples. Example, ‗Human walks.‘ ‗Human

speaks‘.

Four, introduce by showing through action, images and words the process to learners.

Five, present examples and list the attributes. ‗Walk by using legs in a sequenced

movement of steps.‘

Six, develop a concept definition based on the attributes. ‗A human is a being walking

with a pair of legs in a movement of sequence of steps.‘

Seven, give additional examples; through actions, visual images and words.

Eight, discuss the process with learners. Learners give inputs on refining the definition

or arguments on the defined concept.

Nine, evaluate. Give value to the concepts.

Concept attainment explains a learning task in which a learner is trained to categorize

objects or actions by being shown a set of examples through images and words. The

learner simplifies and classifies by labelling what has been observed in the form of an

example which is then applied to future examples. A learner is less likely to learn when

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not able to simplify difficult concepts. This process is simply known as ‗learning from

examples‘.

4.3 Example

The activity above is a common example of concept attainment. It can be done using

the board, chart paper or a projector. It can be applied to a large or small group and

one-on-one work. Involve the learners from the beginning by using a learner‘s concept.

Also, concept attainment can be used to introduce or conclude a unit of study.

Variations

- Learners determine the essential characteristics by presenting all positive examples.

- Determine essential attributes by grouping examples into two categories. Present all

positive and negative examples without labelling them.

- Learners identify essential attributes, choose positive examples and define the

concept.

- It is a model for group activity.

Assessment and Evaluation Reflections

A teacher must note learners‘ ability to write the definition from memory. Determine the

difference between positive and negative examples from a given group. Create relevant

examples from a concept. ‗Thinking aloud‘ through choice words that describe

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examples. Learners write learning logs. Do an oral presentation in front of class,

individually or in pairs. Create a web, cluster, mind-map, flow-chart, illustrations or

concept mapping to describe the concept and example.

Purposes and Benefits:

Creates a connection between what learners know now and future learning

Examine a concept from a number of perspectives or point of views

Sort out and categorize relevant information

By classifying more than an example of a concept enhances knowledge of the

concept

Retention of information improved by associating key terms with a concept

definition

Limitations:

Time constraint on large volume classes

Learners require a good level of vocabulary for ‗thinking aloud‘

Need large spaces to write and illustrate relevant examples and concepts. Ie.

mind-mapping

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4.4 References

Harvey F. Silver, Richard W. Strong & Matthew J. Perini. (2007). The Strategic

Teacher: Selecting the Right Research-Based Strategy for Every Lesson. ASCD.

Bruner, J., Goodnow, J. J., & Austin, G. A. (1967). A study of thinking. New York:

Science Editions.

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5.0 INQUIRY BASED LEARNING

5.1 What is Inquiry Based Learning?

Inquiry Based Learning (IBL) is yet another strategy under Indirect Instruction. It is a

purely student-centred approach with teachers acting as facilitators. It is a strategy that

promotes thinking and active learning (Murdoch, 2006). Through IBL, students will be

encouraged to question things and to explore the answers to their questions. The

strategy encompasses both minds-on and hands-on activities. IBL is not a teaching

strategy per se, in fact it is an umbrella term that covers a number of other approaches

to teaching and learning; problem-based learning, project based learning and design-

based learning (Stephenson, n.d.). In comparison to the traditional way of teaching

where passive learning takes place and the focus is solely on the content, IBL focuses

on the learning process (Stephenson, n.d.). The learning process is equally important to

the content if not more. This strategy could be applied to learners from every stages of

learning from pre-schoolers (guided inquiry) up to university students (open inquiry)

(Spronken-Smith 2007). The aim is for learners to become active thinkers who are able

to question things and to independently find answers to the questions (Murdoch, 2006).

A few definitions of Inquiry are as the followings:

a) According to Exline (2004) "Inquiry" is defined as "a seeking for truth, information, or

knowledge -- seeking information by questioning."

b) According to McMaster University (2007) “Inquiry is a form of Self-Directed Learning

and follows the four basic stages defining self-directed learning. Students take more

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responsibility for: 1) determining what they need to learn, 2) identifying resources and

how best to learn from them 3) using resources and reporting their learning and 4)

assessing their progress in learning.”

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5.1 How to apply Inquiry Based Learning in Lesson?

According to Spronken-Smith (2007), the main components of an IBL approach that are

in agreement with most researchers are: 1) learning are driven by questions or

problems 2) learning are based on a process of seeking knowledge and new

understanding 3) a student-centred approach in teaching where teacher acts as a

facilitator 4) a move to self-directed learning in students 5) active learning. Teachers

should try to adhere to these five components in order for IBL to be successfully applied

in a lesson. There are different ways for a teacher to carry out IBL, depending on

whether it is guided inquiry or open inquiry. However, the following steps could be taken

as a guideline on how this strategy could be used in a lesson. These steps are adapted

from Dr Cornelia Brunner‘s four step model of the inquiry process (Education

Development Center Inc., 2012) :

Step 1: Posing Real Questions

Students must be guided to come up with real questions which are valid and subjected

to the scientific and quasi-scientific methods which are the core of inquiry-based

learning. Teachers must help students identify and refine their questions to suit the

learning objectives or topics. In this step, students must also come up with a hypothesis

to be tested.

Step 2 : Finding Relevant Resources

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Once the students have identified the question(s) and hypothesis, they have to start

gathering information or inputs from relevant resources. Depending on the topic or

subject, the resources would vary. For science subjects, the main resources would be

from books, websites and from doing experiments. For other subjects, the resources

could be from people, websites, books, encyclopaedias, podcasts and videos. Students

must be taught to be critical when choosing the resources and to filter the sources and

the information accordingly.

Step 3 : Interpreting Information Next, when the students have gotten all the

information they need, they have to interpret the information and decide whether the

information is relevant in answering the questions that they have. Here, the students

must decide whether the information contributes in proving or disproving the hypothesis.

Step 4 : Reporting Findings Lastly, students are hoped to arrive at a conclusion in

answering the question and in proving the hypothesis. Students must be taught to put

emphasis on the process and not the answer per se. If students are satisfied with their

findings, they can stop there, and if they are unsatisfied, they can continue the inquiry

process until they get the findings that they feel good with. As Dr Brunner put it “The

objective is not to state the answer but to tell how this student arrived at this answer.”

(Education Development Center Inc., 2012)

The four steps are summarized in diagram 1 below:

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Diagram 5.1 : The Inquiry Process by Dr Cornelia Brunner (Education Development

Center Inc., 2012)

41

5.3 Example

Here is an example of a Guided Inquiry Project under Oceanography on the question

―Does the thermocline location vary throughout the summer months?‖

This template is called Virtual Vee Map that functions as a systematic tool to promote

inquiry learning through students‘ investigation (Coffman and Riggs, 2006).

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43

5.4 References

Coffman, M. and L. Riggs. 2006, The Virtual Vee Map: A Template for Internet Inquiry,

Journal of College Science Teaching, September, 32-39.

Education Development Center Inc. (2012). How to: Inquiry. Technology, media &

project-based learning to inspire young minds. Retrieved on 19th August 2015,

from http://www.youthlearn.org/learning/planning/lesson-planning/how-

inquiry/how-inquiry

Exline, Joe (2004) Workshop: Inquiry-based Learning. Retrieved on 19th August 2015

from: www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry

Murdoch, K. (2006). Inquiry learning: journeys through the thinking processes.Teacher

Learning Network, 13(2), 32-34.

Spronken-Smith, R. (2007). Experiencing the process of knowledge creation: The

nature and use of inquiry-based learning in higher education. J. GEOGR.

HIGHER ED., 2, 183.

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6.0 READING FOR MEANING

6.1 What is Reading for Meaning?

Reading for Meaning (RFM) is another strategy under Indirect Instruction. It promotes

comprehension, the ability to reason and active reading. RFM is also known as Reading

with Comprehension (Reading Rocket, 2009). Through RFM, students will be trained to

take out useful information and to provide evidence from the text in their arguments.

The process focuses on the three stages of reading; before, during and after (Reading

Rocket, 2009). How RFM differ from passive reading is through the use of a set of

statements for every text during every reading session. The statements will be used and

referred to, using a RFM organiser throughout the three stages. It could be applied to

readers from every stages of learning from pre-schoolers up to university students. The

aim is for readers to become proficient readers who read for meaning instead of merely

reading. A few definitions of RFM are as the followings:

a) According to Kellard (2015), “Reading for Meaning means students focus on

discussing and understanding what they are reading, not just pronouncing the words

correctly.‖

b) According to Silver et al. (2012) “Reading for Meaning is a research-based strategy

that helps all readers build the skills that proficient readers use to make sense of

challenging texts. Frequent use of the strategy will enable students to practice and

master the three phases of critical reading; 1) previewing and predicting before reading,

2) actively searching for relevant information during reading 3) reflecting on learning

after reading” (Silver et al. 2012).

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6.2 How to apply Reading for Meaning in lesson?

In a Reading for Meaning lesson, teachers will provide students with simple statements.

These statements will be used throughout the three stages of reading and will help the

students preview and predict before reading, actively search for relevant evidence

during reading, and reflect on and synthesize what they have learned after reading

(Silver et.al. 2007). The statements will be the core aspect of the reading process and

will serve two purposes; to activate prior knowledge and to give the reading activity a

sense of purpose (Silver et.al. 2007). The statements could be plainly written or it could

also be thought-provoking and appealing, to bring out best results. The statements

could either be written on the whiteboard or handed out to students in RFM organiser

sheet prior to reading session. Readers must find evidences in the text that either

support or refute the statement. In a lesson, the following 7 steps could be carried out

for a teacher to successfully apply the Reading for Meaning strategy. These steps are

adapted from the book, The Core Six: Essential Strategies for Achieving Excellence

with the Common Core by Silver et.al. (2012) :

Step 1: Choose a short text that you are going to use with the students for the activity

"Reading for Meaning." The text is not necessarily in article form, it could be any kind of

text such as a poem, a fable or a blog post. The text could also be in the form of

mathematical word problems and data charts.

Step 2 : Provide a list of statements about the text to the students. Students will also be

provided with a RFM organiser for them to complete. Throughout the reading session,

students will have to search the text for evidence that either supports or refutes each

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statement. Teachers can be creative in creating the statements. They can either be true

or false, can be open to interpretation and be customized to fit whatever skills or

objectives that the teacher is trying to achieve —for example, identifying main ideas or

analysing characters and ideas.

Step 3 : Introduce the topic of the text. Teachers must be sure that the students have

already previewed the statements before they begin reading. Teachers are to remind

students to think about what they already know about the topic (activating prior

knowledge) and to use the statements to make some predictions about the text.

Step 4 : Students are to decide whether they agree or disagree with the statements and

record evidence for their stand for each statement. This should be done while they are

reading.

Step 5 : Students are to discuss their evidence in pairs or small groups. Through

discussion, pairs or groups have to reach an agreement about which statements are

supported and which are refuted by the text.

Step 6 : Teacher is to conduct a whole-class discussion. Here, students will share and

justify their stands. Teacher will help students clarify their thinking and any

misconceptions that might have arisen.

Step 7 : Teacher will use students' responses as a tool to evaluate their understanding

of the reading and their ability to support a position with evidence.

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Once mastered, RFM could be used in a number of different ways apart from reading

comprehension activity. For example, it could be used for note-making, for interpreting a

scene from a stage play, and also for analysing mathematical data.

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6.3 Example

Here is an example on how a teacher could use Reading for Meaning in an English

lesson.

Directions: Read the statements before you read the story. Then read the story and

collect evidence in the text that either supports or refutes each statement. Meet with a

group and share your evidence. Then, as a group, decide if you agree or disagree with

each statement.

The Mouse At The Seashore

A mouse told his mother and father that he was going on a trip to the seashore.

―We are very alarmed!‖ they cried. ―The world is full of terrors. You must not go!‖

―I have made my decision, ― said the mouse firmly. ―I have never seen the ocean,

and it is high time that I did. Nothing can make me change my mind.‖

―Then we cannot stop you,‖ said the mother and father mouse, ―but do be careful!‖

The next day, in the first light of dawn, the mouse began his journey. Even before

the morning had ended, the mouse came to know trouble and fear.

A cat jumped out from behind a tree. ―I will eat you for lunch,‖ the cat said.

It was a narrow escape for the mouse. He ran for his life, but he left a part of his

tail in the mouth of the cat.

By afternoon the mouse had been attacked by birds and dogs. He had lost his way

several times. He was bruised and bloodied. He was tired and frightened.

At evening the mouse slowly climbed the last hill and saw the seashore spreading

out before him. He watched the waves rolling onto the beach, one after another. All of

the colours of the sunset filled the sky.

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―How beautiful!‖ cried the mouse. ―I wish that mother and father were here to see

this with me.‖

The moon and the stars began to appear over the ocean. The mouse sat silently

on the top of the hill. He was overwhelmed by a feeling of deep peace and

contentment.

Before After

The mouse thought that he ought to go and see the seashore

The mouse had no real reason to leave home

When the end is good, even a difficult journey is worth it

The author probably wants us to feel happy for the mouse.

SUPPORT

REFUTE

SUPPORT

REFUTE

SUPPORT

REFUTE

SUPPORT

REFUTE

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6.4 References

Kellard, J. (2015). Reading Comprehension: Teaching kids how to read for meaning.

Retrieved on 19th August 2015 from http://readingpartners.org/blog/teaching-kids-

read-meaning/

Reading Rockets (2009). Reading for Meaning with Your Child. Retrieved on 19th

August 2015 from http://www.readingrockets.org/article/reading-meaning-your-

child

Silver, H., Strong, R. W., & Perini, M. J. (2007). The strategic teacher. ASCD

Multimedia.

Silver, H. F., Dewing, R. T., & Perini, M. J. (2012). The core six: Essential strategies for

achieving excellence with the Common Core. ASCD.

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7.0 REFLECTIVE DISCUSSION

7.1 What is Reflective Discussion?

Reflective discussion is a method to internalize and realize perception in the form of

viewpoints manifested within a discourse. Generally, it is a tool for learners to recall,

reflect and talk about what is experienced using their senses.

The usual steps in applying this method are a teacher or a learner starts a conversation

by asking a question that refers to an experience: a common or shared experience.

Learners recreate or recall the experience and as they focus, refocus along with the

angle of the experience, filter, funnel, balancing thoughts with feelings and finally,

speak.

Within the process of thinking and speaking, learners might select and reselect words to

describe the experience in the best suitable way according to their level of

comprehension (based on background knowledge) and language (vocabulary).

This process creates learners to reflect their own experience; listen, compare and

categorize others‘ similar experiences to their own. As such, connections grow within

their minds in terms of viewpoints or perspective on events and develop logical and

moral meanings.

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Perspectives and interpretations of a general experience will vary accordingly, but such

variances or versions are welcomed to elicit further understanding between learners

(i.e. ‗shared values and opinions‘.)

Beginnings: Theories & Models

John Dewey wrote about on the process of experience, interaction and reflection:

reflective practice. Researchers such as Jean Piaget and Kurt Lewin develop relevant

theories of human development and learning. The reflective theory promotes the

integration of theory and practice, the cyclical nature of experience and the conscious

use of solutions gained from experience (i.e. ‗lessons learnt‘.)

According to David Boud, a professor in adult education; ―Reflection is an important

human activity in which people recapture their experience, think about it, mull it over

and evaluate it. It is this working with experience that is important in learning. When a

person is experiencing something, he or she may be implicitly learning; however, it can

be difficult to put emotions, events, and thoughts into a coherent sequence of events.

When a person rethinks or retells events, it is possible to categorize events, emotions,

ideas, etc., and to compare the intended purpose of a past action with the results of the

action. Stepping back from the action permits critical reflection on a sequence of

events.‖

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Kolb (1975) reflective model is greatly influenced by Dewey and Piaget‘s research. His

concept of experiential learning promotes the transformation of information into

knowledge. He explains, ―This phenomena takes place after a situation or experience

happened, whereby a person reflects on the experience, gain an understanding of

concepts formed or faced during the experience, and tests the understanding in a new

situation‖. So, knowledge attained through understanding can be applied and reapplied,

building and connecting a person‘s prior knowledge and understanding.

Schon (1978) reflective model of ‗reflection-on-action‘ describes the idea that post-

experience, a person recalls and analyses their action, reaction and reasons to a

situation, and the effects of it. He also notion the process of ‗responding to problematic

situations, problem framing, problem solving, and the priority of practical knowledge

over general theory or concepts‘ in connection to the model.

‗Gibbs cycle‘ (1988) by learning researcher Graham Gibbs connects his reflective model

with Kolb‘s experiential learning cycle. It is adapted and presented as follows:

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Description

What happened?

Simply describe without judgments.

Action Plan Feelings

Do you react the same when What were your feelings?

faced with a similar situation? Describe them.

Apply learnt knowledge.

Conclusion Evaluation

What can be concluded, What was good or bad

generally & specifically? about the experience?

Put value to judgements.

Analysis

What was the cause & effect?

Reflect other point of views.

Figure 7.1: Adaptation of the Gibbs reflective model

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7.2 How to apply Reflective Discussion in Lesson?

First, pose a question to initiate discussion. The question posed should be general,

inferential or open-ended to which there is no definitive, ‗correct‘ answer.

Two, learners initiate to recall a memory related to the question. Based on their sensory

experience, learners express themselves within the boundary of their own point of view.

Three, through the discussion, learners listen to other viewpoints. Inference or

assumption and interpretation of logical and moral values are reflected upon own and

others‘ viewpoints.

Four, further questions elicited should serve to clarify, simplify or justify the viewpoints

within the frame of understanding, meaning and knowing.

Five, the discussion should reveal learners‘ meaning or purpose of their own experience

and viewpoints of others. This can be measured through opinions or expressive

behaviour of patience, acceptance, tolerance, empathy and sharing.

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7.3 Example

One can use it in all subject or topic areas and conflict/problem solving. It can also be

incorporated into other learning strategies such as book reviews, current issues talk,

debates, cooperative learning, problem-based learning, literature study, reading

sessions.

Assessment and Evaluation Considerations

A teacher must note learners‘ ability to orally express their thoughts, feelings and

understandings. Also, note of learners‘ who pose questions to clarify their

understandings. Do monitor learners‘ ability to turn-taking, listen to and respect others‘

viewpoints. And observe learners‘ interest and participation in sharing interpretations

and responses.

Purposes and Benefits:

Using questions to activate reflection and extend comprehension

To improve learners‘ thinking through communicating, inferring & evaluating

Elicit moral values such as patience, acceptance, tolerance and empathy

Identify skills and values, learning and extracting knowledge from experiences

A source of feedback to improve from comparing experiences

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Limitations:

Time constraint on large volume classes

Low self-esteem learners would struggle initially

Less communicative learners may feel uncomfortable

Requires maturity and good level of vocabulary for self-expression

7.4 References

Dewey, John (1998) [1933]. How we think: a restatement of the relation of reflective

thinking to the educative process. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Boud, David; Keogh, Rosemary; Walker, David (1985). Reflection, turning experience

into learning. London; New York: Kogan Page; Nichols. p. 19.

Kolb, David A.; Fry, Ronald E. (1975). "Towards an applied theory of experiential

learning". In Cooper, Cary L. Theories of group processes. Wiley series on

individuals, groups, and organizations. London; New York: Wiley. pp. 33–58.

Argyris, Chris; Schön, Donald A. (1996) [1978]. Organizational learning: a theory of

action perspective. Addison-Wesley OD series 1. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Gibbs, Graham (1988). Learning by doing: a guide to teaching and learning methods.

London: Further Education Unit.

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8.0 CLOZE PROCEDURE

8.1 What is cloze procedure?

There are a few definitions of cloze procedure. Cloze as defined by Olter and Jonz

(1994)‖ encompasses any procedure that monist portions of a text or discourse and

asks reader or listeners to resupply the missing elements.‖ In the most typical cases of

written applications of close procedure, single words are replaced with a standard

length of blanks and the respondent attempts to fill in each blank. However, it is also

possible in some cloze exercises to delete or omit larger or smaller segments than

words such as phrases, clauses, syllables and single letters (Olter & Jonz, 1994).

Schumm (2006) on the other hand proposed that ―cloze is a procedure that requires the

reader to read a sentence and fill in a missing word or words.‖ According to Acantara,

Espina, Villamin & Cabanilla(2003), cloze procedure is a technique which is very

effective for the improvement of reading comprehension. It is based on the principal of

closure in Gestalt psychology which asserts that an individual imposes a pattern on his

environment in the process of learning. This pattern is that of relating parts to the whole,

and filling in details where they are left out. In other words, readers have to rely on

contextual clues to determine words to be inserted to complete the sentence. In this

way, readers would learn to be more focused and aware of the essence and meaning of

the sentence.

There are two commonly distinguished classes of cloze exercises named fixed- ratio

and variable- ratio. These two classes are determined by the distance between blanks

which are measured in the number of words. In fixed- ratio type, every nth word is

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omitted. While for variable- ratio procedures, the words that are being deleted maybe

determined randomly or on the basis of deliberate selections.

8.2 How to Apply Cloze Procedure in lesson?

To apply cloze procedure in lesson, teachers are to first create a cloze passage to

evaluate the readability level of students. In order to create this passage to test

students‘ readability, these are the steps:-

After students have filled in the blanks, scores of the students are recorded. Only the

exact replacement word in the blanks is considered correct, but misspellings are

allowed. Schumm (2006) explaines that teachers have to ―calculate the number of

blanks the students filled in correctly, and divide by the number of total blanks to get a

percentage.‖ Percentage below 40% means that the reading passage is too difficult for

the student while score ranging from 40% and 59% indicate that the reading passage is

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at the student‘s instructional level where students are able to complete it with certain

guidance provided. On the other hand, scores 60% and above signify that the reading

passage is at student‘s independent reading level which the student is able to

comprehend the reading passage without teacher support (Schumm, 2006).

With the scores, teachers then can create cloze passages according to

students‗readability levels.

Acantara et al. (2006) mentioned that ―Richardson (1980) also suggested the following

to prepare cloze materials in order to improve reading comprehension:-

1. Using a paragraph as a resource material for the cloze exercise:

a. Delete systematically very n-th word, but leave either the vowels or the

consonants.

b. Delete every n-th words, but the the initial and final letter of each word.

c. Delete every n-th word and provide three or four choices.

2. Using a long passage

a. Delete every n-th word systematically but leave some letters.‖

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8.3 Example

Below is a sample cloze passage retrieved from ReadWriteThink (2004),

―Sample Cloze Passage

Directions: Read the following passage. As you read, ask yourself if you need a

synonym for good, nice, or bad to fill in each blank. Then fill in the blanks with

synonyms from your word web. Do not use the same word twice. Make sure the words

you select make sense in the context of the passage.

First Day of Work Saturday morning I felt _________________ because I was starting

my first day of work as a cashier at Mr. Gordon‘s supermarket. I got dressed in the new

outfit my mother bought me for work, and searched my closet for a pair of shoes that

were _______________ for standing on my feet all day. I headed downstairs to eat the

breakfast my little sister had prepared for me. The eggs tasted ________________, but

I ate them anyway because I wanted her to feel _________________. After breakfast, I

grabbed my jacket, dashed to the door, and kissed my mother goodbye. ―Have a

________________day,‖ my mother called to me as I headed down the porch stairs.

The weather was ________________, especially after the ________________ storm

the night before, so I decided to walk the seven blocks to the store. Turning the corner, I

passed a construction crew repairing a(an) _______________ pothole in the street.

One of the crew workers tipped his hat to me. I smiled at him just as a gust of wind blew

dust from the construction onto my outfit. I tried to brush the dust away, and felt

________________that I didn‘t have to do such a(an) _________________ job like the

construction workers. Halfway to the store, a man walked by with two

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________________ dogs that kept growling at me and yanking their chains. ―Don‘t

worry,‖ the man assured me. ―They won‘t hurt you; they‘re _________________ dogs.‖ I

decided to cross to the other side of the street, just in case. I wasn‘t going to let

anything ruin my _________________ day. Just as I reached the other side of the

street, a bus roared by, splashing the water from a puddle onto my clothes. By the time I

reached Mr. Gordon‘s store, my feet were aching and my clothes were ruined. I sat

down on a bench outside the store to rub my feet. I felt so ___________________ that I

almost cried. But I knew I had to keep going; Mr. Gordon was depending on me. I finally

stood up and pulled on the door to the store, but it did not open. Then I noticed that it

was dark inside the store, and a sign was posted on the door: CLOSED DUE TO

POWER OUTAGE. I sat back down on the bench. What a(an) __________________

day!‖

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8.4 Reference

Alcantara, R., Cabanilla, J., Espina, F., & Villamin, A. (2003). Teaching Strategies (3rd

ed., Vol. 1). Makati City: Katha Publishing.

Oller, J., & Jonz, J. (1994). Cloze and coherence. Lewisburg [Pa.: Bucknell University

Press ;.

Sample Cloze Message. (2004). Retrieved August 21, 2015, from

http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson282/ClozePas

sage.pdf

Schumm, J. (2006). Reading assessment and instruction for all learners. New York, NY:

Guilford Press.

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9.0 CASE STUDIES

9.1 What are Case Studies?

Case Studies are scenarios that represent realistic and complex situations which needs

to be solved in the classroom. There are a number of virtues of using case studies in

the classroom, one of it is to ―bridge the gap between theory and practice and between

the academy and the workplace‖ (Barkley, Cross, and Major 2005, p.182). According to

Professor Paul Lawrence (quoted in Christensen, 1981), a good case study is: ―the

vehicle by which a chunk of reality is brought into the classroom to be worked over by

the class and the instructor. A good case keeps the class discussion grounded upon

some of the stubborn facts that must be faced in real life situations.‖

There are a variety of case studies structure we can use. Here are some examples:

In the form of a few paragraphs, or a few pages.

Lecture-based or discussion based.

Based on real situations or fictional.

The case study require a full solution or just the parameters of the problem.

Using Case Studies is part of the active learning process, which is proven to be an

effective learning method in the classroom (Bonwell and Eison, 1991; Sivan et al, 2001).

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9.2 How to apply Case Studies in lesson?

There are several ways on how case studies can be incorporated into the classroom.

Among them are:

1. To test the validity of a theory

When learning science, there are various theory that is being taught. One way to assist

the students to validate the theory is through case studies.

2. To test the understanding of a concept.

Case studies can be used to measure the understanding of a particular concept, for

example in subject like geography and maths.

3. To explain the application of theories in real-life situations.

Case studies can be used to show how theories, such as science theories, can be

applied in real-life situation.

4. To reinforce understanding in a lecture.

Case studies can be used as examples to make students understand the lecture better.

Through case studies, the students are able to relate the lesson to a scenario they can

relate to .

5. To facilitate group discussion.

Case studies can be applied as a group exercise, where the input from each member is

required to solve the problem given.

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9.3 Examples

Here is one example of using case studies that can be applied in the classroom lessons

for preschool children.

Objective: To test the understanding on the importance of brushing our teeth to

preschool children.

Step 1:

Show to the children on how to brush our teeth properly and the reason why we need to

brush our teeth regularly.

Image Source : clipartzebraz.com

Step 2:

Explain to them how food that gets stuck between our teeth will cause bacteria to form

and cause cavity in our tooth.

Image Source : Istockphoto.com

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Step 3:

Show them this poster and tell them a scenario where a child is having a toothache.

Use this scenario as a case study to test their understanding.

Image source : ALIM Consultancy & Resources

Ask them these questions:

1) Why is the tooth sad?

2) What was the cause of the toothache?

3) What should be done to avoid the toothache from happening?

4) What would they do in the same situation?

5) How would they feel if this happens to them?

Through the use of case studies as above, the children are able to apply their

knowledge to a possible scenario and reinforce their understanding of the concept.

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9.4 References

Barkley, E. F, Cross, K. P. & Major, C. H. (2005) Collaborative Learning Techniques:

A Handbook for College Faculty. San-Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Christensen, C. R. (1981) Teaching By the Case Method. Boston: Harvard Business

School.

Bonwell C C and Eison J A (1991) Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the

Classroom, ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1. The George

Washington University, School of Education and Human Development,

Washington, DC.

Davis, C., & Wilcock, E. (n.d.). Teaching Materials Using Case Studies. Retrieved

August 23, 2015, from http://www.materials.ac.uk/guides/casestudies.asp