Instructional Design Postcards

EdTech 503Jennifer Byzewski

Table of Contentsslides 3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . The History of IDslides 5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . Definition of IDslides 7-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . Systematicslides 9-10 . . . . . . . . . . . Guiding Modelsslides 11-12 . . . . . . . . . . .The Gerlach and Ely Modelslides 13-14 . . . . . . . . . . .The Morrison, Ross and Kemp Modelslides 15-16 . . . . . . . . . . .The ASSURE Modelslides 17-18 . . . . . . . . . . .The PIE Modelslides 19-20 . . . . . . . . . . .The Diamond Modelslides 21-22 . . . . . . . . . . .The Smith and Ragan Modelslides 23-24 . . . . . . . . . . .Constructivismslides 25-26 . . . . . . . . . . .Empiricismslides 27-28 . . . . . . . . . . .Behaviorismslides 29-30 . . . . . . . . . . .Information Processing Theoryslides 31-32 . . . . . . . . . . .Educational Technology and Instructional Designslide 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .APA References

photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/chrisgold/3229042760/sizes/l/in/photostream/

The History of Instructional Design

The practice of instructional design began with a need for military training during WWII. Using the process of evaluating and testing trainees to determine their aptitudes, the method became a success. After the war, organizations were created that aimed to improve training systems by using procedures that followed a systematic approach. The next phase of training development was influenced by B.F. Skinner’s theories on operant conditioning and the work by Mager and Bloom in developing definable objectives. In addition, the launching of Sputnik caused the US government to invest heavily in math and science education which in turn influenced the field of Instructional Design (ID).In the 1960's early forms of ID models were being developed. The advent of criterion-referenced testing helped shape the ID process by providing the means for measuring the learner's acquisition of the defined objectives. The work of Robert Gange' influenced the ID process by outlining learning outcomes, teaching activities, and a hierarchical analysis process. Also, the effectiveness of the ID process increased with the addition of formative and summative evaluation. In the 1970's and 1980's more ID models began to develop and remain strong in business and the military but had less impact in the educational system. More recently, technology and the theory of constructivism have played a major role in shaping the ID field. Some recent trends include knowledge management, internet distance learning, and rapid prototyping. (Reiser, 2001)I chose this photo because the structure is old, representing the historical aspect of the development of the ID process. The bricks represent the assembling of ideas that have built upon one another in the formation of ID theory and practice. The open door leads out into the future of ID as it continues to expand and impact the world.photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/chrisgold/3229042760/sizes/l/in/photostream/

http://www.flickr.com/photos/wonderlane/4674058098/sizes/l/in/photostream/

Definition of Instructional DesignInstructional design is a process that uses systematic and reflective planning to develop efficient and appealing instruction through the effective arrangement of learning conditions, materials, and activities, for the purpose of meeting identified learner-centered goals. The instructional design process involves activities that are used to answer the following questions:

1. Instructional Analysis - Where are we going?2. Instructional Strategy - How will we get there?3. Evaluation - How will we know when we arrive? (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 8)

The "ADDIE" acronym is used to help remember the steps in the Instructional Design Process.A - AnalysisD - DesignD - DevelopmentI - ImplementationE - Evaluation

I chose this picture because the questions posed by Smith and Ragan above make me think of a journey. Just like the ID process, a journey to the top of a mountain requires thoughtful planning and consideration of the environment (context). Reaching the plateau represents meeting the learning objectives.

Photo Credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/wonderlane/4674058098/sizes/l/in/photostream/

Photo Credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ADec_SYSTEM_BUILDING_BLOCKS_1103.jpg

Systematic Instructional Design

A system is a group of interrelated and interdependent components all working together to accomplish defined common goals and outcomes. There is a sense of orderliness, organization, and efficiency and a structure of checks and balances is in place.Systematic instructional design suggests using a method, technique, or procedure to create an instructional design plan. The term suggests that purposeful thought and planning went into designing effective, efficient instruction that is appealing to learners. It also implies that there has been a systematic approach to analyzing the learner, the objectives, and the task; designing and developing the learning environment; executing the design; and finally, evaluating the effectiveness of the instruction and the learning. (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 24)Thus, a systematic approach is used by instructional designers because it guides the design process by creating an efficient, orderly process for gathering and analyzing information.I chose this image of a circuit board because it represents to me the orderliness and interconnectedness of a system. In the same way that all the pieces of a circuit board must be in place and working, each part of an instructional system is vital for the whole process to be successful. All the pieces of the circuit system work together for a common purpose just as the components of a systematic instructional design plan work together to create effective instruction.

Photo Credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ADec_SYSTEM_BUILDING_BLOCKS_1103.jpg

photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Housee_BLueprint.jpg

Guiding ModelsModels for instructional design planning are essential to help us simplify concepts, guide the instructional process, and apply general principles that are applicable to a variety of circumstances. They also provide useful conceptual, operational, and communication tools. These tools are valuable in the process of analyzing, designing, and evaluating instruction and learning. (Gustafson & Branch, 2001, p. 21)In some cases, models help insure that all the elements of good instructional design are used while also speeding up the instructional process. (Thompson, 2001) This is especially useful for classroom teachers who do not have the time to do a formal Instructional Design plan for each lesson they teach. Models may be classified in a variety of ways using criteria such as the learner/teacher approaches to the model, the context in which the model will be used, and how the Instructional Designer conducts projects. Visscher-Voerman (1999) created a classification using the categories of instrumental, communicative, pragmatic, and artistic. Gustafson and Branch have created a taxonomy that divides models by their orientation: classroom, product or system. (Gustafson & Branch, 2001, p. 34) What is most important in choosing the most effective model for a particular task is the context of the learners, the learning environment and the particular goals of the plan. I chose a blueprint as my picture because blueprints create a visual image for their proposed ideas, just as guiding models create a representation of the ID process. Blueprints can also give information about the methods and materials used to build the structure. In a similar way, guiding models portray the steps and tools used in the implementation of the ID plan. The model is the guide for the procedures that the ID process will use.photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Housee_BLueprint.jpg

Photo credit: A.W. Strickland, Ph.D., Idaho State University http://ed.isu.edu/depts/imt/isdmodels/Gerlach/Gerlach.html

The Gerlach and Ely Model

The Gerlach and Ely Model (1980), named after its authors, is a classroom-oriented model that starts with two simultaneous activities; selecting content and detailing objectives. The next step in the model is labeled assessing the entry behavior of learners which involves examining the prior knowledge and characteristics of the learners. With attention paid to the first three steps, there are five simultaneous activities that occur next. These activities include determining the strategy, organizing groups, allocating time, allocating spaces and selecting resources. The instructional plan is developed from the decisions made in each of these categories. Next in the process is the evaluation of performance. Using the learning objectives as a guide, student achievement and attitude is measured, along with the effectiveness of the instruction. The teacher then interprets the data and completes an analysis of feedback, which is used to make adjustments and improvements for the next round of instruction. (Gustafson & Branch, 2001, pp. 39-42)

The previous slide shows a diagram that illustrates the Gerlach Ely model, outlining the connections between the steps. The model is basically linear except that the choosing of content/objectives and the development of activities occurs simultaneously.

Photo credit: A.W. Strickland, Ph.D., Idaho State University http://ed.isu.edu/depts/imt/isdmodels/Gerlach/Gerlach.html

Photo retrieved fromt: http://elearningcurve.edublogs.org/2009/06/10/discovering-instructional-design-11-the-kemp-model/

Morrison, Ross and Kemp Model

The Morrison, Ross and Kemp Model (2001) is a classroom-oriented instructional design model that considers the viewpoint of the learner and has an emphasis on curriculum planning. The plan asks six questions to ascertain learner and instructional needs. The model presents a continuous cycle of interdependent activities that allows the designer to begin at any point in the plan. Evaluation, revision, planning and implementation are seen as ongoing activities. Nine elements are considered in the process:1. Instructional Problems2. Learner Characteristics3. Task Analysis4. Instructional Objectives5. Content Sequencing6. Instructional Strategies7. Designing the Message8. Development of Instruction9. Evaluation of the Instruments

(Gustafson & Branch, 2001, pp. 27-29) Photo retrieved fromt:

http://elearningcurve.edublogs.org/2009/06/10/discovering-instructional-design-11-the-kemp-model/

ASSURE Model of Instruction Heinich, Molenda, Russell and Smaldino (1999)

A nalyze learner S tate Objectives S elect media and materials U tilize media and materials R equire learner

participation E valuate and Revise graphic created by Jennifer Byzewski, 2013

The ASSURE Model

In 1999, Heinich, Molenda, Russell and Smaldino created a systematic planning model for classroom use using the acronym of ASSURE.

As seen on the previous slide, the A stands for analyze learners. In this step elements such as "general characteristics", "specific entry competencies", and "learning styles" are examined. (Gustafson & Branch, 2001, p. 42)

The letter, S, State Objectives, stresses the importance of creating well-defined, quantifiable objectives by considering performance, conditions, and criterion. (Reid, nd, p. 4) They suggest the ABCD format of audience, behaviors, conditions, and degree when writing objectives. (Gustafson & Branch, 2001, p. 23)

The next S stands for Select Media and Materials. In this component the instructor creates or selects existing materials to guide learning based on the learner characteristics and objectives.

After this stage, content is taught to students during a Utilizing Media and Materials step. According to Reid, the instruction follows the prescribed pattern of: previewing, preparing the environment, preparing the audience, and presenting. (nd, p. 4)

Once presentation of material has taken place, the teacher looks for participation from the learner. This may include responses ranging from informally answering questions to designing formal projects. This component is called Require Learner Response.

The final step calls for educators to Evaluate and Revise. During this step student progress and the success of the instructional process are considered. Revision takes places based on the findings.

There is no graphic form for the ASSURE model so I created my own slide showing the ASSURE acronym and the steps of the process.

Pie ModelNewby., Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, 2000

PlanImplement

Evaluate

pie photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Apple_pie.jpg adapted by Jennifer Byzewsk, 2013

PIE Model

The pie model is a three-step process; plan, implement, and evaluate, designed for teachers by Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russell (2000). The model emphasizes the use of technology as well as a learner-centered classroom environment. The authors provide questions for the learner and the instructor at each phase of the plan. (Gustafson & Branch, 2001, pp. 44-46)

The Planning phase of the PIE model involves collecting information about the learner and environment. It also includes choosing instructional objectives, methods, strategies, and materials. There are questions to guide the educator in the selection of appropriate, useful technology for instruction.

The Implementation phase of the PIE model involves preparing the instructional materials, learning environment, and learners. Once these features are in place, the instructor proceeds with the lesson. (Choi, 2007)

The Evaluation phase is used to evaluate student learning and the effectiveness of the instruction. Questions that are answered during the evaluation phase relate to the quality and quantity of learning, the improvement of materials and activities, and technology use. (Gustafson & Branch, 2001, p. 46)

The PIE acronym is straightforward and easy to recall. For my image, I took a pie picture and added the words: plan, implement, and evaluate as a way to remember to apply systematic design to classroom lessons.

pie photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Apple_pie.jpg adapted by Jennifer Byzewsk, 2013

Diamond, R. M. (1997). Designing and improving courses and curricula: A practical guide

Diamond Model

Diamond photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brillanten.jpg Diamond Model: http://jbyun.com/isd/isd_Models/ISD_Model.html

The Diamond Model

The Diamond Model is a model designed by R. M. Diamond for higher education institutions. It is included as a systems approach by Gustafson & Branch (2001) because it is intended for use in developing entire courses or curriculum. It also emphasizes a team approach that is consistent with a systems-oriented model.

The Diamond Model contains two phases. Phase I is a project selection and design phase and Phase II involves production, implementation and evaluation for each unit of curriculum.

In the design phase, ideal solutions to the current situation are considered. Societal needs, available resources, student enrollment and preferences, institutional goals, time constraints, faculty input, and other factors are all examined. Then a final decision is made as to the viability of the plan. If the decision is made to start the project, a variety of other factors are studied and an operational plan is developed.

In phase two, the designing of the curriculum takes place. Each unit of the curriculum or course goes through a seven step process: determining objectives, selecting instructional formats, evaluating and selecting existing materials, producing and testing new materials, coordinating implementation, and finally, implementing, evaluating and revising. (Gustafson & Branch, 2001, p. 76)

Diamond photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brillanten.jpg

Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T.J. (1992). Instructional design

SMITH and RAGAN Model

Image retrieved from: http://jbyun.com/isd/isd_Models/ISD_Model.html

Smith and Ragan Model

The Smith and Ragan Model (1999) is a systems-oriented model with three phases: analysis, strategy and evaluation. The strategy is basically a linear sequence but Smith and Ragan (2005) are quick to point out that "many times the steps within a particular phase may occur concurrently." (p. 10)

The analysis phase involves analyzing the learning environment, learners, and learning tasks. Instructional goals are written in the learning task step. Next is the write test items step which involves finding the appropriate assessment plan for the particular learners and identified objectives.

After analysis, Smith and Ragan present a strategy phase. In this phase the instructor must determine the strategies necessary for organization, delivery, and management of the instruction. With those strategies in mind, instruction is developed.

The evaluation phase involves a conduct formative evaluation step as well as a revise instruction step. Evaluation of the instruction takes place during development and after implementation. The information gained from evaluation is used to analyze and revise the instruction and the design process. (Gustafson & Branch, 2001, pp. 57-59)

Image retrieved from: http://jbyun.com/isd/isd_Models/ISD_Model.html

Photo Credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Construction_in_Vienna.jpg

Constructivism

Constructivism is a philosophy under the umbrella of "rationalism," that holds to the view that the starting point for knowledge is reason. The philosophy of constructivism states that reality is constructed rather than discovered. Constructivists are divided into camps by their beliefs about learning and how it is acquired. Individual constructivists feel knowledge is actively constructed from experience, prior knowledge, values, and beliefs. They hold to the tenant that learning results from a personal interpretation of knowledge. Social Constructivism brings the assumption that learning is collaborative and that individuals work together to negotiate meaning and understanding. Another aspect of constructivism is Contextualism. This belief system contends that instruction should be "anchored" by using realistic problems and settings. Lessons should present realistic situations that lead to "authentic learning". Assessment should not be an independent activity but should be incorporated with learning activities to create authentic assessments. Piaget's "developmental theory of learning" and Vygotsky's "zone of proximal development" have played a role in shaping constructivism thinking. (Gustafson & Branch, 2001)

Activities in the constructivist classroom involve building knowledge through problem solving and investigation, usually in collaboration. The teacher acts as a facilitator, guiding instruction, and asking relevant questions. The students are in charge of their own learning, building authentic tasks and artifacts and constructing meaning from information.

To represent the idea of constructivism I chose a picture that shows construction workers actively building something. This corresponds with the constructivist view that learning is actively constructed by the learner rather than transmitted.

Photo Credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Construction_in_Vienna.jpg

Sight

Smell

Taste

Touch

Hearing

Photo credit: http://www.publicdomainfiles.com/show_file.php?id=13491421214193 modifications made by Jennifer Byzewski, 2013

Empiricism

Empiricism is a philosophy that states that knowledge is acquired through experience, especially sensory experience. It is sometimes termed "objectivism" because it contends that reality is objective and concrete. It embraces the idea of "reductionism," which states that systems are only the sum of their parts and can be reduced to their simpler components. The British philosopher, John Locke, is a classic example of an empiricist, who felt that humans begin as a tabula rasa, a blank slate, without any innate ideas of their own. This "blank slate" belief leads to the valuing of experimentation and generalization by instructors who hold the empiricist view. (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 22)

I chose the picture of the empty chalkboard to represent Locke's concept of human learning beginning as a "blank slate." I then added the words: sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste with arrows pointing to the chalkboard to correlate with the empiricist view that knowledge is acquired through sensory experience.

Photo credit: http://www.publicdomainfiles.com/show_file.php?id=13491421214193 modifications made by Jennifer Byzewski, 2013

Image from: http://www.squidoo.com/free-printable-chore-charts

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a learning theory that is often held by those who have an empiricism educational philosophy. It holds to the view that learning occurs when the learner responds to certain stimuli in the environment. In this view, learning must be observable and measurable. It has its beginnings with the "classical conditioning" research of Ivan Pavlov (1927) in which a behavior was observed and then reinforced through a reward. In Pavlov's research dogs were "conditioned" to respond to a certain stimulus. B.F. Skinner's work on "operant conditioning" in the 1940s and 50s heightened the movement. (Gustafson & Branch, 2001, pp. 44-46)

In a behaviorist classroom, the teacher has the role of overseer. The teacher may use modeling, shaping, cueing, and extinction practices to improve student learning. There will be a reward system in place and the teacher will give out positive and negative reinforcement for behavior and learning. Contracts and behavior modification practices will be used. The emphasis is on mastery learning through drill and practice with immediate feedback. (Ertmer & Newby, 1993)

I chose a behavior chart as my image because using rewards to shape or "condition" behavior is major aspect of the behaviorism learning theory. The behaviorist teacher creates a list of observable behavioral objectives and then establishes rewards for achieving the objectives and consequences for not attaining them.

Image from: http://www.squidoo.com/free-printable-chore-charts

photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Food_Processor_2.jpg

Information-Processing Theory

Smith and Ragan (2005) explain Information-Processing Theory as a "series of transformations of information through a series of postulated structures within the brain." (p. 26) This theory falls under the category of Cognitive Learning Theories. Cognitive Learning Theorists view learning as active, constructed, and cumulative. They place an emphasis on prior knowledge and the organization of information in the brain.

Information-Processing Theory plays an important role in the field of Instructional Design because it provides a framework for thinking about learning and gives guidance for structuring learning environments.

In the "Multi-Store Model" of Information-Processing Theory, information is first received by the senses. Then sensory receptors send this information to the sensory register. In the sensory register some information will be attended to. Other information is ignored based on the "selective perception" due to expectations, values, beliefs, and prior experiences. Information that is attended to moves on to the working memory. This memory has a limited capacity and a short duration. The working memory then transfers information to the long-term memory. Based on the need for understanding new information, information often travels back and forth between the working memory and long-term memory. Finally, in order for information in the long-term memory to be stored and accessed, it must be meaningful, integrated with prior knowledge, and organized in the brain. (Smith & Ragan, 2005, 26-28)

I chose a food processor as my image because a food processor takes an item (food) and changes (processes) it into the form that is useful. Information-Processing Theory explains how the brain takes information and processes it to create knowledge that is useable by the learner.

photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Food_Processor_2.jpg

photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Viva_Entertainment_and_Mavshack_partnership.jpg

Instructional Design and Educational Technology

Technology is tool that is used for many purposes. In the field of Educational Technology, technology is used to improve learning and train students in 21st century skills. In the area of Instructional Design, a model or a process is used to enhance learning. From my perspective, the goal of both of these fields of study is to augment learning. Therefore, it is very natural that Instructional Design plans would use the concepts, research, and techniques of Educational Technology to best engage and meet learner needs. In the same manner, as the field of Educational Technology strives to follow the very best educational practices, it would naturally adopt and use Instructional Design Plans. Therefore, I would expect to see much collaboration between the two disciplines. As technology continues to advance and offer increasing amounts of educational tools, Instructional Design will be useful in assuring that technology is utilized in the best possible way to improve learning.

I chose the image of two people shaking hands to represent a partnership. I feel that Instructional Design and Educational Technology function best as a partnership, each supporting one another to achieve common goals.

photo credit: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Viva_Entertainment_and_Mavshack_partnership.jpg

Choi, Ahram. (2007, March 5). Instructional development model critique- PIE model by Newby, Stepich, Lehman, & Russell. Retrieved from http://ahram.myweb.uga.edu/IDmodelcrit.pdf

Ertmer, Peggy, & Newby, Timothy J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50–71.

Retrieved from http://courses.ceit.metu.edu.tr/ceit627/week3/Ertmer-Newby-beh-cog-const.pdf Gustafson, Kent L., & Branch, Robert Maribe. (2002). Survey of instructional development models (4th Ed.).

Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and Technology, U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences National Library of Education.

Reid, Alan. (n.d.). A comparison of ID models: A systematic approach and the assure model. Old Dominion University.idt-849-a-comparison-of-id-models-2.doc

Reiser, Robert S. (2001). A history of instructional design and technology: Part II: A history of instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49(2), 57–67. Retrieved from http://edtech.mrooms.org/pluginfile.php/64731/mod_page/content/9/History-of-ID_Reiser.pdf

Smith, Patricia L., & Ragan, Tillman J. (2005). Instructional design (3rd Ed.). Danvers, MA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Thompson, Nadeen. (2001, February 15). Why ID? The benefits of instructional design models. Teaching With Technology

Today, 7(6). Retrieved from http://www.uwsa.edu/ttt/articles/thompson.htm

Works Cited