institution spaskomncx national inst. of education (dre ...a research report. institution...
TRANSCRIPT
ED 117 479
DOCUMENT RESUME
95 CE 006 135
AUTHOR Kitchak, Karen; And OthersTITLE Individualized Instruction and Tracking in Career
Education. A Research Report.INSTITUTION Ariss-Corp,r-MinneaplolislMint.SPASKOMNcx National Inst. of Education (DRE-Vir7W.s3-hWD.C..
Career Education Program,PUB DATE 21 Jun 74CONTRACT OEC-0-72-5248NOTE 185p.; Page 64 may not'reproduce well in microfiche
due to marginal legibility
BDRS PRICE MI0-40.83 HC-$10.03 Plus PostageDESCRIPTORS *Career Education; Definitions; *Educational
Assessment; Educational Theories; Federal Aid;*Flexible Progression; *Individualized Instruction;Individualized Programs; Program. Descriptions;Program Rffectiveness; *Program Evaluation
IDENTIFIERS *National Institute of Education; Tracking (CareerPaths)
ABSTRACTThe project sought to determine whether certain
National Institute of Education (NIE)-fnnded carper educationprograms provided for personalization of instruction and whether theyavoided tracking students: into narrowly conostraided areas. The firschapter discusses .individualized instruction in historical and 41017
current perippective and presents sample definitions. The componentsof individualized instruction are described in the second chapter.Chapter three deals with special issues it individualized instructionincluding the role of counseling, problems in program evaluations,and common criticisms. A definition of individualized instruction asa basis for program review and assessment is presented in chapterfour along with a discussion of tracking. Chapter, five relates keyelements of the definition to activities and programs observed inNIE-funded programs in Philadelphia, Charleston, West Virginia, andGlasgow; Montana. Presented for each program are: a briefdescription, detailed assessment results, and a discussion, relatingsix questions about tracking to these programs. Where trackingappeared, it w.as attributed to external influences. A final chaptersummarizes the project and discUs es numerous conclusions' for each,program. A three-page reference li t and appended program options,student interview responses, and pa ticipant selection criteria forsome of the programs are included. uthor/MS)
*********************************** *****************************44****Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished *
,* materials not available from other sources. ERIC makes every effort ** to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal ** reproducibility are often encountered and this affects the quality ** of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available ** via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (BARS). !DRS is not ** responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions ** supplied by,EDRS are the best that can be made from the original. ************************************************************************
C2V1 fY L. .4
A
976
t
INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION AND TRACKING
IN CAREER EDUCATION
A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE
NATIONAL INSTITUTE:OF EDUCATION,
CAREER EDUCATION PROGRAM
a
JUNE 21, 1974
2
PREPARED;BY
ARIES CORPORATION
493U WEST 77TH STREET
MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA 55,435
U DEPARTMENT OF HEALTHEDUCATION *WELFARENATIONAL 9N STITUTE OF
EOUCATiON
I' IHn Eir,.:.4.. ItI;E 14 I 0.414,' bEEts WE PLI_/
0 , , . E IC. I t , : . , , I L .4 P E A.FIVE E., 1,1../, 9P-1
T"E PE w ,: N ,44.1 o34a :_,C.I1Jo:adoCt4 ()Will:0N-a T ,t.,: d 1,,,_ [NT , Lao ., a E 4 1.).. CIP ON 1,._ P.6
,dAtC C._ 1'P_, , NE ev..Aiot:e w EPGEENT iD v J n.o. NAT a` NAL PV.,d I UT E 0
E ut ,« a 7 JF,, P ) ,u d uu 4 C i.7 PA IC S.
INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION AND TRACKING
IN CAREER EDUCATION
A RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED___TO_IBE_
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION,
CAREER EDUCATION PROGRAM
JUNE 21, 1974
EN KITCHAK, Pas
RNOLD REHMANN, Pao
ELLIS BULLOCK, B.A.
ARIES CORPORATION
4930 WW1-77TH STREET
MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA 55435
THE WORK PRESENTED HEREIN WAS PERFORMED PURSUANT TO CONTRACT
OEC-0-72-5240, NOWEVER THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED HEREIN DO NOT
-NECESSARILY REFLECT THE POSITION OR POLICY OF THE NATIONAL
INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION AND NO OFFICIAL ENDORSEMENT OF THAT
AGENCY, SHOULD BE INFAREbs, 3
Resul s of the Assessment
1. Systematic Procedure
Detrmining
58
58
4. Needs, Interests, Aspirations
5. Providing Options
6. Optimize Growth
A Discussion of Tracking
CHAPTER VI:
References
Appendix A:
Appendix B:
,Appendix C:
Relative to the Three Projects
Summary and Conclusions
Program Optibns - Mountain Plajns Project
Table AAEL Student Responses to Interview Questions
Table BRBS Student Responses to Interview Questions
Mountain Plains Participant Selection Criteria
1
80
85
95
102
113
CHAPTER I: Introduction
TABLE OF CONTES
Historical Background
Current Definitions
CHAPTER II: Components of Individualized Instruction
Preliminary Components
Developmental Strategies for Programs
Student Assessment and Planning
4
9
11
Operational Components 14
Outcome Components 18'
PrograM Outcomes 1p:
Student Outcomes 20'
CHAPTER III: Special Issues
The Role of Counseling in Individualized Instruction 22
Evaluation of Individualized Instruction Programs 33
22
Criticismsoof Individualized Instructional Program 36
CHAPTER IV: Defining and Assessing Programs of Individualized 38Instruction and the Relationship of such Programsto the Concept of Tracking
Definition of Individualized InstrUction 38
Discussion o£ Terms 38
Tracking and. Individualized Instruction 40
Summary 46
CHAPTER V: An Application of the Conceptual Model 48to Three Career Education Projects
Methods for Collecting Assessment Information G 49
packground Information Relating to the Three Projects;i
5
50
Chapter I
THE -AESEARCH PROBLEM
Introductiona
The National Institute of Education,Career Education i'rogram
has sponsored programs that deliver career education services to
a broad age range of students. Th'e.programs are intended to test
four career education models--school based, experience based, home
and community based, and rural residentta.' A ptinciial goal of0
teach of these programs is to protride a strategy rot assisting
individual students to attain self -satisfaction
tion through career awareness, daieer 'exploration and career1 0
specialization. An underlying assumption is:tbleach participarit
receives a program tailored to his needs which wilf,result in the
attainment of his petsonal goals. The purpose of this research
was to examine whether these NIB-funded career,. education programs
provided for personalization of.instruction and whether they
avoided tracking students into narrowly constrained areas.
The first requirement faced by the research team was to
define the concept of "individualized in&truction"in a Manner.0
that would provide a framework for observation aneissessmeht.
Chapters I, II, and IV are particularly concerned, with the . '
development of an operational definition as a basis for subse-
quent evaluation.
In Chapter Met several'special issues related to evkluation
problems and criticisms of individualized instructional prpgrams
1
are discussed.
The remainder of the report, ChapteDs V and VI, describes
an application of the assessment strategy in three career
education programs-2-that offered dirct instructional services
to students. They were the Mountain Plains rural residential1
program, and the experience based career education (EBCE)
programs at Research-for Better Schools, :Inc., Philadelphia,
and Appalachia Educational Laboratory, Charleston, West .
Virginia. Aside from the direct task of examining individual-
ization processes within these three programs, it is our hope
that this, report will contribute to the literature on research
and evaluation of individualized programs.
Throughout the task of concept definition and description,
we found that such literature was limited in both quantity and
quality. /Most references were either too general or too specific.
No comprehensive-methodology appeared to have been conceptualized
or implemented. The strategy discussed in this report may pro-
vide -abasis for a workable conceptual framework in evaluation
of individualized instructional programs.
_Historical Background
Individualized instruction is a very old tenet of educational
philosophy. Certainly the Athenian education of young gentlemefi-
with the Socratic method of letting each student discover truth Ecyz;
_himself, and the system whereby wealthy youth were each provided
with a "pedagogue" responsible for his intellectual, moral and
physical development with personal advancement in all areas as a
'goal, would qualify, as individualized instruction. (Atkinson and
Maleska, 1964). The roving academies of scholars described by
Chaucer would also qUalify. Later, Rousseau n his revolutionary'
work, Emile, espoused a naturalistic educes ional philosophy and
incorporated three major principles ot'American educational philo-
sophy: growth, pupil activity and individualization. Rousseau
especially emphasized a teaching methodology based on maneuvering
the pupil into wanting to learn by building on his interests and
inclinataons. He regarded each individual as born with a distinct1
temperament and chided teachers of his day for giving the same exer-
cise in iscriminately to all children. Learning, he claimed, came
from lik erty which in turn incorporates individualized restraints
based of consequences. Revolutionary in its time, Rousseau's master-
piece became the basis cfor the later educational reforms of Pestalozzi,
Herbert, Froebel and many others, (Atkinson and Maleska, 1964).
It is important to note these early philosophies and prac-'
tices order to-provide a proper perspective for the discussion
following in this*paper, and to understand educational reform and
experimentation as part of a cycle relating to events and ideals
of the 1Wher gestalt. However, lest recent attempts to innovate
particularly in the area of individualized instruction be regarded
too cynically, it must be remembered that these efforts are being
conducted, for the first time, with the education of all students
in mind including those who only in this-generation are attempting
to enjoy the benefits accorded the majority culture. Th'e *oblems
and ideals of earlier similar philosophies are compoundedgeOmetric-
ally when teachers and students have the same variety of indi'v'idual
differences observed by early educators, but no longer have the
8
benefits of a tutor-student relationship. Nor do all students
enter the system with the highest socioeconomic background.
Given our _ma ti-on-a-rgo e
to all students,-Indlvidual-ite-d-=1nttuOticiiiisnoiongeraninterett-
ing intellectual concept, but has become a necessity. At the endo 4
of systematic education an enormous variety of personal, social and
economic choices exist for the individual. At the beginning of the
process students enter with the complete range of aptitudes, in-
terests, and backgrounds. Many times the former two have been
strongly influenced by,the latter. It is the charge of the in-,
tervening educational process to sort out the interactive effect
of the three variables, tO compensate for deficiencies resulting from
the influence of the society, and to develop each individual max-
imally so that he has the ability to exercise his right to make
choices at the end of the process. One purpose of this paper is
to report current thought and practices regarding the processes
and probleis of individualizing instruction and to try to system-
atically separate the many aspects of the process.
Current definitions
As an introduction to the literature delineating the components
of individualized instruction, it will be useful to consider some -
sample definitions.
7osti and Harmon, 01972) provide the following definition:
dividualized instruction is a function of the frequency with which
the decision to change the instructional presentation is made as
4
9
a resultof the assessment of an individual student's a hievements,
needs or aspirations".
This definition suggestshat a number of factors must be Pre-o
sen-t4 fir-s-t-a-congidation=ofhe-student-ontr=i-nof
rate of academic achievement, but also taking into account personality
factors. -Secondly, it can be inferred that more than one instruc-
tional option must be available. °Third, that the rate of providing
such options must be a function of the student needs rather than
teacher or temporal needs to move on to the next chapter or to
begin a new activity because the time for social studies, for
examj1e, is over.
Torkelson (1972) observes that programs of individualized in-
struction can be viewed on a continuum from most liberal to most
conservative. The former might be observed in a situation such as
a free school where the student can decide what he will learn, how
he will learn it and when. The student may also choose to lea
nothing at all, although, as Torkelson points out, this choice would
itself be an educational activity in that the student will ickarn the
consequences of non-participation. A more moderate form of
individualization would include student choice, but would not
allow the choice of non-participation. It would involve student
selection of goals, methods and time units. The most conservative
form of individualization on this continuum would limit student
choice to optional ways of learning prescribed curriculum.
10
5
Clearly the point of emphasis in this definition is the number
of choices available to the student. But it also implies that ine
indiVidualization the student is a decision maker and, at a minimum,
optional learning strategies must be present.
Davis (1972) discuases individualization in terms of under-
lying theoretical constructs._ the firqt theory he refers to is
the "cognitive structure" theory and is essentially Piagetian in
nature. Simplistically, the body of ideas in an individual's
.head is similar to a partially assembled jigsaw puzzle. Since
. the individual can be the only one who knows what is there and
what is missing only he can make choices as to what the.next piece
must be. It is futile for the teacher to provide either redundant
pieces or,pieces which relate to little else. It is the function
of education to provide a variety of choices which can be related
generally to the participants' developmental stage.
Davis calls the second construct "the cultural push"-theory
of learning. He observes that cultures emphasizpyitalUes by doing
jfthem. Many of these come from sources othertbOi the school, for
example, reading in the home, but he suggests the school can teach
more effectively by becoming a more viable and vital subculture
that values what it teaches. This theory has implications for
individualization in terms of establishing a reward system stemming
from personal interactions both with instructors and with small
peer groups.
The third theoretical construct relates closely to the first"
11
6
and is referred to simply as programmed learning and task analysis.
Davis considers these to be related to individualization in that an
effort is made to break learning into very small parts which may
be used to assess the, individual s needs and more accurately provide
the missing puzzle pieces de4scribed in the cognitive structure theory.
The significance of the Davis contribution is perhaps not so
much in content, but rather in that he points out that individualized
instruction rests on more than methodology. It also relates to
conscious or subconscious beliefs about how learnfng occurs. While
theorizing is often thought to be time wasting it may be important
for practitioners to consider this idea. With some understanding
of how learning may occur, components of projects may be evaluated
?
as. essential, possibly helpful d extraneous. Indiscriminate
)selection of faddish techniques ould be avoided.
This section of4this paper has provided some thoughts on
individualized instruction in a historical and current perspective4
and an overview of certain principles relating to individualization.
The three definitiOns discussed above are a sample of current
thought. These were included to illustrate in aflentral way the
great variation in present thinking about individualization in
terms of specificity and generalizability, in terms of several
ay
levels of abstraction and in terms of schdols of, educational thought
concerned with the issue. The second chapter of this paper will
discuss possible components of individualized instruction.
127
CHAPTER II'
COMPONENTS OF INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION
There is a great deal of recent literature available which_
describes individualized instruction. Some authors describe
components-in d. general way, others describe programs, and others
deal with specific issues, such as the evaluation of individualized
instruction. All of these topics are important to this paper. This
chapter will deal with the first two categories. The third chapter
will discuss specific issues which seem to have special significance
to this project: individualized guidance.and the implications of
such for dikeadvantaged groups and for issues related to sexism in
education,, and secondly, the problems involved in the evaluation
f individualized instruction.
While the literature. reviewed for this paper is only a sample
of what is available, it becomes clear in a very short while that
much of what is written is redundant. Certain factors seem to be
basic to most descriptions while additional components appear to
be a function of the comprehensiveness of the model. While a
discussion of components could be presented in-a-number of formats,
the approach used here will be essentially chronological taking
into account both program and student. It Will be "chronologidal"
in the sense that individualization components will be discussed
as follows: first, what would occur first in an individualized
program? How are such programs developed, and what 'are the initial
events that happen to students who enter an individualized program?
Secondly, what occurs when an individualized progeam is operational?
13sit
What are the components and how do students, teachers and other
involved parties function within it? Finally, what are the products
of individualized instruction? That is, what, if any, are the pro-
ducts of the program, and what is the impact of the program on the
participants?
Preliminary Components
Developmental Strategies for Programs
In planning a system of individualized instruction, Kapfer and
Kapfer (1972) suggest that the following issues must be addressed:
What are the goals of the school or system? What are the expecta-
tions of the community, of participants, of the parents of partici-
pants when they are involved? What educational experiences will,
promote attainment of objectives? How can the experiences be
organized most effectively? How can attainment be measured? What
support systems, such as those found in the community, will be
needed? Larry King, (1973) describing the development of a system
of individualized vocational instruction, lists the following steps:
select the topics to be individualized, write behavioral objectives,
categorize and organize the objectives into levels of di/iculty,*N.
and design alternative learning activities. Henrich and Goldsmith,
(1971) include many of the same tasks in their analysis of program
development. For example, following selection of the topic or unit
to be individualized, such as "construction", the program developers
must identify related tasks within functional areas, for example,
"carpentry". Those identified tasks should be verified through
interaction with experts in the specified fields. Following the
identification and verification procedure, developers must determine
14
9
what knowledge and training will be necessary for students to
develop identified competencies within the task area. Tire
knowledges and skills must be translated into sequential behavioral
objectives. Having lestablished the objeCtives, innovative materials
must be developed and td
/ted. The characteristics of such programs
and materials will be discussed in subsequent paragraphs.
It is important to recognizet however, that even when a system
can clearly specify developmental tasks, the over-riding concern of
planners must be the vast number of differences participants will
bring to the program. That is, in selecting goals, objectives, pro-
cedures and materials, an individualized program must provide a
wide variety of options, possibly going so far as to open the- option
of students performing all of the aforementioned tasks themselves.
Kapfer and Kapfer, (1972) have developed a comprehensive ljst
of the individual differences program developers must accommodate.
These include provisions for variability among students in the rate
they achieve; readiness skills they possess on entry; knowledge,
understanding and attitude development; verbal development; motor
skill development; responsibility development (along a continuum
from external shaping of responsibility to student valuing and
choosing such behaviors),; readiness for self- motivated leakning,
expectations and reinforcement.
The examples cited above are relatively comprehensive lists
of the sorts of considerations and activities involved in develop-
ing a system of individualized instruction. To summarize and
organize these preliminary steps, program developers must:
15
10
Develop a list of questions and concerns to be considered
during the planning phase such as those lbserved by Kapfe
and Kapfer, for exam le Sstudent characteristics and
community expectation.
Define the program of study to be individualized in discr te
functional terms. This appears to apply a management
principle whether the entire curriculum is to be individu lized,4;
or one component of it.
Involve appropriate agencies in the planning: governmenta
community, participant representatives or participants th
selves.
Develop a variety of objectives, methods and materials wi h-,
, in the constraints litted within number 1, above, and pro ide
sufficient time for field-testin feedback and revision.
The following paragraphs suggest planning components rela ing
to the individual student.
Student Assessment and Planning
In relation to'the individual.student, it would appear th
there are at least three processes which must occur prior to e
into an individualized instruction program.
First some type of assessment must take place. liosti and
Harmon 1972) refer to this procedure'as "prescriptive managem
1611
t
try
nt".
4
a
The level of sophisticaticin, the comprehensiveness of the assess-
anent procedure and the focus of the assessment varies considerably.
Theoretically, the list of variables suggested by Kapfer and Kapfer
(1972) described earlier on which learners may differ-appears to
be a comprehensive framework for assessment. Scanlon (1970)
describes the assessment techniques of the Philadelphia Individ-
-ually Prescribed Instruction (IPX) program. At the outset a
.placement instrument is complpted for each student. Information
regarded as necessary for a prescription includes the student's
general ability level in a subject, his degree of mastery of
each skill, information relating to progress in previous units,
general maturity and the learning charaCteristics of the studento
including learning style and reaction to various instructional
settings. Kinghorn and Poden (1970) include many of the same
40 assessment variables in their program but go on to describe the
process as being one whereby the teacher develops,such a profile
44
and then allows for student judgement about, the meaning of the
profile. Hamilton and Jones (1971) suggest that such assessments
and reactions to them are more useful when they have some predic-
tive power, for example, comparing student profiles and desires
to tables such as those developed for project TALENT. This proce-
"dure can become quite sophisticated as in the program described
by Katz (1.970) where background data and student goals are fed into
azcomputer which provides returns on the reality Potential of the
combination.
Esbenson (1972) raises the question as to whether such assess-
ments should be focused more on the students' deficiencies (as the
case in most academic programs) or on the students' interests.
1712
He advocates the latter whereas other writers, such as Dam.; (1970)
believe that individualized instruction is most beneficial to
students with many defiCienties, for example, the potential dropout.
Indeed, he believes that participants should be recruited on the
basis of their deficiencies, for example, poor attendance, spoor
attitudes and /or social and emotional problems.
Another aspect of the assessment process which will be discussed
in Chapter 3 but bears notice here is the problem of whether the
assessment should reflect thg student's current status as measured
by achievement and attitude inventories and plan accordingly. Or, whether
the intervention should reflect a potential which is not apparent
in results.j
This question is signifiCant when considering the needs
and potential of minority groups, disadvantaged groups and women
who may not be aware either,of their Own potential or of the avail-
able options. (Martin'and Martin, 1971; Gallington, 1973).
A second process which may occur in the pre-entry stage is
student involvement in planning, or student-parent involvement.
Ullery (1971), Torkellon (1972), and others insist that student
involvement in goal setting may be the single most important facet
of an individualized instructional program. Esbenson (1970) describes
a program in Duluth, Minnesota where the school provides a detailed*b4.
catalogue of learning options, with specific objectives, to the
students and their iiarents. Together with teachers, students and
parents negotiate each six weeks what the student will learn. Stu-
dents may also develop their own units.
While student goal setting may be one aspect of individualiza-
tion, it appears to be a practical function of the age of the
participants, as well as a philosophic consideration as. previously
13 18
described, (Toikelson,1972). Hamilton and Jones (1971) say that
student involveMent in planning need not and'should not be a Eunc-
-tion of a e, but that students should be taught decision making
strategie at least by the time they reach junior high school, and
that thes strategies may be crucial to career exploration and
preparati
I 40Although it would seem to be an important element of the pre-
<
entry 140 ess, only one writer comments specifically on the need
for individualized orientation to the program, and the need for
careful m nitoring
-(Frase, 1972).
and counseling during the adjustment period.
In s mmary, there appear to be three potential prepatory
activitie for students entering an individualized instruction
program: assessment of needs, abilities, interests and characteristics;
involvement in planning, and individUalized orientation and adjust-
ment. Most of the activities related to.these areas are suggested
as necessary to program success in the, literature although the level
of detail varies. There is no evaluative data to assess the signifi-
cance of each procedure to the final 'results of tI'ie program.
Operational Components
The operational features of individualized instructional pro-
grams are most frequently discussed in the literature. What the
program is and how the student functions within it, fe basically
the same, therefore, the distinction between program and - student
will not be the format for this section of the discuaion. By way
1419
of introduction,, it may be observed that while a great deal has been
written about operational components, in fact tide ie ese.ntal features
are very common and the degree of innovativenes
as the numbers of program descriptions increase
One of the most common features of individ
programs (and w,many other education programs)
behavioral objectives or performance based comp
and Goldsmith, 1971, Torkelsone 1972, Kinghorn
Al in other%programs, these objectives are ofte
time into levels of difficulty (King, 1973), s
of abstraction (Kapfer and Kapfer,.1972) and so
skills such as those related to a particular j
0,DOnnel and Lavorini, 470). The most signifi
objectives in terms of individualization, howev
ship between objectives and student needs. If
tion based, presumably each student has somewha
or combinations of objectives (Scanlon, 1970).
drops off rapidly
alized instruction
is the use of
tencies (Henrich
nd Poden!, 1970).
categorized, some-
metimes-by degree
etimes ix terms of
(Ullery4 1971,
ant aspect of
, is theJrelation-
he prograSy is prescrip=
differenkobjectives
Other progams are
individualized in respect to student variance in the rate '''St which they)
achieve common objectives (Prase, 1972, Ullery, 1970). This has some-; a
times been described as "purposeful pacing" (O'Donnel and4Javorini,
(1970) which is difficult to distinguish from traditionaclassroom'
'pacing sometimes known as tracking. Some writers, howee, view "rate"
as the basis for individualization, not simply in terms of mastery,
but also taking into account changing the activity (Tosti and Harmon,
1972).
The latter, "activities" or "options" are the most frequently
mentioned components of individualized programs and, in many
15
20
instances, are the sole basis for the assertion that aiProgram is
individualized. Almost all writers agree that basic individual
characteristics include the ways in which a student learns and his
interests. (As opposedto what he "needs", an issue on which there
is some disagreement). Some writers assert that it is not the1
content or methodology.F of the options which are significant, but
the fact that choices are, available (King, 1973; Kapfer,et. al. 1970;
Kinghorn and Poden, 1970)
decisions (Davis, 1972).
to increasing motivation,
and the process of learning how to make
Making choices is viewed as essential
fostering commitment and developing
responsibility. Programs which illustrate this kind of focus in-
clude student negotiated contracts such as those described by
Esbenson (1970), the Individual Learning Packages of Kapfer, Kapfer
etal (1970) in the Life Internship Programs; and Independent study
projects such as those described by Herd (1972),.
Other programs systematize motivation ana,t,reinforcement beyond
that resulting from studtnt commitment to personal choice. These
programs tend to either emphasize programmed reinforcement found
in technology or in frequent performance evaluations. Among
these are computex assisted ;earning {e.g. CAP, Herd, 19/2)
learning packets, (Ullery, 1971), audio-visual instruction, (e.g.
AVISTA, Herd, 1972) and Individually Prescribed Instruction '(Scanlon,
1970).
One of the areas in which many of the latter types of programs
are frequently criticized is in their apparent lack of emphasis
on inter-personal interaction as a learning tool. (Tucker, 1973;
Tillman, 1972; Nichols, 1972; Duda, 1970). Deciding whether this
is a justifiable criticism is not the purpose for this paper, but
w 2116
the point must be made that many writers do view "purposive inter-
action" (O'Donnel and Lavorini, 1970) as an important-and even .
essential learning tool. The variety of interactions among different
and changing student groups and between students and teachers areI.
described by King (1973), Kapfer, Kapfer et.al. (1972), and Herd (1972).
Prase (1972), suggests that the amount-of teacher involvement with
a student, and the amount and type of student interactions are
important variables of individualization which must be assessed
and accounted for in the student's program design.
Another component of operational individuallied instruction
programs often stressed in the literature is the degree and type
of. student involvement in the management process. At one levet
the student must be frequently and periodically informed as to.
his progress (Scanlon, 1970) and such information must be geared
to expectations and criteria clearly understood (and even mutually
developed) by both student and instructor (UJ.lery, 1972). In
addition, O'Donnel and Lavorini (1970) refer to the need for a
variety of methods for student evaluation both of his own work
and for feed back for the-improvement of the system. While this
type.of ongoing exchange of data clearly a component of the
operational program, it is also related to the products of the
sSistem and to the,problems of evaluation both of which will be
discussed in greater detail liter in this paper.
Finally, some writers assertlthat an individualized instruc-
tion program can often be assessed partially by means of the
facilities provided and the ways in which space is utilized.o
(King, 1973, Kapfer and Kapfer, 1972, Kinghorn and Poden, 1970,
Davis, 1972). Provision for a variety of activities within one
17 2Z
setting must be allowed to accommodate ths optio4s discussed above.
Additionally many programs must provide for failities which re-.
4
late to a variety of extra-school experiences. Most notably these
needs would occur in vocational-technical education and/or in other
programs stressing field learning in the community.
While other programs may include variations on the themesA
presented above (most obviously in terms of the available instruc-
tional options) certain components of operational programs appear
to be common enough to serve as the basis for categorization.
Among thSse commonly observed elements are:
behavioral objectives reflecting the program emphases in
content,on..student involvement and on "rate" and "prescription";
r. a variety f options either selected by the student or pre-
scribed by the teacher possibly reflecting the project's
reinforce*ent system;
differing emphasis on the role and nature of pqrsonal inter-.
actions;
the role and operation of the manageifrent system relating to
informationand feedback; and
the provision of facilities interacting with program/student
.goals and objectives.
Outcome Components
A discussion of the outcomes or products of indivcdualized. s),
instruction is closely related to evaluation as the process of deter-
mining outcomes, The sttength of the evaluation process is the index
of the value of the,pro ucts. This section is a brief summary of
some of4m.thitkinds of pr ducts (program and.student) which might be
18
2 3
expected froin these types of instructional programs. The folloWingo
chapter will include a discussion of evaluation processes.
Program Outcomes
The two major. roducts of individualized instruction programs
can be categorized as eytematiq processes for providing such instruc-
tion and as specific content units and materials which may be use -
ful within the subject area to be individualized. The former are1 I
more relevant to this paper.
Systems for the development of programs have been described
previously (Henrich and Goldsmith, 1971; King, 1973; Ullery, 1971Y.
Essentially these systems include procedures for identifying ,and
I
analyzing the content to be individualized, objectives or performance
goals with a variety of instructional approaches to assist in the
achievement of the goals and suggested evaluative techniques. These
maybe usefully disseminated to other program developers or td
-persons interested in similar content areas.
Other projects produce more liMited materials. Sometimes these
Are objectives, activities and/or instructional methods. Learning
packages fall into this category. (Kapfer and Kapfer et. al., 1970;
Hamilton and Jones, 1971; Scanlon, 1970).
Technologically orieftked projects produce machinery and materials
most often geared to self-instruction. Examples of these are the
programs of computer assisted instruction, as CAI used in many Title
I projects, Continuoue- Academic Progress-CAP (Herd, 1972) and AVISTA,
an audio-visual instructional program, (Herd, 1972).
19
24
Estimating the value of any of theie,,products must depend on
considerations of the goals of the program fo.r which they were used,
student achieveme'nt of objectives and the extent to which considera-
tions of student individual differences can or should be met. As
has been observed, "pacing", or the "rate"- at which a student progresses
is only one of these considerations. Unfortunately, most of thele
literature describing products such as thpse listed above is deficient
in evaluative information.
Student Outcomes
Student achievement in any program must be assessed in terms of
the comprehensiveness of the diagnostic and prescriptive 4rocedures
occuring on entry and throughout the course of work.
Student assessment procedures vary from simply measuring change
on a standardized achievement test (Clements, Duncan, and Taylor, 1969)
to daily evaluations of progress, placement and activities (Scanlon,
1970; O'Donnel and Lavorini, 1970). 'Davis (1972) sees the frequeni5p,
of student assessment and resulting changes in programming as cme'Of
the definitive aspects of individualized learning. Tosti and Harmon
(1972r streses the significance of'"maintenance management" which includes
frequent review of what has been learned and retained, and also follow-
up when a student leaves-a program to better evaluate the program.
ela
Criterion refer tId tests appear to be common measures of student
outcomes, especi lly in programs based on learning packets. Ullery. _Ado
(1970) describes a prbgram of criterion referenced testing for an
'individual vocational program where the standards are derived-lion__//
the sequential tasks to be learned as the student progresss along
,------'the career ladder. Students-in this program graduate 10ith an "occupa-
tional readiness certificate".
20
25
re.
IL
Problems associated with.the counseling and evalua,tion of
students, in individualized programs will be discussed in moreAr4
detail later in this paper,. For the putposes'of defining these
components of individualized instruction it is accurate
to summarize as follows:
Program outcomes Can be:
o systematic procedures for the developmeht individualized
instructional programs.
individualized learning packages which vary in complexity.
technological materials which are most often forms of,
paced self- instruction.
Student outcomes can be:
individual developTent in areas reflecting individual
needs.-44
o individual development in a common curriculum which can
be measured as amount of learning which has occurred (i.e.,
achievement levels) or by the rate at which learning has
.occurred or some combination of these two:
2621
8
0I.
O
Chapter III
SPECIAL ISSUES
There are many special topics 'which could be discussed at length
in relation to individualized instruction. Howe'ver, given the scope
of this paper and its ultimate goalof suggesting criteria
for assessing individualization programs, two of these
issues appear to be most relevant--the counseling process and
evaluatidh. Obviously these two .are interrelated and also relate
to factors described in the outcome section of the preceding.
chapter. Additionally, in closing the review of the literature with
this chapter, a brief discussion of the criticisms of individualized
instruction will be included.
The Role of Counseling in Individualized Instruction
It is not the function of this paper to define counseling prow,
cedures nor to elaborate on the needsf disadvantaged groups of
people, yet both of these have implications for individualized
instruction, especially as it is implemented within the two career
education models which serve as a focus for this study. This is not
to suggest that all participants in-the models re disadvantaged
but rather that these programs have a good potential for the educa-
tion of such groups providing certain assumptions and goals'are
claiified. The fears that career education could simply be an
extension of old procedures of "tracking" the disadvantaged into
low status, oi-paying posiNions were clearly expressed at the
conference "Career Education:. Implications for Minorities" hel
in Washington early in 1973. Any progiam which serves disadvantaged
people must be aware of the special needs and characteristics of
these groups. Individualized instruction can be an appropriate
vehicle for meeting their needs provid ng that assessment pro-
cedures are sensitive to them.
"Disadvantaged", for the purposes of this paper, refers to
those persons who have limited access t9 employment opportunities
with options to increase status, money and challenge. These5
disabling disadvantages may stem from sex or race as these are
affected by limited educational opportunities and poverty.
The fact of economic disadvantage for women and minorities
has been well-documented. Although siLcific figures vary, the
trends are very clear. For example, Taylor (1970) reports that
women comprise only one percent of the country's engineers and
federal judges, three percent of lawyers, seven percent of doctors,
nine percent of scientists and nineteen percent of college facul-
ties. Career Education News, October 15, 1973 reportsthat whilek
starting salaries for college graduates have gone up, with the
biggest increases to women applicants, salaries offered to women still
remain significantly lower than those to men with comparable jobs.'
A U.S. Office of Education study has shown that women on college
and university faculties are paid, on the average, $2,500 less a
year than their male counterparts. Also, only 1.4 percent of
high school principals and 19.6 percent of elementary school princi-
pals are women -- despite the large number of women teachers. (Mpls.
Star and Tribune, October 25, 1973).
G8
23
The same types of patterns hold true for ethnic and racial
minority groups. James Harvey (1972), in a study of minorities
and advanced degrees reports the following: within the total
number of graduate and professional students, only 39,869 or 7.3%
are minority group members. Also, U.S. Department of Labor
figures show that for our largest minority, blacks, unemployment
when related to the growing size of the work force increased
dramatically. 'Specifically, the number of unemployed black people
increased by 22 percent between 1970 and 1971. The pattern holds
true for other minorities as well. For example, 53.percent of
all Puerto Rican students drop out of school by the time they
reach tenth grade in academic schools and only 46 percent of those
remaining enroll in college bound programs. (Valez, 1973)
The compilation of similar statistics for all disadvantaged`
groups could fill volumes and are the subject of much study.
These sample figures are not intended to be definitive descriptors-of
the status of disadvantaged group, but rather to illustrate an
observable trend.
The significant questions regarding these groups here are, in
what ways do such persons differ from more advantaged groups, and
how can an individualized instruction accommodate such differences
in ways which will result in increasing the educational and economic
options of these groups?
2924
KArnes, et. al. (1971) summarize a review of the literatu e as
revealing at least six areas in which the disadvantaged differ from
the middle class: self concept, motivation, social behavior,
language, intellectual functioning and physical fitness. ObviouSly,
when dealing with generalities, it must be remembered that ster
typic lists rarely apply in toto to any individual or even to a
groups. In this instance, if the assumption that women fit the
eo-;
11
general definition of economic disaidvantage, only certain of the
Karnes' descriptors apply. Nevertheless, if studies are accurate,
many of these descriptors do seem to be characteristics of disadvan-
taged groups.
One area of study with direct implications for individualited
instruction in career education has to do with motivation and t
aspirations of the disadvantaged.
Brookover and PatterSon (1962) found that self- report measnres
of a student's concept of self are just as potent in predicting
school achievement as measures of academic aptitude. Edwards a
Webster (1963) identified positive self-concept as leading to
higher aspirations and greater academic achievement. Yet Wylie
reported that Negro and lower-class children tend to underestim
their ability to achieve.
Hindelang, (1970) discussed his study of educational and
(1968)
t
cu-
pat#onal aspiration among working class 'Negro, Mexican-Americal
and white elementary school children. He found that Negro children
had the highest educational aspirations followed by whites, they
Mexican-Americans. But holding educational aspirations constanJt
white and Mexican-Americans were found to aspire to higher occupa-
tional positions. Hindelang suggested that this pattern is not a-
typical in that Negro youngsters may well view themselves as needing
more education for lowerlobs.
These reports corroborate a wide variety of less objective
observations on behalf of practicing clinicians and teachers. Mitch
of the apparent failure of disadyantaged youth apparently derives
directly from self-perceptions and control expectancy. (Coleman,
et. al., 1966).
Yet, in spite of these observed differences in self-concept,
attitude and motivatjon, differences in ability have hot been
convincingly documented. Writers (Mink, 1961; pordon, 1965;
Hunt, 1961) reviewing relevant research and theory establidhed
several creditable conclusions about the effect o.f deprivation on
subsequent performance. These writers suggest:
There is little creditable evidence to suggest that racial
differences in intelligence exist.*
Disadantaged youth raised in middle-class homes display
measured intelligence significantly higher than their
biological parents.
Early deprivation can effect a decrement on a person's
future academic or intellectual performance.
Remedy of effects of deprivation is at least partially
possible, sometimes dramatically so.
* This issue is debatable. For further discussion the reader isreferred to: Harvard Educational Review, 1969, Reprint SeriesNo. 2.
31
26
Cultural deprivation or variation may adversely affect responseo
modes, perceptual styles, intellectual functions such as language
development, cognition, speech, comprehension arid vocabulary, all
necessary in the middle class classroom. Yet moot authorities
believe, as Schwebel (1965) that "... the socially deprived have
the capacity to develop the cerebral functions necessary for advanced
learning. Whenever our'society shall want high-level universal
education, it can have it."
Mink (1970) synthesizes findings similar to those presented
above in a way clearly related to individualized instruction.
"Recognizing that these youth lack the experiential, background for
learning, reading, and verbal expression in currently applied com-
munication modes and informatioh displays, educators wishing to
help the disadvantaged overcome educational defects must be willing
to restructure information displays and vary communication techniques.
Maybe the classroom as we knew it is obsolete as a setting to meet
the educational needs of all youth."
The foregoing paragraphs only touch on the Special needs and
characteristics of disadvantaged groups. Yet it is clear that
special characteristics do exist and must be met in the educational
program. If individualized instruction does include th mechanisms
for careful assessment of individual needs, the evidenbe p*sented
suggests that, in the assessment of disadvantaged persons)\ special
attention must be placed on considerations of attitude, se '\ concept,
motivation and aspiration. Resulting prescriptions must reelect
these special needs. There may also be a need for additional. support
services, such as special counseling.
32
27
Assuming that individualized instruction has a special need
for counseling, whether by teachers, teams, or certified counseling
personnel, it is appropriate to describe' at this point some possible
counseling approaches relevant to individualized instruction, bearing
in mind special needs such as those folpecribed above.
.A number of writes suggest the kinds of problems which should
be addressed in the counseling situation. Martin and Martin (1971)
say that the curricula must be- upgraded for girls at all levels,
and that girls must be encouraged to participate in a wider range of
skill training programs. Guidance should consider two part planning
for women, before and after child rearing. Koontz (1973) warns that
with women soon to comprise 40 percent, of the labor force, they must
be counseled away from traditional dead-end jobs. Hedges (1971)
predicts that unless such counsel4ng occurs, there will be increasing
competition for jobs,, and rising unemployment with the possibility of
depressed wage rates. Beyond specific job-oriented guidance, writers
in the area of counseling the disadvantage emphasize the importance14.
of communicating realistic expectations in terms of jobs, but espe-
cially positive expectations related to the individual's self-concept,
achievement, self-worth and control. (Peterson, 1967, Vontress,
1967, Ryan, 1969.) All of these seem to be valuable constructs for
counseling in individualized instruction, but it is not always
clear just when and how counseling intervention should take place.
Based on evidence suggesting the importance of peer groups,
and suspicion of conventional authority among the disadvantaged, in-
deed among most adolescentb, Mink (1970) makes a case for peer-group4
processes. Hamilton and Jones (1971) describe a prototypeprogram
28
33-
which emphasizes individualization within counseling where the
student is assisted in formulating relevant goals, used on an
understanding of his own interests and needs together with an
analysis of a variety of opportunities. Student decision-making
is also the focus of a computerized guidance system developed by
Educational Testing Service (SIGI), (Katz, 1970) in whichta
student systematically explores his interestd values, and the
capacity of society to meet those nee'ds. This results in a
predictive list of priorities which serve as the basis for a
planning system with simulated outcomes and problems.
Merrill and Forrest (1970) describe a model for career develop-
ment counseling with four "dimensions", Or levels of intervention.
The first of these is counseling for a specific decision by providing
information and clarification of issues. This approach is most
common and useful for short term crisis counseling, but is frequently
of limited value, especially when working with students with special
needs, such as the dis'advantaged. The second type is also 'Counsel-
ing for a specific decision, but the focus is on developing the
client's decision-making skills. The advantage to this-approach
is that it can alleviate the current crisis but can also supply
decision-making tools for future use. The third type views career
choice as a process and emphasizes the process of making a series
of choices. While similar to the second approach, this method has
advantages in that it can accommodate changes in the indiVidual as
well as in the situation. The fourth approach is called "career
process counseling" with an emphasis on the individual's ability
to determine his own objeottives and to influence his options rather
3429
e`.
than just adapt to- external pressures. This model has been describ-
b-ed at some length in that it may be one approach to counseling
.
within individualized instruction programs making allowances for-
special needs ranging from the single point intervention required
for a generally autonomous client to a means of providing clients,
such as the disadvantaged, with insights and attitudes which may
assist him in influencing his own future.
One other counseling approach will be described in, some detail
because it,was developed to focus on the needs of the disadvantaged
(although there appears to be no reason why it could not also be
applied to other groups) and because it reflects,a need for dif.=
ferential options. This model was developed by Karnes, Zehrbach
and Jones (1971). It rests on the assumption of individual differ-
ences (intellectually ranging from slow-to gifted) and recognition
of how available options differ in orientation and focus: non-verbal
versus verbal, person versus work orientation, group versus indivi-
dual orientation. -.
Figure_ 1 has been included as a graphic summary of the program
ideas based on limited available research findings, the character-
istics of each program and an analysis of client needs. The model
could be useful in focusing attention of school personnel on the
interaction between the needs of youth and the treatment available.
For example, one of the needs of the disadvantaged is to be placed
in programs that wila-teange their_attitudes and beliefs. Indi-
vidual counseling has frequently been viewed as the appropriate
*treatment. However, many of the attitudes of the disadvantaged are
derived from their peer group. Therefore it is logical for the
530
FIGURE 1
Comparison of Needs and Goals of Disadvantaged with Characteristics of Programs
Treatment strengths.Coals for disadvantaged
-O 1 ...g0
1 a
q PIC PS .020 gInput problem Type of treatment El 04 VI,
Attitudes and Beliefs
II
ti
CounselingIndividual
Group
0P4
DO 0
% 2
.,,. at4+ L.0 V 0 4-' w.. 6 "ri0vos b El a 74.. tu ts
= v49 CI4 C5 74), 0 q4C24 Li
law
X
GuidanceIndividual/ Personal-social
Vocational
X G,X
Academie X X G
Group (small) _Personal-social X X X X,
Social Behavior's Vocational
44,
Academic X X
G?
G
G G
Work SettingGuide and counsel
Inschool
\i
X X X X
X
X
\\ Part-time work X X
NI Behavior modification
athletics
II
Academic`,remedial skills
Language and speech
Reading
X X
Knowledge;,, ContentArith., science, soc.
studies, etc.
"'Consumer education X
CI= gifted" Except gifted
$ Verbal content should bo low for mast disadvantaged except when preparing youth for professional positions.
31 36
counselor to wew J within a peer group. Further, since disadvantaged.
youth are often introspective, the content of the individual
counseling metr,
-insight and self-awareness --is not relevant
Neither are the eitract concepts nor the unfamiliar vocabulary of
counseling partijeiiiarli suitable. Since the disadvantaged may not
feel the the problem, the treatment lacks relevancy.
A similar *arie4ysis was conducted on the remainder of the
typical settingsAm "X" suggests that in general the treatment
offers above- aveiag potential while a "G" suggests that the treat-
ment may be above rage for the potentially disadvantaged gifted
pupil. Occasionally interactions between the needs of the dis-Madvantaged, the tylipf program, and the academic goals of the
individual may tend reverse the meaning of a mark. Also, caution
must be observed wheidOising the chart, since local conditions or
specific conditions n negate components of the chart. For
example, the preseneeof an outstanding, low verbal counselor who
has "simpatico" with ''the disadvantaged might easily outweigh many
of the other consideations. It is presented here as one of very
few suggestions for i'ndividualizing,counseling and guidance options.
The preceding pal1ges have attempted to outline just a few of the
considerations involved with the counseling component of individu-
alized instruction programs, especially as they may relate to the
needs of the disadvantagedt. The following'observationsllave been0
made:
A significant proportion of the population has been economic-
ally and educationally deprived often because of factors
relating to sex, race or ethnic status and/or socio-economic
standing.
32 87
Air
Beyond the valiables listed above, there is little evidence
to suggest any differences in ability although other socio-
cultural, differences do seem to exist as a result of the
primary conditions.
Programs of individual instruction may be an important
variable in improving the status of the deprived as well
as improving the education of advantaged clients.
The role of the counselor is significant in effecting such
a change. Counseling and guidance should systematically
individualize diagnosis and treatment of clients.
Evaluation of Individualized Instruction Programs
Literature dealing with the evaluation of individualized instruc-,
tion'is limited in quantity and quality. Articles tend to be either
to general or too specific. No comprehensive methodology appears
to have been conceptualized or implemented.
Reinhart (1971) discUsses the types of information needed by
the National Advisory Council of Vocational Education, many of which
apply to the individualized models of career education. These are:
information with greater scope, for example the effects of treat-s
merit on groups of people such as women, young children and the dis-
advantaged. Secondly, monitoring information on the achievement of
national vocational goals is needed, especially the goal dealing
with uniVersal availability. Also, information on attracting the
potential clientele and on different hiring practices of local employers
is needed. Moss (1971) reiterates many of these. needs, but suggests that
data must also be available on the potential manpower market, and
33
that this data must be related to information about the potential
student body by age, sex, needs, and so forth.
Moss and others (Welman, 1971; Voelkner, 1971; Thompson, 1973')
attempt to translate these information needs into evaluation plans
which tend to be comprised of a series of generalities about the -ir
portance of conducting a needs assessment, developing objectives,
"formative" monitoring of iMples4ntation and operations, and
"summative" evaluation of results. It was not possible to decipher
how these approaches axe especially suited to either vocational/
career education or to individualized instruction.
Those writers who deal with the evaluation of individualized
,instruction seem to focus on the problem of finding a measure of
student achievement. Packard, (1972) concludes that the only real
measure of achievement should be rate, that is, the time required
for mastery. Wang and Yaeger (1971) support this conclusion, but
add that the degree of mastery must also be considered. Conflicting
opinions about the arbitrary nature of "degrees" of mastery (e.g.,
85% mastery) lead to questions about both rate and mastery as mea-
sures (Tillman, 1971; Tucker, 1973). Implicit in these discussions
of rate and mastery is the notion that individualization is a program
of teacher-designed curricula through which all students progress
(albeit with possibly different activities) and where the major
difference is rate.
Both evaluators of individualized programs and writers con-
cerned with the evaluation of programs for the disadvantaged tend
to decry the use of standardized achievement teAt. Whitely (1967)
idettifies three principal difficulties with standardized tests when
used with disadvantaged minority groups.
3934
I
VS-
They may not provide reliable d4ferentiation in the
range of the minority group's scores.
Their predictive validity for minority groups may be quite4?
different from that for the standardization and validation
groups.
The validity of their interpretation is /strongly dependent
upon an adequate understanding of the ocial and culturAl
background of the group in question.
Clement, et. al. (1969) say that nonstandardized methods of
evaluation are often of greater importance than standardized methods-
because they allow the counselor to ascertain' the functional capa-
bilities of the deprived counselee more accurately than would be
possible with standardiied- measures.
Since the topic of this paper is individualized instruction
rather than minority group or vocational educational evaluation,
the former have been presented only as illustrations-of the range
of concerns generally related to the assessment of individualization
within career education models. The problems are evident, solutions
are not. The review of the literature revealed the fpllowing diffi-
cultieS:,
There is no conceptual model available which distinguishes
between progrit evaluation and student evaluation.
Program evaluation approaches are so general they provide
evaluation guidelines of limited value.
Student evaluation procedures are so narrowly defined they
ignore most of the potential components of individualized
instruction outlined in Chapter XX.
Sensitivity to issues relating to minorities and other dis-
4 035
advantaged groupS i8 so great as to nearly cripple attempts
at objective evaluation.
Appropriate decision-making audiences are rarely defined.
Criiicisms of IndividVialized Instructional Program
While the theory of meeting the different education needs of
every student in the ways most efficacious for him is so commonly
accepted as to be nearly bromidic, specific approaches to individu-
" alization ar?,not-viewed in so snguine a manner. A review of the
literature leadihg to a conceptual model would be incomplete without
, some discussion of criticism. These criticisms should be considered
in the assessment of programs but should not be viewed as a kind of
negative definition of individualization.
'First, many writers are concerned that programs of individualized
instruction are-too tec pologically oriented and consequently ignore
the significance of inter ersonal relationships (Tucker, 1973; Duda,-*,
1970; Tillman, 1972; Nichols, 1972). These writers observe that the
development of social skills and cooperation are important educational
goals, that attainment of such oals should be facilitated by peer
group interaction and by an observant "child-centered" teacher as
opposed to a methodology/me-Psurement centered teacher., Intetactions
Aust leave room for.disagreement and questioning as well as for
positive reinforcement.
A second area of concern has to do with what is viewed as too
much focus on"pacing", "rate" and "sequence". Tillman (1972) con-
cludes that sequence is in the individual's head and prestructures
are limiting and often inappropriate. Duda 's conclusions that
4 136
Content must facilitate the student's need to increase his owno
knowledge and to develop his own synth6siS of learning tends to
support this (1970). Henderson (1972) obserVes that individualiza-
tion should be, and often is not, more than selfu.study. Tucker
(1973) says that individualization is more often than not just pacing.
Many of these same writers are also concerned that students
have a choice about their own education,in selection of goals
and objectives, of learning activities and of evaluation procedures
and criteria (Tillman, 1972; Duda, 1970; Nichols,, 1972).
One last general concern has to do with evaluation techniques
in terms"of the selection of arbitrary and unrelated criteria, and
the lack of face or content validity in measures of achievement.
(Tillman, 1972; Whitely, 1967; Clements, et. al., 1969).
CHAPTER IV
DEFINING AND ASSESSING PROGRAMS OF INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION.AND THE RELATIONSHIP OF SUCH PROGRAMS TO THE.CONCEPT OF TRACKING
Based on the review of literature it is clear that a very large
number of considerations are present in defining individualized
instruction especially a8 it exists in programs which serve disadvan-
taged,clients. However, if the definition is to be the construct
upon which assessment procedures can be built, the definition should
be as parsimonious as possible. The purpose of this chapter is to
suggest one definition, to elaborate upon it in terms of program
components, and to discuss the relationship between individualized
instruction as it has been elaborated in this paper and some aspects
of educational "tracking."
Definition
A program of individualized instruction is a systematic
procedure for determining, on an ongoing basis, client
needs, interests and aspirations, and for providing
options to the client which will optimize growth in
each and all of these three areas.
Discussion of terms
Systematic procedure - This term suggests that a program of
individualized instruction is a specific plan, either fully or par.!!,
tially operational based on an enunciated rationale, internally
I
cohesive, with established provisions for individualized diagnosis,
counseling, activities and evaluation. Plans will include objectives
at many levels of specificity relating to logically determined criteria
and to measures of achievement by which progress may be gauged.
Determining - refers to the assessment process. This process
can be analyzed in terms of the content which is assessed, maximally
those individually different characteristics listed by Kapfer and
Kapfer (see page 9) and in terms of the procedures used. These
IPmay vary from single standardized achievement measures to multi-
trait,. multi-method procedures assessing the client more than one way
on each of the identified characteristics which the program can impact.
Ongoing - relates to the frequency of assessment. Ideally,
as with *Rousseau's Emile, each student could have a tutor constantly
sensitive, to his growth and variability. Obviously this ideal
is impractical. However, given that individuals change and do
So in an idiosynCratic pattern, the program of individualized insruc-.
tion must have a system for regularly determining student progresS.
While it may be assumed that frequent assessment leads to frequent.
intervention, this is not necessarily so. Sensitivd assessments
should also determine when the status quo should be maintained.
The program should have a rationale for the timing of the assessments.
Needs, interests and aspirations - implicit in this phrase JO the
suggestion that a program of individualized instruction should be
0
built
upon individual choices (interests) but must also address needs, for
example, basic skills. While'the point his been made that a most lib-
erally constructed program could accommodate non-participation as a
choice, the position adopted here is that certain skills, most notably
reading and mathematics, are so basic to successful living and to opti-
mizing career choices, that a program may have to insist on student
achievement in these areas. Aspirations are also significant facets of
personality assessment. When aspirations are clearly discordant with
aptitudes, either too high, or, as in the case of many disadvantaged
persons, too low, it is the function of a program of individualized
instruction to assist 'the individual in relating his aspirations and
aptitudes more closely.
Providing options - this phrase is that most often equated
with individualized instruction. Hopefully it has been demonstrated
throughout this paper that a program of individualized instruction
is considerably more complex than just the provision of options.
However, alternative choices are probably e-most-mkgn 'milt factor
in the operational program. It Must be noted that options should be
available in assessment procedures, in the three areas of needs,
interests and aspirations, in counseling procedures and in evalua-
tion techniques. Both the number and variety of choices in each of
these categories should be assessed.
Optimize growth - this phrase is clearly related to the three
areas of needs, interests and aspirations. The program should4.
assist each student in achieving maximal academic objectives, in
expanding interests and exploring a variety of them, and in select-
ing personal goals which will provide the individual with maximal
opportunities when he exits from the program.
Tracking and individualized instruction
Presumably if all of the foregoing issues were considered,
developed into program components and implemented, a system of individ-
ualized instruction would exist which could take an individual from any
kind of background, optimize his emotional and mental health, precisely
define his interests and abilities, clarify all educational,-personhl
4540
and occupational opportunities available to him for the rest of his
life and train him by means most suited to him to capitalize upon
those opportunities.., This would seem to be an unrealistic expectation.
However, some observers have expectations of programs of individual-
ized instruction, particularly in career education, which are not
significantly different from the optimistic picture painted above.
Many of the critics of career education represent disadvantaged
groups in society who are rightfully claiming equal opportunities to
participate in the majority culture's largesse, including not only
economic advantages but the right to personal fulfillment. Many
women, for example, protest their relegation to less interesting and
rewarding careers. Minority groups and the poor protest a system
which has historically treated them as second class citizens. In the
opinion of such groups, education has been an important vehicle for
the promotion of thd' middle class white male and they ere demanding
not only equal access to this vehicle; but a privileged access which
may help to compensate for deficiencies generated by years of depriv-
ation. In this context, "education" is many times considered
synonymous with "college education."
However, as our complex society continues to evolve, it has become
apparent that a traditional collao*education is not the catalyst to
success it may have been in years past. In response to the need for a
variety of occupations to meet the demands of an industrialized society,
leading educators have promoted the concept of career education.
Simplistically, career education is an attempt to define and communi-
cate to students the vast number of occupational choices available,
the rewards and disadvantages of the options, the quality of life
46
41
associated with the choices and the prerequisites necessary to avail
oneself of the careers. A college education is clearly necessary for
Some alternatives, but most aertainly,not for all. Individuals unaware
of the broad goals of career education tend to associate it with
traditional vocational education. That is, skill training in a limited
number of relatively less prestigious occupations. This, they claim,
has always been the pattern-for disadvantaged people, hence the charge
that career education is simply a new title for "tracking" the deprived
into flexible, limited occupations.
It is relevant to consider at this time what the term "tracking"
infers. In its most negative context it is commonly used to refer to
a process whereby individuals and groups are guided and/or trained
educationally and economically under less than optimal circumstances
with the result being limited opportunities for maximizing life
styles. Worse, it suggests that those individuals and groupi so
treated are defined on the basis of irrelevant characteristics such
as sex, minority racial or ethnic backgrounds and low socioeconomic
status. The image which comes to mind is that of a railroad track,
straight, narrow and inviolable, stretching over Vast distances of
terrain. Certainly this situation is deplorable and has occurred
all too commonly over the years.
Presumably it is a simple matter to'recognize such abuses of
human dignity and rights. Programs which systematically produce
students trained in several levels of professions and in which the
lower categories or mostgitereotypic categories are repeatedly filled-
by persons of disadvantaged status would most probably be accused of
tracking in the negative sense discussed above.
4
42
However, the issue is considerably more complex than the pre-
, ceding paragraphs may suggeit.
in,the first place, accusations which refer to "tracking" should
be carefully defined. One might make the case that individualized
instruction with all of its positive techniques and results as dis-
cussed throughout this paper is the ultimate tracking system
placing every individual omthe optimal track for him. Appropriate
tracking is a desirable. goal. The more positiVe image may be that
of a railroad switch yard where trains are systematically routed and
rerouted onto a variety of clearly defined tracks.
Secondly, "irrelevant" characteristics are not easily defined.
Certainly race, sex and socioeconomic status per se would appear to
be irrelevant. But these variables are very much confounded. For
example, race and/or ethnic background are characteristics of which
. persons in minority cultures are becoming increasingly proud. The
values of these cultures are gaining respect. Persons espousing
such values are finding a rightful identity in them. Many times these
values are at variance with the success, aggression-oriented, values
typically ascribed to the majority. The impact of such valtias on the,
choices of persons in individualized instructional programs must be
considered before the program can be accurately evaluated.
Sex is another such confounded variable. `While men and women
should rightfully expect equal opportunity in making choices of life
styles, it must ano be recognized that men and women today are
products of a long history of sex-typed rearing. Masculinity and
feminity are not simple sociological traits to be manipulated:
48
43
They are basic personality characteristics. Additionally, there is
little consensus within the anti - sexism movement as to what the
optimum situation would be. The amount of exposure to these "new"
kinds of attitudds, and an individual's reactions to them, must be
weighed before programs can be evaluated as "tracking" on the basis
of sex. Finally, in programs for adults, the presence and age of
children and the attitudes of both marriage partners toward careers
must be considered.
Socioeconomic status is also a sensitive and difficult variable
to evaluate. Levels of aspiration maybe positively or negatively
associated with one's experiences. -Also, given the information from
studies presented in Chapter XXI, socioeconomic status does have an
impact on ability and aptitude. Unfortunate as this may be, by the
time deprived youngsters become adolescents and adults the influence
educational programs can have may be somewhat limited. In this con-
nection, the position taken here is that abilities and aptitudes are
not "irrelevant" variables. This is not to say, however, that special
attention is unwarranted in the assessment process. The dangers of
standardized tests have been noted. These instruments are certainly
not useless, but with clients having the characteristics discussed
in this section, it seems clear that these should not be the only
assessment procedures used.
The problems of breaking the depressing cycles of the disadvan-
taged are enormous. As a third point, the rights and the capabili-
ties of educational programs to intervene in the lives of individuals
49
44
must be considered. If one of the goals of individualized instruc-
tion is to respect the choices and decisions of individuals,:then
certainly individual choices regarding priorities in terms of families
and values must be paramount. On the other hand, programs must be
held accountable for assuring that participants are completely aware
of the options available to them and for establishing with clients
criteria by which decisions may be made.
The capability of the program is also a limiting factor. With
realistic temporal and financial restraints no program can be expected
to be all things to all people. Ott is the responsibility of the pro-,
gram, however,to apprise all clients, prior to.entry, as to the bene-
fits and potential limitations of participation. In this regard it
is also appropriate to note the limited capacity of any short term
intervention to change values and conditions which have been paramount
throughout the life of the participant. The question as to whether
the program has the right to insist on such changes has been addrested.
40 The point here is that it would seem to be unrealistic to expect a9
short-term prograin to be able to produce major sociocultural changst.
This section of the paper is not intended to rationalize the
negative abuses of tracking defined at the outset. Rather it is
inteteded as an exposition of a few of the complex issues which must
BVbe considered in a sensitive evaluation of program effects. This is
neither a detailed nor comprehensive discussion of any one of the
problems which must be dealt with. Hopefully it will direct the
reader's attention to the fact that.individualized instruction and
tracking are complic4ted concepts with implications for both imp-
lementation and evaluati8h.0
14)
45
Summary
To summarize: tracking, in the negative sense, is a process
whereby -a program of social intervention fails to maximize the educa-
tional and economic opportunities of its participants either by errors
of omission or commission. Some observable clues in determining the
extent to which ',a program is tracking may be the following:
1. Programs providing education for several levels of the
occupational hierarchy regularly train women, minority groups and
the disadvantaged for the lower levels of the hierarchy.and rarely
for the higher levels.
2. Programs with limited assessment procedureg-
individual characteristics, e.g., using standardized
measure of individual status.
deterMininq
tuts as thetole
3. Programs with limited or no counseling processes, or with
counseling which reinforces limited perceptions of options held by
participants.
4. Progrims with no established processes for accommodating
culturally different values.
5. Programs with limited counseling prior to client entry to
determine program fit with client needs.
6. .ProgrambOhich focus on the needs of society (e.g., current
manpower shortages) to the exclusion of individual needs.
The foregoing definition of individualized instruction as refined
in the discussion of terms and the considerations relating to tracking
serve as the basis for suggested program assessment procedures. An
. optimal program assessment should be able to p;ovide qualitative as
5146
well as quantitative descriptive information about-the program.
HoWever, given the scope of the presentstudy,,only the latter was
attempted. The procedure was a matter of determining whether
elements of either individualization or tracking were in evidence.
The specific methodology employed in the assessment of three
career education projects and the results of the assessment are the
topics of the final chapters of _this paper.
52
47
, - CHAPTER V
AN APPLICATION OF THE CONCEPTUAL MODELTO THREE CAREER EDUCATION PROJECTS
Following the development of a conceptual framework, the
researchers reviewed operational plans, reports and other docu-
ments produced by two Experience Based Career Education (EBCE)'Cr
projects and the rural residential model. These-projects were
located in Philadelphia (Research for Better Schools, RBS),
Charleston, West Virginia (Appalachia Educational Laboratory, (AEL),
and Glasgow, Montana (Mountain Plains Education and Economic Develop-
ment Program, MP). Based on the document review, key areas of
inquiry were determined and an interview plan for site visits andA.
observations was ,approved by the appropriate NIE project officer.
Visits to each of the three sites were scheduled and took place
between November 15, 1973 and January 31, 1974.
Prior to or at the time of the site visits, ARIES conceptual
model and definit4ons Of individualized instruction and tracking were
made available to And discussed with each project staff. A number of
Modifications and clarifications resulted from the incisive comments
and suggestions made by them.
Using the interview outlines and questions as &general guide
at each site, the researchers attempted to identify those project
components essential to an individualized program, at the same time
noting clues or characteristics of tracking that were present.
The remainder of this chapter has two major parts: the first
is a discussion of the individualized instructional practices of the
5348
projects observed and the second is a brief examination of a series.
of queitions related to tracking. Individualized instructional ptac-
tices were assessed primarilyion a quantitative rather than quelita-
tive.basis. The key question usually related to whether or net a
component, s stem, or procedure was present or available, rather than
the degre which it was successful. In some instances, however,
the presence or absence of a component is itself a matter of degree
and,thus, some judgments intended to be quantitative may appear more
qualitative in nature.
Tracking as a measurable process or characteristic of a progiam
was considerably more elusive. At the outset, the researcfiers
regarded the term in a pejorative sense as standing at the opposite
end of a continuum of individualization. Shbsequent consideration
made it clear that tracking and individualization were not bi-polar
ends orthe same continuum. We noted variations of tracking and
circumstances that warranted or diSplayed tracking in a constructive,
rather than a destidctive or deprecatory manner.
Tracking was also difficult to observe becauSe often it is the
result of long established processes of selection, placement, and
training that may not be evident unless a more longitudinal review
orYa project were made.
4PMethods for Collecting Assessment Information
The underlying assumption of the assessment procedures was that
more accurate data could be collected if multiple sources were used
within categories defined by the conceptual model. Sources included
49
program participants, program staff and administration, program
plans and documents and individual student records7hese sources
were utilized through group and individual interviews, participant
observation, and review of documentation and records.
Interviews were conducted on site :with the iibject administration,
counselors and teachers, and groups of students. Relevant aspects of
the assessment were adapted into an interview form with as much overlap
(as possible) of questions for the different groups.
A checklist was developed for review of project documents. The
content reflected the conceptual model.
A sample of student records were examined. To the extent possible
the records were reviewed to include information on student differences
in sex and socioeconomic 'standing.
Additionally, some student group activities were observed, for
example, group counseling.
Background Information Relating to the Three Projects
Pr or to discussing the results of the site visits, each project
will be iscussed with a focus on those activities the project was
,engaged in at the time of the visit.
RBS
Like other EBCE programs funded by NIE, the RBS program was in'its
second year of serving students. Focus for the EBCE programd duringe
the second operational year was on stabilization of delivery systems,
evaluation of processes and products, and documentation to ensure
_ replicability. Eadh project was presumably approaching a stable
50
50
pattern of operation, yet in both EB.CE projects visited in the course
of this study, a stable C.E. delivery system had not been realized.
So long as project personnel see weaknesses-or a. need for change in
what they are doing, "stabilization" will probably remain a rather
fluid concept. This seemed especially pertinent to the EBCE project
at RBS where rather significant operational changes occurred between the
first and second years. These alterations in operational strategy will
be referenced several times throughout this report, since they have
important bearing on the counseling and instructional practices about,
which we had a special concern.
iThe operational changes in the.second year led to an important
differentiation in the student of the EBCE program. All 70 twelfth
graders had been in the program since it began in September, 1972.
Some graduated in March, 1974, most in June. These students were the
full responsibility of RBS's Academy for Career Education, a private
school without ties td the public school system of Philadelphia. The
students had no direct or formal affiliation with their previous
schools. Thus, for this half of the student body all services and
all instruction necessary for a high school diploma wire provided
within the EBCE PROGRAM.
The 64 tenth and eleventh grade students new to the Academy in
September, 1973, were not the exclusive enrollees of the Academy for
Career Education. They had all come from Olney High School in
Philadelphia and remained on the rolls of that school. Generally
they attended Olney four days per week for two hours taking elective4
classes. Then they to the Academy for several hours receiving
51
. 5 60
basic or supplemental instruction and guidance class, a regular
instructional program aimed at providing information about the world
of work, the skills needed in various jobs, and techniques for
applying and getting a job. (Twelfth graders also took the guidance
class.' One day of each week students were engaged in career explora-.
tion and on that day the Olney students did not attend classes at their
high school. State aid, based on average daily attendance (ADA),
continued to be received by the Philadelphia schools since the students
'ftom'Olney remained on their enrollment, could return there if they
left the EBCE program, and were expected to receive their diplomas
through Olney High.
It was anticipated that after the present twelfth graders left
the Academy, incoming students would continue an affiliation with*the
Philadelphia schools at which they received most elective subjects.
The Academy would continue to provide career exploration and speciali-
zation programs, and to offer basic skills instruction. The public
schools should continue to receive ADA for students in the Career
Education program. It was hoped that the public schools would move
closer to direct support and eventual sponsorship of an EBCE program.
The ARIES site visit to RBS occurred on-January 29, 30, 31,_1974.
During the site visit the team had access to the full range of data
accumulated by the project's evaluator and were able to interview
those persons in the developmental and operational components of the
project who were identified as most responsible for the design and
execution of the EBCE project. In addition, the team interviewed
students at the Learning Center and were impressed by their responsive-
5
52
ness and their ability and willingness to articulate their perceptions
of the program. As in any study baSed on observations, interviews,
and accumulation of only a portion of the total data available, the
observations presentgd here only represent a sampling of the project's
activities.
AEL 0
The.AEL program was also in its second year of serving students.
Focus for the year was on stabilization of delivery systems, evaluation
of both process and product, and documentation to ensure replicability.
The principal ARIES interest for purposes of the present investigation
was on delivery systems - the potential for providing instruction
that was individualized to meet students' needs, desires, and abilities
and the capacity to offer more than a narrow band of career exploration
options."Nu, c
The ARIES site visit to AEL occurred on January 15, 16, and 17,
1974. AEL was formally at the end of a period of development and
entering a product stabilization phase in which its instructional
products and procedures should be more fully defined. During the
visit, it was possible to observe initial activities to familiarize
and train staff in the use of new materials and in apillication of a
strategy for student program development and maintenance. Unfor-
tunately, some observations and interviews will present a view of
practices and procedures to the time of the visit and will not reflect
any experiences of the project with the new products it was introducing
in the stabilization phase.
53
53
Mountain Plains
Mountain Plains was the only project which was "residentiael" in
nature. Participants in the program usually relocated their families
to the Mountain Plains facility, approximately 20 miles northeast of
Glasgow, for the duration of their career exploration and occupational
preparation training.
The program was geared to_provide career exploratkon and occupa-
tional training in any of five career areas: office education, food
services, lodging services, mobility,and transportation occupations,
and construction and building trades occupations. (At the time of the
site visit a sixth area, education and social services was being
phased out, and work was being initiated to develop.a "new" sixth
occupational area of marketing and distribution).
Responsible for the 'education and training of the students in
these Various areas was the Occupational Preparation Section, the
largest of the staffed divisions. Staff in this division served as
teachers, instructors, coordinators, guides and learning managers.
Participants were not only offered exploration and training in
an area, but at a certain level within that area. For example, the
office education program was broken ,down into three sub.-areas and nine,
classified positions. They were:
A. Clerical
1. file clerk
2. receptionist0
3. typjst clerk
4. stenographer
5. secretary
59-54
B. Accounting
(1) accountant .clerk
. (2) cashier
(3) bookkeeper
C. Electronid Computer
(1) key punch
Each position had its own curriculum in which students were
expected to use LAP's - learning activities packages 0 on an indivi-
dual basis at their own speed.
Each of the above positiOns had curricula established internally
based on educational requirements reflecting the attitudes'and needs4.1
of unions, employers or professional organizations. To assist the
students in meeting whatever, educational requirements had been
established, a Foundation EduCation sectiOn'Was responsible for the
basic skills training. With heavy emphasis on; the LAP's, participants
assisted. trying to,reach.grade levels in reading and/or math
that had been established for Certain job positions. Through recurrent
testing and reviews, the-student was moved through the program until
he/she 'reached a basic skills objective.
A third section, Career -Guidance, was responsible for the
actual career exploration, and career development of the participants.
Subdivided into three areas, occupational guidance, work experience
and career development, this section provided the instruction and
counseling to assist the student in exploring career opportunities,
selecting a career, getting experience in that career, developing
himself-to be more marketable for a career and preparing for exit
55
60
from ,the program. It was through Career ,Guidance that a six-week
periodic review of the particOant's progress was executed.
A fourth support section was that of Counseling. The counseling
staff was available (from orientation to exit) to assist the partic-
pants in dealing with any problems considered non-academic: Through
counseling, students had access to group counseling sess*ofns (provided
as a part o4 the Core Curriculum), or could seek individUiaized
seling when a need was inditated.
Other support services avaiiable to the studentyere through the0
Health Division and the Home Management and Consumer Education secti'o'ns..
During the first five weeks of orientation, all students took part in
"family core curriculum" which included courses in health habits and
interpersonal and social skills. The staff of each section maintained0 0
an ongoing contact with participants and their families during the
program.
0
In addition to the support services division, a division for
Research and EvaluatiOn was assessing the programand student develop-
mellt within that program and collecting data upon which program
obj4ctives could be assessed as an aid in program planning.
.At the time of the site, visit students stayed in the program an
average of 9.7 months at an average cost of $14,700 for each partici-
pant family. .The project's aim was to lower the average length of
residence to 8k months and the per family cost to $11,500.
During the site visit, meetings and interviews were held with the
major administrators and staff of the various divisions. In ddition,
a review of the available program and student data was executed.
6156
Interviews with participant representatives provided additional infor-
oration. At the time of the site visit, t4e:program staff was in the
process of readjustment,as some staff, relatively new to the project,4.
were involved An program'cuericulr changes. ,p1 an effort to maximize
program efficiency the areas of curriculum development and career
guidance were being revamped.
4C2>
G2
57
Results of -the Assessment
This section of this paper reports the results of the ARIES°
effort to assess the individualization aspects of the three Career
Education projects in terms-of the definition presented in Chapter /V
and to provide-some insight as-to the functioning of these projects
in relation to the concept of tracking also discpssed in Chapter IV.
The discussion is organized around the several elements of the
individualization definition and around questions related to tracking.
The eeorts of the three projects relative to each element will be
presewted in the following order: RBS, AEL and Mouritain Plains,
,The elements of the definition are: systematic procedure;
determining; ongoing; needs, interests and aspirations; provide
optiona; and optimize groWth.
1. Systematic Procedure
This term, as well as the others, was defined in the preceding
chapter. Briefly, it suggests that a program of individualized0
instructidnmust have a specific plan, based on an,enunciated
rationale, internally cohesive, with provisions fot diagnosis,
counseling treatment and evaluation. The following paragraphs will
describe the "systematic procedures" for each of the three Career
Education sites visited:-
RBS
.Given that this experience based program was still.in developmental
phases (as all of the career education programs were) it would be un-
realistic to expect any procedures to be in final form. In fact, to do
so prematurely wouldlbe extremely unwise. :Therefore this section will
6358
4«
I
desCribe those procedures in use at the time of the visit.
In the area of diagnosis, the primary way in which systematic
procedures were 'employed was in determining student academic - needs.
The basic academic program offered by the project was ILA
(Individualized Learning for Adults). This program included extensive
-..diegnasis of student needs in the subjects of xeading and math.
Sequenced entrance tests provided a way to, determine the level at
which a student was working within each skill area. Students' work in
*OW
y.
the Learning Center was prescribed on the basis of this diagnosis through
assignment of specific activity sheets. Each student received lnslivid-
ually prescribed work tailored to his/her needs.
There was also systematic provision for entering students who did
not heed the ILA program but still required instruction in courses that
advance them toward the high school. diploma. These students
participated in the Supplementary Education program (although it.was
optional). The diagnostic system in this instance was based primarily
4111 on student needs and interests. Two factors affected the diagnbstie
process: student needs, for high school graduatioh and the range of
options available. For each student this pattern was worked out indi-
vidually according to :feeds,' but neither the course activities nor the
bases for entry appeared as systematic as was noted in the Basic Skills
area.
A systematic procedu e for counseling was
ing was not completely 'ndividualized in that
ing developed. Counsel-
students were required
to participate, but the activities proposed for counseling were geared
toward meeting individualized needs much in the manner of the third
59
approach described by Merrill and Forest (1970) described in Chapter
III of this paper. A&,
The principal purposes of the counseling activities were listed as:
a. Assisting students in problem solving and career decision making.b. Disseminating information.c. Helping, students do needs research regarding the world of work
and determining personal requirements for entry into careers oftheir choice.-
d. Formulating'an action plan.
As has been observed, systematic :treatment options existed in the
area of basic skills and to some extent in the Supplementary Education
program. Additionally, the systematic approach to counseling content
helped to maximize individual counseling needs. A fourth area, and
perhaps the most significant in terms of this particular project,
related to the systematically selected treatment options in career
exploration.
There seemed to be less systematic procedure in this area than in
the other EBCE instructional components. Students chose career
clusters on the basis of peer influence or tentativ a preconceptions
about the work that went on within a cluster. For examp in health
it was noted that a lot of students thought of the popul r TV image
of Dr. Welby, rather than entering the cluster to examine a wide
variety of health related occupations.
During an initial orientation students were introduced to various
clusters by representatives of employers within that cluster. But no
systematic decision making process seemed to lead to subsequent choiges.
In the period between one choice and the next one twelve weeks later,
there was no evidence that students systematically were asked,
6560
influenced, or expected to examine alternative career exploration
choices. Further, it was noted that students were asked to list
areas of career interest on the Holland Self-Directed Search early
in the school year, but no subsequent activities were directed
at exploration of those areas of interest.
Systematic student evaluation existed in the program. Again, it
was most evident in terms of the ILA basic skills program. Both at
the point of entry and throughout his/her sequential development,
a strategy existed for identification of student achievement and
progress upon which future learning activities could be based.
Further, an evaluative system existed that provided for changes in
learning activities by agreement between the student and the teacher
who assigned the activities.
Pew evidences of a systematic student evaluation procedure
relating to the Supplementary Education program, the counseling
program, or the career exploration program were observed.
(h'6].
AEL
This EBCE project was in the 'process of completing a compte-
hensive. systematic approach which incorporated systems for initial and*
ongoing diagnosis for student needs'In academic and career exploration
as well as the systematic selection and/or assignment of treatment
options. The total system included planned evaluation components and&
regular counseling. The procedure is diagrammed on page 63. While
the model appears to be essentially complete, some questions remain,
for example, whether there is a procedure for determining the type,
'extent and content of student counseling. The following paragraphs
describe specific findings of the site visit.,
As noted at the background section of this. reportt AEL was
entering a stabilization phase in the life of the EBCE project.
During the site visit, staff training and orientation to a "Basic
EBCE Operations Logic" and to a "Student Program Development and
Maintenance Process" that had only recently been completed by the
project's Design Unit were obderved. These systems designs (attached)4
utilized some existing practices which had been formalized and
mented for continuing usage. The designs attempt to lay out the
specific procedures followed with students at several stages pre-
entry, entry and orientation, development and maintenance, and post-
program activity. At the time of our observations, the operational
design was not fully functional. Some components of the design had
been in use, but were formalized by inclusion in this new operational*
design. For example, student assessment during the entry and cries-
67,62
:0
4 V
. BASIC EBCE OPERATIOtIS LOGIC
Career DecisionMaking Program
Materials
Schoolsand the
Educational Community
CareerPreferenceChecklists WTG
KeysortCards
1.11101.11
Concepts andsd
ObjectivesKeysort Cards 1,
r. 0110111 4110111 OWN*. IIINOOMM 11111101101 11111111 1.11111.
1
ProgramProfile for
Each Student
4.
ExperienceSite Learning
Guides
. . 7777..
111111111
An446use
LearningResources
CareerGuides
--'v4Community
Experience =7v..A.4 Site Activities
.0. .6
L. 4. _,...preic,
--sat3;111211141=1110:M
ActivitySheets
!.I
it,.
Standard
Tests &Exams
ProgramOutline
ofRequitedCourses
II
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
11' N..r.. 14%4.7.; 7:71:
and Tutorialvt." Learning
Pre
Ent
y
P11
33.1
cetu
ets
&e.
2tC
rsen
t to
Loot
)
at !z
ee{
Rese...ts Givenn
See
nt te
com
esof
Can
ro: G
over
Isttt
atIn
terv
Iew
-1.
Stud
ent
Not
A C
eeat
edO
r
Dee
s N
at V
s:,
to a
rst:'
,Pat
eIn
ER
CE
Ent
ry a
nd O
rten
tetfo
rt
ST
UD
EN
T P
RO
GR
AM
DE
VE
LOP
ME
NTAND MAINTENANCE PROCESS
Dev
elop
men
t and
Mai
nten
ance
5.3 S
wde
ntA
ccep
ted
Into
Pro
;ram
N3"
`
Stu
dent
Has
No
Invo
lvem
ent W
ithP
rogr
ams
at to
tsT
ime
13.4
0.7
'
O.9
Stu
dent
Tes
ted
& In
terv
iew
ed to
Det
erm
ine:
WIG
,K
r.st
er, O
EC
lust
er a
ndF
.ela
ted
Job
Titl
e
3-5 B
ackg
roun
dIn
lonn
atie
n,S
cnos
t Rec
ords
& R
:sut
ts o
fIn
terv
iew
s &
Stu
ded
Pro
gram
Out
line
37
Car
ter
Int_
rest
Upd
ated
and
Ile:fi
le A
djus
ted
Acc
ordi
ngly
Em
ploy
er S
iteS
elec
tion
For
mD
evel
oped
and
Mai
ntai
ned
0.3
..0.
4
OM
=.
0.0
Stu
dent
Pro
gram
rattl
e D
evel
opan
d M
aint
aine
d
Sha
ded
Exp
erie
nce
Site
Pla
cem
eits
ts)
Wad
e
IS.? She
:err
:Orm
anG
oats
Wet
With
in D
efin
edP
aram
eter
s
Act
ivity
She
ets
Dev
elop
ed
Eli,
eten
ce S
iteP
lace
men
tO
w R
evie
w&
Act
ivity
She
et R
evie
w &
Eva
lua.
ion
crie
d et
6 tt
12 Y
re7i
Ple
xter
rC
alm
;rat
ion
oP
ro-
oara
Pos
t lite
rien
Act
eTty
Stu
dent
Tes
ted
& In
terv
iew
ed to
Det
erm
ine
Cou
rse
Nee
ds/In
tere
st
02 Stu
dent
Pro
gram
Out
tir.e
&D
eser
tpto
r F
illed
Out
and
Ilatn
tain
ed
t
1 r. e....
.J
00T
Obj
ectiv
es,
Ana
lytic
al O
uts
Van
s, S
ubC
co.
, cot
s&
Cou
rse
Are
as U
pdat
ed.,LEGEND
Lear
ning
Coo
rdtr
iatir
Net
Ate
stan
sihr
e fa
r
TP
A
Stg
ent P
r.1
EaC
E A
tlrity
Con
ecte
d &
Ana
lyse
d
L-4
Lear
ning
Cen
t:Ing
er S
hare
st"
Res
pons
ibili
ty fo
r w
ilttm
iS
omeo
ne E
lse
I.eam
Ing
Coo
rdin
stor
Dire
ctly
.R
espo
nsib
le to
r
Dire
ct F
sow
. Opt
iona
l Fle
w.
tation stage will not vary from previous practices. There was evi-1
dence of similar tests and assessment schedules having been employed'
in both the 1972-73 and 1973-74 school years. The project obtained
information from school records and student interviews and attemptedti
to determine students' course needs at the time of developing a Student
Program Profile.
The principal new addition to the process (which was observed
only through role play in the staff training session) was a plan for
career education program planning based on career preference check-
lists and a worker trait guide. The system is, in part, a result of"
separately funded federal project at AEL entitled "Career Decision
Making." StudeAts would be assisted in determining the worker traits
of careers in which they were interested, and in locating other jobs
which utilized or required similar worker characteristics. The McBee
Card Sort process reduced guess work in identifying worker traits in
various career areas. A guide had been written which associated those
worker traits with a wide range of career areas that AEL had arranged
for student'exploration. Essentially, this process allowed for con-
siderable objectivity in career exploration choices and was expected
to give more precise options to the student who would make the
mate choice. Finally, a Cross Reference Catalog had been designedto
assist each learning coordinator in relating job site activities to
the subject area work done by each student, for example, in English and-
social studies. The learning coordinator would develop activity sheets
based on activities the student would be expected to encounter on a
specific job site. The prescriptive activity sheet, with specific
70
65
activities chosen at least in part by the student, constituted the
student's required work in English, social science, math, or other
ject areas determined by individual graduation requirements.
The process described above appeared to be promising, though
was not a fully implemented program at the time of the observation.
Job site analysis, probably a continuous task as cooperating
employers initiated or discontinUed participation in the project,
was necessary to provide guidelines to the learning coordinators.
Progress in this task was a prerequisite to devising the Cross
Reference Catalog. The AEL design provided systematic strategies
for developing an instructional plan for each student. Progress on
individual plans was assessed by the learning coordinators. At the
time of our observation, wide variations in quality and quantity of
student work resulted from the differing demands of the learning
coordinators much the same as is seen, for example, when teachers of
the same subje1t in the same school apply different quality and
quantity criteria.
71
66
Mountain Plains.
ThiS project 'was in its developmental phases. Conseque'r:tly not
all procedures had been systematically defined. However, at the opera-
.tional level certain systematic procedures did exist, most notably in
the student academic diagnostic procedures, job selection training and
change., and in counseling.
The following is a brief description of the various systematic
procedures:
Student Selection
Mountain Plains had designed a student selection process which,
while systematic in procedure, appeared aimed toward exclusion rather
than selection.
Located within each of the six states are field coordinators who
had, among other tasks, the initial responsibility for recruitment or
referral investigations. Mountain PlainS state,staffs conduct and
complete the recruitment, interview and selection process for those
families wishing to enter the project. The criteria for selection
appeared limiting and restrictive. The Selection Criteria (see Appen-
"dix C) consisted of various items presented in a negative statement,
for example:
No families will be allowed who must pay out more than
$70/month to cover debts or prior obligations (alimony
or child Support.)
No persons with legal or civil, suits pending will be
allowed unless acceptance by Mountain-Plains will sat-,
isfy the legal obligation.
7 2
67
No persons with the following health problems will
be allowed:
a. diabetes not controlled or with complicationsb. epilepsy with more than three seizures per yearc. history of previous myocardial infraction with
congestive heart failure or other complications.d. Tuberculosis active or positive X-Raye. Cancer - past or active
,
f. physical or structural disability that restrictsmobility or requires help from others
g. active venereal diseaseh. malignant hypertensioni. vision not capable of reading newsprint - 16" to
18" vision (This will not be a screen out ifvision is correctable.)
Mountain Plains countered that the objective of such criteria
was to "estimatt behavior problems Which.cannot be, handled by
Mountain Plains."
Consequently, those families (participants) selected had been
screened to such a degree that it appeared only the, most acceptable
from among the target population were served, barring many in greater
need of such assistance.
2. Academic Diagnostic Screening Procedure -.Other oriteria_for
entry into M.P. stated:
No husbands/wives/parents will have a reading level
below 5.0 (WRAT Reading Test)
o No husbands/wives/parents will have a math level
below.443 (WRAT Math Test)
Students upon entry were given a battery of tests including the-
Stanford Achievement Test (SAT) used to confirm the educational status
and needs Of the participants.
After review of test results, participants were placed in a
73
68
Foundations Education program where they were given basic skills
education in an effort to raise them to the reading or math level
necessary for their particular career choice.
3. Orientation and Core Curriculum
Following testing, during the first days of entry into the
program, participants embarked on an orientation program of up to
five weeks in length.
* 9
staff, discussion of program objectives and assistance in adjust-
Initial orientation involved the introduction to the program
went to the M.P. environment.
Following this segment, the participants were involved in a
more "specific format" of orientation. This process was termed the
"!Family Core Curriculum." All participants participated during the
first few weeks in the program. Some of the courses offered through
thii process were:
Health Education - a basic health program given for twenty
hours over that initial five week period.
Home ax consumer management - an expansion of an earlier
consumer education program. The two courses were aimed at
developing the participants-1J, skills in better home planning
and management, including banking, budgeting, decorating,
grooming, consumerism, planning, etc. The Consumer Ed.
section required approximately 15 hours and the home manage-
merit portion required 20 hours.
Career guidance - equipping participants with the materials
and knowledge necessary to initiate career exploration; to
7169
make career choices; to develop interpersonal skills; to
develop a "marketable self," eta. During this course,
students were assisted in beginning their actual explora-
tion of job and career opportunities through the Mountain
Plains program. After having sat, in on group interest
sessions and having gone through an individualized inter-
4 preta)tion of the Ohio Vocational Interest Survey and the
General Aptitude Test Battery, the student was then permit-
ted to explore (by reality testing) - that is to spend a
day or so with one of the career areas to ascertain if the
results of the OVIS and GATB did indicate a possible career
slot for the participant. ..
4. Counseling - This program offered theoliarticipants a series of
group sessions where various types of personal, social'or familial
problems were dealt with so that participants were able to concentrate
on program studies.
5. Career Guidance - A seemingly well defined and strong systematic
procedure was observable in the Career Guidance area.
Following the first five weeks of orientation and exploration,
the participant choices of the career areas for in-depth exploration
and training were reviewed through the Career Guidance group which
was responsible for many of the Core Curriculum Activities.
Students selected from the five areas available at Mpuntain
Plains: office education; food services, lodging service, mobility
and transportation occupations; and Construction and building trades
occupations (a new area - marketing and distribution - was being planned
at the time of site visit).
On selection of these areas, the participant decided on the
level within the career ladder of that area, for example, in office
education such levels would include: file clerk receptionist,0
clerk- typist, and stenographer and secretary. There were variousa
educational requirements for various positions, so that it was
necessary for participants to take courses necessary to reach mini-
mal educational requirements. Students received basic skills instruc-
tion through the Foundation of Education section. The courses were
individualizqd through use of Learning Activities Packages (LAPs)
and multi-media training instruments.
While acquiring these basic skills, students also began straining
it the career areas of their choice. Training in occupational areas
relied on individualized approach and lasted 4rom six to eight months
or more, depending on the ability and -effort of the participant.
Students were monitored and reviewed every six weeks for the
Purpose of assuring progress in the program., If progress was not
Indicated, participants were counseled to or were allowed to change
areas of exploration and training.
When a participant decided he was not satisfied with the area
selected or when it had beeri determined that the student's progress
was not satisfactory as a result of the six week monitoring process,
then a program change was considered.
Program option changes were differentiat6d from program level
changes, in that the program option change indicated a major move from
one area to the other such as from food services to office education,
7 6
71
whereas-a program level change was moving within the area either' up
V
or down the career ladder according to indicated ability and achieve-
ment, such as a move from r&ceptiCnist to clerk-typist or secretary.
If the problem was one of ac4demi-c achievement ---the student not
passing the various tests, both basic-skills an4 occupational educa-
- tion--then the-,foundation education staff -was responsible.fOr iden'ti-
fying the causes and suggeEting possible solutions. For example', -if
a union requirement stipulated its auto mechanics should have an R.5
grade average in reading and if a 6.5 reading average was necessary
to read the manual, then achievement of goals had to be -assessed in
considering a program or level change if the participant did not pro,-
gress to an acceptable minimum level.
Students were retested or otger methods of th9 individualized
learning approach were attempted. If 'progress still was not shown,
the student might be advised of a program or level change where lower.
reading ability 'would not hinder his or her progress.
If the problem was one of placement dissatisfaction--the partici-
pant, for some reason, no longer liked the job for which he was train-
ing--the Career Guidance division was responsible for assi_sing.the
student in evaluating whether or not a program or level change, was
4.ndicated and if so to what area or level. The Career Guidance staff
relied on various assessment tools to help identify the problem or
the solutions. A review of such test results as the OVIS or the.GATB
might be indicated or additional instruments such as the Personal
Orientation Inventory, the Mooney Adult Problems checklist or the
16 P.F. might be used in planning the next move of a participant.
v"o 772
Although job exploration was encouraged at Mountain Plains and
three changes were possible for each student, there was a concern
about those participants who are identified as "chronic program
goers" (People who move about the country taking agvantage 111 fed-
erall1; sponsored training programs) or the "hangers-on" people
who find their houses and their lifestyles too. nice to leave.) It
.id .feared that those students use the program change "at the last
minutentoprolOngtheirstay.Couneling staff members documented
some participants who had employed such a technique to extend their
stay from approXimately one year to eighteen months.
Because of the costs which this entailed, the career guidance.
Unit monitored the progress of students every six weeks in cooperation
Witji the Foundation Education and the Occupational Preparation staff1
/to identify such problems as early as possible.
2. Determining
This element, as defined in the preceding chapter, relates to the
type of assessment process employed. The preceding section focused,
in part,' on whether or not any systematized procedure for diagnosis
existed in the three projects. Here the focus is on the scope and
type of assessment procedures.
RBS
The assessment process at RBS had a well developed program for. .
assessing student needs in the Basic Skills prograt and to a lesser
extent in the Supplementary Skills program. The.basic Skills proVram
at RBS afforded the most direct relationthip between student asse sment
1and i4tructional prescription. took an Entrance Te t
7 8
73
and from the results he was scheduled intoany of eight levels
within five skill areas of reading and eight skill areas of math.
The student could demonstrate sufficiently high, skills to bypass
basic skills instruction or could receive enrichment activities
related to reading and math. The key to this entire process was
the ILA program, which was developed at RES.
The project held as a major goal the ability to get each
student to the high school diploma level. This necessitated, in
part, determination of credits needed to satisfy state course
requirements. It also meant that some elective courses had to
be available for the students who were twelfth graders in the
program. The Supplementary Skills program provided ongoing assess-
went of student needs, developed course options for them, and aided
students in satisfying high school requirements. This component
will probably phase out of the RBS program if an enrollment pattern
is maintained in which new students come from a Philadelphia
high school. They could take various electives at,their home high
school and satisfy course requirements in a.reas like physical
education and driver training.
Counseling assessment appeared'to have measures for determin-\
ing student interests and aspirations although it was not clear
ifthere was a systematic procedure either for raising student
aspirations or for making them congruent with abilities.
Counseling and Guidance conducted at RES focused on provid-
ing a set of experiences aimed at personal and job skill develop-
ment. In the area of personal development, for example, a
74
7 9
currlculumapproach had been developed that began with a self-
assessment; examined ways the program could help overcome identified
deficiencies and formulated an action plan for meeting students'
goals. In another guidance curriculum unit, students engaged in a
personal po ition audit, another attempt to,examine where they were,
where they wanted to go, and how to get to where..they wanted to go.
Both standardized tests and nori-normative exercises were included
in this process. The design of materialp in the guidance and counsel-
ing areas gave evidence of careful attempts at both slf -and counselor-,
assessmentproceduren.Timeconstraintsdidnotallow-lhe teat to
view counseling and guidance sessions in process. However, the
mechanics for assessment activities were present in prepared cur-
riculum guides.
Assessment proceduron related to Career Exploration were not in
\kevidenc ., In this area, students appeared to enter cluster areas
based on their desires and interests. However, formal measures or
standard assessment piocedures for determining those needs and
interests either were absent or were not visible as determinants of
placement.
often based
we observed
That is other than the student expressing4an interest,
on sketchy knowledge6of what a cluster might encompass,
no Strategies by which regular assessment procedures led
to career e Cploration placements. It shouldApe noted that most
students wh were two years in the program would examine six of the
twelve clusters that had been defined. Unlike some EBCE programs,
there seemed little repetition of a cluster area over the two years
in the program unless the student reentered one on a specialization
basis. Thus, the range of experiences provided a broad sampling of
available options even though there appeared to be few formal
8075
procedures for aiding the exploration choice. One eff the ways this
choice was reportedly made was through direct student and counselor/
coordinator meetings. While we did,not witness such sessions, we met
with a number of students who particularly noted the more limited
`access to counselors this year than last. This was due partly to a
changing role for the counselor and partly beca4se the'counselors
were physically removed by several blocks from the Academy.
AEL
The assessment procedures at AEL seemed t7 be somewhat more
limited than those at RBS partly because the latter used the ILA
program which incorporated extensive academic assessment? and partly
because the AEL program served 12th graders only, thus limiting the
amount of supplementary course work (and corresponding assessment),
which had to be completed for high school graduation.
Primary diagnostic procedures included a determination of courses
needed to complete the graduation requirements of their Kanahwa
41 County high school, a review of school records which contain subject
kgrades, test scores and other demographic data, and administra/on
of the ruder Preference Test and the Iowa Test of Educational
Development (ITED). For the Career Education component, students
-listed career areas, if any, ip which°they had a special interest or.
desire for information.
In designing the Student Program Profile, not all of the above
data was utilized. It required four to six weeks to obtain test
results on the ITED. A student's program was well underway by the
time these results were obtained, so that the contribution of the
/TED served more of an evaluative than prescriptive purpose.4
81
. 76
Much controversy has arisen over the use of standardized ability
tests. None was observed in the diagnostic procedure at AEL and very
little information of this nature was available on each student. On
a sample of 24 of 45 current students, no I.Q. measure was"-found in the
records for 12 of them (50 %). For tho'Se where scores were shown,
was usually an Otis or Otis-Lennon group I.Q. test given in grade
It seems unlikely that student ability measures provided a significan
41input to the design of individual studeiy.programs.
As has been observed, AEL enrolled almost exclusively students
in grade 12. The reason for not enrolling 10th or 11th graders was
cited as due to the uncertainties of program continuation funding for
ensuing years. Also, b/ enrolling students who are in'grade 12, they
are virtually assured that the student will be over 16 years of age
41 and will be eligible for placement on job sites with fewer Fair Labor
Standards Act (FLEA) restrictions. Choosing students within their0
'last year of high school matriculation further delimits the range of
41 academic requirements that must be served. Almost all students needed4;i
some form of English or Communications work for completion of state
requirements for graduation. Other basic instruction in math, social
40 studies, and natural science was offered, but math and science courses
such as trigonometry, calculus, and physics were not available and
students who needed_or wanted such courses were not encouraged to en-,
41 roll in EBCE. The need for extensive diagnostic procedures 411 these
supplementary areas did not appear significant. Discussion with AEL
staff revealed that major emphasis in program planning was placed
41 on student interests and desires. However, the assessment techniques
for determining such interests and desires appear to be rather limited.
On an initial information form completed during recruiting sessions,
77 82
students were asked to list areas of career interest. In a sample of
24 participants, 18 listed one or more career interests. Ten listed
3 or more choices. The attempt to.determine student exploration
activities appeared to emanate most directly from these stated desires,
both in the program's past procedures and, in the newly established
design. For students who were undecided or uncertain about their
interests, discussions with learning coordinators or counseling staffA.
0,
presumably determined the career exploration area in which initial
experiences should occur. /,EL practice would seem to suggest that
students' chltes or any expre sion of interest in a job area would
be the primary placement determinant. The project arranged tours
of sites for small groups of ttudents in order for them to observe
some of, the types of,,work that could be explored. Among 64 employer
sites participating in 1972-73, six sites were used almost exclusively
for student tours. They included a legal research and defense group,
--an electric company, a telephone company, a state government agency,'
and a restaurant chain. Other tours to a variety of sites were
used to enlarge students' careetcpercepticns.
Mountain Plains
The academic and guidance assessment processes of this project
were-Nlescribed in the section dealing'With "systematic procedUres."
In addition to these assessment components, the counselingsection1
at Mountain Plains also employed a rather extensive diagnostic ;ro--
cedure. Th5 Career Guidance, section, worked with the Counseling unit
.0in determining.interests and aspirations as well as social and_emo-'
ti9nal needs.
These two groups worked together in the initial orilentation o
students to,the project and in the continued effort to teach students
78
the materials necessary to make career choices and to resolve personal
and family problems during the time that they were at M.P. During the
orientation, they tried to stress that it was a career education rather
than specific technical training that they wanted students to receive.
They stressed interpersonal skills and ability to present oneself
in a marketable fashion; they attempted to get the students',goals
straight and to raise their aspirations. After initial testing on
the Ohio Vocational.Interest Survey and the GATB, students moved into
the family core required courses. An attempt was being made to move
the guidance curriculum away from a hard core curriculum program into
activities which were more meaningful to the clients in reviewing
work areas in which they would be interested. Guidance was defined
as information giving, sometimes through group processes. In these
initial activities, students tendedto have few decisions in the wort
that they did because it was a prerequisite to making later career
choices or occupational preparation decisions. It was indicated that
role playing-and socio-drama was utilized in group work in the career
decision making processes. They set up a mock situation and then had
tge people function or act out roles within this mock situation.
A new piece of the career guidance curriculum involved a unit called
The World of Work in which students would be once again given train-
ing in how to apply for jobs, how to interview for jobs, and other
such personal characteristics or qualities needed,in acquiring employ-
ment.
In the counseling area, an attempt was being made to involve
people more and more in group processes rather than in individual
counseling. It wa'S sitaid\ that many of the clients could very quickl'Y
and easily becOme dependent upon counselors, and an effort was being
798 1
madd to reduce the possibility or the frequency of such dependency.
The counseling department used an assessment procedure which included
the following tests: 16 P.F., Personal Orientation Inventory,_$ooneyO
Adult Problems checklist, and,a,looal questionnaire. The choices that
individuals had for counseling included group or individual counsel-
ing with or withOut the 'spouse present,
3. Ongoing basis
As defined previously, "Ongoing" relates to the frequency of
assessment. 'This doep not suggest that frequent intervention is
essential, but rather that there is recognition of the need to con-
tinously examine student progress and plagements.
RBS
The most systematic ongoing assessment occurred in this program
primarily as a result of the involvement with the ILA program which
incorporated A continuous monitoring evaluation mechanism. 1, note-
book was maintained for every student engaged in basic skills work.
The student's placement in various ILA activities was recorded and
when students completed each performance objective, they proceeded
to the next. When a given level was completed, students moved.to
the next higher level. Usually, they were expected to achi-eve the
objectives within all areas of math or communications skills at a given
level before going to the next level. For example, students would not
be'likely tO move to a higher level in addition-subtraction unless
they had-also completed the applications objectives at that level.
The ILA, approach required a regular review of student progress and
appeared responsive to the criterion of ongoing assessment.
Thefreguency of assessment in the Supplementary Skills program
appeared to be mainly a function of course completion.
ao
The frequency of assessment as it was a part of the Counseling
Guidance. program appears to have been hampered this year as a result
of the location of the counsel -ors.
The counselor/coordinators, positions that were subcontracted
to the Chamber of Commerce, were housed in a building several blocks
from the Learning Center. Each week several of these persons presented
guidance classes to groups of 10-15 students at a time. In addition
to their responsibilities for coordinating the career exploration
portion of students' activities, their role included direct personal
counseling with students. One-to-one involvement with students seemed
critical to maintaining an awareness of the problems and needs of
students. Yet the placement of the counselor/coordinators made it
ileft difficult for them to be continuously aware of student concerns. Not
only in personal matters, but also in the career exploration program,
it was important for student reactions to be regularly and openly
perceived. For the same reasons noted above, students reported they
did not talk much with counselors about their progress and response
to their experiences in the various career clusters.
Within the area of Career Exploration the need for frequent assess-
went beyond that which was regularly scheduled (every 12 weeks) was
mitigated somewhat by the frequency of changes within clusters.
Students at RES usually engaged in exploration in three clusters
each year,. If a student entered a cluster and found that he did not,
for whatever reasons, wish to continue, it was indicated that he could
change but that was definitely not encouraged. Each 12 weeks a new
cycle began. and within each cluster students went to the same employer
only three or four times. Thus, any dissatisfaction at a given site
was likely ,to be dissipated by alternating'to another site every few
8681
weeks. The projegt seemed sensitive to students' desires, but did not
encourage frequent,phanges-in career explorations.
AEL'
Although it appeared evident that program interventions occurred
frequently for.students in this project, it was not clear to what
extent these changes were the result of frequent assessments of student
needs and progress or to what extent they were routine scheduling
changes.
In the area of Career Exploration a review of weekly work plans
for our sample of students indicated a pattern of frequent site
exploration change. Records displayed program activities over
approximately 16 weeks of the 1973-74 school year. For students w1
had been in the program for the full 16 week period, the minimum
number of sites explored (i.e., at least three days on site) was two.
(One exception was a boy who had been in the program slightly over a
month who had had one assignment.) The modal number of sites ex-
plored was five and the average was 3.9. The records showed that
fifteen of the twenty-four students had repeated a second stint
previous placement, though not necessarily on consecutive assignments.
Many of these went to different job areas at one location. For example,
a student might move from the emergency room to the physical therapy
section of a large hospital. We counted this as one placement, but,
it was apparent that ongoing assessment occurred to modify the place-
ment. In other instances, students returned to the same leneral
duties at the same location because of a need to obtain mem information
about the site and its career potential. No evidence was observed
in which.a student remained at a single. site longer than three weeksa
without review and reassignment to that same site or to another
8782
station. Learning coordinators were reported to visit students'
employer sites, and a few reports were noted in the files of such
site visits. Roviever, in no instance did we locate more than one
per file despite the fct that the average number of sites explored
was nearly four. (A secretary reported that some reports of site
visits during the preceding two weeks had not yet been filed.) The.
data would seem to suggest that learning coordinators (there were
seven listed on the organizational chart) did not routinely visit
each student at each employer site.
At the same time that a student explored an employer site, he
had other school.assignments. Some were to be done in concert with
his career experience. For example, an English assignment might
include interviewing and writing a report on the work of a specific
department administrator. A science assignment may include partici-
pating,in and explaining theAorocedure for blood analysis in a hospital
laboratory. Other school assignments required that the student attend
the learning center. Records we reviewed showed that each student spent
at least one day each week at the learning center. There it was pos-
sible to work in the learning lab on activity assignment to meet
with counselors and/orlearning coordinators, and to practice in the
typing lab. It appeared that academic assessment occurred on about
the same frequency cycle as Career Explorationlassespment. The specific
system and content for academic assessment was not evident.r.r."
Mountain Plains
As has been discussed in the preceding sections, the Mountain
Plains project has mechanisms for the ongoing assessment of students
in the areas of career selection and achievement and in counpeling._
Stud,' achievement of curriculum objectives seemed to be the -key
to evaluation of the appropriateness of original job selection. When
8 383
lack of progress was observed, the career guidance and counseling4
sections worked with the student to determine whether problems were
-----thresult of inappropriate job selection or if they were related
to personal protlems. This process has been described earlier
(p. 71).
8984
4. Needs, Interests, Aspirations
Much emphasis has been placed on student academic needs
throughout this paper. It has been our position that while forced
choices may be inconsistent with the theoretical concept of total
individualization, certain skills (most -notably reading and
mathematics) are 'so basic to successful living and to optimizing
career choices a program may have to insist on student achievement
in those skills and provide appropridte instruction time. Student
needs are not limited to basic skills, however. Other academic
requirements are alb() needs which theTrogram.should accommodate
and, of course, students have social and personal needs to be met.
In the context of career education, student vocational interests
would seem to be the most significant interest area to be
considered. However, the programs must also take student interests_
into account in the selection of adademic programs and materials.
The problem of inappropriate levels of aspirations especially
among women, minorities and the disadvantaged was discussed at
some length in Chapter III. The primary points of emphasi's were
that programs should assess aspiration and ability levels carefully
in order to both maximize congruence between them and to attempt to
raise the aspirations of those students who appear to have settled
for too little.
RBS:
Based on the definiti6n of individualized instruction adopted
in this study, it,appeared the RBS program Was in concert with the
position enunciated herein regarding basic skills instruction. That
program has already been discussed but it is important to notei
again that the structured4pasic skills format and "required partici-.
pation for those with low achievement in these vital communications
and math areas represented responsivenes student needs. Beyond
academic needs in the areas of basic skills, efforts were made to
accommodate both needs and interests in the supplementary skills
program and in the electi've courses provided in the regular high
school.
Students needs were exhibited on another level when they came
with personal, social, and educational problems to the school staff.
Staff people appeared to'be aware of and sensitive to those student
needs and seemed to take extra minutes to respond to student's concerns.
Moreover, the students interviewed were open and willing to share
their feelings about the EBCE program. The environment in the learn-
ing center seemed conducive to a sharing of feelings and ideas, which
suggested existence of an open atmosphere in which student interests
would be heard and responded to.
n contrast., recall the separation of the counselor/coordinator
group from the learning center. The individual counselors with whom
we visited showed concern for students' career exploration needs and
their personal aspirations. Yet when a student haea pressing problem,
he could not easily express it to t e counselor/coordinator staff.
Instead, he was more-likely to di uss the problem with learning
center staff, with peers, or to re ress or internalize his needs.
A relocation of the counselor/coordin for staff would bring them
more actively into a position of on oing interaction with students.
86
n our visits to EBCE sites, including RBS, there did not appear
to b any unique or specially scheduled activities designed to modify
stud nt aspirations. One staff person at RBS viewed the entire career
ex 1 ration program as a mechanism for changing attitudes and aspira-
tio s. He noted that the intent of exploration was to give students
exp sure to a full range of jobs in a given location and at three or
. fou locations within each cluster. In two years in the program a
stu ent could explore six clusters, up to.25 job sites, and the wide
variety ofijobs that would exist within those sites. It was felt
th t this entire process specifically strives to provide experiences
th t will impact upon students' goals.
The RBS cluster approach is based on an "institutional approaOh"
opposed to an "occupational approach." The former emphasizes
c mmon work functiork,and occupations within categories that cut
cross institutional lines. For example, bookkeeping and accounting
unctions would be found in nearly every enterprise in some form.''
The RBS "institutional approach" has grouped employers under twelve
4
clusters as follows:
1. Communications and Media
2. HealthO
3. Manufacturing
4. Government and Public Service
5. Marketing and Distribution
6. Transportation
7. Construction
8. Apparel
9. Utilitieb
9287
10. Labor
11. Finance
12. Education and Personal Development
A student who participated in asgiven-91uster would gain ex-
posureto the wide range of jobs related to that cluster. In health,
for example, he would Observe functions ranging from basic custodial
jobs in maintaining a hospital to techtlical jobs in laboratories to
professional level jobs'such as nursing, pharmacy, and physician
activities. Tat range within each cluster, it was argued, does much
to broaden the interests and modify the aspirations of students, with-
out imposing external valuTs on students. There seemed'to be some
reluctance to'design and initiate programs which were specifically
intended to alter and "upgrade" the aspirational level of students.
The rationale for this position at RBS might be related and
referenced to their guidance philosophy. That position was that an
individual should have freedom and responsibility to make decisions.
The ability, to make those decisions is based on information and ex-
perience which the organization provided through-its developmental
and educative functions. "A student is helped not only to deal with
immediate concerns, but to identify more deeply who he ip and what
he might become." (Career Guidance Unit Background Information, I.
A Rational for Guidance .1
AEL
It has been suggested that some basic skill instruction may
have to be required for students with limited foundation skills in
areas such as reading and arithmetic. In accordance with instruction
of this sotto it is necessary to diagnose the learners`'' current
skills and abilities and then to design a prescriptive progzam of
88 9 3
remediation, if necessary. Participation by the student in such
a program will, in some instances, have to be imposed as a require-
ment of EBCE matriculation. However, in the AEL program no,standard
diagnostic tests of school achievement were observed, nor were
group or individual tests of ability used to get a global view of
what might be expected from each student. Every student had an
opportunity to display his skills and abilities without pre-judgment
and such an opportunity for open choice and exploration seemed appro-
priate for students, many of whom have experienced frustration
and failure in the pAst. When new frustrations arose out of EBCE
matriculation that were the product of limited basic Skills, an
individualized mechanism or program to remediate or improve those
skills seemed lacking.
However, the AEL program placed major emphasis on student
interests and desires in program planning. Specific learning
activities to satisfy high school requirements were designed and
monitored by learning coordinators. These people had a responsi-
ability for tailoring the assignments to individual students and
for establishing quality and quantity requirements to fit each
student. The project required that each student select two
subcpncepts each nine weeks from one or more of the five concept
areas it offered (social science, natural science, mathematics,
communications, and career development) depending on the subjects
in which the student needed credit. Within any subconcept (there
were 122 to choose from), the student selected at least two
instructional objectives to complete during the nine week period.
The process was primarily one of student choice of objectives for
quarterly concentration, with judgment of accomplishment left to
fie
89 94
the individual learning coordinators. Some problbmS-arose in
this procedure,. since not all L.Cs were expert in all subject
areas. Indeed, in the first year of operation, the L.Cs (formerly
called program managers) were employed because of knowledge or
skill in a given subject area. One L.C. in reporting a student's -
work for the first nine week period in 1973-74 noted that the
student was doing well in higher algebra "so far as he could
determine." While his observations were more exact in other
subject areas, his lack of expertise apparently limited his ability
to make a precise appraisal in this one area. That was neither
unexpected nor unpredictable, since few persons would possess a
full range of information across the 28 courses which AEL lists
for high school credit. No mechanism was observed or described
to us by which certain technical areas were regularly assigned to
L.Cs who had specific academic training, for example, in chemistry,
algebra, or economics.
As was observed, aspirations are also significant facet's of
program individualization. When aspirations are discordant
with aptitudes, the program should assist the individual in
resolving the discordance. One way such resolution can be achieved
is through personal counseling to consider the availabl0 alterna-
tives. In the AEt program each learning coordinator held a
counseling responsibility. In addition, a senior staff member
at the doctoral level worked directly with students on the resolution
of personal problems either involving some aspect of their daily lifet
or in career exploration decision making. Two other petitions
were filled by counselor/coordinators, both of whom were reported
to have had previous counseling experience. At least ten people
90 9`-'
in the EBCE program thus had assigned responsibilities which included
counseling of students having personal or career choice problems.
Given that one of counseling's principal goals is to assist each
student in optimizing career goals, AEL provided a significant
level of counseling assistance.
Another way to view career aspirations is to record changing
student goals through the course of an EBCE program. One staff
member at AEL examined the stability of scores on the Ruder
Preference Test for 1972-73 students. The test was administered
`three times 'during the year but nb significant changes were
noted. Another instrument used in-1972-13 was the Career
Development Inventory which is intended t6 examine maturation in
career decision making. The results of administration .of this
inventory are discussed in AEL's report number 37 - Analysis of
Scores on the Career Development_Inventoryfi September, 2973. The
measure suggested good gains in maturity during the first semester
- of 1972-73. Neither the continuing studentb nor those who entered
in February of 1973 showed any significant change when retested
again in May, 1973. It should be noted that changes on such tests
do not necessarily imply increasing aspiration, perhaps only
greater realism. It was reported that the objective of the EBCE
program was to encourage realistic career choices, a concept not
synonymous with increased aspiration. The stated educational goals
of AEL indicated their desire to develop in students the "ability
to make appropriate career decisions" and to "become knowledge4lei
about careers, jobs, and the job market."
9 (i
91
Mountain:Plains
Et was observed that much emphasis was placed o nitial
and ongding asstssment procedures relati o needs, interests*-
and NspirtiOns in this4pro4ject. Th s emphasis may be related to
the, fact that this program was not 4 the business of helpinge o
adolesdents explore.career options, but rather in the serious
training of adults, most of whom have family responsibilities, to
function in the, real working world upon exiting from the program.
Additionally, the project dealt daily with the social andFY.
vocational problems of the disadvantaged (both men and women),
thepopulation from whom the project's clientele are
drawn. The determination of needs has already been described,;
however, this project dealt with unique problems (as compared to other
Career Education projeAs) relating to interests and aspiratiops.40
'In terms of interests, one major problem this project faced
related to people previously mentioned and referred.to as "progyam
goers." When a studeilt expressed an interest to move to another
area and change his plan, the project encouraged that he explore in
several areas, see what was going on there, and" learn about the
demands of different jobs. before a plan'-change was implemented. The
problem that continued to plague the project was.'that not everyone
moved to the end point of his training program. The project staff
took the position that whether or not the final goal'was accomp-
lished, there should be some benefit to the student through his
participation in the program, and his ability to go out and get
a job should be enhanced.
97
92
The problem of dealing with student interests was especially
confounded at Mountain Plains in dealing with the minority groups.
Approximately twenty---f ourper-cent of .M.P-. studen-tsar-eminer i-t-ies ,
mo$tl II - . echaioesmadam ,b yAmerioa-nLndIans_
and other minorities were said to closely resemble those of white
males. However, fewer minorities finished the program than was
true proportionately for white males or females. It was stated
that many Indians felt they might be ostracized if they learned a
trade or a skill and then had to leave their previous culture in
order to utilize that skill. This is an almost inevitable result
of the training since the kind of training offered and the kinds,-
of skills obtained may not be marketable on Indian reservations
and may require jobs within nearby cities, sometimes major metro-,
politan areas. rndiqx retention in the project was said to be
inversely related to the distance of M.P. to their reservation..
The closer the, reservation was to Glasgowi the more likely they
were to return to the reservation and resign the project.
In terms of aspirations, it was noted that many participants
come with expectations that are too high and-expect to.be
transformed at M.P. in short order. A few people such as minorities
and women may often come in with expectations that-are too low
and the job with them is to raise their aspirations. White, migrant
type males, people who have moved around a good deal in jobs in the-.
past, tend to see the program as one that will train them for jobs
at a very high level, such things as lawyers and scientists. These
people were said to have very low ego strength who tended to over-A
compensate by setting impossibly high goals: It was noted that many
of the men at the project wanted their wives
893
jobs which were more
of a subservient nature, and resented the wives becoming so skilled
that they could operate independently.
Indian wives were said to have particular difficulty_at
M.P. because the were art of an extended fam lv
completely lacking at M.P. Some of them went back home to the
reservation and often forced their husband to resign the project andnd
join them. In an attempt to combat this, the project was working
on a community development effort where Indians interact with one
another as'a kind of Indian Union group.
While all training options were operi. to women, most women came
to the Mountain Plains program thinking about jobs which have
ti
traditionally been filled by women. This was illustrated by-the
fact that the major-'proportion of women, go into office education
occupations. Not only the woman's attitude about the job, but
frequently her husband's position as well tended to determine where
. she chose to receive her training. Additionally, the types
of jobs available to women in their home towns affected their choices.
One area where women took a good deal of work in the past was the
area of social service aide. However, because of government cutsti
in such programs nationwide, the market for such jobs has shrunk
remarkably. M.P. discontinued that program.
Only three to five women have been in drafting'a d only one
or two in'small engine repair: Some,will probably go into mar-
keting and distribution when that cluster is developd.
In the practical application of asjirational levels, it was
stated that some job clusters have lower status, for example, food
services.. It was indicated that many of the students had previouly
94fi 9
worked in restaurants as waitresses, cooks and dishwashers and
generally had a bad image of the food services area. They 'did
not think about the high level chef, but identified rather with
the hash slinger, short order cook, br other menial help found
in a food services establishment where bad hours and other
working conditions are nod always favorable. /t was noted that
a few significant successes had occurred in a couple of areas
such as motel management, and there was a major rush on the part
of many students to enter this program.
5. Providing Ovtions
This component is the single one most frequently equated with
individualized in truction. As defined in Chapter II, a compre-
hensive system of divrdualized instruction in a career
education project should include a variety of options in the areas
of academic instruction, career exploration, and counseling. ,
RBS
The basic skills program Ifas been discussed at length as has
the range of instruction available to students within the ILA
mathematics and communications skills areas. Students who complete
these programs successfully should possess, at a minimum, ninth
grade level skills. It should be observed, however, that in the
ILA program (as in other pre-de;igned curricula) once the student's
deficiencies had been ascertained and a prescription developed,
the'instructional objectives and learning activities were limited.
1 DO
95
All students with similar areas of deficiency proceeded through
the same instructional compAents. At this point the major individ-
ualized feature appeared to be the rate of learning.
A more extensive series of options existed both in the Supole7_
mentary Program and in the-Career Exploration Program. Students who
already had attained the ninth grade level of skill developmelt
entered the Suriplementary Program. Students in this program were
41 primarily those-VhozUarg411 second year at the Academy.
First year students from Olney took courses of an elective and
supplementary nature at Olney befote they left there each day.
In the first quarter of the 1972-73 school year, RBS offered
twenty-one courses in the supplementary program with enrollments
ranging from 1 (in PhySics I and German) to 20 (in Psychology).
These courses were taught by employers, RBS Staff, and outside
n . 4contractors. In the second quarter, thirt.r-six electives were
ffered and in the third quarter twenty-seven Choices were
available. Physical education was included ;xi the options each
quarter. A general trnd over the year was for,courses to be
conducted by individuals or agencies other than emptoyers and
RBS staff, frequently on a purchase-of-services basis. .The
Supplementary Program provided the courses whichostudents
took to meet state requirements for graduation.
In the second year, the number of students who were partici-.
gating in the Supplementary Program had dropped since it primarily
served the 70 carry over students from 1972-73. The effect was
9e
to reduce the number of available options, a fact that was
voiced by several students who felt the EBCE program was losing
its variety and was, therefore, not as Sensitive to individual:
-st140-mt-me-e-da-a4=1-t.-1A4=4.-m-111-Y
41 The Supplementary Program had not developed systematic
standardized or individualized objectilies in thesame manner as
was noted in the ILA materials. While the options were fewer
than in year one, the extensiveness or lack of it seemed less
of a problem than was the need for careful development-Of objec-
tives for students either by supplementary'course instructors or
by Academy staff When students entered a class._ Ptivately contracted
courses might individualize their objectives 'but.there was a need
for "consistency" in student objectives and studltt expectations
in Supple4entary Programs which could not be fully addressed by the
limited staff in this area. It should be noted that in year three,
1974-75, the problem will largely disappear if the- current plan,
of recruiting students from one or more high schools is followed.
RES listed 12 clusters for Career Exploration (lilted previously)
from which students would choose at least one per quarter. One day
each week the student spent a full day at his scheduled site. Within
each clUster there were usually three or four locations that he visited,
primarily to observe the range of career opportunities at each site,46
the employment conditions, and the kinds of job skills and respons-
ibilities that were required. We did not obtain evidence to demon-
strate that the Career Exploration activities were directly related to
students' interests. They did reflect student choices, but we were
told that the choices were often made_based on Actors such as how-
easy or how much fun the program was reputed to be,'whether free lunch
97 102
-was provided, what peers
)
thought about the cluster, what seemed
most convenient, or what popular image the cluster may hold. It
was said that few students were used to picking a program based
on honest, carefully-conceived career internbtn_ _ _
Student options seemed more fully realized when a student
chose and entered Career Specialization. The'twenty-eight.students
in this activity when we visited had had four to five,exploration
experiences and had chosen one for more intensive investigation.
At that stage, individual objectives were set between the student and
counselorrcooraingtor to assist the student in examining a specific
job and clubter as thoroughly as possible. There was n9 requi'rement
for Academy students to enter the specialization phases, but some had
found areas that interested them and had opted for further analysis
in a specific career area. It was only at the specialization level that
students began to get signiticanthands-on experience. Such experi-
ence was very limited and superficial during exploration, according
to one staff member we interviewed.
Finally, while the range of counseling approaches available to
students was not very broad, the content of the counseling was
flexible and responsive to a wide variety of student characteristics
and interests. A brief description of the counseling program is
included in the discussion of "systeMatic procedures" in this chapter.
41E L--
This project offered a wide variety of options to students ih
academic subject areas and in,career exploration activities.
In the academic subject areas, AEL listed 28 courses for
high school credit in five concept areas (natural science, math,
social secience, communicatione, and career development.) Within
98 '103
the five concept areas were 122 subconcepts for which there were
a total of 450-500 objectives. Certain subconcIrts and objectives
were applicable to more than a single subject -area, but their
emphasis varied dependingon_the specific_aatication Since
AEL accepts'primarily seniors, the list of 28 courses seemed both
comprehensive and adequate to serve student needs. Further, it
should be noted that while almost all.students had high school
requirementtto fulfill in communications or language arts, many
had no other required courses left when they entered the EBCE program.
l'hus the list of elective courses seemed sufficiently broad- for the
Population sayved (except,, as noted earlier, the absence of reatiiits.
and math reMediation programs).0;o
Options in. the career exploration area were verrextensive
in relation to the student enrollment at AEL. In_1972-73, th
listed 64 separate career sites which were co-operating with the
EBCE program. As of December 17, 1973, that number had increased to
100, including the addition of 18 labor unions. Within each site
there were levels of involvement ranging from 'a site tour, to
exploring the site, to completing an exploration guide for that cite;
and at the highest level, to investigating the site over a longer
time than the three to four weeks required for exploration.
AEL in 1972-73 cross referenced its job sites across 15
career cluster areas to ensure the opportunity for students to
experience a full range of job clusters. While these sites were
cross referenced so that a Oven site offered experience in several
cluster areas, it was noteworthy that the fewest opportunities
were in manufacturing (4) while there were 31 stations that offered-)
public service and business and office experience. In an area with
99 104
LL
high industrialization, it would lie very possible to obtain many
more manufacturing stations, but these had not been emphasized in
the recruiting efforts. A seemingly conscious effort had been
made to enlist a numberc of stations that were not commonplace to
regular job seeker. The broad range of options, plus-the apparent
effort to avoid the most easily accessible stations,' suggested to us
a potential fOr individualization in career development. The staff0.
was also making an effort to interAace academic subjects With career
exploration activities. The newly designOd Gross Reference Catalog
was used in the process of translating program profiles into specific
activities that tie together in-house learning resources and experience
site learning guidg.u.c--.-he catalog attempted to display ways that
academic activities were) encountered and related to job site activ-
ities and to suggestfiow instructional objectives may be pursued on
specific sites. A fully developed intprlocking system requires almost
continual job site analysis, a task that is never entirely finkshed.t
Finally, there were three options available to students in
selecting a counseling approach. These Were the counseling/guidance
specialist, counselor/coordinators and learning coordinators.
Because some of these personnel are untrained counselors, albeit
sensitive to student needs, 'an ongoing program of staff training
and development is essential to continuously improve this aspect of
student service options.
Mountain Plains
Options were available to students in the selection of training
curricula and in the area of counseling at Mountain Plains.
The curricular options in career training were office education,
100 1U5
kood services, lodging services,, mobility and' transportation
occupations, and construction and building trades occupwEions.
They were also initiating a new service in the area of marketing
and distribution, and'had discontinued work that,was previously.
offered in the area of educatiori and social services. Within each
of these caterries training in a number of hierarchically arranged
positions was available. The lists of these options as well as
those relating to foundation education are found in Appendix A.
Within the several training areas, M.P. broke down their4 .
work by course areas, units, and performance activities within unite.
For eachoerforliance activity within a 'unit there was a lap, or
learning activity package. Some performance activities had more than
one lap.
It has been observed in preceding chapters that objectives
based instruction should not necessarily be equalted with indivId-_
ualized instruction, as the only individually determined variable
may be rate. At Mountain Plains alternative learning strategies
for the sequential objectives had not yet been established,
althpugh the development of additional activities was anticipatA.
While it is felt that the project was past the point whete
everybody took-the same thing, they were not yet at a point where
the options were unlimited or even where there were several options
for all objectives. However, the staff tried to make provisions
for goals to be readjUsted in keeping with students' interests,
desires, and/abilities. Students had many options of programs
when they first began, but once into a program they were allowed
only three plan changes. 'A plan change was indicated as ajcomplete
change of goals -- for example, moving from a lubrication mechanic
1 101 06
4.
,
to a food service worker. It would not necessarily be a goal., ,
change to move from a lubrication4-Specialist to some other kind of
automotime_xepai_vark.
noted_that stalla,ut
four counseling options in this program: group, with or without
spouse, or one-to-one, 11.th or without spouse.
6. Optimize Growth
The term suggests that a program must assist each student in
achieving maximal academic objectives, in expanding interests
and exploring a variety of them, and in selecting personal goals
which will provide the individual with maximal opportunities upon
exit from the program. This component of our definition is more
accurately a product or outcome of the program experience.
it relates in part to student achievement as measured against
some standardized criteria, it is also larg'ely An estimate -o
While
studentsZ perceptions of personal growth resulting from the rogram.-,---1
Longitudinal follow-up studies of-a program will y Id_additional,.'
,
data that may be collected and reported by't,hep:S: aiecein° the, 0
. ,
future. In our review, we did not obtain'such-t4formation. We did,t
t0
however, interview a sample of participating'students in order'
to determine their perceptions of whether the program allowed them
opportunities to grow and.demelop their personal and career
decision-making skills. Some of their reactions to the program
are reported below.
4 7102
RES 6
Students of the Research for Better Schools Academy for Career
'Education'ranged in age from 15 to 19 and in grades from 10 to 12
This differed from AEL where all students were Seniors and from
Mountain Plains where the students ware mainly adults.,
.
_,-As mentioned earlier, some students in the Academy, in addition
to taking courses within the facility, took courses at Olney High
School, a racially balanced high school with/a large number of students
yho might qualify for the academic program. At Olneau Ent students
take the courses not offered at the Academy, and iftime permits
could participate in some extra-curricular activities. In addition
thy spent approxiiiately 3 hours a week. at the Academy for Mitthe 3 for
English and 2 hours in group guidance seminars. They also spent one
full, day a week (6 instructiona, ho rs) at an employer site for the
purpopeof exploration.4
Regular-Olney (non-Adademy) students attended classes from..
----8:15 a.m. to 1:15 p.m. each dax,,,,
RBS-Academy students ttended classeqi usually until 4:00 or 500
p.m., while some were engaged in eareer exploration in the evening.. \
,
This inequity caused some friction and concern amonf the Academy. .0 if
students and was often mentionlud during the student intervigwp,r-,
although no question directly sought information concerning that, ij- ,
.,; 0..
1, ,4, , ..,
matter.4J
q
4
In review of the stu nt responses to the question "What was the°
major reason for entollingto RES?,'r'2,the most often mentioned phrases .
were listed. ,'As indicated eleven of the 15 students were peeking
career exploration. However, the next most commonly .mentioned
reason (4 out of' 15),was dissatisfaction with former schools:
103 108
Most often mentioned reasons for enrolling:
Number of Students out of 15Abbreviated. Reasons
Career ExplorationO
Did not like former school
Curidsity about program
Wanted more freedom
To learn at own speed
Program offered a lot ofdifferent things
11
4
3
.2
2
2
The next two questions dealt with the prior thoughts of the
students about a career. If they had (in fact) thought about a
career, what was their preference in employment? Ten of thea5.
4
students had considered some type of employment. Three had not
,considered careers and three were undecided - usually divided between
colleg4, employment, or the military. Of the preferred work, eleveri
students leaned heavily towards professional careers including:
Medicine, Art, ,Law, Architecture, Teaching, etc. Pour others had made
jlodidecision as to the type of work they preferred.
When asked if and how they were assisted in Career Exploration,
twelve interviewees indicated they had been positiVely assisted by their
counselors or advisors, whi.le three noted that they felt the counselors
were of no help. Some students expressed a preference for the on-site
"more available" counselort of the 1972-73 school-year, than the sub-
.contracted, separately hodsed Chamber .of Commerce counselors of the
1973-,74 school year.
.
Thirteen Students agreed that they were offered alternatives
by citing the fact that.they were required to do exploration in
various clusters. The two negative responses were based on the fact'4
104 1 U 9
4.1
. If
that preferred clusters (for Students l and 15) had either been
decided for them or closed.
Asked whether they made their own decisions as to what would
be explored, nine responded positively While four, in answering
negatively, Oted thatIdecisions were made according to available
clusters and weren't really their own. Two students gave qualify-
ing answer b of "yes and no" and "depending . . ."
Question seven was asked to have them delineate the types of
staff who were most helpful. Students had at0:ndency to compare the
counselors of the 1972-73 school year with thobe of 1973-74. Seven
students definitely preferred the 72-73 counselors to those of this
year. Most often mentioned was their unavailability in that they did
not have offices at the Academy. Five students felt that all the
pounselors had been helpful. Two felt that the counselors of this
year were helpful and "alright, if you can get to them."
Students were almost evenly divided in responding whether they
had changed directions in job preference as the result of -career
exploration. Six indicated change,' while two others offered that they y
are considering the change. Seven indicated they had not_c_hanged
job preferences. Of those changing, many indicatea a type of gratitude
at having had an opportunity to explore their program before any
final decisions were necessary. For example, students six and eleven
had indicated preferences in medicine where preparation requires much
time aad money. As a result of exploration at one of the Philadelphia
hospitals, one student, who fainted, 'was considering another health
field while the other had selected accounting as a result of exploration
in a bank through a-totally diffe'rent cluster. A student, who had not)
.
changed career directions indicated her appreciation for the program
105 1 1 0 .
in that exploration helped her confirm her thoughts about being a
psychologist. A
A majority of the interviewees felt they had had adequate opportu-
nities'for exploration; sufficient' community resources were available
and career exploration opplfrtunities were suitable to their'needs
(questions 9, 10, and 11). In responding to the item concerning an_ t .
adequate opportunity for exploration, ten agreed they had such an
opportunity, four disagreed, while one was undecided. It should be
noted that student no. 1, in responding negatively indicated he felt
there were interesting programs, but insufficient time. Regarding
the sufficiency of'community resources, nine students felt that
specialization programs established for them had met individual needs.
All but one of the fifteen students felt that the career exploration
was suitable to their needs.
Question twelve sought to establish whether. students felt the
been placed-in any employer site without preparation for it. Nine
had
stated that this ha.d not been the case for them, while the remaining
six indicated they felt ill-prepared when placed in a luster which they
did not select, but which *ass available after their own choice-had been
closed.
Item 13. was directed specifically to minority and female students.
Of the thirteen qualified to answer, eleven believed'that minorities
and females did not have the complete range of choices in career
exploration, although some indicated that nothing had been done t
them perSonally. One studentobser'ved that there had been "no°expOsure
to black leaders or executives."
I I
106-
e.
AEL
In an effort to ascertain student opinion of the AEL -EBCE program,
a 13 item interview instrument was designed to delineate those per-
ceptions as mentioned above. (A copy of the interview form and
41 student responses are found in Appendix BO
Because-of the limited time available, six students, three male,a
three female, all age 17 and seniors were randomly selected from
various areas it the Learning Center.' Each student was interviewed
separately for a period of one to one and a'half hours. During that
period, all students responded to the first twelve questions of the
form. Question 13, specifically for minority or female students,
dealt with their perceptions of the program in relatiOn to special
treatment or teaching. In addition, upon request of some staff, the
students were asked "Given the experience you've had, would you
retutn to this program, if it werepossible?"
In terms of the program objectives in optimizing student'growth,
41 the students, representing approximately one-seventh of the student.
population,indicated most objectives were being met.
Although there were varied reasons for entering the program (see
Appendix B, Table A,question no. 1), most desaribed.a process of
individualized exploration close to the program's objectives. Whether
or not they had preconceptions .bout a career (question 2), the
students, with the assistance of their Learning Coordinators, iden-.
tified a work preference (question 3) and began to set up an individ-
ualized career exploration program selecting emptoyer sites which might in
some way be related to the Area they chose (question or,item 4). It
can be noted that, with the exception of the fifth student who pre-
ferred farming, all were able to get placements in areas specifically
107 112
related to their preferences.' The fifth student repeatedly indicated
displeasure in the fact that those few positions related to farmingo
were with the State Department of Agriculture where placement Was
4difficu1t because few positions were open. This condition caused
the student to leave the program approximately a week after the
interview. The third and fourth students, while pursuing specific
placements indicated decisions to initiate some "open exploration"
which resulted in selection of a placement either remotely related
to the work preference or not related at all (e.g. the third student's
third placement in a mortuary, though his preference was electricity).
It was later explained by a learning coordinator that there was a
:remote relationship in that the student, who aspired to be an in-
dependent electrical contractor, needed experience in small firm
bookkeeping,and "open exploration" of such a facility was encouraged.
Question 5 revealed that, in both the negative and the positive
responses, the studetts felt`that they had control of their own
programming as substantiated in item 6. Even those students who
answered "no" indicated that they had the choices, and they were
permitted "to make their own decisions" while no one tried "to
change their mind." However, the second student did indicate her
Kuder indicated high interest in physical therapy but neither she
nor her coordinator had iby interview time) sought any alternatives
in that area.
Item 6"sought information as 'to whether the students' choices
and placements were their own final decisions, to which each emphat-,
ically responded positively that they felt they had the "final decision"
in.each choice making option, bu't that the Learning Coordinators and
''the staff were "all helpful" in facilitating an easy transition into
1 3and through the program.
108
In consideration of "changing directions" in job exploration
(question 8) only two students had "considered" a change. Student
number 3 is now considering work in a mortuary, while student number,
4 is now "leaning towards sales" rather than journalism.
Questions 9, 10, 11, and 12 dealt with the opportunities, thes
sufficiency, and the suitability of the program or various phases
thereof. Students indicated they felt there was an adequate opportu-,.
w
nity for exploration of aribus career possibilities, although five
of the six students felt there were not sufficient community resources
available. Only one stud nt felt that the areas of exploration were
not suitable to her needs. As indicated by student number 5, she
desired some exploration in the area of farming. The only related
exploration sites available were the Department of Agriculture slots,
which seemed to,remaih full.\ Therefore, exploration was with Legal
Aid, the School for the Mentally Aetarded and the Non-Graded Elemen-
tary School. Some exploration, might have been with the Forestry and
Parks, service but that area was closed to females because of various
safety considerations.' Because of the lack of exploratory programs
for this student, she left the program that next week as she had
planned for some time prior to th' interview.
Only two interviewees felt th y had been placed in job explbra-
tion areas where they had no adequate preparation or background.
Student number 3 felt he had not bee prepared for placement in
exploration at the mortuary. As rel ted above, student 5 -did not
feel'prepared for any of the three hr :as and felt none of them
offered her any real choice to explOre what she really wanted.
11 4
3.09
Question 13, aimed at checking on the possibilities of 'minority
tracking, was asked only of minorities and females. Of the three
females, two felt that some program options were closed to them
because of their sex. Mentioned specifically were some area of police
work and the forestry and parks areas.
Of the six students interviewed, all but student 5 answered the
noninstrument question posititly-that they would return to the5P
program if given the opportunity to have a second year of exploration.-
Mountain Plains
Mountain Plains participants were unique from participants in
the other projects in that they were residents of the facility.and
they were adults, in age, maturity, family and social status. Most
were married with families. Where participants of the Eft projects
are still in high school and have not had the full experience of the
4
f* world of work, many Mountain Plains 'participants had been involved
in a variety of jobs and programs. Therefore, the intensity of these
participants, attempting to restructure their lives, is more acute.' 19
To get some student opinions on the Mountain Plains program,
its strengths and its weaknesses, two participants were interviewed.4
Both represented a unique facet of student life'.
One student, the president of the MOWINDS Council (a student/
community organization using an acronym consisting of the initials of
the six states of the region served) had been in the program since
April 1973 (approximately seven months). He was pursuing a vali-
dation in drafting and indicated that he felt he had control of most
of the choices 'he made during his career exploration. Upon' completion,
he planned to go into architectural drafting.
4
The Second student was one of the first femalestudents to take
drafting. Upon entry into the program, her tests showeu tuat she
could explore any area of her Choice. With the decision up to her,
this participant/head of household discussed choices with her instiuc-
tors and counselors and finally opted to go for a double validation in
office education and drafting. Within seven nonths, she had already
progresseeup the career opportunities ladder of Office Education by
moving from an accounting clerk to a bookkeeper. It was her intention
to return to her home state moving into a drafting position.
In- the discussion of the program, both students concurred that
the Mountain Plains project had been beneficial for them. Both cited,
"the freedom to explore, the individualized approach and the general
instructional staff" as being the positive points of the programT---0
The male participant said he felt most of the residents thought they
were receiving an "outstanding education and program." His own satis-
faction with the program was that it provided a "more scientific
on-the-job training combining the best of instruction with the best
work experience environment where the pressureof losing a job before
_adjustment was -hot as great."
w The major needs of the program cited were:
(1) Better screening and selection of students i both
participants agreed that this was an acute problem in consideration
of the number of program non-completers. "Out of my starting group,
eight of us were really motivated, two weren't motivated at all, and
four others left the program withiq the first few months," the female
student indicated.
(2) v Increased input on the behalf of program participants.
Although there is the MOWIHD'S Council, the participants said that
111 1i0
0
most students feel they-have no real say in the overall program.
"Students have little time tp.get involved in aAm outside activities,"
Sccording to the MOWINDS president.
(3) Better job placement possibilities on completion - Even
though, some students had received "ideal" job positions, it was felt
that some 'states needed additional field workers to identify better
job possibilities and to assure successful placement.
(4) Iiproved counseling and peer-group support rograma.
A major concern_of MOWINDS is community action and i volvement with
an "improved personal problem countelipg*system." hwprogram might
have increased peer group suppot Programs as a means of dealing
with internal family or community problems, according to the
participant/president.
Both reiterated their support for the,program and indicated they'
felt that they represetted most students' attitudes toward the program.
Time did not permit a more extensive interview"'ef students at thea
facility, nor a follow-up of the non-completers.
A Discussion of,Traoking Relative to the Three'Orojects
An attempt has' en made to separate the Qoncept of tracking
from i4dividualizationby noting initially that they are not bi-'
polar ends of the same coitinuum. It had also been observed that
the most appropriately individualized program may effectively identify
a student's needs, desires; ,interests, and abilities and place him
into a single or narrow class of activity that is consonant with
his specifications. One desaiiption of tracking suggested was the
image of tracks in a switchyad'as opposed to a single expanse stretch-
ing out across the Dakota prairielands. In the switnhyard image,
tracks are only short lengths leading to junctures where change may
occur and new components may be added to create a whole mechanism
the complete and optimally prepared student. In Chapter IV several
observations were posited as -possible evid9nce of tracking. In this
concluding section of the paper, questions relating to these track-
ing concepts will be posed and the. functioning of three projects in
reference to the questions will be discussed.
Question 1:V
Does the program regularly-ttWin disadvantaged people, women,
and/or minorities for lower levels in the job hierarahy and rarely
for the higher levels?
RBS and ALL
Both of the EBCE programs are primarily aimed at qareer explora-
tion as differentiated from specialization and training. The explore-.
tion opportunities, as has been noted, appeared open to all and were
limited only by the availability of a specific site to accept a
certain number of students at one time. rurther, students were
118113
expected to explore a variety of sites and johi within'those sites and
not concentrate on s single job. If a student showed high interest
in a career cluster area, he was urged to learn more about the wide
range of jobs available within that cluster. In the RBS program,
the student was introduced to a range of jobs on every site he/she
visited. The continuous change process at both RBS and AEL made it
difficult for any student to stay an unusually long time on a single
job. We found no evidence, for example, that any student had remain-
ed at 4a single site for career exploration for longer than ten weeks.
A much shorter period - three to four weeks - was'the more typical
exploration time.
Within the job sites explored, we found generally open choice
available to females and minorities. Agreement made with employers
specified that students exploring a given site would not be limited
by sex or racial characteristics. We felt that the EBCE programs
made special effort to maintain open access and that employers
accepted this position. Yet, it must be noted that social and cultural
factors still appeared to influence both the choice and the amount ofa
participation in certain areas. Anexample'cited to us was the ten-
dency for the construction cluster at RBS to receive a large proportion
of black males. At AEL it was reported that while .one employer, the
city police department, was ,open to both sexes, they were reluctant to
have females ride in squad cars in the evening, though males were
allowed to.., The job coordinator had discussed the matter and pointed
out the discriminatory nature of this policy.C.
At AEL we compared our sample of 24 present participants, which
included one minority person, with eight black students who were
119114
either in the program or. who were enrolled last year. Our principal
concern was whether there was any difference., in the numbers or types
of job stations which our sample explored as comparedo these eight
minority students. We have noted that the numb of sites explored
41 by out sample over a sixteen week period ranged from/ to 5 with an
average of 3.9. The five black studentspfor Whom 16 week data was
available had from 3 to 5 different career explorations, with an11
41 average of 4.2. The remaining three black students who were in the
program 36 weeks during 1972-73 had 6, 6, and 8 job explorations.
Such figures reflect no significant differences between the two
40 samples.
We also compared the cluster areas in which these black students
participated as compared to all student5 who'have been in the AEL
program to date. Minority'students did not Participate in two
cluster areas, Construttion and Agricultdre and Natural Resources.
In 1972-73 there were only five of each of these two types of sites
40 participating in the program. Only two students explored a construe-
tion employer site in 1972-73 and thirteen explored sites related
to agriculture and .natural resources. Of the five sites in the latter
cluster, four of them were state or county agencies. The opportunity
for minority group involvement in construction areas may be increased
with the addition of 18 unions during 1973-74, at least 11 of which
involve the construction trades. During our observations we found
no evidence of attempts to counsel or progl.am minority students out
of andaway from these cluster areas. It was our opinion that these
student'programs, which were so predominantly the result of student
Choice and interest, did not reflect an attempt to assign students
on racial bases. 1°0115
In the cas e of women participants at AEL, the data suggested
several areas of Heavier involvement. For example, business and
office, public service, and personal services occupations were
heavily represented. But, not surprisingly, there were 31, 31, and
24 stations, respectively, that participated in these cluster areas
during 1972-73. A more average number of sites participated in the
health cluster (14) and the students for this area were primarily
female. Most of the latter.job titles explored were in nursing,
medical technology, and medical or dental receptionist. Each
of these has been most frequently identified in our culture with
female occupations. .
Mountain Plains
As we noted in an earlier section on "Needs, Interests'', and
Aspirations," career choices by women at Mountain Plains were most
°frequently in the office education cl %ster. Only a very few women
chose mobility and transportation occui3ations or construction ancl
building trades occupations. Food and lodging services attracted
both sexes. Several factors were cited that confound reasons fOr
thelsirlds of phoices made:
Attitudes of the marital partner. Usually husbands did not
want their'wives in career areas generally reserved for
males, they did not want wivesA.n the same area in which
they were enrolled, and they were .relUctant to see wives
in job classifications that paid more than they could earn,
especially if it were in the same cluster area.
b. Limited babysitter seryice. This made it difficul for ,women
to spend as much time in the trAining program ad therefore,
1214
116
,f
to qualify at successively higher levels in some of the
career clusters.
c.' AVailability of jobs at 'their home sites/- If the ttudent.
...
feels there is (limited job market fdt'a given specialty .
in the town to which they :intend to return, the special-.
1zatidn level to which she aspires may' be lowered.
We also noted earlier the Mounta'in Plains concern for minorities -
in this instance, native Americans or Indian- s. %Nearly one-fourth
of entering students are$Indians, but alarger proportion,of resigneet
and non-completers have been from this gioup. In order tocounteract
this trend, special attempts had been made to provide counseli4g
and peer group support for Indian students and families. The diffi-4 44
culty of _Indian wives in dju6, t ing,to diffeient living circumstances
was cited. /n .their home surroundi ge they mare. part of an eAended
family and at Mountain Plans' that is completely lacking. Soma wives0
have returned to homes on the reservation, often forcing or influenco
ing their husbands, to resign the -project. Efforts to retain theseo
minority persons have to'.be directed at improving conditions for wives
and the family constellation. The /ndian'union group was one inch
effort.
Wo found no evidence of exclusion from 24; . occupational plow
grams on the basis of race or sex. is true, nevertheless, that
entry into various specialization areas requires minimal basic skills.
This results' in some persons spending longer in foundation education nnnn__
or entering .occupational areas at lower levelt of job hierarchy. As
skills..improve, students may specialize.in jobs higher on a career
ladder. ,/t is generally accepted that, as a group, blacks and- Indians
have shown poorer basic skills preparation so that initial choices
117122
at M.P. may.be limited by achilimement in the basic 'skills. Rebog-.
nition of this problem has resulted in'continuing efforts to improve
Foundation'Education at M.P.
Student options are always limited'bI temporal and financial
constraints. Thede practicaldeftitations halie affected the number
and types of choices at M. P. to semi-skilled 4.4nd skilled jobs
at a maximum,' semi-professional level. Students are apprise'4 of
these options: prior to entry. These Options, except limited by basic
skills, were no more or less available for special groups than for
the majority.
Our initial question related to th a "disadvantaged" as well.as<4
to women and minorities. By definition,' the students at M. P. are
economically_slisadvantaged, since thit is-one of the keyselectiom
criteria. Consequently, there'was no-programmatic discriMiiMtion
to the "disadvantaged" once they joined'the M.P. program.
Question 2: Does the program employ limited assessment procedures
which are not sensitive reflections of individual strengths and
weaknesses?
In the preceding discussion of assessment procedures, we noted
that each of the projects used multiple strategies and instruments.
Each had some technique for assessing interests. Furthee, each
program had procedures for remediating basic skill deficiencies and
for providing a means for high.school graduation either through
receipt of a diploma or thel6D equivalency certificate. Continuing
assessment wa described in each project as-an ongoing activity. IA
addition, M.P. made a special provision for "challenging" wherein
123118
a student could bypass some of the instructional sequence by
demonstrating competency or proficiency through a test.
RBS and AEL
A commonly expressed definition of tracking is that it is
the practice of placing students into,a program based on a narrow
band of variables such as achievement and I.Q. scores. We found,
no evidence that these tests were used either to place or tO counsel
students into any ,program area. The achievement-and I.Q. test infor-
mation which we examined at RBS was used primarily by the project's
research staff for reporting and research purposes rather than by
teachers or,counselinglcoordinatorp. in the exploration or special-
ization planning phase. Purther,'it was not possible to determine
trends, in the career exploration patterns based on ability or achieve-
ment data. It was indicated that'certain clusters had appeal to
identifiable groups, but that seemed to have, more to do with factors
such as peer or societal influences. gor exabple, the apparel
industry primarily attracted females, despite RBS' attempts to.bring
in male representatives from the industry during student orientation
activities. To date, only two boys had selected this option. The
underlying influences that promote such career exploration choices
appeared unrelated to. any direct intervention by the program.
Placement by. aptitude suggests that an attempt be made to
measure aptitudes. That was done through administration of Self-
Directed_ Searcb, though it would be somewhat questionable as to
whether that instrument is an aptitude test or a counseling inventory.
0 At RBS, we believe it was primarily used as a tool to get students to
#.;
LA119
examine their Career intereSts., We fimin4 no evidence that expres-
sion of interests in specific careers waS used either fOr placement
or to influence exploration or specialization decisions.
Similarly, at AEL we found no evidence that achievement or I.Q.
scores were used as the sole basis for program placement,. Scores
on I.Q. tests were not available for many students, and the ones we
did note in the student records were often five or more years old.
Achievement tests, given in the first weeks of the program, were not
scored and returned for some 4 to 6 weeks and appeared to have little
effect on a program profile when they were returned.. Other broad-.
40 band or diagnostic measures were not employed, except for measures of
career preference: They, too, seemed little related to individual
program formulatton, except for an Occupational Situation Demands
Checklist that was beginning to be used to determine student's ieel-
ings about various job situations. Such a checklist related to
expressed student interests, which in turn led to identification of
wo ker trait groups and specific jci.Os which were consistent with4.1
tho e traits. Other significant inputs to a program profile were
the courses required by the country high school for graduation.\ In
both instances, we, observed that the student program was not pre-
scribed by EBCE personnel, but rather by student interests and
graduation needs imposed by state or local district requirements.'
Mountain Plains
We have listed some of the assessment instruments and methods*
of the M.P. project. Every measure had specific and limited purposes
and none was intended nor used as single decision factor in program
125120
planning. Both formal'and informal procedures were employed by four
major program components in order to assess student interests and to
base program modification on a variety of information sources.
Question 3:
Does the program have only limited counseling procedures, or
the counseling procedures reinforce limited aspirations?
Each of the projects visited has developed extensive descriptions
of their counseling procedures as a part of operational plan sub-
misusions to NIE. It is not our purpose to reiterate those procedures
here except to note that prior to site visits, these plans were
reviewed, and 'previous sections have noted discrepancies and congru-
encies betyieen plans and observed procedures.
A basic philosophical question arises when one talks of "raising"
career aspirations. What are improved aspirations and by whose
standards? The lack of concensus on this question related to the kinds
of counseling procedures the projects followed.
RBS and AEL
The general position that was taken was that an "aspiration7
raising" program was neither essential nor desirable. By providing
many job exploration activities in a variety of cluster areas, it
was indicated that students could obtain sufficient background
information on which to make career decisiobs. While no special
procedures were noted to raise aspirational level, the observers
noted no trends in the activities pursued by minorities that
suggested limitations on job levels. With women, it has been noted
126121
that they have tended to select from areas usually associated with
females, but a wide range of choices Within a category were explored,
or available for exploration.
Student perceptions of the impact and sensitivity of the counsel-
ing pi.ocedures have been discussed and some are shown in Appendix B.
Mountain Plains
An important aspect of the M.P. program was an attempt to
establish congruity between abilities and aspirations. Many entering
students had unrealistic expectations for jobs that required profes-
sional level preparation--doctors, lawyers, etc. The project had to
work With students to develop realistic plans within the options
available in their program. In addition, the project provided
counseling at two levels--personal needs and career needs and decision-
making. Counselizig and guidance included assistance in career
selection, job application, techniques in obtaining, holding, and
advancing within,a career.
Question 4:
Does the program have any processes for accomodating culturally'
different values?9
RBS and AEL- -"
No special accomodations were observed, but it was apparent that
varying values and points of view were considered at RBS. Special
attempts were made in the selectiOn process to enroll a balance of
black and white students---Several key staff,positions were held by
blacks, though not in equal proportion to the black students in the
program.
127
122
Relatively few black students are enroll :d in the AEL prograi.
There are proportionally far fewer blaqk stude ts in the Kanawha
County schools from which AEL draws. 4.
Mountain Plains
A very real need for accomodating to minority values was
observed at M.P. They have instituted an Indian Union to assist
wives and families in adjusting to the project, hey allow f r
periodic home visits for students, which allows so e to maintain
family ties back home,. (This has had some negativ results when
students,resign the project and don't return. M.P employed one
Indian woman counselor °that the observers felt was particularly
effective in a group counseling session. i 'key admi istrative
. position had been filled by a person of Indian backgr und.
Question 5:
Does the program have adequate pre-entry,counseli g to
determine program "fit" with client needs?
RBS and AEL%
° Both EBCE programs experienced low dropout rates f om the
program. In the first year, RBS terMinatede few sUldents for non-
attendance. AEL retention through the first year and a half was
very high, though it should be remembeied that AEL students wee in
their last year of high school and may be able to realize the nearer-
term advantages of remaining through high school completion than may
the younger group of students accepted by RBS.
1 2 8
123
Prior to entry, both projects conduct orientation programs fora..
students and their parents in which they explain program options and
procedures. Interviews with students at AEL indicated, with one
exception, satisfaction with the_offerings. The program criticisms
heard by RBS students came more often from those who were in their
second year. They criticized the more limited supplemental program
and the change in counseling procedures as varying from what they
had been led to expect in the first year. Some students from Olney
High School felt the career education program required more work of
them than of their classmates who remained full-time at Olney
Mountain Plains
Students received information about the program fronthe
Outreach staff in each ptate and.jat the site from the M.P. cataff
during the first weeks of orientation.i
Resigneed and non-completers continue to be a'concern of th,e
M.P. project. Since there is a considerable investment of time and
money in selecting, relocating, reeducating, and placing studentsr-
it becomes a matter of concern!that people leave before completion.
While some resign very early, others stay for a longer term but
leave before validating or demonstrating competency in their area of
specialization. The observers felt that the program options were
consistent with area and student nefids but that social and cultural
adjustment problems were among the primary reasons for resignation.
These are as difficult'to define as they are to identify during the
student selection process.
4
Question 6:
Does the program focus on the needs of society (e.g., current
labor market shortages) to the-exclusion of the needs of the
individual?
RBS and AEL
At the EBCE projects, students were encouraged to explore a
variety of sites including compiling information bout work demands
and opportunities with the job area. The focus appeareofto be on4
having the student explore his personal interests in a specific
career, rather than limiting his interests by labor market projec-
tions. That is not to gay that those projections are unimportant
or that they should be ignored, On the contrary, the projects each
wanted students to obtain such information in order to have a fuller
understanding of career choices available to them.
Mountain Plains
M.P. has had to deal directly with this issue because they are
preparing students directly for labor market entry. The career
clusters offered at M.P. were originally based on needs and oppor-
tunities within the six state region. Because of government cutbacks
in *certain social service and educational funding, M.P. discontinued
its prograM to train social service workers. A new cluster in market".
ing was planned as an alternative, and its selection was at least
partially based on the labor market potential. While student interests
have influenced programmatic decisions and planning, the selection of
career areas was, for the most part, divorced from the student input
process.
130.:125
oto
In genetal, the observers were able to note no instances,of
tracking as a project imposed result. That is, there were none of
the obvious attempts to consciously place students, especially women
and minorities in learning situations because of pre-conceived sex-
or racially -based stereotypes. On the other hand, a number of
instan es of tracking could be cited which were created by external
forces. We have.observed that among the causes of tracking are those
practices resulting from::
a. Cultural influences
b. Socioeconomic influences
c. Client characteristics
d. Financial and temporal limitations
Since these factors will always be present, and are largely
out of the control of operators of programs they can accomodate to
them but seldom can change them. Accomodation can take place if
program staff are aware-of -thdse forces and the role they play in
individual student plan ning. On most counts, the observerS would
give high marks to the program staff we interviewed for their
sensitivity to these-issues.
1. 3
126
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This report resulted from a request by the National Institute
of Education's Career EducatiOn Program to examine individualized
instructional practices and potential tracking in projects which it
had funded, especially those engaged in direct delivery of instruc-
tional services. The initia4,research task was to examine the
literature to determine a definition of individualized instruction
and tracking that would serve as a basis for subsequent asseasment.
At that stage of work, an assumption was made that individualized
instruction was a necessary element to programs that intended to
provide equal educational opportunities to.all students. The first
chapter discussed the historical background and rationale for this
position. Sample definitions delineating the components of individ-,
ualized instruction were presented.
In Chapter II, some of the most basic factors in individualized
instruction were discussed along with additional components that
added to the comprehensiveness of the model. The discussion was
organized in a chronological manner by reporting the sequential steps
required to plan, develop, operate, and assess an individualized
program. That sequenctlbegan with definition of the program to be
indiVidualized and development of a series of instructional objec-
tives. At the next stage, foCus was placed on the diagnosis of
student needs as critical preparation for instructional delivery.
Issues of Whether the diagnosis should focus on student strengths
132127
or weaknesses 'were mentioned. The involvement of students and
parents in the pre-entry goal-setting process was noted. It is
the operational aspects of individualized instruction that are most
frequently emphasized, though it was our position that planning and
assessment of outcomes are of equal significance in the process.
We noted a lack of innovativeness in many reported programs, most
of which attemptedto employ prescriptive, performance-based pro-:
grammed learnihg materialp as a primary instructional option. Some
programs emphasized a technological approach using computer assisted
learning, audio-visual instruction and learnimg packets. We noted
that criticism of such programs often centered on their lack of
interpersonal interaction as a learning' tool. A number of writers
stressed the importance of btudent involvement in the instructional
management process. That is, the student has a need to be informed
of his/her progress, understand the expectations of the program, and
participate in managing a studs schedule. We cited the importance,J
in the opinions of some writers, of physical facilities sufficient
in size which also allow for a variety of activities to take place
at any given time as a key component. As a major program outcome
or product of individualized instruction, we reported the need for a
systematic process for identifying and analyzing instructional con-
tent, for establishing performance goals through a variety of teaching.-
learning approaches, and for evaluating the program. In the area of
student outcomes, we listed as principal ingredients of individualiza-
tion the diagnostic and prescriptive procedures occurring throughout
the course of work.
1 33;28
Chapter III was a brief statement of several recurring themes
found in the literature on individualized instruction. Those
special issues included the role of counseling in individualized
instruction, probleMs in evaluations of such programs, and some of
the most oft-heard criticisms of individualized instruction. TheIf
discussion of counseling focused, in part, on'the needs of the
disadvantaged for individualized programs that would improve their
educational and economic status. Criticisms of individualized
instruction related to the overemphasis on technology, and on
"pacing", "rate", and 'sequence", the ignoring of interpersonal
relationships, the lack of student involvement in selection of
goals, and the use of arbitrary, sometimes unrelated evaluation
criteria for measuring learning progress.
A definition of individualized instruction as a basis fore
program reviewtand assessment was presented in Chapter IV. That
definition stated that:
A program of individualized instruction is a systematic
procedure for determining, on an ongoing basis, client
needs, interests, and aspirations, andjfor providing
41 options, to the client which will optimize growth in
each and all of these three areas.II
The terms underlined in tie above definition were discussed in
41 regard to their contribution to a total concept of individualized
instruction. A final section of Chapter IV dealt withthe relatiOn-
ship of tracking to individualized instruction. We discussed some
of the negative inferendes which tracking implies, as well as softie
134129,,
II
positive results that could be attributed to appropriate tracking.
Barriers'or confounding problems in eliminating tracking Wh h
derives from sex, racial, or socioeconomic variables were noted.
Though we found no single, precise method for assessing the degxeg
of student tracking in programs, we listed six observable clues that
could be employed in estimating the degree of tracking. "Those clues .
A
related to the bases on which occupational training areas are selected,
.the extensiveness of student diagnoses, the nature of counseling
services, the-accomodation to culturally different values, the degreev
of program fit to client needs, and the importance placed on individual
as opposed to societal needs.,
Chapter V was an application of the conceptual model tio three
°career education programs. We attempted to relate the key elements
of our definition of individualized instruction to activities and
programs as observed in November 1973 through January 1974 in the
NIB-funded programs' at Philadelphia (ABS), Charleston, WestiVirginia
(AEL),, and Glasgow, Montana (MP). After a brief description of each,
project, we examined the elements of (1) systematic procedure,
(2) determination of skills and abilities of students,.(3) ongoing -
assessment, (4) needs, interests and aspirations of students and
(5) provision of options in the instructional program. The sixth
element, optimizing dtudent growth, is actually a kind of outcome
measure, and given the time and the extent of our observations,
could only be reported from the point of view of student satisfac-
tion in the career education program.
185130
4o.
We were primarily concerned With the existence of, rather than
the degree or quality of, the.elements of an individualized instruc
tional program. However, it was inevitable that the observers would
note strengths of,some projects as compared with others in meeting
certain of the criteria suggested by our definition.0, , 0,,c
..
The last section of Chapter V posed six questions related to the
existence of tracking and discussed each_project in relation to these
questions. Obvious exampkes of tracking in a negative or pejorative
sense were not discovered though we noted the existence of certain
types of tracking that appeared to be external to the career education
programs and outside their sphere of'influence. We referred to:
1. Sociocultural tracking in which peer group and cultural
inflUences affect the kinds of occupational interests and
training decisions made by students.
2. Economic influences in which financial limitations on
'training and occupational preparation have affected
earlier and present career decisions.
3. Client characteristics in which the student or the
employer makes training or hiring judgments based on
an assumed fitness for a job. For example, women may
not choose .preparation in automotive or transportation
related careers.bcause of the common stereotype that
the jobs in that area require great physical strength,
"native" mechanical aptitude, or other sometimes false
assumptions.
136131
. Program limitations. in which a student selects from a
list of courses which is restricted by funding, staff
qualifications, or other factors not fully within the...-
power of a: program to change.
Each of the above may result in.a kind of student tracking,.
though little- pecific action on the'part of a career educatiOn- pro-
gram could change the selection-process of occupational preparation
or placement.
Systematic procedure was cleaned es a specific provipion for,
individualized diagnosis,- counseling, -planned activities, and. -'
..,
6 evaluation. Each of the three programs had process or selecting,
entering, and planning student prOgram. PerscinaLization of the. .
a0V .
educationaI-program.ocpurred,
in each. At RBS, we cited the. orderly,
procedure available'f9r basic skills instruction through its use of
Individuhlized Learning for Adults (ILA). AEL had just completed
and introduced a system for diagnosis and 'student- decision-making .ihat
was highly prdmiping. We also noted that AEL had planned exploration
activities in which, students related their experiences on an employer
site to specific academic requirements or expectations. MP had the
most extensive provisionp for student prograM development, because
this project 'bad different objectives. One of their` goals was to
train students in an area of occupational specialization as opposed
to the explcration focus of the other two projects. As a result,
MP had to pray-14e personal and family counseling, career guidance,
.basic skills education, and occupational training. We observed that
this task was more complex and required more time, staff, and cost'
than other programs. .Developmental efforts at MP that' were well
137132
advanced were occupational training and personal and family counseling,
but neither were "finished" systems. Career guidance and foundation
education were
latter t
undergoing, changes, with one of tile major tasks of the
help define or determine levels of baSic skills essential to,
success in various
Guidance component
in career decision
career specialties. A new director of the Career
was developing a planned approach to assist stud
making.. While many components of the MP system
could be exported, it was our assessment that developmental efforts
in this. comprehensive program should and would continue, ei/en'though
replicable elements were identifiable.
A key element of the ILA system at RES was an assessment- procedure
to define each student's achievement in the.basic skills'of-reading and
math. This was not only a complete, but also.a prescriptive, system
which provided an individual point of entry for students into the basic
skills program and sequential materials through five areas within
reading and eight are within math.. Assessmeneor the determination
of individual status was considered a primary task for-counselors
within an individualized program. Processes for self- and counselor
assessment were being developed at RBS, but we nOte.d_that there
appeared to be no strategy by which regular assessment procedure's led
to career exploration placement decisiOns. The physical separation
of counselors, who were housed several blocks from the Academy for,asb
Career Education was cited as a deterrent to effective utilization of
the counselors in student diagnoses and program planning.
AEL's procedures at the time of our observation were being
modified and a new system for student assessment and planning was being
138133
initiated. The basic logib of the new system appeared promising
and sensitive to identifying student aptitudes and career choices
as a ba.sis for program planning. We cited at AEL the general avoidance
of global asseasment measures such as I.Q. tests or achievement
'batteries as principal program determinants and the practice of student
involvement in choosing their career exploration sites.
Two kinds of counselor, input - personal and family problem solving
and career guidance - existed at MP. General aptitude tests and
vocational interest surveys were used in initial assessment activities
for entering students. Other formal procedares for determining student
needs included administration of questionnaires, personality inventories,
and problems checklists.
Recurring, ongoing assessment which recognizes the need to continu-
ously examine'student progress and placement is a third element of our
definition of individualized instruction. The ILA Systemused.at RES
met this requirement through regular monitoring and evaliation of
student learning., Ongoing evaluation of student progress in supplemen-
tary skills of career ekploration was not evident except at the end
of student participation. *Students who entered a specific exploration
cluster generally received the same type of program over a twelve week
period without programmatic adjustments through the course of the
exploration to serve individual needs. The lack of close student-,
counselor interaction was again cited as a constraint to ongoing .
assessment. The frequency of program changes and interventions was
regarded as a strength of AEL's career exploration program. Usually
students changed exploration sites every three weeks so that career
education activity was under regular review; A specified process
139134
for academic assessment was'not seen at AEL. A key to ongoing
assessment at MP was a periodic review of the appropriateness pf
occupational preparation selection. Students helped set instruc-
tional objectives and worked with the, career guidance and/or counseling
sections to resolve problems related to achievement of obiectives.
. The element of needs, interests, and aspirations placed importance
on the need to identify academic or skills problems and to require
remedial teaching where -warranted. RBS's procedure was particularly
sensitive: to this issue in that they required all students whose
skills were below ninth grade level to participate in the basic skills
program. RBS was said to view the entire EBCE program as a mechanism
for altering student aspirations, but without separate course work or
special indoctrination. A'philosophical problem - to whose "aspirational
level" students would be raised - was discussed. AEL's lack of formal
academic diagnostic procedures and absence of a requirement for students
with poor basic skills to participate in a remedial progiam was noted.
The major emphasis on student interests was a strength of its program
planning activities. Further, every student was expected to select and
meet periodic requirements in five concept areas (social science,
`natural science, mathematics, communications, and career aspirationt).
One way to view career aspirations is to record changes it student
goals through program participation. An AEL staff4meiber conducted a
study of student tcores on the Kuder Preference Test during 1972-73.
The measure showed gains in maturity during the first semester of that
year, but no significant changes thereafter. lidwever, if the EBCE
objective was to encourage realistic career choices, increased'
140
135
aspirations may be a contradictory concept.. MP's immediate task of
preparing adults,for the world of work required that attention be
directed at identifying needs and capitalizing on student interests.
Problems which confounded their task were discussed, including the
presenpe of "program-goers," the higher dropout rate for minority
persons, and the unrealistically high hopes of some students that
they could gain professional level training at MP. The reluctance
of male students to_haAr_e_taeix_Vives enter programs that would lead
to skilled positions, higk pay, and/or competition with men in the
same jobs was discuss0 as a special MP problem in changing aspirational
levels.
The component most frequently equated with_ individualized instruc-
tion is the provision of a variety of options in the areas of academic
instruction, career exploration, and counseling. Each of the programs
observed pared well on this criterion, for though they each had limita-
tions; the r options were extensive and were planned to be responsive to a
variety of student choices. AEL had 160 dtfferentcareer eXploration_
sites which represented 15 career cluster areas. The range of options
provided students with activity choices that were exceptionally compre-
hensive and which resulted from intensive public relations and educa-
tional efforts with the employer community. MP had options in counseling,
guidance, foundation education, and occupational training. The latter
was the simplest to relate to the element of providing options. For
example, MP had five cluster areas - office education, food services,
lodging, building and construction trades, and mobil and transportation
trades. There were 8, 8, 2, 12, and 15 job titles, respectively, within
141136
Qi
these clusters for.which training was available. Only three changes
in a student's occupational preparation plans were allowed, partly.
as a discouragement to those who would intentionally prolong their
stay in the program. Counseling options at HP were available and
founddtion education provided individualized programs in which a
primary variable, was rate of achievement.
The last component of our_ definition, optimizing growth, was
discussed entirely within' the context of student perceptions of each
program. Appendix B provides a brief resume Of student responses .to
a structured interview. Time limitations of the observers resulted in
a too harrow sampling of reactions.at MP, so that student outcomes
and acceptance of that program are tenuous.
The final portion of Chapter V listed a series of questions
about the concept of tracking,,its, relationship to individualized
instruction, and its presence within the three career education
programs. As,noted earliec,, tracking can have a positive as well as
negative image. Tracking was defined as a unique entity instead of the
bi-polar extreme on a continuum of total individualization to complete.0
"non-individualization." Obvious, obtrusive evidences of tracking
were not observed in the programs, though several subtle forces, often
outside the projects',control, t4a1s,pcesulted in a form of tracking
were identified,
137
142
0
REFERENCES
Clements, Hubert M.,,Duncan; Jack A., Taylor, Wallace M. "TowardEffective. Evaluation of the Culturally Deprived,",Personnel andGuid. J.1 1969,,47 (9).
Coody, Betty; Harris, Ben M. "Individualization of.Instruction Inven-'tory" Elem. English, 197.3, 50 (3).
Dauw, Edward G., "Individuallzed'Instruction for Potential Drop-outs,"NASSP Bulletin, 1970, 54 (347).
Davis, Robert B. "Many Roads May Lead to Individualization,"Ed. Tech., 1972, 12 (3).
Duda, Mary J. "A4'tritical'Analysis of JPI," Ed. Tech., 1970,' 10 (12).0
:Esbenson, Tborwald "The Duluth Contract: What it Is and What'-itDoes," ED.,Tech., 1572, 12 (9).
. ,
Frase, Larry E. "The Concept of Instructional IndiVidualization,"Ed. Tech., 1972, 12 (I).
Gallingtoni Ralph O. "Some Imperatives for Inner City Youth.With Implications for Industrial Arts," Man/Society/Technology,1973? Feb.
'Hamilton,. Jack A Jones-, G. Brian, "Individualizing ,EducationalAnd Vocational, Guidance: Designing a Prototype Program,"yOc..Guid. Quatterly, 197T, 19 -(4).
Hedges, Janice N. "Women Workers and Manpower Demands in the19701s," Monthly Labor Review, 1970, 93 (6).
Henderson, "George L. "Individualized Instruction: Sweet in Theory,Sour in Practice," Educ. Digest, 1972, 3.7 (7).
Henderson, George, "Occupational Aspirations of Poverty-StrickenNegro Students," Voc. Guid. 'Quarterly, 1966, 15 (1).
'Henrich, Robert R., Goldsmith, Katherine L. , "Instructional MaterialBased on Task Analysis," Am. Voc. J., 1971, Feb.
Herd, Arthur, "Successful Practicess in Individualized Instruction,"Ed. Digest, 1972, 37 (7)6
Hindelang, Michael J., "Educational and Occupational AspiratiOnsAmong Working Class Negro, Mexican-American and White Elementary,School Children," J.. Negro Education, 1970, 39 (4).
143138
Hunt, J. McV. Intelligence and Experience, New York: Ronald Press, 1961.
Jenkins, Jimmy R., Russel, James D., "Involving Students in Individ-ualized Instruction," Am. Biol. Tacher, 1971, 33 (8).
Johnson, Glenn R., Lewis, Arthur J., "WoW Zildividualized Is
. the Non7-Graded School?" Educ. Leadership, 1971, 29 (2).
Kapfer, Philip; Kapfer, Miriam B.; Woodruff, Ashael D.; Stutz,
Rowan C., "Realism_and Relevance - Payoffs of the Life InternshipApproach," Ed. Tech., 1970, 10 (113.
Kapfer, Philip G.; Kapfer, Miriam B., "Introduction toLearning Packages," Ed. Tech., 1972, 12 (9).
Karnes,,Merle B., Zehrbach, R. Reid, Jones, Guy R., TheCulturally Disadvantaged Student and Guidance, Guidance MonographSeries, Houghton Miffin Company, Boston, Massachusetts: 1971.
Katz, Martin R., "Career Guidance Expanding the Student's DecisionMaking Power," NASSP Bulletin, 1970, 54 (346).
King, Larry, "Individualized Instruction: Not If or When, butHow," Am. ;Voc. J., 1973, 48 (6).
Kinghorn, Jon R.;,..Poden, Jon S., "Individualized Instruction:Especially Helpful to Non-Conforming S'tudents," Penn. Sch. J.,1970, 118 (3).
Koontz, Elizabeth D., "Women Want Up,the Career Ladder,"Am. Voc. J., 1973, 48 (5).,
Krevit, Mary B., "Social Issues Confronting Vocational Education,"Am. Voc. J., 1971, bee.
MArtin, Ann M., Martin,,A.G., "EdUcating Women For Ident tyvin Work,"
do Am. Voc. J.,' 19710 May.
Mink, Oscar G., "Group Counseling With'Ditadvantaged YoUth,"America's Problem Youth, ed. Kaplan, Oscar G. InternationalTeXtbook Company, Scranton, Penn.,1970.:
Mitchell; Edna, "What About Cateer Edtdation for Girls?" Educ.Leadership, 1972, December.
Motrill, Weston H., Forrest David J., "DimenSiont'of Counselingfor Careet-Guidance," Personnel,and Guid. J.., 1970, 49 (4).
Moss, Jerome, "A Hard Look at Our Evaluation Practices," Am. Voc. J.,
1971, Feb.
64
144139
National Conference on Career Education: Implications for Minorities,Proceedings, U.S. Office of Education, Washington,#D.C., 1973, June
Position Papers on Career Education. Washington, D.C.,1973; February.
Nichols, Eugetle D., "Is Individualization the Answer?" Ed. Tech.,3972, 12 (3).
O'Donnell Patrick, Lavorinn, Charles W., "Elements of IndividualizedInstruction," Educ. Digest, 1970, 36 (1).
Packard, Robert G., "Models of Individualized Instruction:the Search for a Measure," Ed. Tech., 1972, 12 (8).
Reinhart, Bruce, "Lack of Data: Planning and Evaluation Bottleneck,Am. Voc. J., 1971, March.
Scanlon, Robert G., "Individually Prescribed Instruction,"Educ. Tech., 1970, 10 (12).
Schwebel, Milton, "Learning and the Socially Deprived," Personneland Guid. J., 1965, 42 (U.
Shappell,_Deam_L., Hall, Lacy G., Tarrier, Randolph B., "Perceptionsof the World of Work: Inner City versus Suburbia," J. Counsl. Psych.,1971, 18 (1)0 4 {3
Simpson, Elizabeth, "Women's Lib is Here to Stay," Am. Voc. J.,1970, Dec.
Smith, C. E., "Dif.ficultia,ai-nl,'Helping'the Disadvantaged,"America's Problem Youth, ed. Kapian, B., Mink, Oscar G.,International Textbook Company, Scranton, Penn. 1970.
Taylor, Emily, "The Women's Movement," Am. Voc. JO/ 1970, Dec.
Thompson, Diane D., "Evaluation of an Individualiied InstructionalPrograM," Elem. Sch. J., 1973, Jan.
Tillman, Rodney, Yetter, Clyde C., "Do Schools Need IPI?" Ed. Digest,1972, 38 (1).
Torkelson, Gerald Mif "Technology and NeW Goals for IndividualizedIn'struction," Ed. Leadership, 1972, 29 (4).
Tosti, Donald P.; Harmon, N. Paul, "A Taxonomy fOr Decision Making inIndividualized Instruction," Ed. Tech., 1972, 12 (9).
':Tucker, Benny F., "A Vivisection of Individualization," Sch. andCommun., 1973, Jan.
Ullery, .77-William, "Individualized Instructional Systems for Vocation-al Education," Ed.. Tech., 1971, 11 (3).
145
140
Voelkner, Alvin R., "What Every Educator Should Know About Evaluation,"Am. Voc. 1971, Sept.
0
Vontress, Clemmont, "Counseling Negro Adolescents," School Counselor,1967,'15,(2). "Cultural Differences: Implications for Counseling,"J. Negro Educ.', 1969, 38 (4).
Wang, Margaret C.; Yaeger, John L., "Evaluation Under /ndiVidualizedInstruction," Elem. Sch. J., 1971,J71 (8)#
Wellman, Frank E.; Gysbers, Norman C., "Main Question is4 Will theProgram Make a. Difference?" Am. Voc. J., 1971,-Feb.
Whiteley, John M., "Intellectual Assessment with the. CulturallyDeprived: Implications for the School Counselor," School Counselor, 1967,
.15 -(2):-
3.41
4
ti
Appendix A
PROGRAM OPTIONS -
MOUNTAIN PLAINS PROJECT
Q.E.Job Titles
File Clerk
Receptionist
Typist/Clerk
Steno
Secretary
Accounting Clerk
Cashier I
Bookkeeper
LODGING
Job Titles
Maid
Housekeeper'
Desk Clerk
Night Auditor
FOOD SERVICES
Job Titles
Kitchen Supervisor
Pantryman
Cook's Helper
Cook
Baker
a
Courses Units
7 17
2 10
5 19
3 58
5 25
6 25
2 7
4 15
148A-1
Units
4
14
13
22
PAs & LAPs
_ ?
PAs
PAs.
Units With All Units
26 260
9
7
26(Same as kitchenSupervisor)
10
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Job .Titles Courses Units
LAPS withinCourses
Carpenter Rough *kg 8 63
Finish 41
Cabinet Maker Cabinet Frame 7 .20
Assembly
Compon. Assembly 26
& Finish
Building Maintenance Structural 17 61
Electrical 23
Mechanical 49
Appliance Service 5 9
Electric Wireman 3. 5
Electric Motor Repair 4 9
Electronic Spec. 4 15
Elec. Maint. Man 4 10
Plumber 2 13
Refrigerator Repair 3 10
Heating & Air Conditioning 3 10
Entry Draftsman 1 13
Welding
Support Course only 10
Not a Job Title for MPtraining purposes
149
It- 2
AUTOMOTIVE
Job Titles
Lub Mechanic
Light Duty Mechanic
Mechanics Helper
Engine Repair Mechanic
Transmission Mechanic
Auto Air Condition Mechanic"
Tune-up Mechanic
Brake Mechanic
Front End Mechanic
General Mechanic
Basic Small Engine Repair
Chainsaw
Snowmobile'
Motorcycle
0.B. Engines
Courses
a
13
11
12
6
5
6
10
5
5.
12
1
1
1
1
Units
19
30
25
1P
17
17
31
16
17
60
23
5
PAs in
Each one requiresPlus all of the23 in Basic Small
5 Engine Repair
1 5
150
A-3
411
FOUNDATION EDUCATION
No Job Titles
Course Area
Courses Units
Basic Common Skills 10 All at grade levels within an01-16 grade classification
1. Phonetic Analysis
2. Struc. Analysis 7
3. Vocabulary Development 6
4. Literal Composition 5
5. Interpretive Composition 5
6. Eval. Composition 5
7. Struct. Patterns 11
8. Organ. Skills 5
9. Ref. Skills 8
10. Corres. Skills 3
0
151
A - 4
Structure (Occupation-Preparation)
L.
Cluster or Job Perf. Activities each of whichCourse Arta Titles Units has at least 1 documented procedure
(LAP)
e.g.
Office Ed. 8
Food Services 8
Lodging 2
Building &Construction 12
Mobil &Transportation 15
152
A.-5
Appendix B
Table A
AEL STUDENT RESPONSESTO INTERVIEW :QUESTIONS.
Table B
ABS STUDENT RESPONSESTO INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
153
TABLE
AEL STUDENT RESPONSES
40
TO INTERVIEW
40
QUESTIONS
,
Student '6
Student 1
Student 2
Student 3
Student 4
Student 5
Ex
Male
Female
Male
Male
Female
' Female
GE
17
17
17
17
17
17
'
,ERIOD WITH SCHOOL
4 months
4 months.
4 months
4 months
,
4 months
4 months
1.
Major Reason
"Wanted to try
"Program is
"Wanted 'out'
"Parents en-
."My brother.
"To get away
for Enrolling
something
more personal-
of the tradi-
rolled me in
and best
from my vice-
different."
ized and in-
tional class-
the program
friend went
principal."
dividualized."
room system.
but I was sick
here and they
Was bored with
of regular
regular
school."
school."
liked it.
Ithought it
might be
exciting,"
10"
Cn
oi*
I.
Prior Thoughts
Drafting
Art
None
Air Force -
None
Psychology
.
About a
,
Career
Occupation
t
.
Journalism
i
or Social
Work
1
3.
Identified
Draftsman
Book
xElectrician
Journalist
Farmer
Psychologist
Preferred
Illustrator
.
Work
.
..
,
4.
Assistance in
(Testing,
Orientation.
Decided on
Open explor-
Placed in a
.
Learfting
Exploration
orientation.
Placed with
"open" explor -' ation (1)sales
Legal Aid
Coordinator
Placed orig-
the Art
ing: (1)motor
division in
program (be-
suggested (1)
inally with
Gallery;(2)ETV
cycle shop;
4a phone co.;
cause Dept. of
working; in
wan architect
art and set
(2) auto
(2) sales with
Agriculture
physical
I-.
and second
placement-was
decoration
(3) AEL
mechanics;
(3)
an insurance,
mortuary
,firm (3) news-was closed;
(2) School
therapy with-
in a local
hme
Cit
with a real
estate broker.
offices,
chemicalcom-
(4) photography paper (4) Air
with ETV.
National Guard
for the Men-
tally FeetAd-
hospital;
(2) Adult
44
3rd-residen-
tial construc-
tion
pang; plastics
division
ed (3) Non7
Graded Elem.
School intern
probation;
(2) School
for the Re-
tarded Child-
ren (4)
Treatment
,Center
(Psychiatric
____
X
SE
BRIOD WITH SCHOOL
.
TABLE
6.A
STUDENT RE.PONSESTO INTE
VIEW QUESTIONS
.Student 5
Female
17
4 months
Student 6
Female
1/
4 months
Student 1
Male
17
4 months
Student 2
Female
17
4 months
Student 3
Male
17
4 months
Student 4
Male
17
4 months
.Were you given
any alter-
natives?
"No, they let
oti makeyour
own decisionsf
"No, they
didn't try to
change my mind:
However her
Kuder indicate.
some preferenc=
in physical
therapy but
this was not
pursued by
student or
coordinator.
Yes
Yes
Yes
"No, her
Kuder -sup-
ported hem
placement.4
.Own final
decision?
Yes
Yes
aYes
Yes
Yes
Yes
.Staff members
who were most
,
helpful.
L.C. most
helpful in
job placements
Counselor also
helpful.
"All are help-
ful"
"All have been
helpful"
The L.C.
The L.C.
-
-.
L.C. is most
helpful.
Change
directions?
No
No
Yes
Yes
No ( "but I felt
pressured into
making a
decision.")
No
.Adequate
opportunity
for explor-
ation?,
Yes
b+
ciii
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
EX
GE
ERIOD WITH SCHOOL
TABLE
.A
STUDENT RESPONSESTO INTERVIEW
QUESTIONS
'Student 5
Student 6
Female
Female
17
17
4' months
4 months
Student 1
Male
17
4 months
Student 2
Female
17
4 months.
Student 3
Male
17
,4 months
.
Student 4
Male
17
4 months
W.
Sufficient
community
resources?
There were som
desired job
sites.not open
Not some
.
companies here
closed their
doors.
No, but suf-
ficient for
my own
exploration.
No
No
Yes
LI.
Career
,Exploration
suitable to
your needs?
.
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No (very littl:Yes
for anyone
exploring
farming)
L2.
Placed 'with-
out prepar-
ation?
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
,
L3.
Minority or
fethale com-
plete range
of choices?
N/A
No, girls are
not permitted
in all areas
of exploration
with the polio:
station.
N/A
N/A
No - see *a
Yes, quite
open:
Given experience
would you return
if possible?
11
1
...k
ca.4
I'd return
I'd return
I'd return
-
I'd return
*a "No,"
-
student left
the program'
the next 'week.,
,
I'd return
AD
SEX
AGE
PERIOD WITH SCHOOL
TABLE
BRBS STUDENTRESPONSES TO I
TERVIEW QUEST'
NS
Student 6
Male
17
Senior
Student 1
Male
17
Senior
Student 2
Female
17
Senior
Student 3
Male
18
Senior
Student 4
Female
17
Senior
Student 5
Female
18
.
Senior
Major Reason
for Enrolling
r
"I was bored
going to
class all the
time.
Iwanted to go
into careers
more.
Iwanted more
freedom.
Iwanted to see
what was
going on."
"I wasn't set
"The careers.
on the type of Their offer-
career I
ing different
wanted and the types of
school was
careers sound
boring and I
ed pretty goo
couldn't learn My counseler
at my own
said go ahead
speed."
and do it."
'
.
"I had been in
a Catholic
school and
transferred to
Penn but I did
.not like it
and this
spogram sound-
ed good - the
individualiza-
tion - and I
liked the idea
of looking at
careers and it
was something
different."
"The only
thing about
this school
was the info.
on a slip of
paper, but I
didn't like
Olney so I
came anyway."
"They offerer
a lot of
different
things you
couldn't get
,
at.,Olney: The
Career
1:xploration,
for example.'
,
Prior Thoughts
Toward a
Career
Wanted to be
an artist
Hadn't thought A trade-type
of the type
career like
of career
carpentry,
plumbing
a few friends
that dropped
out of school
that got in
trades.
"I didn't know
whether I
wanted to go
to college or
not."
"At first I
thought I
wanted to be a
Spanish inter-
preter,"
c
I wanted to
either go ini
the service `s
either into
college.
Ididn't want
to make.up, m3
mind so earll
t.
Identified
.Preferred
Work
0.
/oft
CR =
Cotmercial
Artist
Possibly
None, wanted
medicine
to explore
(brother was
further
a chemist).
None
.
Spanish
,
.Interpreter
non-law
.
..
Art College -
commercial
art. ,_(Have
alreaaY.dOne
sote'commer-
cial art.) i
t
i-a.
CR
00
5EX
5iGE
?ERIOD WITH SCHOOL
TABLE
B.
RBS STUDENT
410
RESPONSES TO I
-
TERVIEW QtESTIO,S
Al
AB
-.
Student 6
Male
17
Senior .
Student I
Male
17
Senior
Student 2
Female
17
Senior
Student 3
Male
18
Senior
Student 4
Female
17
Sfor
,
Student 5
Female
41-8
Senior
.
1.
Assistance in
Exploration
Pwa
Cr:
1...1-
"They (the
advisors)
told us about
the whole
le.ogram."
.
"We were
assigned three
advisors to
help us."
.
"They helped
in originally
palcing us."
9
"My counseler.
Sheereally
helped; we be-
came like
friends.
The
counselor of
last year was
more helpful
than the one
,this year,
they're too
removed."
"My counselei
helped me an
awful lot, he
laid out every
thing and made
everything
available.
The new coun-
selers are hard
to reach."
"My counseler
last yearn,
helped me
get started.'
,
l'"
Cz
C.:
.
,.
Were you given
any alter-
'
natives?
.
.
'
;No, the first
clusters were
decided for
us.
"Yes, 1 picked
the health
clusters."
.
Yes
Yes,
.
. .a
e
Yes, by taking
the dlusters.
.
"Yes, you hac
to take,the
different
clusters."
,
Own final--
decision?
Yes
-1
Yes
No, (took
them as they
came)
.0
Most of them
were except
when they were
filled up. -
When it's
filled you
don't have the
final say.
Yes
'.
Staff members
who were most
helpful
t el
,"Counseler/
Coordinator.
The ones we
had last year
were better
than this
year."
"I liked hav-
Ing the first
counseler.
Now they're
hard to get
.to'and the
guidance program
is not really
npnessarv.
-"I think we
got to know
the counseler
much better.
He's always
available. He
has h
haelpe.
set Up clusters
for our needs
See question
number 4
".
See question
ntimber 4
"Counselers,
because I hae
-a chance to
see my coun-
seler all the
time last
year."
-
SEX
AGE
PERIOD WITH SCHOOL
TABLE
,
BRBS STUDENT
RESPONSES TO INTERVIEW
,v
QUESTICNS
Student 6
o
Male
;7
Senior
Student 1
,
Male
17
Se4or
Student.2
Female
17
.
Senior
Student 3
Male
18
Senior
Student 4
-
Female
17
Senior
Student 5
Female
18
Senior
.
8.
Change-
directions?
itYes.
I first
wanted Spanish
Interpretation
but after
visiting a
law firm and
talking to
friends I
want law."
No
See above
"No, but. I've
thought about
public rela-
tions in
transportation.""Yes. Wanted
commercial art
but Is now
,going into
aeronautical
engineering
with the A.F.
as result of
Exploration."
,
"Yes. I four,
I wasn't
.
interested i
medicine. Nc
it's account
ing."
.Adequate
opportunity
for explor-
ation?
-
1
"No, there are
a lot of
fields that
might be
interesting
but there
won't be time
Yes
.
"
"Yes, but it
could be
better.
Ihaven't had a
,chance to
operate
machines."
-
Yes
"Yes, but I
chose the
goVernment
cluster and
they said I
couldn't have
it::
"Yes, they
set me up
with an arti
through-
specializa-
tion."
,
10.
Sufficient
Comm community
resources?
----
-_,_
b1l'"
LI
ZC
'C Ck
"Yes, African
artist."
-
.
"No. They
have trouble
getting the
program up
with some
agencies."-
-
"For me, I
don't
know.
Most all the
people have
done is stand
and learn how
other people
work."
!
.
"They would
"Yes, I have a
probably be
specialization
available if
program on
I needed them.'legal aid to
women jail
offenders.",
____
-_
,
Yes ,,
,..4
b0
,.
SEX
AGE
'
PERIOD WITH SCHOOL
Student
Male
17
Sehior
TAB1E
41
BRBS STUDS
At
RESPONSES TO
40
INTERVIEW QUESTIhNS40
Student 6
Male
,17
Senior
1Student 2
Female
17
Senior
Student 3
. Male
1,
S6nior
Student 4
Female
,
17 /
Senior
-Student 5
Female
18
Senior
11.
Career
exploration
suitable to
your needs?
.
,
"yes-and No.
You can learn
alot here,
but guidance
and world= at
work is a
duplication
of effort. "
Yes
"Yes, the
construction
cluster is
suitable."
Yes (you have
to do it!)
Yes, you have
to do it.
.
.
Yes
.
12.
Placed with-
out prepar-
ation?
Yes, "If you'
late and the
clusters are
closed and
'you have to
take any-
thing."
e"That
happens, but
:
taking clus-
ters I don't
like may still
show me some-
thing."
"Last year
something
similar
happened.
When I asked
for trades,
they didn't
try to set up
-,any."
"Morning clus-
ters, you see
the same thing,"
a..
.
No
No .
13.
w / ..]
Minority or
female com-
plete range
of choices?
1"Ct ca
..
'----Tind
dependi
the company.
No,
g on
.
"NO. that
hasn't
happefteg to
me.
It
.
.
N/A
.
c
'
"No,
.
but
,
nothing has
happened to me.against
But there has
been no expo-
sure to black
leaders or
.
executives."
"No,
.
I was
discriminated
at
one site."
R.
"No, but mot
discriminatj
than program
discriminati
P.A
ct
01=,
SEX
AGE
PERIOD WITH SCHOOL
.---..r..._.- .
.
..TABLI
BRBS STUDENT
RESPONSES TO INTERVIEW
OUESTICINS-
,
Student 12
Male
15
Sophomore
Student 7
Male
17
Senior
Student 8
Female
15
Sophomore
Student 9
-
Male
16
Junior
Student 10
.
Male
16
Junior
Student 11
-
Female
17
Junior
1.
Major reason
for Enrolling
"I didn't lik
Olney at all,
that was the
main thing.
too many
people over
-there, It
seemed to be
less hassle.
(I enjoy
coming here,
you meet
people.
You
get a sense
of direction),
"They offered
a lot of dif-
ferent things
you couldn't
get at Olney.
The Career
Exploration,
for example."
Come to take
up drafting -
interested in_
getting into
a career.'
.
Looking for a
career
R
You can go at
your own speed
.
"I was in tl
group at
Wganer (IN=
Interested
Negroes) -
We went to
business any
organizatio:
and I wanted
it to con-
tinue."
2.
Prior thoughts.
Toward a
,
Career
No
"Yes, I want
to be
employed."
.
Drafting,or
work like
that (took it
up in high
schools.)
"No, thought
about it."
,
A Doctor,
Orthopedics.
.
"Lawyer, bul
I didn't
know what I
could do to
be that."
3.
Identified
Preferred
Work
td1
.
1 co
t-,
..3
i.
Service (but
that blew
over)
ti
Teacher of
the retarded.
(Used to
babYsit for a
retarded °
child).
. Architect
Same as above
-
Same as above
,
.
Same as abo
C C::
SEX
.-
AGE .
PERIOD WITH SCHOOL
TABLE B
,.
RBS STUDENT RISPONSESTO INTERVIEWQUESTIONS
40
Student 11-
Female
,.
17
Junior
Student 12
Male
..,=.
---1-5
.
Student 7
Male
17
Senior
Student 8
Female
15
Sophomore
Student 9
Male
16
.
Junior
c
-
Student IO,
Male
.
16
Junior
.,-
.
Sophomore.
1.
Assistance ih
Exploration
,
Did not get
any assistance,
the counselor
wasn't help-
ful.
.
They suggested.
a life
skills special-
ization -
doing volun-
teer work on,
Tuesdays'and-
Saturdays
with the
handicapped
and retarded
students.
-
They didn't
help.
Iwanted
drafting, it
was closed,
.
so I had to take
take trans-
portation.
.
Counselors
were helpful.
.
Counselors
helped me a
lot.
.
,.
Counselors
gave me a
hand.
..
.
5.
Were you given
any alter-
natives? ,
.
.
.
"Yes, I was
even given
specializa-
tion in a
-4,
program with
Bell Tele-
phone as an
operator fdr
information
and.traffic."
"Yes, they
provided
especializa-
tion services
and
.
No
Yes, you have
to take,the
clusters
.
Yes .
.
,
.....
.
Yes .
.
Own final
decision?
ta 1
cli
Ct
C.i.t
.1
Yes
,
"NO, getting
into the
government
cluster
wasn't my id
idea."
"Sometimei,I
wanted market-
ing, but they
gave me trans-
portation. H
Yes and No
.
"Depending on
whether you
get the
clusters you
want."
.
Yes
,
C*00
-
SEX
AGE
PERIOD WITH SCHOOL
TABLE
-
BRBS STUDENT
41
RESPONSES TO JETERVIEW
Student 9
Male
16
Junior
OUEETIgNS
Student 10
Male
16
.
Junior
Student 11
Female
.17
Junior
Student 12
Male
15
Sophomore
Student 7
Male
17
Senior
Student 8
Female
15
Sophomore
7.
Staff members
who were most
helpful?
"Now I know
what I'm
doing so I
don't need
the-coun-
selor's help
as much as I
did."
'
"The coun-
selors are
.good.
They
are really
helpful. They
take interest
in us and
they're our
friends."
"The coun-
selors are
all right,
they've really
been helpful.
They've been
friends."
"They'fe o.k."
-
"Helpful, but
the guidance
counseling
class is a
waste of time.'them."
"Yes, the
counselors z
helpful if
you can fin
8.
Change
.
directions?
1-4
...,
4A
See above fl
.
.
"No but I've
tho ght about
public rela-
tions in
transportatior..
"No, I still
want draft-
ing."
"
"I wanted some
marketing and
construction
but now, I likethe
transportatibn.room.
Maybe a driv-
er."
-
"Had wanted to
be a doctor
until I was in
operating
-. It
changed my min
.but I'd still
want to work
in health."
No
1.--L
....1
9.
Adequate
opportunity
for explor-
ation?
Yes
"I don,'t know.
I guess so."
"Not all the
clusters are
available
when you need
them."
Yes
No
,
No,
I
.
10. Sufficient
wcommunity
,-.
resources?
0
Yes
-
Yes
Yes
Yes
_
No
No-
SEA
,AGE
,__
PERIOD WITH scHo9L
TAW,- B RBS STUDENT
ill
RESPONSES TO INTERVIEW
QUDSTIO1S,II
Student
i
12
Male
15
Student 7
Student 8
Male
Female
_
17
15
Senior
Sophomore
Student
Male
16
Junior
Student-.10
Male
16
Junior
Student 11.
Female
17
Junior
Sophomore
-
11, Career
Exploration
suitable to
your needs?
Yes
Yes
,
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
12. Placed with-
out pretlar-
ation?
Yes (One of
No
the clusters)
No
-No
,
Yes
No
13. Minority or
femlae'com-
pieta range
of choices?
1....L
.
,-
-../
1W
t-.
6
\
N/A
.
%
No
.
No
a
a
.
.
a
No
.
0
No
_,
No
/.."
ZP
1
1
(
SEX
AGE
PERIOD WITH SCHOOL
TABLE
BRBS STUDENT
Student 14*
Female
17
Junior/
RESPONSES TO INT1ERVIEW
Student 15
Male
18
Senior
QUESTIONS
Student 13*
Female
16
Junior
5.
Were you given
any alterna-
tives?
t--/ I
-..
.
oPu
..
"Yes, the
clusters."
"Yes.
Whether
you wanted
therror not."
"No.
They
started out
with a lot of
choices and
then pulled
back and
almost nothing
left.
They
built up a lot
of false hopes."
_
6.
Own final
decision?
Yes
Yes
Yes
1
7.
Staff members
who were mast
helpful?
"It's alright
but I hate
the guidance
class."
"It's really
hard to get
anything when
the counselor
is especially
late for the
classes."
"No real
assistance.
Counselors are
worse this
year than last
year."
.
8.
Change
Directions?
w 1
1...
NJ
NO
"No,,
It has
confirmed my
thoughts." .
No
SEX
AGE
PERIOD WITH SCHOOL
TABLE
aoo
PRBS STUDENT R
SPONSES TO INTHRVIEW
QUESTIONS
Student 13*
Female
--.16
Junior
Student 14*
Female
.. _ _ _ _ __
17
Junior
Student 15
Male
18
Senior
1.
Major Reason
for Enrolling
...
.../
CA
"They made it
sound so
nice.. I
liked the
freedom
(Career Ed-
ucation also
appealed to
me)."
"Curiosity
and it sound-
ed interest-
ing."
I
4-1
"Interested in
computer
programming
and wanted to
see what's
available.
Anyway, 1
would probably
have dropped
out of regular
high school."
.
0
2.
Prior thoughts
Toward a
Career
Nurse
Psychologist
Wants to go
into the
Air Force
3.
Identified
Preferred
Work
Same as above
Same as above
,
,-
Computer
Programming
.Assistance in
. Exploration
w I.J
t.,
Counselor'
helped
Couselor was
helpfu
-
friend y.
"No one really
-elped, you
just had to
take the
clusters. 11
.
SEX
AGE
...
PERIOD WITH SCHOOL
TABLE
B "RBS STUDENTRESPONSES TO INTERVIEW_OUESTIOMS
.
.
Student 13
Female
' 16
Junior
Student
z
Female
.-
-- 17
Junior
Student 15
,
Male
18
Senior
9.
Adequate
opportunity
for explor-
ation?
°
Yes
.
Yes
No
10.
Sufficient
community
resources?
Yes
Yes
No
11.
Career
--
Exploration
suitable to
your needs?
t Yes
Yes
.
No
.
..
12.
Placed with-
out prepara-
tion?
No
No
No
13.
w 1-4
0,
Minority or
female com-
plete range
of choices?
.1
No
No
No
Appendix C
MOUNTAIN PLAINS PARTICIPANT-
SELECTION CRITERIA
t I444 444 .4.444, -4 - .44
SELECTION CRITERIA
Criteria Statement
CRITERIA TIED TO INTERNAL OBJECTIVES
1. No persons with mental retarda-
tion will be eligible.
2. No families of which any memberhas a current violent, anti-social or uncontrollable be-havior problem will be accepta-'
ble.
3. Current illegal use of drugs byany family member makes the
'faMily unacceptable.
4. All persons must be part of alegally constituted family, i.e.related`by blood, marriage or
adoption.
5. Families with members who havealcohol problems currentlysevere enough to interrupt work,
marriage, or social functioningwill not be eligible for MP 178participation.
C-1
Indicators and/orMeasurement, Technique
g
1. School records and observation'.
If abnormalities are suspected,other sources of informationinclude:
- Merital 'Health Center
Red Feather AgenciesT Doctors and/or HospitalsNational Assoc. of Retarded
Children- -Family service Agencies
Condition could be verified by:
- DoctorMMPI
- Other responsible agency
evaluation.
'2. Records from school, police,and courts. (See attachment 2a
& 2b.)
3. Police and court records. Inter-
° view with family.
4. Marriage records. Tnterviewwith family ( validation ofcommon law marriage.)
5. See,5a and 5b attached.
4
:..
1
Criteria Statement
6. No husbandS/wive4parents willhave a reading level below 5.0.
7: No husbands/wives/parents willhave a math level below 4.0.
Indicators and/orMeasurement Technique
6. WRAT reading test.
7. WRAT math test.
A score of 80 on GATB GVN isequivalent to 5.0 reading levelon WRAT test..
ATTACHMENTS
2a. The objective of this criterion is to eliminate behavior_ problems whichcannot be handled by Mountain-Plains. Adults with a history of criminal,behavior Of a chronic nature are not acceptable. .Chronic refers to two or
4 more incidents (felonies, misdemeanors, or other similar identifiablebehavior) in the last year or one incident during the past year with otherlike incident(s) in previous year(s). Adults who have not been convicted,but who have exhibitecl,behavior in the past year, such as physical abusetoward anyone or anyialicious destruction of any property are not adcept-able. Insofar as it is possible, persons with character deficiencies.should be screened out. This is a judgment area. Some guidelines foridentifying a character problem are self-centered personality, lack ofability to differentiate between right and wrong, manipulation of peoplefor their own gratification, lying and lack of sincerity. These peopleare usually very verbal and appear quite intelligent., Any person posses-sing three or more of these qualities should be examined more closely bychecking additional collateral resources.
There are children which Mountain-Plains cannot handle. An acting out,disruptive child who is uncontrolled by his/her parents disqualifies thatfamily from participation. For example, children who run away from home,who destroy property, who physically abuse themselves or others, or who
. are chronically traunt disqualify the family.
2b. Information pertaining to this criterion may be gathered from one of thefollowing sources:
Interview with familySchool records of children age 6 and overPolice recordsSheriff recordsJuvenile court recordsAdult court recordsMental Health ClinicHospitals (including Mental)NeighborsRelativesLocal BartendersWelfare DepartmentsFamily Service AgenciesAny other social seyice agencies
5a. Mountain-Plain cannot deal with the drunk or wel aleholic. Recognizingthat few people will admit alcohol problems, it is necessary to watch forsignals. Ther person admitting to being an alcoholic is usually a pretty
411 safe bet because the problem has been recognized and dealt with.
0 C-3, 180
I .IV:1414
*
*45b. Some indicators of a current alcoholic problems are:
Separations of husband and wifeMoney problemsPoor employment recordAutomobile violationsFeloniei or misdemean9rsHealth problems
Some places to gather information op alah
Former employersFamily interview - Family BudgetPolice recordsSheriff's recordsCourt recordsAlcoholism Referral Center,Physician & HospitalNeighbdrsRelatives
Local bartender and other businessmen (in small t6Wns)Motor Vehicle Department'
Alcoholism Rehabilitation CenterWelfare'DepartmentsFamily Service AgencyAny other social service agencies
use are:
(4°
iT
Criteria Statement
SELECTION CRITERIA
Indicators and/orMeasurement Technique
CRITERIA TIED TO PROGRAMLOGISTICS (CAPABILITIES)
No families will be allowed whomutt pay out more titian $70 /monthto cover debts or prior obliga-tions (alimony or child-support.)
No perpons with legal or civilsults pendiiig will be allowedunless acceptance by Mountain-Plains.willfsatisfy the legalobligation !
No cars will be allowed withoutthe minimum In nce coverage'of the state of registration.(AP Regs.)
4
No persons with the followinghealth problems will be allowed:
a. diabetes not controlledor with complications
b. epilepsy with more thanthree seizures per year
c. history of previousmyocardial infractionwith congestivepheartfailure or other compli-cations.
d. Tuberculosis active orpositive X-Ray
e. Cancer - past or activef. , physical or structural
disability that restrictsmobility or required helpfrom others
g. active venereal diseaseh. malignant hypertensionf. vision not capable of
reading newsprint - 16"to 1S" vision (This willnot be 4 screen out ifvision Is correctable.)
4
182C-5
1. Credit records
PreVious marriage recordsCourt recordsInterview with family
2. COurt and polic check.
Verification of insurance in theappropriate amount according tostate Of iegistration.
4. Physical examination MedicalHiatories,(done at Center asindicated.),
.
Those selectees eligible forWelfare 'or DVR should havephy6icals done.
Criteria Statement
hearing loss greater than30%
k. pulmonary disease thatrestricts activities ofdaily living
1. any other physical defector disease which wouldUterfere with .a schoOlingprogram or job 'opportunity -,,,,
after trainingm. unrehabilitated'orthopedic
problems
n. psychiatric problems (as_indicated by personalcontact and/or additionaldata from other agencies)
o. dental problets seriousenough to require fall'month extraction ordental plates
5. All persons must have at leastone funCtional arm and hand.
7.
Any spouse or female head-of-household with a confirmedpregnancy, must sign a Statement'of Intent to pay all expenses(will not be covered by Mountain-Plains insurance).
Applicant will agree (on Partici-°pant Agreement Form) tq partici-pater for a period of about one`mouth (standard schedule) in avariety of programs including:
,
Health.Home ManagementLeisure SkillsEarly ChildhoodFoundation EducationCareer PreparationCoal Setting & Problem SolVing
1
tndicators,and/orMeasurement Technique
5. 'Interview observation
a
6. Statement
7. Applicant indicates understand-ing of,prograMexpeetations and
`signs agreement form.
4
0
-Criteria Statement
ti
44
4-.......44144.44
TridiCatore and /or- Measurethent Technique
Partidipant will' then beassisted in scheduling a pro-gram to satisfy his interestsand needs.
8. No heads-of-households will beallowed under age of 18 or,overage of 50.
.
9. After reaching 200 families.scheduling must provide forsize of fapily/size of housingunit availability
10. Acceptable family.size for 10. Interviewparticipation.
o
8. Birth certificateor' othersuitable reference:
9. Housing availability
Two parent families with up to'6 children.
One parent families with one tofour children.
184C.- I
4
.1
.'41
61,
Criteria Statement
vt144.
Indicators and/orMeasurement Technique
CRITERIA TIED TO EXTERNAL OBJECTIVES
1. Mead-of-Household will not be 1. Interview
eligible to participate atMountain-Plains if he/she: A. Family
B. Previous employer
A. ,Currently possess sale- .
able skills in the area ofhis interest and just wantstechnical upgrading.
B. Desires-skills that are notavailable at Mountain-Plains.
C. Has participated in two ormore other training programs(except training provided bymilitary service) within thelast five years.
185
Ct-E3
ti