inside mining february 2015

A F R I C A N U P D AT E S O N T H E G R O U N D A N D U N D E R G R O U N D

www.miningne.ws

Tony StoneThe future of coal

IN THE SPOTLIGHT

ISSN 1999-8872 • R50.00 (incl. VAT) • Vol. 8 • No. 02 • February 2015

LiterallyUNBREAKABLE

UCGEnergy from down under

SLURRYThe new transport system

MINE IQAutomating the future

JUNIOR MININGFinding the money

Sy Stonefuture

coal

ding the money

INSIDE MINING 02 | 2015 1

CONTENTS

22

8

37

29

February 2015ENDORSED BY

FFebbrruuuaaFFeebbebbrurruaua A F R I C A N U P D AT E S O N T H E G R O U N D A N D U N D E R G R O U N D

EDITOR'S COMMENT

3 New innovations, new thinking

COVER STORY

4 Volvo FMX: Literally unbreakable

AFRICA ROUND-UP

7 News from around the continent

IN THE SPOTLIGHT

8 The future of coal

COMMODITY: COAL

10 Underground coal gasifi cation

JUNIOR MINING

12 Finding the money

COMMINUTION

15 Karowe upgrade

21 Down to a fi ne point

MATERIALS HANDLING

22 Slurry as a new transport system

25 Innovative excavator

MINERALS PROCESSING

27 The popcorn effect

28 Protecting the carcass

29 The facts behind the fi gures

EPCM

32 Business outcomes

33 St Helena island

ELECTRICAL CONTROL & INSTRUMENTATION

34 Optimise your energy ROI

36 Alternatives to load shedding

IT & COMMUNICATIONS

37 Mine automation

MINE SERVICES

40 Keeping you moving, safely

Volvo Trucks put its new FMX mining and construction truck through a particularly tough test programme at the company’s Hällered test facility located deep in the forests of western Sweden – and it came out tops.

ON THE COVER P4

VncttttiSo

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A F R I C A N U P D AT E S O N T H E G R O U N D A N D U N D E R G R O U N D

www.miningne.ws

Tony StoneThe future of coal

IN THE SPOTLIGHT

ISSN 1999-8872 • R50.00 (incl. VAT) • Vol. 8 • No. 02 • February 2015

LiterallyUNBREAKABLE

UCGEnergy from down under

SLURRYThe new transport system

MINE IQAutomating the future

JUNIOR MININGFinding the money

Sy Stonefuture

coal

ding the money

BRAD HOOK [email protected] + 27 (0)11 549 8307 + 27 (0)82 300 9438 www.thebereed.co.za

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New innovations, new thinking

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Editor Tony Stone

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ISSN 1999-8872 Inside Mining

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ONE OF THE ADVANTAGES of being sixty-something is fi nding one-self constantly amazed. Th e ingenuity of humanity, especially the scientists and engineers, in living Moore’s Law, leaves one almost breathless in the race to keep up with technological change. Th is

year’s Mining Indaba was no exception. It shows that there is no ceiling to what we can do and achieve, when knowledge and experience is applied.

For example, South Africa is fast becoming the leader in underground coal gasifi cation (UCG), which is a method of converting unworked coal (still in the ground) into a combustible gas that can be used for industrial heating, power generation or the manufacture of hydrogen, synthetic natural gas or diesel fuel. Simply amazing! What’s more, we have plenty of coal. Th e idea of using a 500 km slurry pipeline to transport coal is a novel idea. It is also a practical one – as we see from neigh-bouring Mozambique. For Eskom, though, and for South Africans who value their environment, it presents a workable and effi cient transport system that does not spew pollution into the atmos-phere or damage road infrastructure. Th is has got to be something to think about.

So too are the proposed changes to South Africa’s mining legislation. Listening to Minister of Mineral Resources Ngoako Ramatlhodi speaking at an interview on the sidelines of the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, his preference to have South Africa’s laws on oil and gas exploration separated from mining legislation does make sense in one way, and does not in another. When ignorant (lacking knowledge and exper-tise), it’s best to listen to those in the know. Oil and gas explorers, including Total SA and Exxon Mobil, oppose any move to change the existing legislation saying that the current proposals are too vague and subject to loose interpretation, which undermines business.

So, do we take President Jacob Zuma’s refusal to sign the proposed changes (to the 2002 Mineral and Petro-leum Resources Development Amendment Bill) on the grounds that it might violate the constitution, and his referring it back to Parliament, as confi rmation that ignorance is bliss? In my books, yes! It con-fi rms without a doubt, that ideology prevails and the uncertainty, which has dogged the industry for the last decade, is set to continue. Investor fl ight, it seems, may have been given the fi nal push.

Ramatlhodi’s attempts to quash negative sentiment says that he would want to stay with the principles agreed upon in the old bill, between the government, the mining industry, the chamber and trade unions. Th is provides very little comfort. In the end, it boils down to the fi ne print. Nonetheless, what is clear, from common sentiment in the mining industry, is that the minister really does not understand the mining industry. Is there serious consultation or simply dictation?

Th is is illustrated by Anglo Platinum, the world’s biggest producer of the metal, selling four mines and possibly two joint ventures in South Africa without it triggering the government’s alarm bells. Ramatlhodi says it is an opportunity to allow “real ownership by indigenous people.” Given that we have already seen a couple of these indigenised opportunities fail spectacularly, with massive job losses and asset stripping, one wonders about the wisdom of knowledge without experience. It’s not that these initiatives should not be pursued. Th ey should and must be pur-sued. It is just that we should be looking at splicing experience rather than cutting it.

Last but not least, because innovation in mining is critical for both the public and private sectors, Th ebe Reed Exhibitions has partnered with 3S Media to bring you the fi rst FutureMine Africa in June 2015. Th is is a must-attend conference and exhibition for any stakeholder who takes the sustainability of mining in Africa seriously.

EDITOR'S COMMENT

To our avid readers, be sure to sign up and get the latest updates and inside scoops from the mining industry. Check out what we are talking about on our website, Facebook page or follow us on Twitter and have your say.

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There is no ceiling to what we can do and achieve,

when knowledge and experience

is applied

INSIDE MINING 02 | 20154

COVER STORY

FIFTY YEARS AGO, the words “drive it like you hate it” were made famous by a Volvo advertis-ing campaign. Today, the compa-

ny’s challenge is as relevant as it was then. Why? Before Volvo Trucks releases a new truck onto the market, it is put through a battery of really tough tests. With the new FMX, these tests were taken a step further.

Testing of components, systems and the complete vehicles takes place according to a standardised programme. Initially, the tests are conducted virtually, followed by a variety of laboratory tests. Once the new truck has come so far in its devel-opment that a complete, driveable pro-totype is available, it is time to subject it to tough physical tests at the Hällered proving ground. It is here that the FMX was put through its paces 24 hours a day for six months and subjected to some of the most rigorous testing a truck has ever undergone.

A number of test drivers run the trucks in shifts, putting the vehicles through about 10 highly demanding tests, time

like you hate itVolvo Trucks put its

new FMX mining and construction truck

through a particularly tough test programme

at the company’s Hällered test facility located deep in the

forests of western Sweden – and it came

out tops.

after time, throughout the entire test pe-riod, the aim of which is to assess how the truck is aff ected by the total wear and tear that accumulates throughout the vehicle’s expected lifetime.

Th e reliability tests have a diff erent pur-pose. Here the vehicles are driven without stop for 16 weeks, following a test regime that corresponds to a full year’s operation under normal conditions.

Divided into fi ve main categories, namely quality, safety, environment, fuel economy and transport effi ciency, Volvo assesses 32 diff erent properties of the truck. Each of the properties has a diff erent specialist whose job it is to measure and evaluate the results from every single test. If any prop-erty fails, Volvo’s engineers have to quickly come up with a solution that is then evalu-ated in new tests, in a ‘loop process’.

A mining and construction truck is driv-en in a diff erent way to other trucks and is subjected to entirely diff erent stresses than a long-haul truck, which spends most of its life cruising on smooth asphalt. Th at is why the FMX went through an extended

Drive it

test programme, in which it was subject-ed to particularly large amounts of dust, gravel, sticky mud and water, as well as plenty of driving while hauling a full load – 26 tonnes of crushed rock.

Th is was done on the special construc-tion test track at Hällered, to impose max-imum stresses on the truck’s frame and suspension system, as well as the engine and power take-off .

So, how did it do?Some of the important tests that the Volvo FMX went through at the Hällered proving ground included:• Hill-climbing: Th e truck is driven fully

loaded both up and down hills of diff erent gradients. Th e engine and transmission are subjected to extremely high stresses through repeated uphill starts hauling a full load.

• Washboard: Th is is a section of the test track where the truck is subjected to ver-tical shaking at diff erent frequencies. Th is test assesses durability, build quality and in-cab noise levels, among other things.


COVER STORY

Th e test is carried out with the truck both empty and hauling a full load.

• Belgian pavé: Th is section of road rep-licates an uneven, stone-fl agged country highway and subjects the vehicle to con-tinuous shaking at diff erent frequencies, both vertical and lateral. Immense stress is placed on the springs, suspension, steering, wheel bearings and cab sus-pension. Th is test is carried out with the truck empty and hauling a full load.

• Hollow: Th e truck is driven at high speed through a deep dip in the road. Th is puts considerable shock load on components such as the springs, suspension, steering, wheel bearings and cab suspension. Th e test is also carried out with the truck both empty and fully laden.

• Water and mud dip: Th e truck is driv-en through a deep trough fi lled with a

ABOVE The new Volvo FMX truck is built for the toughest working conditions on Earth

RIGHT Regular checking of tyres can reduce CO

2 emissions

mixture of salt water and fi ne-grain clay. Th is blend is very precisely specifi ed by Volvo. Th e test subjects the undercarriage and wiring to considerable dirt exposure, water spatter and corrosion.

• Construction track: Th e 750-metre-long, exceptionally hilly test track is fi lled with large bumps and potholes to resemble a typical construction site. With a full load, it subjects the frame, suspension and all the joints to considerable stresses.

Based on a tried and tested design, the FMX surpassed Volvo’s own expectations. Th e test drivers were particularly apprecia-tive of the comfort and driveability on poor surfaces, not least the new software pack-age for the I-Shift transmission.

Th e new Volvo FMX truck is built for the toughest working conditions on Earth. It’ll be interesting to see how the Volvo FMX is received on the market. No doubt it will be well received.

A RECENT STUDY by truck-maker Volvo and tyre manufacturer Michelin found that having the correct tyres, tyre pressure and wheel alignment can reduce truck fuel consumption by up to 14.5%.

The two-week-long, 1 000 km-test conducted at Hällered featured two Volvo FH 4x2 trucks, each equipped with a 500 hp 13-litre Euro 5 engine. Each hauled a fully loaded van-bodied trailer and weighed 40 tonnes gross. One rig was driven with a range of incorrect wheel alignment settings, a variety of tyres and different tyre pressures; the other was driven with optimal tyres, tyre pressures and wheel alignment.

The trucks were equipped with special instruments that monitored exact speed, tyre wear and pressure, and rolling resistance. The test engineers made adjustments in the test results for factors such as wind, rain and temperature.

An independent representative from SP (the Technical Research Institute of Sweden) was on location to

ensure that the tests strictly adhered to

scientifi c protocol. Analysis of the test

results revealed that there can be a

difference of as much as 14.5% in fuel

consumption depending on how the

wheels are aligned and equipped. Tyre

choice can cut consumption by as much

as 11%; correct tyre infl ation brings a

reduction of 1%, while proper wheel

alignment can cut fuel consumption

by 2.5%.

We must try to do everything we

can to reduce CO2 emissions. It’s not

enough to just build fuel-effi cient

engines. We know that wheel

alignment tyre type and pressure

all have a major impact on fuel

consumption. Unfortunately, there is

a lack of awareness in the transport

industry about the importance of

checking tyres and wheel alignment,

on both the truck and the trailer.

Volvo dealers can assist haulage

companies to check the entire rig and

correct any problems. If everyone did

this, it would have a signifi cant impact

on CO2 emissions.

TRUCKS, TYRES & CO2

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AFRICA ROUND-UP

MINING NEWS from around the world

ZAMBIANew tax law for

Zambia A new mining tax regime, aimed at increasing royalty taxes, has been imple-mented by the Zambian gov-ernment as of January 2015. Th e new regime has seen an increase in mineral royalty taxes from 6% to 8% for un-derground mines, and up to 20% for open-pit mines.

Th e Mines and Minerals Act of 2014 was introduced by acting president Guy Scott during his brief tenure, and supersedes the Mines and Minerals Act of 2008. Th e new legislation has sparked debate in Africa’s second largest copper producer, with min-ing fi rms threatening to cut down on operations, while the government insists it will not cave to pressure from mining fi rms. While the government asserts that the new law is a win-win for both parties, the Zambian Chamber of Mines counters that the looming implementation of the 2015 budget would make a number of operations economically impractical, and likely to lead to further mine closures.

ZIMBABWEChamber of

Mines predicts mining slump Th e Zimbabwean Chamber of Mines has an-nounced that the country’s mining industry will decline

due to high costs, lack of cap-ital and falling metal prices. Th e organisation said in a report that the possibility that the industry might contract by 2% was exceedingly high.

“Th e sector continues to operate below capacity amid a host of challenges, not restricted to, but including, depressed metal prices, lower capital and FDI (foreign direct investment) infl ows, high cost structures, sub-optimal royal-ties and shortages of power,” it said. Commodity prices are almost at a 12-year low, with gold down 25% since the start of 2013 and platinum declin-ing 8.2%.

Zimbabwe has deposits of gold, coal and iron ore, although extraction of gold has been diffi cult. Mining is the biggest source of foreign exchange for Zimbabwe, with platinum group metals and gold leading tobacco as the na-tion’s largest exports. Zimba-bwe’s economy is projected to grow 3.2% this year, according

to the International Monetary Fund, from an estimated 3.1% last year. Th e government ig-nored the Chamber of Mines’ request to allow royalties to be classifi ed as a tax expense, the report said. Th is raised the cost of royalties by between 4% and 7%, depending on the mineral, it said.

MOZAM-BIQUE

Costly railway disrup-tions Railway traffi c on Mo-zambique’s Sena line in the Moatize basin was disrupted in January as a result of tor-rential rains. Th is led to the line being cut in three places when fl ash fl oods swept away ballast and damaged aqueducts and culverts, and subsequently undermined the track bed. Th e four-day inter-ruption in rail traffi c delayed the transport of between 74 000 tonnes and 84 000 tonnes of coal. Th e Sena line runs for 575 km to the major export port city of Beira, and currently an average of 25 trains run on it every day, with up to eight trains carry-ing between 18 500 tonnes and 21 000 tonnes of coal daily. In the past, harsh rains had stopped traffi c on the line for extended periods; on this occasion, the damage was caused by the torrential rains that started in early January. A consortium of Portuguese companies is currently con-ducting a €163 million project to upgrade the Sena line and expand its annual capacity from 6.5 million tonnes to 20 million tonnes.

Brazilian mining major Vale, currently the main coal producer in Tete, is creating an alternative rail route from Moatize, through Malawi, to Mozambique’s Port of Nacala.

NAMIBIANamibia’s devel-

opment plan launchedNamibia is set to start tap-ping markets and investors to fi nance a fi ve-year, N$23 bil-lion development plan, as the

country aims to become a re-gional transport hub. Th e Na-mibian government has said it will fi nance N$73 billion of the budget and use a variety of methods to raise the rest of the money for port, railway, road and airport upgrades.

“Th e best way to address these funding needs is to pursue various alternatives including public-private partnerships and listed in-frastructure funds, among others,” Emma Haiyambo, a spokeswoman for the Bank of Namibia in Windhoek, told reporters.

“Our expectation is that there will be domestic in-vestment appetite,” she said. “Local and international in-vestors have confi dence in the Namibian economy, its regula-tory landscape and the general macroeconomic outlook.”

Given this development, Namibia’s economy will then grow by 5.6% in 2015, up from 5.3% in 2014, stimu-lated by construction, retail trade, diamond mining and manufacturing, the central bank said. Namibia is the world’s fi fth largest producer of uranium and the biggest source of off shore diamonds, most of which are mined by Namdeb Diamond Corp, a joint venture between the government and Anglo Amer-ican’s De Beers unit.

in associa on with

Zambia president Edgar Lungu

The President of the Zimbabwe Chamber of Mines, Mr Winston Chitando

Emma Haiyambo


IN THE SPOTLIGHT

IS NUCLEAR ENERGY a threat to coal in South Africa? With the Rus-sians prepared to fast-track South Africa’s nuclear power station build

programme with a R580 billion loan, are we wasting our time building the Medu-pi and Kusile power stations? At a cost of R170 billion a piece – R340 billion in total – Medupi and Kusile, once fully complet-ed, will consist of six units each, with each of the twelve units rated at approximate-ly 800 MW of installed capacity per unit; giving a total of 9 600 MW or 4 800 MW per power station. Elsewhere in the world, large coal power stations can be built in about four to fi ve years. In South Africa, it takes up to 10 years.

The future of coal

Th e typical construction cost of a Gen-eration III nuclear reactor, between 1 400 MW and 1 800 MW, in OECD coun-tries is somewhere between R58 billion and R70 billion. Nuclear power plants, which are complex construction projects, take between fi ve and seven years to build (not including the time required for planning and licensing). To equal Medupi and Kusile, six nuclear power stations of 1 600 MW each would need to be built, at a total cost of between R348 billion and R420 billion.

In the fi nal analysis, it’s much of a muchness, with both coal-fi red and nu-clear power stations having advantages and disadvantages. Given that Medupi

TABLE 1 Top 10 coal producers (2013)

China 3 561 Mt

USA 904 Mt

India 613 Mt

Indonesia 489 Mt

Australia 459 Mt

Russia 347 Mt

South Africa 256 Mt

Germany 191 Mt

Poland 143 Mt

Kazakhstan 120 Mt

With Eskom’s maintenance problems and electricity generation shortfall, South Africa’s President Zuma announced last year that the country would expand its nuclear energy capability. If so, what is coal’s future? BY TONY STONE

and Kusile should be completed and in commercial operation by 2018, should we be looking at a fl eet of nuclear power stations? In 2011, roughly 50% of all new coal-fi red power plants used HELE tech-nologies, predominantly supercritical and ultra-supercritical coal combustion units. What does this mean? A 1% improvement in the effi ciency of a conventional pul-verised coal combustion plant results in a 2% to 3% reduction in CO2 emissions. Highly effi cient modern supercritical and ultra-supercritical coal plants emit almost 40% less CO2 than sub-critical plants.


IN THE SPOTLIGHT

The future of coalAccording to Eskom, about 77% of South Africa’s current primary energy needs are provided by its coal-fi red power stations and this is unlikely to change signifi cant-ly, as an energy source, in the next dec-ade. Th e country’s coal reserves are esti-mated at 53 billion tonnes and, with our present production rate, there should be almost 200 years of coal supply left. Ac-cording to the German Federal Institute

for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), there are 1 052 billion tonnes of coal reserves left in the world, equivalent to 134.5 years of global coal output in 2013. Coal reserves report-ed by the World Energy Council (WEC) are much lower at 892 billion tonnes, equivalent to 113 years of coal output.

By anybody’s arithmetic, there is a slight discrepancy in the coal supply data. Who is wrong? Either way it does not matter, for this genera-tion or the next. What does matter, in South Africa, is coal has a future for at least another 20 to 30 years – be-fore nuclear or some other energy source totally replaces coal or the ‘greenies’ win the day with their 2050 phase-out tar-get. Th en obviously, we assume, oil will be replaced by some other energy source too, by then. But, until then, and when-ever all of this does happen, we are still in business.

Coal to fuelAnd, very importantly, South Africa has been producing coal-derived fuels since 1955. Not only are coal-to-fuel (CTL) fu-els used in cars and other vehicles, but South African energy company Sasol’s CTL fuels also have approval to be used in commercial jets. Currently around 30% of the country’s gasoline and diesel needs are produced from indigenous coal.

TABLE 3 Coal in electricity generation (2012)

Mongolia 95%

South Africa 93%

Poland 83%

China 81%

India 71%

Australia 69%

Israel 61%

Indonesia 48%

Germany 44%

USA 38%

UK 39%

Japan 21%

TABLE 2 Top 10 steam coal producers (2013)

China 3 034 Mt

USA 756 Mt

India 526 Mt

Indonesia 486 Mt

South Africa 255 Mt

Australia 239 Mt

Russia 201 Mt

Kazakhstan 103 Mt

Colombia 81 Mt

Poland 65 Mt

TABLE 4 Top coal exporters (2013)

Total of which Steam Coking

Indonesia 426 Mt 423 Mt 3 Mt

Australia 336 Mt 182 Mt 154 Mt

Russia 141 Mt 118 Mt 22 Mt

USA 107 Mt 47 Mt 60 Mt

Columbia 74 Mt 73 Mt 1 Mt

South Africa 72 Mt 72 Mt 0 Mt

Canada 37 Mt 4 Mt 33 Mt

TABLE 5 Top coal importers (2013)

Total of which Steam Coking

China 327 Mt 250 Mt 77 Mt

Japan 196 Mt 142 Mt 54 Mt

India 180 Mt 142 Mt 38 Mt

South Korea 126 Mt 95 Mt 31 Mt

Chinese Taipei 68 Mt 61 Mt 7 Mt

Germany 51 Mt 43 Mt 8 Mt

UK 50 Mt 44 Mt 6 Mt

OPPOSITE Coal sorting and stockpiling

FIGURE 1 Coal prices (Europe), $/tonne

Th e total capacity of the South African CTL operations now stands in excess of 160 000 bbl/d.

Underground coal gasificationSasol and Eskom both have recently devel-oped underground coal gasifi cation (UCG) pilot facilities, which is a method of con-verting unworked coal, still in the ground, into a combustible gas that can be used for industrial heating, power generation or the manufacture of hydrogen, synthetic natural gas or diesel fuel. So, who knows?

A last thoughtWhat is quite interesting is the interna-tional support for the construction of modern, highly effi cient coal-fi red pow-er plants in South Africa, which demon-strates the importance of coal in meeting the demand for reliable base-load electric-ity to help deliver economic development, and eradicate poverty, in South Africa.


COMMODITY: COAL

THE UCG PROCESS developed, refi ned and practiced by Ergo Exergy of Canada – called the Exergy UCG technology – has

been licensed by Eskom and Sasol for ap-plication in South Africa. It diff ers from generic UCG in that it is higher in ener-gy effi ciency with lower emissions into the environment.

“We are excited about UCG as a tech-nology for Sasol and specifi cally in the South African environment. UCG has the potential to utilise coal that is not min-able through conventional mining tech-nologies,” said Henri Loubser, managing director, Sasol New Energy.

During the UCG process, much as in conventional gasifi cation methods, an ox-idant reacts with coal of the underground coal seams, and part of the released sen-sible heat is used in coal drying, pyrolysis and the endothermic reactions that re-duce the combustion products. Th e result-ing mixture is UCG gas. Th e gas composi-tion depends on the coal geology as well as the process parameters. It can be pro-duced using a variety of oxidants, includ-ing air and oxygen-rich gaseous blends.

Process parameters – such as operating pressure, outlet temperature and fl ow

Underground coal gasification (UCG) is

a gasification process applied to non-mined

coal seams, using injection and production

wells drilled from the surface, which enables

the coal to be converted in situ into product gas.

BY DR MICHAEL BLINDERMAN

Underground coal gasification

– are governed by coal and rock properties that vary with time and location. Infor-mation on the process conditions must be constantly monitored and updated as the underground gasifi er develops. Process parameters need to be adjusted accord-ingly to accommodate the ever-varying conditions of gasifi cation.

Th e UCG technology uses a variety of modern drilling methods, including high-precision directional holes, as well as conventional vertical and inclined (or angled) holes. In its arsenal are various methods of well-linking, the capability to inject diff erent oxidants (air, enriched air, O2/H2O, CO2/O2 and so on), and a great variety of designs of underground gas-ifi ers. It can be applied to coal in a wide range of geological conditions, with the following preferred parameters:• coal seam thickness from 0.5 m to 30 m• dip from 0 degrees to 70 degrees• depth from 30 m to 800 m• calorifi c value (LHV) from 8.0 MJ/kg to

30.0 MJ/kg (which includes low-quality lignite and bituminous coal).

Unmined and unmineable coal deposits, with such obstacles to mining as high fault frequency, volcanic intrusions and other complex depositional and tectonic

features, have been often found a part of the UCG resource base. In every geological setting, a specifi c UCG design will be tai-lor-made to fi t the unique conditions of a target coal seam.

Normally, UCG is applied to relatively deep coal in water-saturated conditions, although it is also possible to gasify un-saturated coal seams that lie above the water table.

UCG is an industrial technology that operates large-scale gas production fa-cilities consisting of multiple modules or gasifi ers.

Th e specifi c benefi ts of operating a large UCG underground gasifi er include the following:• A practically unlimited supply of coal will

be available for gasifi cation; no external coal and water supply are required to sustain the reaction

• Th e UCG process creates an immense underground gas and heat storage ca-pacity, making the gas supply very stable and robust

• An underground gasifi er comprises a number of underground reactors with largely independent outputs. Th e gas

Sasol gas pipeline in Temane, Mozambique

• In chemical manufacturing processes such as Fischer-Tropsch syntheses and the production of synthetic methane or fertilisers, CO2 removal is a routine unit operation. Permanent storage of CO2 in the UCG-created permeable zones and the other sinks will signifi cantly reduce greenhouse emissions of the overall process, from the initial coal conversion right through to the end product.

Th e UCG process is designed and tested to prevent or minimise the other, more traditional environmental impacts on air, soil and water (including surface streams and groundwater). Th e process is conduct-ed in such a way that gasifi cation pressure in the gasifi er is always slightly less than the hydrostatic pressure of fl uid in the coal seam and surrounding strata. Th is creates a pressure gradient directed to-wards the gasifi er.

As a result, no fl ow from the gasifi er into the surroundings is allowed, thereby pre-venting both the loss of valuable product and contamination of the underground environment. Th e thorough characteri-sation of existing aquifers in the vicinity of the underground gasifi er and careful monitoring of the hydrostatic pressure in the aquifers during operations, form an integral part of the UCG groundwater protection strategy.

Th e UCG is an environmentally friend-ly and energy-effi cient technology for producing competitively priced gaseous fuel for power generation and chemi-cal processing.

streams from diff erent reactors can be mixed as required, to ensure consisten-cy of overall gas quality. Th e outputs of reactors can also be varied, in order to optimise coal extraction and overall gas output from the gasifi er

• No ash or slag removal or handling is necessary, since inert material predom-inantly remains in the underground cavities

• Groundwater infl ux into the gasifi er cre-ates an eff ective ‘steam jacket’ around the reactor, making the heat loss in situ tolerably small

• Optimal pressure in the underground gasifi er promotes groundwater fl ow into the cavity, thus confi ning the chemical process to the boundaries of the gasifi er and preventing contamination of the un-derground environment.

Multiple gasifi ers may be required to sup-ply fuel to an industrial consumer; the exact number will depend on the size of the fuel supply required and the precise geology of the coal deposit targeted.

Th e UCG process is not only a method of coal conversion; it is a method of extract-ing coal from the underground beds – for all intents and purposes, a mining tech-nique. Th ere are many similarities between UCG and underground mining: for example, UCG is con-cerned with typical mining issues such as coal extraction effi ciency, roof stability and groundwater infl ux. As a coal recovery method, UCG supplements traditional min-ing, often utilising coal seams that are impossible or uneconomical to mine using conventional meth-ods. Th ere are UCG equivalents of conventional underground min-ing methods including long-wall, short-wall, and board-and-pillar methods. A successful UCG oper-ation factors in roof collapse and overburden deformation as neces-sary technology attributes.

Th e UCG is a fossil-fuel technol-ogy and, as such, must address


COMMODITY: COAL

concerns over global warming. It does so in the following ways:• Th e raw UCG gas contains CO2 in concen-

trations that vary depending on process conditions and the choice of oxidant. Th e gas is produced under pressure and at a moderate temperature, and easily lends itself to CO2 removal by a range of standard methods, with low energy pen-alties and at a relatively low cost

• So captured and removed, CO2 can be permanently stored (or sequestered) in the underground storage zones created by coal extraction in the UCG opera-tions. Th e energy penalty and relative cost of CO2 re-compression and seques-tering are comparatively low. Along with that, CO2 can be injected into deep saline aquifers and deeper coal seams as well as used for enhanced recovery of oil, natu-ral gas and CBM

• As in conventional IGCC, UCG gas can be used to generate electricity with a power island effi ciency as high as 55%, and with the overall effi ciency of the UCG-IGCC process reaching 43%. Th ese effi ciencies translate into very low rates of greenhouse emissions per unit of net power generated

“UCG is an environmentally friendly and energy-effi cient technology.” Michael Blinderman, managing

director, Ergo Exergy Technologies

FIGURE 1 Schematic of the UCG process


JUNIOR MINING

MAKING LIGHT OF what is a frustrating problem, junior miners joke about making a small fortune, by starting

with a big one. Mirth aside, their biggest problem is fi nding the money to fund their projects. Perhaps, though, the problem is actually with the junior miners. Applica-tions for fi nance do not contain enough of the ‘business case’ needed by investors and fi nanciers. Junior mining companies, usually headed by technically competent people – geologists, metallurgists and/

For many years, government and business have spoken about the need to develop SMEs as the means of creating jobs. This is exactly what junior miners do, but finding the finance and beating the challenges can be inhibiting.BY TONY STONE

Finding the

or engineers – tend to focus on the ‘prod-uct’, the mineral, and getting it out of the ground, processing it and transporting it to market.

Mining is not just about the mineral product. It’s also about running a mine as profi tably as possible and, given the mon-ey involved, a mine needs to be sustained, productively over time to yield the desired return on the investment. Part of the busi-ness case is that mines exist within econo-mies and political environments, especially in Africa, and this needs to be taken into

account. What fi nanciers, professional investors and banks look for in African projects is viability and easy entry; secu-rity of tenure, investments and returns; and trained and disciplined labour. Sadly, South Africa falls short in four out of fi ve of these aspects.

For example, as far as viability and easy entry is concerned, in Botswana, a jun-ior miner can, generally speaking, obtain a water-use license within three to four months. In South Africa, it can take up to three years, as was the case with the


JUNIOR MINING

Kangala Coal Mine, and is the case with a number of other applicants on the books at the moment.

Bureaucratic incompe-tence, or delays brought on by the need to avoid corruption, prevents jobs being created. Th en there is a niggling question that comes to mind. Is it in fact bureaucratic incom-petence or part of a delib-erate, idealistic socialist agenda? Given that, at the moment, there is no real capping in terms of the state’s interest in the mining industry. Nation-alisation remains a big concern for investors as does the frequent changes to South African mining law that has led to many in the investment com-munity becoming increas-ingly concerned. Because of this, many investors are looking elsewhere, at Africa, despite South Africa being the most richly endowed country

on the continent – with $3.5 trillion in mineral reserves.

Th en there is, to some degree, political manoeuvring for self-enrichment, often in the guise of Black Economic Empower-ment (BEE). Currently, in terms of the BEE Act of 2003 with its 2013 Amendments, black ownership of any mine (company) must be 26%. While this is law at the mo-ment, and a mine is BEE compliant, if, af-ter fi ve years or even less, the BEE share-holder sells his or her 26% to a non-BEE buyer then the mine’s BEE compliance is suddenly gone, through no fault of its own. Th is is a problem.

Furthermore we have African national-ists pushing for dominance with a mini-mum 51% BEE shareholding. If the South African government takes 20% and the in-vestor who has, or is to, put all the money

in gets 29%, it’s no longer a good deal for the investor.

Roger Baxter, the chief economist at the South African Chamber of Mines, de-scribes 2015 as a year of obstacles, chal-lenges and opportunities. He said it would be a challenging year for mines, especially on the growth side. If South Africa is to at-tract investment in the mining sector, the prevailing uncertainty in the sector must be quashed. With commodity prices in the doldrums, mining companies will need to dig deep to fi nd ways to be profi table, oth-erwise jobs will be lost.

How South Africa is ranked aff ects cost and availability of capital and borrower funding. Shabbir Norath, head of corporate fi nance at Nedbank Capital, says, “Th ere is defi nitely a lot of money available to invest on the continent, both from an equity as well as a debt perspective.” Th is is good for Africa but not so good for South Africa, given its ranking, and given the mining sector being ‘up in the air’ and struggling with profi tability.

Investors look at a mine’s capital asset pricing model, which describes the rela-tionship between risk and expected return, which needs to be attractive. Th is means, the higher the risk, the higher the reward; so as to increase the hurdle rate, the mini-mum acceptable rate of return on a project. But the higher hurdle does not help if a

TABLE 1 2014 Behre Dolbear’s ranking of countries

Rank Country 2014 rating

2013 rating

Difference

1 Canada 61.6 54.3 7.3

2 Australia 60.3 56.3 4.0

3 United States 54.6 41.7 12.9

4 Chile 54.1 51.0 3.1

5 Mexico 46.0 43.1 2.9

6 Brazil 42.6 45.6 -3.0

7 Peru 42.3 35.9 6.4

8 Botswana 41.6 36.8 4.8

9 Namibia 38.6 33.6 5.0

10 Ghana 38.2 36.0 2.2

11 Columbia 37.7 40.5 -2.8

12 Zambia 35.0 26.1 8.9

13 Tanzania 34.2 31.9 2.3

14 South Africa 33.9 24.4 9.5

15 Philippines 32.9 30.4 2.5

16 China 29.7 28.7 1.0

17 India 28.5 27.8 0.7

18 Indonesia 28.1 27.8 0.7

19 Kazakhstan 28.1 20.9 7.2

20 Argentina 24.8 29.0 -4.2

21 Papua New Guinea

23.1 21.0 2.1

22 Mozambique 22.9 32.0 -9.1

23 Mongolia 21.5 26.9 -5.4

24 Russia 20.1 17.1 3.0

25 DRC 18.7 17.7 1.0

“Even if investors wanted to mine, there are real regulatory delays.” Roger Baxter, chief economist,

South African Chamber of Mines

RISK MITIGATIONTHE MULTILATERAL INVESTMENT GUARANTEE AGENCY (MIGA) is a member of the World Bank Group. MIGA’s principal role is to provide investment insurance for projects in developing countries. Increasingly, MIGA has taken on the role of co-sponsoring country and regional investment promotion seminars and workshops designed to stimulate direct foreign investment. The agency has developed a useful database of investment projects in Africa and other developing regions, and many of these projects involve manufacturing or processing unfi nished products.


JUNIOR MINING

project is abandoned or confi scated, which is why many projects are most often not pursued. Th is fact is borne out by the reality that, in 2012/13, Canada and Australia, had 13 000 and 15 000 exploration projects re-spectively. In the same period, South Africa had less than a dozen. And, in South Africa, 95% of exploration pro-jects do not make it to production.

While South Africa does have huge possibilities, and is ranked as world’s top mining opportunity, it is cur-rently ranked 67 in viability/new business opportunities, down from 34. Th is is a problem. Th ere are far more attractive options available to investors elsewhere in Africa. Just 361.5 km along the R509 and N4 from Gauging, is Botswana, with a massive untapped copper ore body, and a massive coal deposit. And, add-ing to the allure, the US Geological Survey has identifi ed big aquifers be-neath the surface in Botswana. With water available, Botswana, with its stable and investor-friendly govern-ment, starts to look very attractive.

Where not to investSince 1999, Behre Dolbear has com-piled annual political risk assess-ments in the global mining industry. Over time, their assessments indicate a positive correlation between the growth of a nation’s wealth and the pros-perity of its mining industry. Only when a country recognises its critical need to adapt and restructure burdensome policy, will it truly optimise this economic potential.

Th e 25 countries considered in this year’s survey, as in the past, are ranked based on seven criteria:• the country’s economic system• the country’s political system• the degree of social issues aff ecting min-

ing in the country• delays in receiving permits due to bu-

reaucratic and other issues• the degree of corruption prevalent in

the country

• the stability of the country’s currency• the competitiveness of the country’s

tax policy.Each criterion is rated on a qualitative scale from one (worst) to ten (best) that re-fl ects conditions that promote investment growth in the mining sector. Accordingly, the maximum score attainable for a coun-try is 70 points

Th e higher-ranking countries are those with well-established democratic systems that possess tested mining legislation that protects against governmental or other ar-bitrary takings of property. Canada, Chile, and previously the United States, lead in this category.

What to do?Unfortunately, the mining industry cannot go it alone. Th ey need government, as their partners, to assist in improving South Afri-ca’s investment rating. To achieve this:• improve policy • conduct geological surveys• compare minerals database against US

Geological Survey• improve investment attractiveness• ensure stability• improve infrastructure• provide investment guarantees.If this is not achieved, and soon, it is quite clear, having attended the numerous min-ing conferences throughout the past year, that South Africa’s mining industry faces a daunting future, which, if not resolved, may see the collapse of the junior mining industry; not to forget the impact on the big mining houses, and the exit of inves-tors, despite President Jacob Zuma’s re-cent assurances that South Africa’s mining industry was “settling down”, comments he made while at Davos during Janu-ary 2015.

“We provide our Africa mining clients with sustainable advisory solutions.” Shabbir Norath,

head of corporate fi nance, Nedbank Capital

BOTSWANA is the largest diamond miner in the world. The country also has well-known coal reserves, and coal production is likely to become of increasing value to the country. The country is estimated to have more than 200 billion tonnes of coal reserves and the development of the coal sector has become a key priority.

GHANA is the second largest gold producer on the continent, after South Africa. Gold is the most important mining sector. The mining landscape is dominated by foreign-owned fi rms. Production growth over the long term is very favourable. Companies including Perseus Mining and Endeavour Mining Corporation invested $20 billion in Ghanaian gold mines during 2011/12.

MOZAMBIQUE The mining sector’s contribution to overall economic activity is expected to increase signifi cantly over the medium to long term on the back of a sharp projected increase in global coal production. According to the IMF, megaprojects have the potential to make a contribution of 18% of total value added in the economy by 2016. Coal production could reach beyond 100 million tonnes per annum within the next fi ve years.

NAMIBIA is the fourth largest exporter of non-fuel minerals in Africa. Mineral exports constitute half of the country’s total export earnings, with the country

producing diamonds, uranium, copper, magnesium, zinc, silver, gold, lead, semi-precious stones and industrial minerals. The mining sector is expected to post a real expansion of 12.5% per annum towards 2017.

TANZANIA The mining industry remains relatively small but is exceedingly important as a signifi cant source of export revenues. The sector contributed approximately 3.2% to GDP in 2012. It is estimated that about 90% of Tanzania’s minerals have yet to be exploited. The construction of a nickel mine is set to start in 2014 and large-scale uranium mining is likely to commence over the coming year.

ZAMBIA has a wide spectrum of mineral resources including copper, cobalt, zinc, gold, manganese, nickel and gemstones. The country remains dependant on the extraction and processing of copper and cobalt for export; these minerals account for approximately 10% of GDP and around 80% of export receipts. The sector is expected to expand by 2% to 4% per annum over the next fi ve years.

Other countries of interest include Angola, Cameroon, DRC, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Rwanda and Sierra Leone. Interestingly, South Africa does not get a mention.

Source: KPMG

POTENTIAL AFRICAN MINING DESTINATIONS

COMMINUTION


THIS SYNOPSIS looks at the current performance of the AG mill, and reports on the assess-ment of the impact of treating

harder kimberlites in the near future. The introduction of a Turbo-Pulp Lifter (TPL) system is anticipated to improve upon the difficulties experienced in the original mill grate/pan lifter operation, and reports upon the estimated impact of increased throughput and hard kim-berlite reflected in the newly proposed and modified flow-sheet.

Where it all beganKarowe mine developed from Lucara Di-amond Corp’s AK6 project and is 100% owned by Lucara’s subsidiary, Boteti Mining. The Karowe mine is located in north-central Botswana and is part of the Orapa/Letlhakane kimberlite dis-trict, one of the world’s most prolific di-amond-producing areas.

The kimberlite at the Karowe mine – AK6 kimberlite – comprises a sin-gle, tri-lobate kimberlite pipe, which is ‘pinched’ at the surface and its sub-out-crop consists of a core of kimberlite, cov-ering an area of 4.2 ha, surrounded by an area where the kimberlite is capped by basalt or basalt breccia. Drilling has shown that the kimberlite bulges to

Boteti is due to begin treating the significantly more competent (Unit 13) kimberlites at their Karowe diamond plant, Botswana, and wish to continue with autogenous (AG) milling as the heart of their process flow sheet.BY P MORGAN, L VAN NIEKERK & M DUDDY, DRA

Karowe comminution circuit upgrade

a maximum area of 7 ha at a depth of 120 m.

The majority of the ore body con-sists of a competent ore whose main component, identified as Unit 13, is unusually hard for a kimberlite. It is also very abrasive and displays other abnormal properties, including high dense media separation (DMS) yields, high crushing strength and low amena-bility to scrubbing.

The AG high aspect ratio variable speed mill (Ou-totec 8.5 m diameter x 3.96 m, 4 MW) was required to treat various materials and kimberlite from the Karowe ore body, at a rate of 350 mtph (in closed-cir-cuit with a cone crusher) to

TOP RIGHT Karowe resource model

RIGHT Karowe diamond mine

30 YEARS OF ENGINEERING EXCELLENCEDELIVERING IN AFRICA

www.DRAglobal.comTel: +27 11 202 8600

STUDIESMINERALS

PROCESSING MINING SNOITAREPO ERUTCURTSARFNI


COMMINUTION

provide a -30 mm product with a waste fraction below 1.5 mm. The cut-off size was changed to 35 mm due to the recov-ery of large, high-quality diamonds. The various minerals encountered during treatment ranged from soft sandstones and weathered kimberlites, to more competent kimberlites, mudstones and basalts. A large degree of variability was therefore expected, due to the fact that there is a fivefold variation in overall power requirements. As a result of the high variability of the expected ore, a mill was selected as it has the flexibili-ty to operate over the range of differ-ent types of material, as well as com-bining crushing and scrubbing steps in one unit.

It was anticipated that the mill would treat 300 tph of the hard Unit 13 (Phase 2); but Boteti wished to maintain the 350 tph name-plate throughout the mine life, which would require some modifications to the circuit to accom-modate the hardness and yield varia-tions. It was also envisaged that, during the initial stages of operation, the mill will receive the bulk of weathered and softer materials (referred to as Unit 1), and will later treat more competent materials like Unit 13, together with

mudstones and sandstones making up the major diluents.

Initially, rubber-lined pebble ports of 70 mm and 30 mm grate slots, togeth-er inter-spaced with blank panels, were proposed, allowing for a 5.5% to 10% open area range. As the mine develop-ment progressed into more competent areas, it was envisaged that the grate design would need further optimisation, and 90 mm port designs were made up and later installed. As more competent material was being treated earlier than planned, principally fragmented kimber-lites, the mill production rates reduced and the causes for the shortfall were spe-cifically investigated during two milling plant sampling audits, referred to as S1 and S2.

Apparent hardness and relative grinding ratesThe variability of the diamondif-erous horizons to be encountered were originally tested and compared using drop-weight criteria, and later minor scrubbing and grind-milling

tests were used by DRA Mineral Projects to compare relative grinding rates and for population-balance modelling. Table 1 describes the observed peak specific rates of breakage (energy-based) relative to the bulk sample (South Lobe) for the laboratory-tested materials and break-age function φ values.

SMCC and JK Tech DWT tests were conducted regularly during the mine ramp-up period and the total sample population history is shown in Figure 1, with the published DWi database distribution superimposed (red thin line). It became apparent that the Unit 2456 facies originally tested was akin to fragmented kimberlite (FK). The deeper

FIGURE 1 SMCC test sample population data plot to date for Karowe

TABLE 1 Observed relative grinding rates

Type Relative grinding rates

φ

Unit 1 (U1) 1.45 0.40

Unit 13 (13) 0.25 0.25

Sandstone 1.12 1.00

Unit 2456 (FK) 0.37 0.40

Bulk (South Lobe) 1.00 0.80

TABLE 2 Survey grate functions and perceived relative grinding rate

Survey β,% d50c mm Rel. rate φ DWi

1 12.3 64 0.565 0.52 3.99~4.68

2 14.0 87 0.420 0.43 5.711

Not direct measurement but best, least square error fi t.

Copyright © 2014, Weir Slurry Group, Inc. All rights reserved. ENDURON is a trademark and/or registered trademark of Weir Minerals Europe Ltd;

WEIR is a trademark and/or a registered trademark of Weir Engineering Services Ltd.

To learn more about Enduron® machines go to : weirminerals.com/enduron.aspx

Rock stars.

You don’t become a star in this business by taking the day off. And that means every machine in

the circuit all performing together. That’s the whole idea with Enduron® machines. It starts with

an expanded, full-circuit line of equipment – crushers, screens and feeders to meet the toughest

demands of the mining, sand and aggregate industries. Each machine built to the highest

standards for durability and reliability. And totally supported almost anywhere in the world.

Star performance. From Weir Minerals.

For more information contact us on +27 (0)11 9292600

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COMMINUTION

material is apparently more competent.The graphic clearly shows a significant

degree of hardness variation that pre-scribes virtually the complete spectrum of DWi values. The abrasion factor, ta, is remarkably similar to the observed breakage function φ values.

Mill grate performanceMill-circuit sampling surveys were spe-cifically undertaken while treating pro-gressively harder horizon material, prin-cipally fragmented kimberlite, and the internal condition was also monitored by crash-stopping the mill. The first survey (S1) was undertaken when the mill grate was severely worn and partly breached. The integrity of several rubber grates was severely compromised.

A second survey (S2) was undertaken shortly after the damaged mill grates and worn liners were replaced following scheduled relining maintenance. The two surveys indicated that the grate ports were clogging up and more specif-ically, that the pan lifters were retaining material that should escape the mill.

Simulating the circuit according to direct relative-rate mixtures of known material facies enabled benchmarking of the milling-pebble crusher circuit model. Transfer functions were used to describe the pebble-crusher operation, according size and to close-side setting. Previous data on Excel crushers had been used

to develop a crusher transfer function model, and check survey performance.

Population balance modelling tech-niques made use of a grate function (modified Lynch-Rao partition coeffi-cient equation) to describe ‘hold-up’ load in the mill and thus influence the mill power development.

(1)

Where, β - ‘Backfl ow’ fractionα - Sharpness coeffi cientd50c - Port cut size, mmPc(xi) - Fraction of size re-

tained by grate.Plant data from the surveys was fitted

in terms of mill power, mill load, meas-ured tonnage and product stream par-ticle size distributions to ascertain the grate performance and apparent relative grinding rates (see Table 2).

The data was simply fitted using combinations of FK and South Lobe grinding pa-rameters. S2 mill feed actu-al drop weight index (taken at the end of the sampling period) was lower than the data fitted; but contamina-tion of sample with softer kimberlite was suspected.

The results clearly show that a significant fraction of finished product is re-tained by the mill grate-pan lifter system, and that partial clogging and bridging was apparent with

uaraapdtk

totptb

FIGURE 3 Observed relationship between relative grinding rates and DWi

FIGURE 2 Karowe sample ta population


COMMINUTION

the old grates and was borne out by physical observation.

Following the benchmarking exercise, it was apparent that the mill would in the future receive material signifi-cantly harder than seen in the surveys. The benchmarking revealed the fol-lowing proposed relationship between DWi (kW/m3) and observed relative grinding rates.

Using this relationship, it was possible to simulate the mill-crusher circuit while ‘treating’ the harder drop-weight (DWi) referenced ores.

Hard kimberlite simulationsIt became apparent from initial design trial simulations that partial pre-crushing, modified grate design and bypass screen-ing were necessary to control the mill load and alleviate any overloading mill condition. It was also apparent that less fines were going to be produced, potentially over-loading the existing DMS circuit. High DMS yields are also anticipated on the

harder ores, thus potentially exacerbat-ing the problem. XRT technology was in-corporated into the circuit design for the large diamond recovery (LDR) and DMS replacement as a consequence, while the existing DMS will process the fines.

Turbo Pulp Lifter systemOutotec was approached with the inten-tion of providing the innovative Turbo Pulp Lifter (TPL) system to improve the discharge, and grate efficiency. Outotec has used the JK SimMet modelling tool to assess the proposed circuit, taking into consideration changes to pebble

port area, grate and pebble apertures, grate open area, pan depth and dis-charge angle. In consultation with DRA, the company has produced two TPL

designs with 90 mm and 115 mm pebble ports, the first of which is for fragment-ed kimberlites and the latter due to be installed for the treatment of hard Unit 13, in early 2015.

Proposed new circuit designA 1 300 mm diameter secondary gyra-tory crusher (KG 4513) will partly crush a proportion of jaw-crusher product, depending upon the coarseness, to pre-pare a suitably consistent feed to the AG mill. The mill discharge screen recy-cles 60 mm directly and combined with the -60 mm + 32 mm LDR tails to the

existing pebble crusher. Peb-ble-crusher product can be par-tially split to bypass mill recycle. XRT bulk sorting will be used to recover diamonds on -32 mm + 14 mm, and 14 mm + 8 mm fractions, with a recycle tertiary crush on 20 mm tail using a 1 200 mm diameter Cybas fine crusher; -8 mm + 1.5 mm frac-

tion will be treated in the DMS.

For a full list of references, please contact

[email protected].

FIGURE 4 Proposed new fl ow sheet

It was possible to simulate the mill-crusher circuit while ‘treating’ the harder drop-weight (DWi) referenced ores


COMMINUTION

Are you looking for cost-effective size-reduction and classification of ores, industrial minerals and concentrates? Contact Loesche SA to find out the advantages of the Loesche Grinding System for your beneficiation process.

MILLING & CLASSIFICATION IS OUR BUSINESS

Tel: +27 (0)11 482 2933 | Fax: +27 (0)11 482 2940 | Email: [email protected] | Web: www.loesche.com

Loes

che

six

rolle

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illFROM INVENTING BETTER SOLUTIONS

EVERY DAYE V E N 1 0 0 Y E A R S O F B E I N G A N I N N O V AT O R A N D M A R K E T L E A D E R D O E S N O T K E E P U S

TODAY, AS WITH most industrial applications in South Africa, elec-tricity supply is a problem. Th e need to reduce as well as optimise

electricity consumption is critical. Th is and other factors apply to comminution appli-cations in ore and mineral processing.

Th e key is to fi nd and implement technol-ogy that increases the recovery of ores and minerals, reduces operating costs, can op-erate in a water-scarce area, with mini-mal fl oor space, is ecologically friendly, and can achieve all of this in a limited or expensive energy supply environment.

Fortunately, technology does exist where, in a dry-milling process, signif-icant advantages can be realised over conventional crushing and grinding tech-nologies in ore benefi ciation. Th ese advan-tages are:• low specifi c energy consumption• steep product particle size curve• reduced product over-grinding

Down to a fine point

• in-bed and selective comminution• higher degree of liberation of the valua-

ble minerals• process rationalisation• rapid response to changes in the

feed composition• optimisation of throughput through on-

line monitoring• grinding product has a positive eff ect on

the downstream processes.

Principle of operationGenerally speaking, Loesche mills operate with a compressive comminution system with a shear component. Th is eff ect is cre-ated by tapered rollers, whose axes are an-gled below 15 degrees with respect to the

Cost-effective grinding of ore and minerals to precise sizes is important. Added to which, reliability and consistency are absolutely essential aspects of comminution.

horizontal grinding track. Th e roller axes do not intersect the centre of rotation of the grinding plate. With pure compres-sive comminution, the introduction of shear forces is deliberately avoided. Th is is achieved by tapered rollers, whose axes are angled in relation to the horizontal grind-ing track in such a way that the roller axis intersects exactly the centre of rotation of the grinding plate with its axis. Th e diff er-ent comminution principles are matched to the respective ore characteristics in or-der to achieve optimum mineral liberation. If an ore reacts positively to shear stress, a combination of compressive and shear is used. Th e Loesche-patented shear-free grinding is used where pure compressive comminution is desired. Th rough the use

of shear-free grinding, the percent-age of fi nest grain can be additionally reduced with regard to the already steep product particle-size curve. At the same time, the percentage of me-dium grain size fractions is increased. Further positive eff ects are addition-

al energy savings and the minimisation of wear. Th e grinding product altered by shear-free grinding can reduce the amount of fi nes by up to 50% and thereby result in signifi cant advantages for the downstream sorting processes.

Technology does exist where advantages can

be realised


MATERIALS HANDLING

Slurry as a transport system

FOR THOSE OF US who are not too familiar with slurry pump technology and to refresh the memories of those who have

forgotten, and to beg the tolerance of those in the know, slurry is a mixture of a liquid, usually water, and solids, the particles of which can range from small, particle-sized, to large, chunks of coal, and, as in the latter instance, a thickener such as magnetite.

The combination of the type, size, shape and quantity of the particles, together with the nature of the trans-porting liquid, determines the exact characteristics and flow properties of the slurry. From conventionally thick-ened slurries to paste slurries, as illus-trated in Graph 1, we see that different pump technologies are needed. The

thicker the material and the greater the distance, and height, the more complex the pumping requirement – to the point where a thick paste or cake can no longer be pumped.

Slurry characteristicsSlurries with very fine particles, which are referred to as non-settling slurries, and which can form stable homogeneous mixtures, exhibiting increased apparent viscosity, usually have low-wearing prop-erties. Even so, careful consideration selecting the correct pump and drive is necessary as these slurries, referred to as non-Newtonian, often do not behave in the manner of a normal liquid.

At the opposite end of the scale, set-tling slurries, formed by coarser parti-cles, greater than 1 mm, tend to form

Africa, it would seem, is about thirty years behind Europe and the US, even South

America, in the deployment of slurry

pipelines as a cost-effective alternative

transport. We look at the technology.

BY TONY STONE


MATERIALS HANDLING

an unstable mixture. In cases such as this, particular attention must be giv-en to power calculations in terms of flow velocity and friction-loss factors. Coarser particles tend to have higher wearing properties, and tend to form the majority of slurry applications. This type of slurry is also referred to as heterogeneous. In both instances, ho-mogeneous and heterogeneous, height differentials and the distance between source and destination need to factored into the equation. Consulting firms such as Paterson & Cooke and Ausenco can assist with the complex designs and calculations involved.

Breaking new groundSlurry pipeline technology is a safe trans-portation alternative that minimises

impacts on local communities and the environment. Its benefits include lower pollution levels, road transport and fuel costs and staffing requirements, and a reduced reliance and impact on high-use transport corridors.

Slurry pipeline technology offers a sus-tainable solution in many environments. What is more, the technology is reliable and efficient.

Ausenco has designed and engineered long-distance pipelines to transport virtually every type of mineral – from concentrates such as copper, zinc, lead and iron to crushed ore, bauxite, nickel laterite, phosphate, limestone and coal. The company’s experience includes pro-jects in extremely cold climates, over record-breaking distances, at high alti-tudes, and in mountainous terrain.

More recently, Ausenco completed Af-rica’s first coal slurry pipeline from Mo-zambique’s Tete province to the Port of Beira, with its port capacity of 20 MT, over a distance of some 500 km. The Chi-rodzi mine is an open-pit coal mine with proven reserves of 700 million tonnes (MT) and an expected life of mine of 25 years. The mine commenced operations in 2012 and is scheduled to produce in excess of 10 MTPA of high-grade coal in 2015, and onwards. Inside Mining will be reviewing this pipeline project in its April 2015 issue.

What this means is that South Africa, and other African countries, can look at this technology with renewed interest,

especially in coal transport. Eskom would do well to look at the possibili-ties with their coal suppliers, and taking ash to tailings facilities. At the moment, with the hundreds of trucks transport-ing coal from mines to power stations, the damage to road infrastructure, as well the environment, is substantial. The town of Ermelo in Mpumalanga is a prime example.

Design considerationsAs Patterson & Cooke advise, increasing solids concentration has a number of requirements that are different from a conventional slurry system. Designing a high-density system requires an overall systems approach, as there is strong de-pendence between the destination point and pumping requirements, and the preparation facilities at source.

High-density slurry pipelines often operate at a higher pressure than con-ventional tailings pipelines, and pipe-line mechanical design must take this into account.

Centrifugal pumps will be adequate for medium-density systems with short pipeline lengths, whereas positive dis-placement pumps will be required for high-density systems with long pipe-lines. Table 1 illustrates the compari-sons between centrifugal and positive displacement pumps in high-density slurry pipelines.

Positive-displacement pumps, of which piston, piston-diaphragm and hose dia-phragm pumps are a subset, are specifi-cally designed to handle slurry, sludge or

GRAPH 1 Flow behaviour vs solids concentration

LEFT Slurry pipeline technology offers a sustainable solution in many environments

WEIR MINERALS’ EXPERIENCE WITH SLURRY PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION USING THE GEHO PUMP:

• Longest pipeline (550 km): MMX, Brazil

• Highest pipeline pressure (240 bars): Collahuasi, Chile

• Highest fl ow (540 m3/hour): OEMK, Russia

• Total number of pumps: 130+• Total number of long-distance

pipeline projects: 36+

paste applications. These pumps handle long-distance slurry pipeline transport, mine dewatering and backfill, autoclave, reactor and digester feed, gasifier feed and high-density tailings disposal ap-plications. Variations of this category of pump include:• Crankshaft-driven piston pumps:

Crankshaft-driven piston pumps han-dle slurries and sludges with moderate abrasivity, medium to high viscosity, mild corrosivity, up to 6 mm particle size and up to 75% solids content.

• Hose-diaphragm pumps: The hy-draulically driven, two-chamber, single-acting, high-pressure-hose-di-aphragm pumps handle unsettled mine water.

• Hydraulic-driven piston pumps:Piston pumps with cone valves or transfer tubes handle slurries and sludges with moderate abrasivity, high viscosity, mild corrosivity, up to 50 mm particle size and up to 90% solids content.

• Piston-diaphragm pumps: Crank-shaft-driven piston-diaphragm pumps handle slurries and sludges with extreme abrasivity, medium to high viscosity, high corrosivity and elevated temperatures.

In summaryFlowing out of this brief overview is the clear picture that high-density slur-ry pipelines are suited to long-distance mineral transport, including coal. This presents Africa with an opportunity to catch up with the rest of the world in de-ploying this technology – to achieve effi-ciencies in operations and costs, and for the benefit of the environment.

TABLE 1 Basic comparison: centrifugal pumps vs positive-displacement pumps

Factor Centrifugal pumps Positive-displacement pumps

Mechanics Imparts velocity to the liquid or slurry resulting in pressure at the outlet (pressure is created and fl ow results)

Captures confi ned amounts of liquid or slurry and transfers it from the suction to the discharge port (fl ow is created and pressure results)

Performance Flow varies with changing pressure Flow is constant with changing pressure

Viscosity Effi ciency decreases with increasing viscosity due to frictional losses inside the pump (typically not used on viscosities above 850 cSt)

Effi ciency increases with increasing viscosity

Efficiency Effi ciency peaks at the best-effi ciency point. At higher or lower pressures, effi ciency decreases

Effi ciency increases with increasing pressure

Inlet conditions Liquid or slurry must be in the pump to create a pressure differential. A dry pump will not prime on its own

Negative pressure is created at the inlet port. A dry pump will prime on its own

TWO OF THE MORE CHALLENGING LONG-DISTANCE SLURRY PIPELINE PROJECTS:

Antamina Multiproduct Concentrate PipelineLocation: PeruClient: Compañia Minera AntaminaS.ADuration: 1989 to 2009

Ausenco provided a full range of engineering services on this 304 km copper-zinc concentrate slurry pipeline system – the fi rst multiproduct slurry pipeline system in a mountainous region. Work began with a feasibility study, including route planning, constructability evaluation, conceptual design and a ±15% cost estimate. It continued to include basic and detailed engineering and expansion and repair projects throughout the life of the system. The steel pipeline was designed to transport a maximum of 1.4 Mt/y of copper and zinc concentrates from Antamina mine site in northern Peru at an elevation of 4 100 m above sea level to terminal facilities at Huarmey.

Samarco Iron Concentrate PipelineLocation: BrazilClient: Samarco Mineração S.A.Duration: 1995 to 2012

The Samarco project is an integrated open-pit mine, pipeline and port operation in Brazil. The project includes the longest iron concentrate pipeline in the world, which currently spans 398 km with a peak altitude of 1 150 m above sea level. Ausenco has provided Samarco with a variety of services throughout the development of this project, ranging from laboratory testing, simulations, studies and design through construction and start-up support. Though the original pipeline predates the formation of Ausenco, several key members of the design, construction, and start-up team are principals at Ausenco today.


MATERIALS HANDLING

KOMATSU PRESIDENT and CEO Tetsuji Ohashi launched the PC 200i-10 and PC 210LCi-10 in-telligent machine control (iMC)

hydraulic excavators in Europe and Japan in October 2014, and the United States in November 2014. Beyond this, Komatsu is working to aggressively prom ote these excavators in advanced countries that lead ICT-based construction.

Komatsu has achieved a world fi rst with iMC technology, which controls the exca-vator boom, arm and bucket without dam-aging the target surface by checking the position data of the bucket teeth, received by the GNSS (GPS and GLONASS) antenna and the GNSS base station on the jobsite, against the design data. Th e iMC hydrau-lic excavators makes earthmoving quicker, easier and safer.

When the bucket teeth of the PC 200i-10 and PC 210LCi-10 reach the target surface, the boom, arm and bucket automatically stop movements, or the teeth move along the target surface, thanks to the assistance function. Th erefore, the operator can con-tinue excavating without worrying about overcutting. As both iMC models can elim-inate a considerable amount of work, such as staking and surveying, which are re-quired for conventional construction, they can help customers not only improve their production effi ciency but also enhance safety at job sites by reducing the number of surveyors who work near the machines on conventional job sites.

Innovative excavator

Komatsu is also promoting the ‘visualis-ation’ of construction work by integrating Komtrax (Komatsu Machine Tracking Sys-tem) and the construction management system. In the near future, Komatsu is going to achieve eff ective unifi ed man-agement of information concerning both the operating conditions of the machines and the progress of construction, such as the volume of hauled soil, through web services. By deploying iMC construction equipment at construction job sites, Ko-matsu will become able to incorporate a lot of accurate job site information into this system.

Outstanding productivity improvementCutting-edge machine control technologies off er:• Auto grade assist: Th e boom adjusts the

bucket height automatically, tracing the target surface

• Auto-stop control: Th e work equipment automatically stops when the bucket edge reaches the design surface

• Minimum-distance control func-tions: Th e bucket automatically selects the point on the bucket closest to the tar-get surface.

Integrated machine controlWith integrated sensors, iMC excavators achieve real-time position detection of the bucket teeth.

iMC technology is a world fi rst


MATERIALS HANDLING


MINERALS PROCESSING

Call Aury for your free quote on 011 026 6642 or visit us at www.auryafrica.co.za

Aury Africa is made up of a dedicated team of professionals, who strive to provide the African mining market with a fully-comprehensive and

value-added service offering.

Screening and vibrating equipment solution specialists

Aury Africa manufactures a

complete range of high-quality vibrating

screens, centrifuges, crushers and sieve bends for the coal,

gold and mineral processing industries.

Our range of consumable products

numerous OEM brands, and

complement a vast range of mineral

process equipment, wear resistant

applications and process consumables.

SEPARATING SOLIDS from solids is a critical function in mineral processing. Because of this, on-going reliability is an extremely

important decision factor in selecting the right equipment.

First off , what have popcorn and min-eral processing got to do with each oth-er? In solids from solids separation, a high-frequency vibrating screen achieves a high degree of effi ciency in separation. It also breaks down the surface tension between particles.

Th e high level of RPMs also contributes to increasing the stratifi cation of mate-rial, so they separate at a much higher rate. Separation cannot take place without stratifi cation. Because the screen vibrates vertically, there is a ‘popcorn eff ect’ where the coarser particles lift or bounce higher, with the fi ner particles passing through the screen.

In some high-frequency vibrating screens, the fl ow rate of the feed can be controlled. In such instances, the ‘pop-corn eff ect’ is proportional. If the fl ow rate lowers, the eff ect is also decreased. Quite simple yet very eff ective! However, as al-ready pointed out, it all whittles down to the choosing the right technology and the right supplier.

Competitive pricingAs a competitively priced supplier of capi-tal equipment and consumables, screening

and vibrating equipment solutions provid-er Aury Africa, with its 5 000 m2 manu-facturing facility in Jet Park, Boksburg, is able to deliver fast turnaround times for its products, which are used primarily in comminution and separation applications. Aury Africa’s woven-wire products are manufactured locally, while screening and vibrating equipment is imported from its China-based sister company, Aury Tianjin.

No doubts about qualityContrary to what is a common and un-fairly negative perception about Chinese products, the Aury Tianjin factory carries the much sought after and internationally recognised ISO 9001 quality certifi cation. Th e facility is also backed up by the tech-nical expertise of a number of engineers who have extensive experience in vibra-tion technology within the international mining sector. It is this combination that creates a truly unique product off ering – delivering reliability and cost minimisa-tion. Aury Africa managing director Mark Houchin is quite fi rm on this issue. “We have successfully distanced ourselves from the stigma of inferior quality and service associated with the Chinese manufactur-ing sector. With a four-year track record, our highly competitive price-to-quality ratio, which together with our commit-ment to after-sales and technical-support service, we have a strong footing in the South African mining sector, especially in

the local coal mining and mineral processing industries.”

Aury Africa supplies a complete range of consumable products, in-cluding polyurethane and rubber panels, cyclones, woven wire screens, weld mesh, wedge-wire products, pipes, pumps, belt scrapers and ce-ramics. Th e company’s capital equip-ment off ering features vibrating feeders and screens, fi ne and coarse coal centrifuges, crushers, conveyor systems and scrapers.

Aury vibrating screen

popcorneffectcorncornThepp

MINERALS PROCESSING


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• Optimum material flow• Up to 80% decrease in material degredation• Reduced dust and noise levels• Virtually maintenance free• Greatly reduced spillage• Significant reduction in belt damage

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RUBBER BELTS with ‘multi-ply’ textile reinforcement are the most commonly used type with-in the bulk handling industry

and usually consist of two elements. Th e basis of every conveyor belt is the carcass, which typically contains layers of extreme-ly strong but fl exible fabric embedded in the rubber. It is the carcass that provides the inherent characteristics of a conveyor belt such as its tensile strength and elonga-tion (elasticity or ‘stretch’ under tension).

An outer cover of rubber protects the belt carcass. Diff erent types of rubber com-pound are used. Each designed to with-stand damaging eff ects such as wear caused by abrasion, tearing and cutting, heat, fi re and oil penetration. Selecting the best type of outer cover will largely determine the

Protecting the carcassBY L WILLIAMS

eff ectiveness and operational lifetime of conveyor belts. Th e wear-resistance quali-ties of a conveyor belt are major factors in determining its life expectancy and ulti-mately the truest test of its value.

As a general rule, 80% of conveyor belt surface wear occurs on the top cover of the belt with approximately 20% of wear on the bottom cover. Wear on the top cover is primarily caused by the abrasive action of the materials being carried, especially at the loading point or ‘station’ where the belt is exposed to impact by the bulk ma-terial, and at the discharge point where the material is eff ectively ‘accelerated’ by the belt surface. Contrary to popular belief, short belts (<50 m) usually wear at a faster rate because they pass the loading and dis-charge points more frequently.

For these reasons, the selection of the correct type of cover quality and the thick-ness of shorter-length belts becomes even more important than usual. Wear on the bottom cover of the belt is mainly caused by the friction contact with the drum sur-face and idlers. Th e rate and uniformity of this type of wear can be adversely aff ected by many other factors, such as misaligned or worn drums and idlers. Factors such as ozone penetration or an unclean environ-ment where there is waste material build-up can accelerate wear. Belt cleaning sys-tems, especially steel-edged scrapers, also cause wear to the top cover surface.

It is important that buyers of conveyor belts remember that DIN and ISO stand-ards are only the minimum benchmarks of acceptability.


MINERALS PROCESSING

MINING IS THE second larg-est industrial user of water in the world, with only pow-er generation being respon-

sible for higher water consumption. Glob-ally, around 7 billion m3 to 9 billion m3 of water are used for mining purposes each year, which is as much as a country such as Nigeria uses annually in total.

In Africa in particular, the responsi-ble use and conservation of water used in mining operations is therefore vital to sustainability. According to a 2011 De Beers report, arid lands cover around 60% of African land, which, although it is home to around 15% of the world’s pop-ulation, has only 9% of global renewable water resources.

Putting the spotlight on South Africa in particular, 2.5% of national water supplies are used to sustain mining activities in the country, which may not seem a lot, but the 2004 National Water Resource Strategy

The facts behind the figures

puts this in perspective by contrasting South Africa’s annual average rainfall of 450 mm with the world average of 860 mm. Recent evidence points to a 61% in-crease in mining projects in South Africa from 2005 to 2013, placing additional pressure on a stretched resource.

Th e same study also looked at the com-mon location of mines, fi nding there is often an overlap between mineral depos-its and fertile agricultural land – for ex-ample, platinum group metals are most concentrated in the Limpopo basin, in close proximity to cattle and crop lands – creating greater demand for South Africa’s most stressed and economically important groundwater source.

Th e uses of water in mining operations are varied and substantial. Water is em-ployed to recover mineral ores from chem-ical solutions, cool equipment such as rock cutters, and wash minerals once extracted. Ores can also be transported away from

the site through pipelines in slurry, which can cut the costs associated with road or rail transport but increase the amount of water used by a mine. Arid climates of-ten lead to dusty conditions, particularly on service roads, and here water is used to damp down and control dust. Finally but no less importantly, high-quality wa-ter is also required to meet the drinking, cooking and washing needs of workers throughout the life of the mine.

While high-value minerals such as gold are fairly low in production volume, large quantities of water are nevertheless re-quired to transport and process ore. For example, 1 t of gold uses 250 000 m3 of water, whereas coal and other non-metal mines need less water per tonne of min-eral produced. As mines reach the end of their working life and exhaust supplies

Digging a little deeper into the facts and figures around South Africa’s water usage, especially in the mining industry, we gain a deeper insight into the challenges and importance of effective water management. BY PHILIP WOOD, WYATT INTERNATIONAL

ABOVE An open-pit mine in a dry, arid area

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of high-quality ores, the remaining low-er-quality ores begin to be extracted, which requires greater quantities of water in order to produce each tonne of metal. Coupled with increasing production, a re-duction in ore quality means access to wa-ter becomes a business-critical issue.

Th e mismanagement of water can dis-rupt production, as many extraction and washing processes depend upon clean water, as well as disrupting the transpor-tation of minerals, which is often run to a tight schedule. Where water is wasted and mismanaged, more water than is tru-ly necessary is pumped on to the site, all at considerable cost – meaning properly managed water use can save money as well as optimise production and reduce down-time. Water mismanagement can also lead to damage to the wider environment through unintentional contamination, as well as a dangerous lack of fresh water available for workers. Only with the right pipework infrastructure in place to trans-port, store, supply and drain water, can this resource be properly managed on a mine site to reduce water stress, maintain high water quality, and prevent fl ooding or damage to the environment.

Avoiding the wastage of water once used is equally as important as using it responsibly in the be-ginning and, whether available fresh water is plentiful or limited, it is clear that wastage can be more closely controlled. In a typical min-ing operation, only around 35% of water discharged to a tailings dam is reused in the process plant, making tailings ponds the biggest culprit in terms of water wastage. While a quarter of water remains in the dam, 5% is lost to seepage and up to 35% to evaporation.

As seepage from pipes can account for up to 50 000 m3 lost per month in a mine using 1 million m3 in the same time period, robust yet fl exi-bly engineered pipework solutions are essential in minimising lost and wasted water. For mine water man-agement systems, polyethylene (PE)

is the ideal choice for pipework. Well suit-ed to the demands of mining operations, PE pipes off er inherent strength combined with the reduced weight and fl exibility needed for transport to, and installation in, remote mining environments – unlike traditional metal or concrete pipes, which are cumbersome to move.

Plastic pipes are also much more adapt-able than traditional materials, as bespoke lengths and angles can be designed to cir-cumnavigate tailings ponds or fi t around existing infrastructure. Traditional mate-rials, on the other hand, would generally be more diffi cult to handle and may require on-site fabrication, increasing the leakage risk. PE pressure pipes can be jointed using butt-welding or electro-fusion techniques to form a continuous, sealed pipeline that aff ords no risk of leakage. Additionally, the

extremely smooth bore of PE pipes reduc-es the friction that is often a feature of tra-ditional pipes – meaning less turbulence when water is transported at high velocity.

While the chemicals used in water treat-ment processes can have a corrosive ef-fect on many traditional pipe materials, modern PE piping off ers the resistance re-quired to cope with even the most aggres-sive acids, bases and salts. Suitable for use in tailings pipelines, mineral extraction and treatment applications, it can also be used to transport treated and potable wa-ter as it is resistant to both galvanic cor-rosion and bacterium sediment build-up – unlike steel or concrete pipes, which can

be badly damaged.Its inherent strength off ers pro-

tection against abrasion from met-als or mineral particles, including rock fragments, while its exterior surfaces are impact-resistant and suitable for underground instal-lation if necessary. PE withstands UV degradation temperatures in the range of -40°C to +60°C, ideal for mines at high altitudes where temperatures can drop well below freezing, and also for mines in arid, hot climates.

Th e interior surfaces of PE pipes resist bacterial growth – an attrib-ute which is essential for the supply of drinking water to remote mines where no mains supply is available. Concrete and metal pipes, mean-while, can be badly damaged by both bacterium sediment build-up and galvanic corrosion, to which PE is resistant.

MINERALS PROCESSING

Avoiding the wastage of water once used is equally as important as using it responsibility

ABOVE PE pipes are anti-bacterial

BELOW Installation of PE pipes at the Marampa Mine in Sierra Leone

EPCM


WorleyParsons adds value through our full scope of services from pit to port including studies, mine planning, impact assessments, permitting and approvals, project management, construction management and global procurement.

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IT IS WELL recognised that the decisions made during the early stages of an investment have the greatest im-pact on the ultimate business outcome.

Unfortunately, it is also the time when the least amount of information is available. It is this juxtaposition of the criticality of making the correct decisions, and the ab-sence of detailed information on which to base them, that creates the challenge that WorleyParsons’ specialist ‘Select’ service has been designed to answer.

Th rough its focus on the critical early phases of projects, this service:• adds technical defi nition, thus reducing technical risk• optimises the opportunity and maximises the inherent value• creates the business case and assesses the probable costs• secures the necessary approvals and prepares for the

delivery phase.Select advises asset owners, operators, investors, fi nancial institutions and governments. WorleyParsons combines the niche specialist skills required within the front end of pro-jects with its extensive practical experience in total project delivery and plant operation. Select utilises a global data-base of major capital projects to enable customers to make strategic investment decisions with accurate and reliable planning data, signifi cantly increasing their confi dence that the critical planning decisions will support their ultimate business objectives.

Select specialists have a thorough understanding of the business value chain, including market analysis, fi nancial modelling, technology selection, greenfi eld site selection, approvals management, new plant confi guration, existing plant optimisations and the development of detailed pro-ject realisation methodologies. Th e combination of strategic front-end planning skills, integrated with extensive project execution capabilities, together with WorleyParsons’ techno-logical and commercial neutrality, diff erentiates Select in the consulting market.

As we face a carbon-constrained future, with changing reg-ulatory frameworks and an uncertain business landscape, Select is focused on working with customers to future-proof their businesses through WorleyParsons’ knowledge of technologies, and environmental and carbon manage-ment techniques.

Business outcomes

Decisions made during the early stages of an investment have the greatest impact

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EPCM


W: www.basilread.co.za | E: [email protected] | T: +27 11 418 6300

Basil Read is so much more than just a group that has become synonymous with excellence in the construction

sectors of Southern Africa. Our reputation is built on quality, expertise and the most innovative solutions to

complex and challenging projects. Our impressive and diverse portfolio includes our flagship airport project

on the island of St. Helena, the rehabilitation of roads and the building of hospitals. The development of new

housing structures and finding sustainable energy resources contributes to a better future for all as Basil Read

is involved in diverse communities across South Africa every day. Our legacy lives on in our people, our passion

and our promise to make this country a better and more enriching place for all.

BUILDINGLEGACIES

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ST HELENA IS located in the South Atlantic, roughly 2 200 km from southern Angola/northern Namibia. In the past, getting to

the island has been restricted to travel by ship. However, that is about to change. Basil Read is making impressive progress with its R4 billion contract to build an in-ternational airport on the island.

Th e airport is being built on Prosperous Bay Plain, on the east side of St Helena. It will have a concrete runway of 1 550 m with taxiway and apron. Approximate-ly 8 million m3 of rockfi ll embankment, through which a 750 m long reinforced concrete culvert runs, has been built. It boasts an airport terminal building of some 3 500 m2, with support infrastruc-ture, air traffi c control, safety, a bulk fuel installation for 6 million litres of diesel

Saint Helena islandand aviation fuel, and a 14 km access road from Rupert’s Bay to the airport.

What does this mean for mining and mineral exploration? In geological terms, St Helena is a very young island. It is an isolated, broadly conical volcanic struc-ture, rising more than 3 000 m above the ocean fl oor; the island itself being just the top of the volcano, with only a small amount of it exposed above the sea. Th e island may be small but its supporting structure is immense: the base on the sea fl oor measures some 130 km in diameter and the volume of the cone is estimat-ed to be twenty times that of the largest European volcano, Mount Etna. Despite its volcanic origin, volcanic activity is no longer a threat to St Helena. Tectonic movement since the last eruption has car-ried the island east and it is now some way

from the active part of the ridge, on the African side.

Th e lavas of the island are of mantle or-igin and tend to contain no quartz. Th ere are unusually high concentrations of so-dium and potassium, and there is a char-acteristic pattern of radioactive and trace element abundance. While St Helena has always been said to lack natural resourc-es, this may change once the air-port development has been completed. With gravity gradiometry and LiDAR, who knows what will be dis-covered. And, where there are volcanoes, one usually fi nds diamonds.

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AS A RESULT of the continuing increases in energy costs, and a growing need for greater ef-fi ciency, and reduced carbon

footprint, mines are increasingly looking towards energy optimisation initiatives to not only lower the cost burden of util-ities, but to decrease the planetary im-pact as well. Reducing costs and energy consumption also needs to be balanced against business impact – operations should not be negatively aff ected by any energy savings projects. Signifi cant time and money is often invested into such ventures, typically around replacing older equipment with more modern and energy effi cient versions to provide savings with-out negatively impacting the business. However, unless continual improvement can be assured, realising returns on this investment can be diffi cult. Professional

services around energy optimisation and effi ciency can help organisations to deliv-er on-going value and ensure that maxi-mum benefi t and return on investment (ROI) is delivered in the long term.

One of the prime market drivers behind the implementation of energy effi ciency programmes, aside from a well-known shortage of available energy, is the fact that the cost of energy has increased dra-matically over the past fi ve years. To put this into perspective, 1 000 units of elec-tricity used to cost in the region of R500, and now costs around R1 500 for the same amount. While the National Energy Regulator has delayed the inevitable by limiting electricity price increases to 8%, this is not sustainable, and we can expect

Optimise your energy ROI

Energy costs continue to increase every year, placing additional pressure on organisations that are already struggling in a challenging economy. The time to be smart is now. BY KEVIN NORRIS,

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF JASCO

POWER AND ENERGY



to see another exponential increase in 2015. In addition, the implementation of a Carbon Tax, which is due to come into eff ect in January 2016, is putting further pressure on organisations to reduce and optimise energy consumption.

When it comes to reducing energy con-sumption, there are several initiatives that are often employed as quick wins, such as the replacement of ineffi cient light fi ttings with technology such as CF or LED bulbs, which use less electricity. Other areas that can be addressed in-clude the heating, ventilation and cool-ing (HVAC) systems, which often use legacy equipment and do not function optimally for the requirements of the building. Turning off lights automati-cally, installing motion sensors to detect when there are people in the building for lighting and HVAC purposes, and other automation tools, can also be deployed.

In addition, organisations are increas-ingly looking at alternative energy solu-tions such as solar panels to help take away some of the cost pressure. How-ever, implementing alternative energy without fi rst optimising consumption is an unnecessarily costly task, and sim-ply changing equipment without proper thought given to management and mon-itoring, can lead to organisations failing to realise full ROI from their energy opti-misation initiatives. Leveraging the ben-efi ts of professional services as part of an energy optimisation project can help to ensure that this challenge is minimised.

In order to ensure maximum returns from any energy optimisation or effi -ciency drive, it is vital to follow a com-prehensive process that includes three important phases. Firstly an audit needs to be performed to establish the current usage. Obtaining suffi cient information to establish this is not always possible from electricity bills alone, so it may be necessary to install Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI), which enables the real-time monitoring of consumption. Measurement is critical to management and to ensuring that energy savings ob-jectives are met and continue to be real-ised in the long term. Information from this audit can then be used to establish a usage trend line, which will make it pos-sible to determine where the areas of op-portunity exist for leveraging savings. Th ese opportunities should always be driven by a number of factors, including potential cost savings, ease of implementation and any rebates that may be available at the time. ROI is then de-termined by the savings that can be achieved from the en-ergy effi ciency intervention.

Once these two phases have been implemented, professional services come into eff ect to ensure maxi-mum ROI is realised in the long term. An energy part-ner off ering professional

services will continually monitor energy consumption and savings, creating great-er visibility into the success or otherwise of an energy optimisation project. Th e service provider can also provide guid-ance as to the accuracy and suitability of monthly electricity billing, which opens up the potential for further savings. Th e service provider can also off er advice and guidance on any energy programmes to be introduced that may have a positive or negative impact on the business, for example renewable energy solutions, or the impending Carbon Tax. Professional services around energy optimisation is about the creation of a partnership that will ensure the organisation remains as energy effi cient as possible, and contin-ues to comply with the ever-changing regulations around energy consumption and carbon emissions.

As energy prices continue to rise and regulatory compliance around energy consumption becomes increasingly oner-ous, implementing energy optimisation initiatives has never been more impor-tant. In addition, energy interventions are often required prior to the imple-mentation of alternative renewable ener-gy solutions such as solar. Engaging the services of an energy partner throughout the process, and in an on-going manner through professional services, will ensure that ROI is leveraged from the start and continues to be realised, to ensure that energy savings can be measured, moni-tored and adjusted as needs change.

Measurement is critical to management and to ensuring that energy savings

objectives are met

OPPOSITE A typical extractor fan installation for mine ventilation

ABOVE AND BELOW In a mine, well-managed ventilation is critical, especially at depth


Mining and Industrial Oil & Gas are themost demanding sectors in the industry.It requires reliable power for a diverserange of equipment, deep undergroundand for essential and critical facilities on the surface. When there is not enough power available to meet the demand this can have far-reaching effects for high-energy users. Interruptions may cause costly delays.

Energyst puts real energy into power challenges by providing long-term high quality rental solutions with proven dependability. When it comes to power,a reliable partner is vital to the success of your operation. Energyst has an outstanding track record with a 24/7 call-out facility and 24/7 remote and early warning systems.If the effects of load shedding challenge your operation, you can trust Energyst to deliver 100% reliable power.

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ESKOM’S LOAD SHEDDING is wreaking havoc with the econ-omy. Energy-intensive min-ing, already challenged by the

events of 2014, must have a stable ener-gy source to maintain productivity, or an instant alternative.

Are instant alternatives available? Yes. However, the critical question to be asked is whether the alternative has the pow-er-generation capacity to meet a mine’s en-ergy needs. Putting this speculation aside for the moment, the reality is that mines are frequently fi nding themselves chal-lenged by Eskom’s load shedding. What was

Alternatives to load shedding


an irritation initially has fast become the driving force behind mines looking at the prospects of private electricity production.

Diesel generators, already known as a reliable source of alternate energy, are cost-competitive when compared to oth-er renewable energy options. Th e rising costs of Eskom electricity will also drive the transition to alternative energy sourc-es. Additionally, given the long time hori-zon for ‘bridging’ fuels such as nuclear or shale gas, it is uncertain whether these technologies will be attractive in the long run. Private investors – especially foreign investors – have shown strong interest in

the renewables sector in South Africa, es-pecially in the newer technologies of solar and wind, the practicalities of which, such as constancy of supply and cost, are cur-rently unsuitable for mining.

Even so, while there has been a $14 bil-lion investment in renewable energy in the country, and companies are looking to springboard into the rest of SADC, there needs to be an enabling environment. Eq-uitable resources should be invested in re-newable technologies, and public resources should be directed at the implementation of renewable energy technologies. To over-come the current uncertainty in the renew-ables industry, government policies such as feed-in tariff s or net-metering might be useful to overcome upfront capital costs. Building political will on green energy in mining could be particularly challenging, but any government support has the po-tential to see substantial dividends in in-creased electrical capacity for the entire re-gion. In the meantime, diesel generators will carry the day as reliable, alternate en-ergy sources.


INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY & COMMUNICATIONS

ALL CREDIT TO Mining IQ for putting on an outstanding and informative conference. With an exemplary array of

speakers, mine automation in Africa was put under the spotlight, with a number of very informative papers. Needless to say, South Africa leads the way on the African continent and, over the last 12 months, we have seen great shifts occur to the mining industry.

Th e economic climate, coupled with a drop in commodity prices, has meant that all miners have had to review their current operations to determine where costs can be cut, production improved and effi ciencies gained. Mining automa-tion is seen by leading companies as the future of the industry. And they are quite right. Companies who have implement-ed automation improvements have seen increases in production levels and preci-sion, and improved levels of safety.

New technology development tipsTechnology in mining is always chang-ing and evolving. Whether you work in

Mine automationThe 4th Annual Mine Site Automation Africa Conference, presented by Mining IQ, was held in early December last year. This is a brief overview of what they had to say.

mobile maintenance in the workshop, operate a haulage truck, oversee PLC sys-tems in the plant or monitor security on-site, there’s always a new and shiny tech-nology being lauded as the new best thing to happen to mining.

Technology is an absolute enabler, a fundamental necessity for the future of the sector, and must be embraced in or-der for the industry to claw back produc-tivity levels and try to reduce cost levels across the board. However, poor tech-nology (whether we’re talking software, hardware or equipment) purchases can be devastating to an operation. It can have negative eff ects on productivity, fi nances or the safety of your workers.

Here are the highlights and lessons learned from senior leaders from BHP Billiton, Rio Tinto, Glencore, Newcrest, Newmont, Anglo American and many more when introducing new technology in mining.• Ease of integration and legacy issues:

Th is is now a fairly obvious statement to

SANDVIK’S AUTOMINESANDVIK’S AUTOMINE SYSTEM

is a highly innovative automation

system where operators, who would

normally drive a single heavy-duty

machine underground, can now sit

in the comfort and safety of an air-

conditioned control room on the

surface, and simultaneously monitor

the movements of a fl eet of driverless

loaders or trucks hundreds of metres

below the surface.

Sandvik loaders or trucks navigate

their way between the load and

discharge points under the control of

a supervisory system that manages

traffi c and monitors the machines.

AutoMine is equipped with a number

of intelligent functions; e.g. if one

of the machines strikes a large rock

in the roadway, the system would

then place a restriction on the

speed in that area to ensure that

machines following behind either

slow down or stop at the obstacle,

thereby reducing potential damage

to equipment. AutoMine is a modular

system that can be adapted to specifi c

customer requirements:

• PCS – production control system,

for planning, optimisation of

production execution, and

reconciliation of production inputs

and outputs especially for block

cave mines

• MCS – mission control system,

supervisory system that controls

and monitors the autonomous

operations, including traffi c

management, and provides the

remote operator’s user interface

• MineLAN – broadband, high-speed,

data/video communication system

for connectivity to automated

underground loaders and trucks and

associated equipment

• on-board automation systems

– for machine control, monitoring,

and navigation

• ACS – access control system, for

isolating the autonomous operating

area to ensure safety of personnel.

Sandvik's AutoMine system in action



make, and yet purchases are still made every year in the sector without full consideration given to how much data can be moved over from past systems and how much the new one will ‘talk’ to those it directly needs to interact with.

• Interfacing and interoperability: You must consider the impact on all other systems further down the value chain. If you’re upgrading scanners on the conveyor system within the process-ing plant, you cannot ignore any impact that may have on the PLC system, or the SCADA system. Mapping out the knock-on eff ect of upgrades on all in-terrelated systems is critical to ensure there are no failures or glitches when the implementation occurs.

• Beware of the vendor lock-in! Open source is the way forward, and should absolutely be considered when creat-ing supplier shortlists and selections. It may whittle out the majority of the vendors, but will give you a far greater freedom to select add-on products from the best providers, rather than being forced to purchase an overarching solu-tion from one provider.

As we well know, mining today is a high-tech undertaking, and in some decidedly

hostile environments. Safe and effi cient mine operation requires precise coordina-tion of some of the world’s largest, most expensive machines in settings character-ised by punishing heat and cold, as well as extreme shock and vibration. However, mine operators must understand there are limitations to automation and com-munications systems. No doubt, these will be surpassed in the near future. If we can put a robot on Mars, sample material and send the analyses back to Earth, imagina-tion is the only limitation we will face.

Managing your fleetTh is quick guide provides information from those who are already in the process of implementing and integrating automa-tion technologies, to help you understand what needs to be considered to have an eff ective and effi cient fl eet. It provides insights in how to embrace new technolo-gies in this ever-evolving industry to help you stay ahead and operate safely. Man-aging your mobile fl eet more eff ectively and effi ciently is one of the top focuses for many miners around the world today. Between the cost of trucks, fuel, tyres, operator salaries and any loss of produc-tivity caused by machine downtime, the

fl eet is one of the biggest cost and risk centres of any mining operation. Even if you are contract miner, these issues are your everyday reality.

From fl eet management specialist com-panies, including Rio Tinto, BHP, Fortes-cue Metals, Newmont, Leighton Contrac-tors, MMG and Northparkes, here are the top seven tips and insights compiled into what they’re doing to improve pro-ductivity and equipment availability in their fl eets. Th is is what you should be looking into if you intend on automating your mine:• Increase GPS coverage throughout

the mine. Last year, Newmont Mining increased its GPS coverage in the pits, from 70% to 97%, at Boddington mine in WA, Australia. Obviously, if your fl eet is automated, it is absolutely fundamen-tal to have total GPS coverage, but in operator truck environments it is still important if you’re looking to drive ef-fi ciencies. Th e reason being that if you

A driverless 930E Komatsu truck being loaded at Yandicoogina mine in Pilbara, Australia. One of the 160-odd driverless trucks Rio Tinto will have operating across Pilbara over the next three years


cannot track your truck everywhere in your site, it almost renders it pointless being able to track it anywhere. If your truck has entered a black spot, how can you redirect it if it needs be to elsewhere on-site? How can you be sure it’s not sitting somewhere idling the engine and wasting fuel? How can you be real-ly sure on coverage, haulage routes and effi ciency? Th e answer is: you can’t. So if there’s one system right now you should be upgrading to ensure you’ve got the best, it’s your GPS system.

• Access and analyse data in real time: Following on from your GPS system, this, or getting as close to real time as possible, is the goal. Being able to make changes on the go with your fl eet is the major way effi ciency and productivity gains can be made. Th is data can be location related, but also equipment health, tyre pressure, driver fatigue, fuel levels, collision avoidance or mine operations.

• Multi-system interface usability is critical: Th ere’s now a system for any-thing and everything you can think of in a cab and providing your operator with fi ve to fi fteen diff erent screens each showing information is confusing, complicated and overwhelming – not to mention rather distracting! It’s impor-tant to think about how you can con-solidate data and the number of screens to present layered information that is accessible when required, rather than presenting all possible information.

• Th ink carefully about your opera-tor training: Th e use of simulation

training is becoming more prolifi c through the mining sector, particularly for truck operators, to ensure that those early mistakes and mistreatment of the equipment occur on a simulator rather than multimillion-dollar equipment. In-corporating fatigue management aware-ness and drug and alcohol education into the training schedule is important too, as even experienced operators will make mistakes if over-tired or under any infl uence. As a follow-on from the above point regarding interface, if op-erators are not correctly trained on us-ing any advanced systems installed into your fl eet and dispatch system, then it will not be used to its fullest and many of the potential benefi ts of an upgrade will be lost.

• Invest in your maintenance and re-liability team and systems: Improve-ments here will signifi cantly improve equipment availability, which is funda-mental to lifting productivity levels. Im-proving availability will have a knock-on eff ect on how many trucks you actually need in your fl eet, which of course is a huge potential cost saving. Too much maintenance can still be reactive in mine operations and for fl eet management to be really optimised, predictive mainte-nance, reliability testing and risk-based inspection should be incorporated more to prevent equipment downtime.

• Consider how eff ective your fuel fi l-tration and management is: Cleaner fuel has a low consumption rate and, with diesel and fuel in general being the second highest cost of any mining operation (behind labour), lowering the consumption rate is critical. Equip-ment life expectancy is also proven to be

longer when the fuel running through it is cleaner, and unexpected downtimes less likely. Typically, the cost of a fuel fi ltration system is cheaper than one single piece of equipment failure due to unclean fuel causing blockages. Not a bad ROI!

• Haulage road design, truck route planning and dispatch scheduling: Th ese are all options for signifi cantly increasing effi ciency. Th ere are so many diff erent variables that can crop up each day on a mine site that’s not necessarily built into the plan and route schedule; so having alternative routes that can be communicated quickly to truck op-erators and save time is an important strategy for fl eet optimisation. Commu-nication between plant requirements and the fl eet is also fundamental to best practice fl eet utilisation and equip-ment availability, as knowing if there is a delay in throughput at the plant should obviously have an impact on dis-patching trucks to collect more ore, and vice versa.If Moore’s Law is anything to go by, and

with everything becoming microproces-sor-driven, we will see a doubling of tech-nology capability every two years. In an average 30-year LOM, that’s a lot of dou-bling up – 32 767% taking into account the exponential eff ect.


AUTONOMOUS HAULAGE SYSTEM (AHS)KOMATSU IS THE FIRST manufacturer in the world to commercialise autonomous haulage systems in the mining industry. Each autonomous dump truck is equipped with vehicle controllers, a high-precision GPS system, an obstacle-detection system and a wireless network system. These features allow the dump truck to safely operate through a complex load, haul and dump cycle, and to integrate with the dozers, loaders and shovels that are also part of the autonomous system.

The autonomous haulage system (AHS) allows unmanned operation of ultra-class mining trucks.

Komatsu’s AHS delivers the following key benefi ts:• reduced number of drivers working in

hostile and remote conditions• increased safety on mine sites• reduced operating costs – extended

tyre life• increased productivity and effi ciency.The environmental benefi ts of the AHS system are reduced fuel consumption and emissions.

Sandvik's AutoMine system improves mine safety


MINE SERVICES

INDEX TO ADVERTISERS

Aury 27

Basil Read 33

Babcock IBC

DRA Global 16

Energyst 36

Future Mine 2

Komatsu South Africa 25

Metso 30

KSB Pumps & Valves 26

Loesche 21

M&J Engineering 28

Trysome Auto Electrical OBC

Sandvik IFC

Weir Minerals 18

WorleyParsons 32

Keeping you

Africa, Zambia, Mozambique, Botswana and Namibia. Th e rest of Southern Af-rica is serviced by the well-established Export Division.

In addition to servicing the mining sec-tor, Trysome supplies parts and services to operators of heavy-duty automotive and earth-moving equipment.

Full man-on-site services are also available where required, and most of its branches now off er re-manufactur-ing services for rotating equipment and componentry.

The latest in safetyIn addition to sourcing, Trysome is com-mitted to the development and innova-tion of auto-electrical and safety prod-ucts. Th e company’s state-of-the-art tech-nology in collision avoidance and safety systems has already been adopted by, and is fully operational in, many of South Af-rica's mines.

Most fatalities in open-pit mining can be attributed to two main factors – blind spots and operator fatigue. Trysome has a broad product off ering that focuses on operator safety and specifi cally col-lision avoidance. Trysome’s range of systems covers:• collision avoidance • fatigue monitoring • radars• back-up alarms• camera and monitor• work lights• strobe lights• solar lighting towers• speed-monitoring trailers• wheel chocks• tyre-pressure monitoring.

moving safelyTh e above-mentioned products can be used independently but operate better as an ‘all-in-one’ collision-avoidance system. Th is product has already been successfully adopted by open-pit mines in Africa, in-cluding Anglo Coal and Kumba Iron Ore. Trysome’s systems also operate in mines in Zambia, Namibia and Botswana.

Sole distributor partnershipsTrysome has developed strong partner-ships with world-renowned brands to bring to the market only the highest-quality products and is the sole distributor, in Southern Africa, of the following:• SAFEmine – a compact GPS/RF traf-

fi c-alert and collision-avoidance warn-ing system suitable for all vehicles in open-pit mines.

• PreView – radar systems designed to detect objects in zones obscured from the operator’s view.

• Q2 – Q2’s rear-vision camera system supports up to four camera inputs and the seven-inch fl at screen off ers various connection possibilities

• Delco Remy – Delco Remy’s worldwide facilities manufacture an extensive range of heavy-duty products for both OE and aftermarket customers. Th e range includes starters, alternators and components used in a variety of applica-tions and brands, including Caterpillar, Cummins, Daewoo, ERF, Fiat, Freight-liner, GM, John Deere, Mack, Mercedes-Benz, Renault and Volvo.

• Nordic Lights – manufacturer of a vast range of original equipment and after-market work lights used extensively in underground, construction and min-ing equipment.

LATE IN 2013, Trysome, the largest single-source supplier of heavy-duty, auto-electrical com-ponents and collision-avoidance

systems in South Africa, opened its doors in Tete, Mozambique – touted as the cur-rent mining hotspot in the world and pre-dicted to remain so for the next ten years.

Th e move is part of the company’s plan to increase its capabilities in Africa, geo-graphically positioning itself to take its products and services closer to the cus-tomer. Each branch comprises branch management, sales, admin, fi eld service, a remanufacturing workshop, warehous-ing and distribution. In order to further enhance its off ering with a broader Afri-can footprint, Trysome added two new authorised distributors to its network: Preston Investments in Gaborone, Bot-swana, and Erongo Auto Electric in Walvis Bay, Namibia.

Th e result? Trysome is now well repre-sented in Southern Africa with branch-es and distributors throughout South

Trysome is committed to the development and innovation of auto-electrical and safety products

inside mining february 2015

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