ICT-ACTION RESEARCH (C) Raimo Hälinen (2012)

Types of research

Philosphical discussionSubjective/Argumentative

Grounded theoryField studiesCase studiesAction researchDesign researchAction design research

Mathematical proofTheorem proof

Field experimentLaboratory experimentSimulationSurvey

Analytical Emprical

Qualitative

Quantitative

Source: adapted from Brjørnson (2007)

Origins of the action research

Kurt Levin (1946) defined the term ”action research“. A social research is a combination of theory and practice, and purpose is to change a social system through researcher acting as an observer or as an active participant.

In Britain a group of researchers (later at the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations) developed independent action research method.

John Collier (1945) developed approach to action-oriented knowledge.

Rapoport (1970) defined “Action research aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to the goals of social science by joint collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical framework. “

Arguris et al. (1987) defined action research as an action science.

Practice and Research

Practical problem-solvingPractitioners and designers achieving practical solution in organizational context

Research projects Researchers interested in studying reality and developing knowledge

Action research areaPractical problem-solving integrated to research setting and participant researcher

Defining action research According to Baskerville (1999), action research is two stage process.

Diagnostic and therapeutic.

Primary goalsOrganisational development

System designScientific

knowledgeTraining

StructureRigorous

Fluid

Typical involmentCollaborativeFacilitative

Expert

Process modelIterative

ReflectiveLinear

Social environment

(Client-system

infrastructure)

Source: Baskerville (1999)

Action research stagesClient-System infrastructure1. Diagnosing2. Action planning3. Action taking4. Evaluating5. Specifying learning

Types of Action researchIterative action research typesCanonical Action researchSoft SystemsPrototypingCollaborative practice research

Cyclical Process modelDiagnosing, action planning action taking, evaluating and learningCyclical spiral process

Reflective action researchAction science researchParticipant observationAction learningDialogical action research(used other dicipline)

Linear action researchEthics-methodMultiviewClinical field work (laboratory research)Process consultation

Styles of action researchesPremises Decision Contributions

Practice-orientedResearch is real-world problem-solving oriented.

InduktiivinenObserving and discussingAnalyzing real-world phenomena

ExperimentsField researchesTheory developmentMethod(s) of problem-solvingResearch method

Theoretical Research is based on theoretical questions of information systems.Knowledge questions

DeduktiivinenDeveloping research methods based on theory, and evaluating theory

ExperimentsField studyTheory developmentMethods of problem-solvingResearch method

Source: Mathiassen, Chiasson and Germonprez, 2012Järvinen Pertti: review, 2012

Forms of Action researchType Description Epistemologi

cal orientation

Positivist AR The research is based on predifined hypotheses and thus testing theory using by multiple methods.

Positivist (high)

Action science

The goal of the research is to solve problems in a client organization by exposing differences between espoused theory and theory in use.

Positivist (Medium)

Canonical AR Theory provides the general basis on which action planning take place. Attention is paid to theory assessment and refinement.

Positivist (low)

Participatory AR

Theory emerges through the research. Research client participate actively in the data analysis and respective learning processes.

Interpretive (high)

Multiview The goal is to identify and improve a client situation through the use of a joint information systems development methodology.

Interpretive (meidum)

Soft systems methodology

The goal is to diagnose and solve a problem in a client organization through a well defined and structured process-oriented methodology.

Interpretive (low)

Critical AR Research is motivated by power imbalances and is aimed at having a liberating effect, wheryby power imbalances are reduced or eliminated.

Critical high)

Source: DeLuca and Kock (2007)

Paradigmatic assumptions of AR

Assumptions

Ontology The beliefs of the social reality, how social reality is constructed. Action research is value laden, morally committed. A researcher perceive themselves their social context.

Epistemology The epistemological position is mainly anti-positivist. Researches can search for regualarities and causal relationships. Knowledge is uncertain, knowledge creation is collaborative process.

Methodology The methodology is open-ended and developmental.

Ethics Means-ends oriented and may be interpretive.Its focus is real-world problems to trying to find out solutions.Its ethical framework is mutually acceptable with researches and practitioners. (Client-problem solving approach).

Iivari and Venable (2009), Whitehead and McNiff (2006), Järvinen P. (2005)

Paramistic premises for ARPremises Description

1. Purpose of action The action research must explicate the theoretical purpose underline the action. Theory must be explicit before action is taken.

2. Practical action in problem setting

It is necessary to reveal the relative truth-value of the theoretical concepts underlying the action.

3. Practical action must inform theory

The theory must be adjusted according to the practical outcome of the action. Theory must be validated by its practical outcome.

4. Reasoning and action must be socially situated

The social situation means that the action researchers must be participant observers.

Source: Baskerville and Mayers (2004)

Dewey (1938), common elements of inquiry: An indeterminate situation, formulation of problem, determination of a solution, reasoning, and operationalization of facts.

Critical action researchResearch setting

Methodological principles Critical assumptions

Action research teamTeachers, Principals,Practitioners,Consultants

Interaction of action and participation.Context specific understanding and ways of knowing.Developing of agential learning capabilities.

Conceptualizing critical action research based on the assumption that the truth of social reality resides otuside the contexts of participants until they receive emansipatory knowledge.(ideal emansipation)

Networked working

Establishment of collective vision of social change and sustainability.Incorporation of high level of reflexity.Gaining broader perspective of social change and sustainability.Enhancement of diversity.

Researchers and practitioners are closely working and regular meetings are organized.

Data collection techniques

Collaborative inquiry into Client-System organization.

Critical data gathered and discussions recorded. Collected information is shared including confidential data.

Dialogical action reserch

Researcher’s expertise of

theory

Practitioner’s expertise of

praxis

Real world problemsReflective dialogue

Action research team

Action/stimulus

Reaction/response

Source: Mårtensson and Lee (2004)

Dialogical action research stages

Researcher’s expertise

Practitioner’s expertise

Analyzingreal-world

problems

Research start state Time Research end state

Improved researcher’s

expertise

Improved practitioner’s expertise

Solved or analyzed real world phenome

na

Source: Mårtensson and Lee (2004)

Research start at time=1 Research end at time=2

Participatory action research

Key features Description

1. PAR is social process

It explores the relationships between the realms of the individual and the social.

2. PAR is participatory It engages people in examining their knowledge (understanding, skills and values) and interpretive categories and their action in the social and material world.

3. PAR is practical and collaborative

It engages people in examining the social practices that link them with others in social interaction.

4.PAR is emansipatory It aims to help people recover, and release themselfs from the constraints of irrational, unproductive, unjust and unsatisfying social structures that limit their self-development and self-determination.

5. PAR is critical It aims people to help recover, and release themselfes from the constraints embedded in the social media through which they interact.

6. PAR is recursive(reflective and dialectical)

It aims to help people to investigate reality in order to change it.

7. PAR aims to tranform both theory and practice

It aims to help people to articulate and develop each in relation to the other through critical reasoning about both theory and practice and their concequences.Source: Denzin and Lincoln (2000)

Recursive relationships in AR

A spiral process of action researech

Skills and values

Social practicesCommunicationProductionSocial organization

Social structuresCultureEconomyPolitical life

Social mediaLanguageWorkPower

Individual knowledgeUnderstandingSkillsValues

Social practicesCommunicationProductionSocial organization

Social structuresCultureEconomyPolitical life

Social mediaLanguageWorkPower

Individual’s knowledgeUnderstanding

Action Research in Education

Basic assumptions Descriptions

Teachers and principals work best on problems they have identified for themselves.

Action research is deliberate, solution-oriented investigation. It is characterized by spiraling cycles of problem identification,m analysis, data-driven action taken, and finally problem redefinition.

Teachers and principals become more effectice when encouraged to examine and assess their own work and then consider ways of working differently.

Purpose of action research in education can be to develop curriculum, professional skills, systems planning, school restructuring and to develop evaluation tools.

Teachers and principals help each other by working collaboratively.

Working with colleagues helps teachers and prinicipals in their professional development.

In order to do action research it needs that time, and other resources are available for teachers.

Source: Eileen Ferrance (2000) and Watts (1985, p.118)

Action research approachAssumptions Description

Epistemology(relationship between inquirer and the known)

Research is carried out in a natural environment, and it is based on the constructivist ideas.

Axiology(ethical, aesthetic and spritual considerations)

Research practice is improved, and learning has taken place. Practitioners' and researchers’ collaborative work may benefit research processes and results.

Ontology(nature of reality/people)

Research purpose is intentional and collaborative, and phenomenon of interest is chancing (it is not static).

Generation of theory

Results of research process is often contex-based. Some generalization with or across research projects may be possible.

Methods Research methods are qualitative (positive thoughts to the grounded theory).

Source: adapted from Papas et al. (2012

Canonical Action research process model

Project start

DiagnosisIdentifying and

defining problem

Action taking(Intervention)

Data collection and analysis

EvaluationAction and results

ReflectionA general findings

Action planningExploring alternative

solutions

Project end

Instrumental theory

Focal theories

Research-Client

agreement

Focal theory is the intellectual basis for action research.(e.g. TAM, IS-success)

Instrumental theories are used for diagnosis and planning, and to organize thoughts. Source: Davison(2003) and Järvinen (2011)

Soft System method as a focal theory

Real-world situations

and systems

Analysis of problem situation

and evalution

Conceptual model of real-world problem

Structured real-world problems

Action to improve the problem

situation(implementation)

Defining concepts and

models

Development of feasible and

desirable changesReal wolrd

System thinking

Root definition of relevan

system

Comparison of the model with real-

world phenomenon

Planned approach to Action research

Action Research

Action Research

Action Research

Case study Research

Case studiesIntensive or comparative1. Purpose2. Assumption3. Situation

1. select cases2. data collection3. analyzing data4. shaping hypothesis5. comparison with literature6. conclusions

4. Types of research1. Narrative2. Tabulation3. Explanatory4. Interpretative

Source: Eisehardt (1989), Cunningham (1997), Järvinen P. (2012)Germonprez M. and Mathiassen L. (2009)

Principles and criteria for rigor Action research settings

Principles

Foundatation Epistemology and action research types: CAR,PAR,NAR, AL, CFW.Ethics

Research-client agreement

Formal/non-formal argreement, Client commitmentRole expectationsData collection and analysisProject focus

Cyclical process model

Degree of opennesCycle descriptionDecision criteria for proceed/exit

Theory Relevance and theory usage

Change through action

Cause, intervention, client approvalorganizational assessment, document

Learning through reflection

Reporting style, Collaborative reflectionProject success, implication to practice and theory

Source: De Vries (2007)

Action research designResearch design types

Descriptions The world that is explored

Sequential Methods are applied in a sequence with results from one method feeding into the next.

1. Material world2. Personal world3. Social worldParallel Methods are executed simultaneusly

with results being tranferred between methods.

Dominant One method is adopted as the main approach supplemented by other methods.

Multi-methodology

Different methods embodying different paradigms are combined and tailored to a particular project.

Research perspective:1. subjective2. objective3. intersubjectiv

e

Multi-level The research project simultaneusly addresses different organizational levels using different methods.

Source: Mingers (2001)

Evaluation in action research

Design principles

Design outcomes Socio-technical implications

Context-sensitive service(How to switch between different contexts?)

Increased convenienceBetter ease of useUser acceptance

Various individual use patternsWider and easier user acceptanceNo resistance

Contextually adapted(How to recognize different usage situtation at work?)

Improved working situationBetter modification rules and ease settings

Integration of services relying on different interaction modelsUbiquitous computing environment.

Context-switching support(What are typical context-switching situation at work?)

Generally convienient context switches

Trustful context-switches.No need specific user-guides.

Source: modified from Henfridsson (2003)

Evaluation criteria for action researchEvaluation objects Evaluation criteria are based on the following:

Socially situated The role of action researchers (degree of participant and role of observer).

Problem relevance Research problem is relevant and problem is based on practical phenomenon and actual for the company or the society.

Purpose of research The purpose of the research is to produce problem-solving proposals and proposals are based on collected data and analysis.

Practical action in the problem

All research actions are described, and clearly articulated in a way that it is possible to carry out research using by similar actions.

Applied research method(s)

The applied research method is clearly described, and it is based on generally accepted action research method. It is possible to apply more than one method during the research process.

Used theoretical framework

Research actions are based on theoretical framework, and these actions can inform theory.

Research activities and research rigour

All research activities are described and are based on applied research method, so that other researchers or readers can follow the research process.

Theoretical contribution

The theoretical contributions are articulated in a way that can be used other research projects.

Practical contribution Results of research includes problem-solving proposals that are accepted by practitioners.

Source: adapted from Papas et al. (2012)

Practitioner's reflective questions :

Schön’s reflection question of problem-solving: Can I solve the problem I have set? Do I like what I get when I solve this

problem? Have I made the situation coherent? Have I made it congruent with my

fundamental values and theories? Have I kept inquiry moving?

Role of the action researcher

Typical role of action research

Description

Research planner, leader and designer

An action researcher is planning a research project. A researcher can lead the research project. A researcher designs the whole action research process.

Catalyzer, facilitator, teacher, helper

During the action research process, the researcher can activate other participants, organize meetings and discussions. The role of teacher is essential to conform with that research process is carried out properly.

Listener, observer

Both roles, listener and observer are fundamental. The researcher can collect relevant information by listening and observing.

Synthesizer and reporter(Active decision maker)Supporter

The role of synthesizer means that the researcher during the research process actively collects data and analyses it. The role of a reporter means that the researcher arranges continuous reporting during the research process. After the process, the researcher finalizes and publishes the results of action research taken both theoretical and practical reasoning into account.Source: modified from O´Brien (1998)

Selection criteria for action research approach

Research object

Criteria to select Action research approach

The artefact and organizational practice

The design process of an artifact can improve organization practices, and this is the primary goal of the inquiry. The design of an artifact may need to apply design science method. This must be taken into account.

The process and research cycles

Practical problem is explicit and diagnosis may be time consuming. Canonical action research method is suitable or possible. Research project is based on agreement between researcher(s) and practioners.

The focus of evaluation

The evaluation steps are part of the research cycle.

The role of knowledge

Practical actions and outcomes dominate the research project. Collaborative working style is dominative. The one objective is to enhance knowledge during the research project.

The role of learning

Shared actions between researcher(s) and practitioners will lead to learn.

Similarities of AR and DSRAction research Design science research

Action research emphasizes the utility aspect of the future system from the people’s point of view.

Design science’s products are assessed against criteria of valua or utility.

Action research produces knowledge to guide practice in modification.

Design science produces design knowledge (concepts, constructs, models, and methods.)

Action research means both action taking and evaluating.

Buildin and evaluation are the two main activities of design science.

Action researc is carried out in collaboration between action researcher and and the client system.

Design science research is initiated by the researcher(s) interest in developing technological rules for a certain type of issue. (Each individual case is primarily oriented at solvin the local problem in close collaboration wtih the local people.)

Action research modifies a given reality or develops new system.

Design science solves construction problems (producing new innovations) and improvement problems (improving the performance of existing entities).

The researcher intervenes in the problem setting.

Design science research is initiated by the researcher (s) interest in developing technological rules for certain type of issue.

Knowledge is generated, used, tested adn modified in the course of the action research project.

Knowledge is generated, used and evaluated through the building action.

Source: Järvinen p: (2005)

Similarities between field expriment and canonical action

researchPhases Field experiment canonical action research

At start of reserch

Researcher’s role is dominantPractitioner’s role is non-dominant

Researcher’s role is non-dominantPractitioner’s role is dominant

During research process

Researcher’s role is dominantPractitioner’s role is non-dominant

Both roles are collaborative

At end of research process

Researcher’s role is dominant in scientific evaluationPractitioner’s role is domnant in practical evaluation

Researcher’s role is dominant in scientific evaluationPractitioner’s role is domnant in practical evaluation

Purpose of research

Testing hypotheses and relationship between independed and depended variables.

The purpose is to solve real-world problem with practitioners. Theoretical framework.

Outcomes of research

The relationship in the research model is supported or not supported by the evidence of field experiment.Possible practical implications can be also achieved.

The relevant outcome is to solve pratitioner’s problem and in the intended manner.The scientific result is to the theoretical framework studying by assumed relationship between variables.

The concept of study

Manipulating isolated single variable and at same time being other variable constant.

The cyclical research process includes diagnosing, action planning, action taking, evaluating and specifying learning

Comparison of AR and DSRAction research Design science research

Purpose Understanding reality in an organizational context

Solving a purely technical problem by developing and evaluating a new solution technology.

Suggestion Action planning. Considering alternative courses of action for solving a problem.

Defining needed requirements and main features of a solution. Specifying research process by applying research method(s).

Development

Action taking. Selecting a course of action. Data collection and analysis.

Developing a solution that meets requirements and features and start the building process. Evaluation is included to the building as an activity.

Evaluation Studying concequences of an action.

Demontrating, simulating developed solution using by specified evaluation method.

Conclusion Specifying learning and identifying general findings.

Publishing theoretical and practical consequences and future research proposals.

Technical Action ResearchImprovement problem(IT-artefact )

Knowledge problem(Design science)

Improvement problem(Action research Client-System environment)

Problem investigationStakeholders, goals, criteriaPhenomena and evaluation

Research problem investigationUnit of studyConceptual modelResearch questions and Current knowledge

Problem investigationStakeholders, goals, criteriaPhenomena, diagnosisEvaluation

Artifact designRequirementsFeatures of the artefactCriteria of evaluationPlan of development process

Research designAcquire clientAgree on improvement goalsAgree treatment and measurementReasoning

Treatment designSpecify treatment using artefactAgree on implementation plan

Design validationExpected effect in contextExpected evaluationTrade-offsSensitivity

Research design validationEffective for question-answeringGood enoughTrade-offsSensitivity

Design validationExpected effect in client-systemsExpected evaluationTrade-offsSensitivity

ImplementationTransfer to the economy

Research executionPerform the research project

ImplementationImplementation of artefact in client-system

Implementation evaluationStakeholders, goals, criteriaAchieved effects in conctextAchieved evaluation results(Field experiment)

Analysis of resultsObservationExplanationLimitationsContribution to knowledgeConsequences for improvement

Implementation evaluationStakeholders, goals, criteriaAchieved effects in client-systemAchieved evaluation results.

Source: modified from Wieringa and Morali (2012)

Technical action reserch processes

IT-artefact problem

investigation

IT-artefact design

It-artefact design

validation

It-artefactimplementatio

n

Implementation evaluation

Research problem

investigation

Research design

Research design

validation

Research execution

Analysis of research results

and publishing

Client-system problem

investigation

Treatment design

Design validation

Implementation

in the Client-system

Implentation evaluation and applying results

Techical Action research cycles

Engineering cycle

Engineering cycle

Idealizing assumptions Realistic assumptions

o o o o

Framework for IS design science

Environ-ment

IS design sccience

Knowledge base

Improvement problem

solving

Knowledge question

investigation

Goals

Artifact

Knowledge

Research treatments of developing artifacts

Design researcher

Artifact

PractitionerStakeholder

Engineer, manager,user, customer

Design and implementation

Study

Treatment

Problem context

Contributions of Action researches

real-world problems

Area – of research interest

Framework of area

of research interest

Framework of

indepented research interest

Research methods

Research question

s

Conceptual contrubutions

AC(a)C(fi)

Research methodology development

M(r)M(ps)

Possible solutions to real-world problems

Source: based on Mathiassen L., Chiasson M., and Germonprez M. (2009)

Research risks in action research

Risk factors A researcher’s role and responsiblity in Action research projects100% 75% 50% 25%

Time consuming research projects High High Medium

Low

Loosing control of research agenda High Medium

Medium

Medium

Need for nursing research projects High High Medium

Low

Concern with progress and success High High Medium

Low

Facing conficting situations High High Medium

Low

Fearful of not being succesful project High High Medium

Low

Simonsen (2009)

Simonsen proposes that junior researchers should participate in collaborative research projects that are managed by senior researchers. Having the supervisor co-operation in the action research can lead to the better results and lower to risks.

Styles in action research articles

Style Definitions

From-the-trenches

Focus on the practical problem-solving contribution and/or specific research settings.

Action research results R = f(A,P,F, M,C), where A is area of concern, P is real-world problem setting, F is conceptual framing of investigation, M is method(s), and C is contributions to practice and theory.

Area- of concern investigation

Contribution to A or F(a) withing a particular research setting.

EmpricalConceptual

Framework investigation

Contribution to F(i) with new knowledge on frameworks independet of A for studying IS practice.

CritiqueDevelopment

Problem-solving methodology

Contribution to M(ps) with new knowledge about problem-solving methods.

CritiqueDevelopment

Research methodology investigation

Contribution to M(r) with new knowledge on action research methods.

CritiqueDevelopment

Source: adapted from Mathiassen L., Chiasson M., and Germonprez M. (2009

Structure of action research articleStructure Description

Intoduction Introduce and motivate objective of the study.

Background Provide a review of the relevant literature. Include the motivation for the study by evaluating what we know and what we do not know.

Framing Introduce and argue how the structure of data and data gathering has been organized. Give premises how data is analyzed based on the principle of theory.

Methods Describe and argue why the selected method(s) is applied to the study.

Results Present results of the problem-solving cycle based research method(s) and data-analysis.

Discussion and conclusions

Discuss and draw conclusions based on research questions and the objective of the research. Show research results in relation to literature. Provide possible explanations, explicate conclusions with evidence for each conclusion. State theoretical and practical implications.

Source: modified from Mathiassen, Chiasson and Germonprez (2009)

Criteria for action research paperCriteria Description

Articulation of objectives

Researchers explicitly clarify the research objectives, which they believe to be relevant to their work. Researchers describe choices they have made during the research process.

Partnership and participation

Researcher extent the means of partnership and how they participate during the research process. Researchers concern all relevant relational components of the action research process. The role of researchers is essentially described on the research paper (passive observer, active observer, consultation or active participant).

Contribution to action research theory and practice

A researcher describes and communicates how results of action research can be linked to the wider body of knowledge, and how results can be utilized in practice in the future.

Methods and process

A researcher clearly articulates what was done to whom so that a reader can see the choices to enhance quality that were made.

Actionability A researcher articulates how new ideas guided research activities and how ideas can be utilized next research projects.

Reflexivity A researcher how the role of the researcher has been active as a change agent.

Significance A researcher explicitly clarifies the significance of the content and research process so that a reader can see how results and process extent both research knowledge in theory and practice.

Source: modified from Huang (2010)

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