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United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation.———. — — .

INFORMATICS AS A SUBJECTMATTER

Documentprepared for

Seminar on Teacher Training in Informaticsin Technical and Vocational Training

(Harare, Zimbabwe, 24-28 May 1993)

UNESCO Sub-Regional Office for Southern AfricaP.O. Box HG 435HighlandsHARARE, Zimbabwe

May 1993

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INFORMATICS AS A SUBJECT MATTER

by

L M NYAGURAHuman Resources Research Centre

University of Zimbabwe

Seminar on Teacher Training in Informatics inTechnical and Vocational Training

United Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization

May, 1993Harare Zimbabwe


UNESCO Sub–Regional Office for Southern AfricaP.O. Box HG 435HighlandsHarareZimbabwe

First Published 1993Copyright UNESCO

The choice and the presentation of the facts contained ‘in thisdocument and the opinions expressed therein, do not necessarilycoincide with any official views of UNESCO.

Any suggestions for improvement will be sincerely appreciated.


CONTENTS

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

1. The Concept of Informatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. Scope and Nature of Activities in Informatics . . . . 13. Subject Matter Features of Informatics . . . . . . . . 24. Curriculum for Informatics as Subject Matter . . . . . 2

4.1 PCs/Microcomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4.1.1 What Microcomputer to Buy . . . . . . . 7

4.2 Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4.2.1 Functions of an Operating System . . . 94.2.2 Utility programmes . . . . . . . . . 104.2.3 What OS to Use . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4.3 Programming Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.3.1 List of Selected Programming Languages:Year First Published, Computers where Used,and Primary Application Area . . . . . 15

4.4 Application Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4.4.1 Business Related Software . . . . . . . 204.4.2 CAD/CAM Software . . . . . . . . . . . 214.4.3 Computer Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . 224.4.4 Survey Data Processing Software . . . . 254.4.5 Database and Spreadsheets Software . . 28

Database Software . . . . . . . . . . . 28Spreadsheet Software . . . . . . . . . 29

4.4.6 Text Processing Software . . . . . . . 30

4.5 Curriculum and Pedagogical Issues . . . . . . . . 32

5. Relationship between Informatics and other Disciplines 34

5.1 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345.2 Library Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345.3 Linguistics and Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . 345.4 Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355.5 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355.6 Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Appendix I: Survey of Training Materials in Informaticsincluding References to this document . . . . . . . . 36

Appendix II: 16-Bit Microcomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . 43


LIST OF TABLESThe Intel CPU Family Development . . . . . . . .The Motorola CPU Family Development . . . . . . .Comparison of Selected Operating System CommandsEngineering Functions of CAD/CAM Systems . . . .Business Graphics Software: Summary of FeaturesMultilevel Software: Summary Comparison . . . .Spreadsheet programmes: Summary of Features . .16-Bit Microcomputers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . 7

. . . . . 8

. . . . . 13

. . . . . 21

. . . . . 24

. . . . . 27

. . . . . 30

. . . . . 43

ii


Foreword

Applied computer science has had a significant impact on humanthinking, performance, and creativeness in almost all areas ofbusiness, industry, and scientific activities. It is theintended aim of this document to develop an operationalunderstanding of informatics as a teaching subject in technicaland vocational institutions.

The document highlights the concept of informatics and featuresthat help viewing informatics as a body of knowledge thatdeserves inclusion in the broad curricula of technical andvocational institutions. In particular, adequate analysis isgiven of each potential component of an informatics curriculum.

A brief survey of training materials for informatics is done andculminates with information presented in Appendix I. Theimportance of informatics is further demonstrated through therelationships it has with other disciplines/areas.

iii


1. The Concept of Informatics

Historically, the term informatics was coined in France inthe 1960s to reflect two important activities related toinformation science:

the study of the communication processes in thecommunities of science and industry; and

the development of techniques and systems for moreefficient organization, storage, and dissemination ofrecorded scientific information.“

A global statement from these two activities is what couldbe perceived as the social mission and long-term objectiveof informatics, namely the design of information processingsystems (hardware and software) that augment man’sintellectual and purposeful activities. Based on themotivation above, informatics may be defined as appliedcomputer science where the latter is concerned withinformation processes, with information structures andprocedures that enter into the representation of suchprocesses, and with their implementation in informationprocessing systems.

2. Scope and Nature of Activities in Informatics

The criteria statements defining informatics serve as themain goals of informatics. These goals lead to severalareas of activities in informatics. First, substantialwork is done focusing on the structure and operation ofcomputer systems, on the principles that underlie theirdesign and programming, on effective methods for their usein different areas of application, and on improving theirefficiency through explorations and experimentation.Second, substantial work is done focusing on machine-levelrepresentations of programmes and associated data, onschemes for controlling programme execution, and onprogrammes for handling computer languages and for managingcomputer operations. Third, applications-orientedactivities in both numerical and nonnumerical areas arecentral to the work in informatics.

The areas of activities outlined above prompt two otherimportant types of activities in informatics:

(i)

(ii)

Building conceptual frameworks for understanding theavailable empirical material in informatics through anactive search for unifying principles, generalmethods, and theories.

Exploring new computer systems and applications in thelight of new concepts and theories.


3. Subject Matter Features of Informatics

Based on the social mission of informatics, the curriculumfeatures of informatics as a teaching subject shouldinclude substantial elements of the hardware system, thesoftware system, and various elements of computerapplications in a variety of areas of human activities.Major areas of study in informatics should, therefore,include:

Problemc

1. solving involving representations in acomputer language of problems and procedures invarious application areas: Problems addressed shouldbe from both numerical and nonnumerical areas.

2. High-level languages for various application areas.Schemes for structuring data and procedures, languagedescriptions, and translation schemes: This area isof great importance because it facilitatescommunication between users and computers, and has a “strong impact on computer applications. It is clearlyrelated to work in (1)

3. Machine-level languages, storage schemes, operatingsystems, and programming mechanisms:” This area isconcerned with the art of programming computerhardware. The activities correlate with those in (2).

4. System organization and management schemes, executiveand control mechanisms, and computer maintenanceschemes: The activities in this area include systemanalysis and simulation at both the hardware andsoftware levels, machine organization and logicaldesign, antivirus systems, computer diagnostic andrepair software tools.

5. Computer systems for commercial applications.Business data processing: This area is concerned withdatabase management systems; text processing, surveydata statistical packages; spreadsheets; graphics;integrated computer packages; computer applications tobiomedicine, manufacturing, engineering, libraryinformation storage and retrieval, telecommunications,instruction and learning, social science, corporateadministration, etc.

6. Business and scientific mathematics: This areafocuses on mathematical skills that are necessary tofully explore activities of a scientific and numericalnature and those of a business nature.

4. Curriculum for Informatics as Subject Matter

The main goals of an informatics curriculum should be theefficient preparation of (i) computer hardware and softwareoperations technicians, (ii) computer personnel with

2


knowledge of the practical aspects and the businessapplications of computing, (iii) personnel with ability tocope with more recent applications of computer technology,(iv) personnel with knowledge of communications softwareand hardware systems, and (v) above all preparation ofindividuals with problem-solving skills and orientation inthe various areas of informatics.

Attainment of the curriculum goals will depend on thestructure of the training programme (duration, entryqualifications, balance between theory and practice,provision for industrial attachment, etc.), on the qualityand number of trainers (academic and computer training,professional training/experience, work experience,knowledge of industrial computer-oriented activities,etc.), on curriculum content (nature and scope, extent ofconcept and process development, levels of contentdevelopment, professional areas of specialization tofacilitate high level skills development, etc.), on thetraining methods, and on the evaluation/assessment methods(competence-based, problem-solving projects, industrialattachment reports, process-centred theory tests, etc.) .

The necessary content areas for training, based on theinformation from the scope and nature of activities in

.

informatics and from subject matter features ofinformatics; ‘include PCs/microcomputers, operating systems,utility programmes, programming languages, and applicationssoftware.

We highlight below the majorcontent area that might haveinformatics. Informationpresented in Appendix I.

features and issues about eachsome impact on the teaching ofon training materials is

4.1 PCs/Microcomputers

A personal computer (PC) is a microcomputer of modestcost for which the user has full’ and exclusive use.A microcomputer is a small computer with amicroprocessor based on one or more integrated circuitdevices. A computer is an electronic device which canaccept raw data, process it by means of a series ofcalculations, and then output it in a suitable form.

The major components of a microcomputer are thememory, the input/out (1/0) ports, and the centralprocessing unit (CPU) . The memory holds programmeinstructions and data to be manipulated by theprogrammes. Two types of memory exist, namely ROM andRAM. The read only memory (ROM) and its othervariants [programmable ROM (PROM) , erasableprogrammable ROM (EPROM) are nonvolatile memoriessince their contents remain the same even when thereis no electrical power. Their contents are determinedin the last stage of the manufacturing process. On

3


the other hand random access memory (RAM) is used tostore data and instructions that must be read andwritten during execution of programmes by the centralprocessing unit. Data in the RAM is lost when themicrocomputer is switched off whether deliberately ordue to power failure. Depending on the type of themicroprocessor, microcomputers can have RAMs ofstorage capacity ranging from 32K bytes to 16M bytes.A large RAM is useful for large software such asaccounting and database packages, SPSSPC, Ventura,ML3, etc.

The central processing unit is the heart of themicrocomputer. It performs the numerical processing(additions, subtractions, etc.), logical operations,and timing functions. The CPU reads in data andcontrols instructions through the input ports,executes one instruction at a time, and sends data andcontrols signals to the peripheral devices (e.g. videodisplay unit (VDU), printer, etc.).

A CPU has three major sub-units linked to one anotherand to the 1/0 ports and memory by data bus (a systemof parallel connections or highway for bits). Thediagram below depicts a block structure of amicrocomputer.

4


Block Structure of a Microcomputer

f1/0 Ports MEMORY

(PROM)--— —--

(RAM)

L

DATA BUS

A

Registers ALU CONTROLJ

* i

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) contains an adder toperform binary (base 2) arithmetic operations on thedata obtained from the RAM, the registers or otherinputs. ALUs provide other functions as wellincluding multiplication, division, Boolean logic anddata shifting.

Registers provide temporary storage within the CPUfor memory addresses, status codes, and other usefulinformation during programme execution. The number ofregisters depends on the type of processor/microprocessor.

The control unit which is circuitry coordinates allmicroprocessor activities. It interprets instructionsand routes data through various units both internaland external to the CPU, to performprocessing activities.

Data communication in computers is based

5

the proper

on word


length, i.e. the number of bits (binary digits) thatcan be processed simultaneously. The smallest wordlength is a byte which is eight bits. One byte canstore only a two-digit number. A word equals 16 bitsor two bytes. Thus a word stores a four-digit number.Some microcomputers have 32, 48 or 64 bit word lengthcapacity.

A 64-bit microprocessor is faster than a 48-bitprocessor which is faster than a 32-bit processor Lwhich in turn is faster than a 16-bit microprocessor.Where internal speed is desired, it is extremelyimportant to consider the type of microprocessor in amicrocomputer. Speed/Clock rates of 16-bitmicroprocessors range from 8MHz to over 25MHz. Thetable in Appendix II provides information on a widerange of 16-bit microprocessors.

Other important attachments to a microcomputer aremagnetic disks, diskettes or floppy disks (FDs) andWinchester disks or hard disks (HD). These providemain backing storage for a microcomputer. HDs rangein capacity from 5Mb to 300 Mb while current FDs rangefrom 360Kb up to 1.4 Mb for the 3½ inch type, 360Kb. upto 5Mb for the 5¼ inch type, and 500 Kb to 10Mb forthe 8 inch type.

Other important external devices to a microcomputerare the VDU, Keyboards, printers, document readers(optical character recognition and magnetic inkcharacter recognition), and graph plotters.

A course on informatics will not be complete if itomits the important element of buying a microcomputer.The importance of up-to-date information on computersystems available on the market should be stressed.To this end, important computer magazines should beconsidered. Typical useful magazines includePractical Computing, Personal Computer World,Microdecision, and PC Magazine.

Important points to be stressed when discussing issueson buying a microcomputer should include:

(i) The need to choose software rather than hardwarein order to deal with the problem of hardware-software compatibility.

(ii) The value of buying all hardware and softwarefrom one but reputable dealer.

(iii) Defining jobs for which a microcomputer isneeded.

(iv) Checking out the reputation of the manufacturerand levels of sales of their products.

(v) Examining the costs including maintenance andongoing costs for spare parts and consumables.

6


4 .1.1 What Microcomputer to Buy

Two important families of microprocessors are worthconsidering when discussing what type of amicrocomputer to buy. The Intel family whose genesisdates back to 1968 is the main characterizing featureof IBM PCs and all clones (IBM PC compatibles). Thedevelopment history of the Intel CPU family issummarized below.

The Intel CPU Family Development

Name Year Register Data bus Address CommentsWidth Width space

4004 1971 4 4 1K First microprocessor on chip8008 1972 8 8 16K First 8-bit microprocessor8080 1974 8 8 64K First general-purpose CPU on a chip8085 1974 8 8 64K Repacked 84)808086 1978 16 16 1M First 16-bit CPU on a chip8088 1980 16 8 1M Processor used in the lBM PC/XT

80166 1982 16 16 1M 6086+ l/O support on a chip80168 1982 16 16 1M 8088 + l/O support on a chip80286 1982 16 16 16M Address space increased to 16MB80386 1985 32 32 70T True 32-bit CPU on a chip

80386SX 1988 32 16 70T 80386 with an 80286 bus80486 1989 32 32 70T Faster version of the 80366

Notes: T=Tera (240).Source: Structured Computer Organization (3rd ed.)by Andrew S. Tanenbaun (1990).

First we must observe that the 80386SX is a special versionof 80386 designed to fit into an 80286 socket. Thisprovides a way of upgrading 80286 computer machines. Themain difference between the 80386 and 80486 microprocessorsis that the latter has a floating-point coprocessor, amemory controller, 8K cache on chip, is two to four timesfaster than the 80386 and is better suited formultiprocessor systems.

It is also important to note that the Intel series of chipsforms the heart of all MS-DOS computers.

The second important family of chips is the Motorola whichentered the market in the early 1970s. “ The Motorolamicroprocessors were chosen by the designers of theMacintosh, Atari, Amiga, ICL, and other popular computers.The development of the Motorola chips is summarized below.


The Motorola CPU Family Development

Name Year Register Data bus Address CommentsWidth Width space

68000 1979 32 16 16M First member of the family68008 1982 32 8 4M Low-end chip with 8-bit bus68010 1983 32 16 16M Supports virtual memory68012 1983 32 16 2G Large-address-space version of 6801068020 1984 32 32 4G True 32-bit CPU68030 1987 32 32 4G Memory management unit on the CPU chip68040 1989 32 32 4G Faster version of the 68030

Notes: Giga (230).Source: Same as for Intel chips.

The 68040 microprocessor, like the 80486, contains a CPU,floating-point coprocessor, memory management unit, andcache on chip. Both the 68040 and 80486 contain about thesame number of transistors on chip; 1.2 million for the68040 and 1.16 million for the 80486. In fact, the 68040microprocessor is roughly comparable to the 80486 as is the68030 to the 80386. It, therefore, suffices to examine thedifferences and similarities between the 80386 and 68030microcomputers. .

The C P US o f both machines are alike. Both haveinstructions for moving data, doing binary and decimalarithmetic, performing Boolean and shift/rotate operations,doing control transfers, and manipulating bit fields. Bothmachines can handle 8-, 16-, and 32-bit quantities. Bothuse pipelining to improve performance.

Major differences between the two hardware systems include “the

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

following:

There is a significant difference in addressing. The68030 has one 232-byte segment while the 80386 has a

2 32 bytessegmented address space with 16384 segments each of

.

There is a difference in the registers. The 80386registers are not all equivalent while the 68030 hasequivalent address registers and data registers.

The method of processing 1/0 is different. The 80386relies on explicit instructions while the 68030 relieson the more ‘general memory - mapped

The 80386 machine has both the realwhich are needed to run obsolete68030 does not.

1/0.

and virtual modessoftware but the

However, the relatively long business history of the IntelCPUS and the IBM PC machines together with-the extensivesupport production of IBM PC compatibles give a reliability

8


edge of Intel based microcomputers over the Motorolamicrocomputers. It, therefore, appears that IBM and IBMcompatible machines will be a good choice of computers forsupporting activities in informatics.

4.2 Operating Systems

There are essentially two types of software, namelysystem software and application software. Systemsoftware comprises the operating system (OS) to runthe computer; various utility programmes for routinetasks such as formatting diskettes, copying disks andprinting files as well as the compilers andinterpreters needed to translate user developedcomputer programmes into machine code for execution.Application software is software designed to carry outparticular applications such as graphics, modelling,accounting, stock control, word processing, andmanufacturing. Application programmes are alsoreferred to as computer packages. However, thissection is concerned with operating systems.

Operating systems are usually classified by the typesof computer on which they are run. These categoriesinclude:

(i) single-user,(ii) Multi-user,(iii) multiprogramming,(iv) concurrent multi-tasking multi-user,(v) time-sharing,(vi) foreground-background,(vii) transaction processing (TP).

The operating system is the master’ control programmein the computer. It controls multiprogramming onlarger computers and assigns resources to the variousprogrammes on a priority basis. It also controlstransfer of data between the various peripheralsincluding work-stations, disk drives, VDU andprinters.

4.2.1 Functions of an operating system *

The normal functions performed by an operating systemare of a supervisory and control nature. Thefunctions include the following:

1 Creating and removing tasks.2 Scheduling and loading of tasks so as to maximize

processing.3 Acting on exceptional conditions arising during

the operations of a task, e.g., machine errors,interrupts, addressing snags, attempted executionof illegal or privileged instructions, protectionviolations.

9


4 Supervision of the multiprogramming operation.5 Allocating hardware resources among tasks.6 Providing access to software resources - e.g.

file editors, compilers, assemblers, subroutinelibraries, utility programmes.

7 Providing protection, access control, and .security information.

8 Providing a means of communicating messages orsignals among tasks, and to the computer operatorvia the console, or the VDU in the case ofmicrocomputers.

9 Maintaining a complete log of computeroperations.

4.2.2 Utility programmes

Knowledge of utility programmes is so vital for theefficient use of computer software. These programmesare supplied together with the operating system.Common utility or service programmes among operatingsystems include the following:

1 Sort: A sort programme is designed to arrangerecords in a predetermined sequence.

2 Merge: A merge programme has the capacity tocombine two files into one.

3 Editors: An editor is used to replace, delete orinsert individual characters or whole lines in aprogramme or document. This is achieved byviewing the text on a screen and using a seriesof commands or special keys on the keyboard.

4 Copying: The copy facility provides a user witha means of copying data either on the same deviceor to alternative devices.

5 File Maintenance: The given routines cater forsuch items as reorganizing disk filesperiodically to eliminate or tidy up overflowconditions and housekeeping routines such as diskinitialization, blocking and deblocking ofrecords..

6 Programme testing tools: The facilities givenimprove the productivity by providing ways ofassisting in the debugging process.

4.2.3 What OS to Use

On the whole, the operating system is processor andenvironment dependent. In particular the requirementsof single-user and multi-user environments aredifferent. For a single-user the issues of multipleaccess to files and scheduling processor time are not

10


of great concern. It is important to note that theoperating system significantly affects the computer’sperformance. It is a fact that some operating systemsare faster than others, and more portable across awide range of computers. The table in Appendix IIprovides a useful guide on operating systems and 16-bit microcomputers on which they are used. The tablealso includes the supplier of the machine, the model,and the type of microprocessor in the machine.

The OS information in the table shows that there arein excess of 40 operating systems for the differenttypes of 16-bit computers that have been manufactured.

We only highlight three of these operating systems -CP/M, MS-DOS, UNIX - that seem to have had a widecirculation.

1.: CP/M

The CP/M (Control Programme for Microcomputers) wasdeveloped by Digital Research. It is not ideal as anoperating system. The main disadvantage of CP/M isthat it is not user friendly especially when things gowrong. Its message communication system isinefficient. For example if the user forgets toswitch the printer on, all the output is likely to belost. No helpful messages are communicated to theuser.

2. MS-DOS

The operating system MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk OperatingSystem) is widely used on 16-bit and even on 32-bitmachines (e.g. those with microprocessors 80386 and80486). It was developed by Microsoft for the IBMpersonal computer. MS-DOS, like CP/M, is a single -user operating system designed mainly for runningunder pre-packaged application programmes. Its wideuse is partly due to the fact that Microsoft hasrewritten compilers for all its widelylevel languages, namely BASIC, PASCAL,COBOL. Like CP/M, MS-DOS consists ofthe basic disc operating system (DOS),processor (user interface), and a basicsystem (BIOS) .

used high -FORTRAN, andthree parts.:the commandinput/output

MS-DOS has the date-stamping facility (not availableon CP/M) of files so that newer versions can be easilyidentified. It has several important housekeepingfeatures:

the size of disc files is specified in the exactnumber of bytes.

11


file directories can be listed in severaldifferent abbreviated formats for users’convenience.

the disk directory is kept in RAM for fast accessbut MS-DOS checks to make sure that the disc isstill in place before it makes an access.

error recovery is user-friendly. Helpfulmessages are prompted to the user in English andsuggestions of how to correct the errors areprovided.

An important feature of MS-DOS is its graphicscapabilities that are built to take care of graphicsstatements in MBASIC. Furthermore, up-dated versionsof MS-DOS (e.g. DOS 3.3 upwards) include DOS file -sharing support which lets users in a local areanetwork (LAN) access the same file at the same time.

3. Unix

The Unix time - sharing multi - user operating systemwas developed in 1971 by Kenneth Thompson and DennisRitchie of Bell Laboratories. Thompson concentratedon the structure of Unix while Ritchie wrote the highlevel C language in which the entire system is nowimplemented.

The Unix system includes a large assortment ofsoftware tools. It provides a clear and directapproach to problem - solving due to its productiveenvironment for programmers. Unix has severalstrengths which include a rooted tree file system, apowerful editor, a versatile command languageinterpreter, a C compiler which enhances itsportability to a variety of different hardwaresystems, a shell which interacts with the user via theconsole, and the ability to reduce the time taken towrite programmes. Unix also helps the programmer tovery easily develop utilities that can be usedfrequently.

There are numerous features associated with the shellthat make Unix functions as a mini-procedure orientedlanguage instead of a simple command interpreter.Typical features include conditional testing, argumentshifting, branching, and even sub-command calls.

Despite the availability of all these strengths, Unixis not appropriate in all environments. First andforemost the system does not function in real timebecause it does not ensure a minimum response time toexternal inputs. It cannot, therefore, be used inprocess - control environments and cannot even handlehigh-speed data transfers from remote devices without

12


hardware buffering. Second, there is no record -locking function to prevent more than one user fromaccessing records simultaneously. These inadequaciesare rectified by using custom shells and file -

protection enhancements made by the OEM (OriginalEquipment Manufacturer) . Not withstanding theseinadequacies, Unix remains an excellent programmer’sdevelopment tool. Thanks to the C language whichmakes Unix easy to extend and modify.

We end this section by a comparative analysis ofselected operating system commands for CP/M, MS-DOSand Unix.

Comparison of Selected Operating System Commands

Task CP/M2.2 MS-DOS Unix

1. List directory DIR DIR 1s (list)of files

2. Check disk STAT CHKDSK duusage/status .

3. Display a TYPE A: TYPE A: cat zim.datspecified file ZIM.DATA ZIM.DAT

4. Delete a file ERA A: DEL: A: rm zim.datZIM.DAT ZIM.DAT

5. Copy a file PIP B:ZIM.DAT COPY: A: cp/U/user1from disk A to = ZIMFINAL /zimfinal/u/disk B giving ZIMFINAL.DAT B: ZIM.DAT user2/zima new name

6. Rename a file REN A:ZIM.DAT REN[AME] A: mv zimreadZIMREAD as = ZIMREAD ZIMREAD zim.datZIM.DAT ZIM.DAT

Notes

1. It is clear that the task description is closelycaptured in the MS-DOS representation. This makes MS-DOS relatively easier to use. .

2. Unix format for the tasks is somewhat more complex andlacks obvious linkage with the task description. Unixis more likely to be difficult to learn especially bynovices.

3. CP/M has a close resemblance with MS-DOS in commandrepresentation but the wide use of MS-DOS on differentmicroprocessors makes it a good choice formicrocomputers.

13


4. Teaching MS-DOS to novices should be more easier. Itis a good methodological strategy to start with arelatively simpler OS and then advance to moredemanding operating systems like Unix. However,mastery in the use of a learned operating systemshould be achieved by learners before new systems areintroduced. Such a high level of mastery can beattained through working with many applicationssoftware using computers supported by the learnedoperating system. A task-centred approach alwaysproduces more pleasing results among learners.

4.3 Programming Languages

Computer languages facilitate communication betweenusers and computers. They empower the user togenerate programmes to solve problems in a variety ofareas of human endeavour. In addition, they make itpossible to customize some commercially producedapplications software.

Several levels of languages are used when dealing withthe computer. At the lowest level is pure binaryusing the digits o and 1 - this is the only languagethe digital machine understands. Next is theassembler code. The assembler code is a low-levellanguage which translates directly into machine code.It is used in situations where speed is veryimportant, e.g. in spreadsheet and word processingpackages. Normally, it is not used in businessbecause programming in it is very tedious and time-consuming.

●

Next in the hierarchy of computer languages are theso-called high-level languages. By definition, high-level languages are problem-oriented rather thanmachine-oriented and enable the programmer to writeprogrammes in English-like statements. Theselanguages are translated into machine code by eithera compiler or an interpreter where the former is aprogramme which converts a programme written in ahigh-level language into code which can be executed bya computer. An interpreter translates the writtenprogramme line by line as it is running and does notproduce a compiled version of the sourceprogramme/object.

The successful teaching of informatics will largelydepend on the choice of computer languages forinstruction. Whatever langauge is chosen, it mustpossess the following attributes:

(i) The programming language should not require asubstantial knowledge of machine code on the partof the user.

(ii) The programming language should have some

14


significant amount of machine independence. Thiscondition implies the need for flexibility of thelanguage for running in computers with differentassembler codes.

(iii) The programming language should employ a notationthat is fairly close to that of the specificproblem being solved.

(iv) The language should be relatively easier to learnso as to minimize total training time and totalcost.

(v) The programming language should make debuggingrelatively easier to undertake.

High level languages which include ALGOL, BASIC,COBOL, FORTRAN, PASCAL, ML3, C, COGO, SPSS, and LISPpossess, to a measurable extent, the attributes of adesirable programming language. It must be noted thatareas of origin of problems will significantlyinfluence the choice of programming languages fortraining. Based on our definition of informatics, itseems imperative that selected programming languagesfor training should cover the following areas ofapplication:

numerical scientific;business data processing;civil, mechanical, structural engineering;simulation;systems programming including debugging;string and list processing;computer-assisted instruction;social science and/or statistics; .multipurpose.

We summarize below selected programming languagesproviding name of the language, year first published,range of computers on which language has been used,and the primary application area.

4.3.1 List of Selected ProgrammingFirst Published, Computers

. Primary Application Area

1. Algol: Algorithmic Language.- 1960. Many computers

Languages:where Used,

.

Yearand

- Numerical scientific applications.Algol was much favoured by early computer scientistsand is suitable for problems involving numericcomputation and/or logical processes. Algol has nowbeen replaced by PASCAL in popularity.

2. Basic: Beginner's All Purpose Symbolic InstructionCode.- 1964. Almost all computers.

15


3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

- Numerical Scientific applications.Basic is a very simple language but with some advancedfeatures. It is available on many microcomputers andis ideal for writing small programmes for businesscalculations. The main disadvantages of Basic arethat it tends to encourage ill-structured and sloppyprogrammes, and tends to produce fairly inefficientmachine code instructions. Another major problem isthat there is no acknowledged standard version ofBasic, but Microsoft Basic (MBASIC) seems to be themost commonly used.

Cobol: COmmon Business Oriented Language- 1960. Most computers.- Business\commercial applications.Cobol is the most common commercial language onmainframes. It is clumsy on calculations but verystrong on input - output. It is well suited toapplications such as accounting which involve a largenumber of input-output operations but very fewcalculations. This commercial langauge has not beenimplemented fully on microcomputers. However, of theseveral versions that have been produced formicrocomputers CIS COBOL has been the most popular.

.

COGO: Coordinate GeOmetry- About 1963. Several computers.- Civil engineering.COGO is used for solving coordinate geometry problemsin civil engineering.

Coursewriter III- About 1966. IBM System- Computer - assisted instruction.This is a simple language for preparing computer -assisted instruction.

CSMP: Continuous System Modelling Programme- 1968. Several computers.- Continuous simulation.CSMP is a general term for two languages (i.e.Statement - and block - oriented) used to simulate thedynamics of continuous systems describable by ordinarydifferential equations. .

Fortran: FORmula Translation.- 1956. Almost all computers- Numerical scientific applicationsFortran is a scientific language. It is used a lot onmainframes, and is also used on microcomputers forengineering and statistical applications. Fortran iswidely used as a vehicle for teaching computerapplications and programming to students withoutextensive mathematical backgrounds.

16


8. Lisp: LISt Processing- 1960. Many computers.- List processing.This is a sophisticated and theoretically orientedlanguage with several dialects. It is used inartificial intelligence research.

9. Pascal- 1971. Most computers.- Multipurpose uses.Pascal is a structured language. It is good athandling complicated calculations. Pascal is a‘small" but elegant language with many significant features such as the provision for a programmer todefine new data type, e.g.type country = (Zambia, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique,

Namibia, Swaziland, Angola, Malawi,Zimbabwe) ;

defines a data type country which can then be given tovariables.

Pascal has rapidly become a popular language ofinstruction in computer science courses. It is widelyavailable on microcomputers. Another importantfeature of this language is that many Pascal compilersare written in Pascal.

10. c- 1975. Many computers.- Systems programming including debugging aids.C is a structured language with similarities toPascal. It has been used to write the UNIX operatingsystem and most of its applications software. It isa more demanding language especially for beginners.

.

One of its important features is that it allows theuser to access hardware features.

11. SPSS: Statistical Programs for the Social Sciences- About 1975. Most computers.- Statistics.SPSS is a simple language which is implemented inbatch and interactive modes. The latest version ofSPSS for microcomputers has enhanced capabilitieswhich include sophisticated statistical proceduressuch as discriminant, logistic regression, loglinear,multivariate analysis of variance, nonlinearregression, probit , and survival; time-series analysisand forecasting tool including curve fitting,smoothing, spectral analysis, special regression, andBox-Jenkins/ARIMA modelling procedures; a variety ofconjoint analysis and optimal scaling procedures, andcorrespondence analysis; and tables command with acapacity to generate presentation-quality results ina wide range of tabular forms from cross-tabulationsto complex stub-and-banner tables.

17


12. ML3: Multilevel Software (for Three-level Analysis)

.

- About 1985 PCs (DOS) and VAX computers.- Social Science and Statistics.ML3 is an interactive language with slow ease oflearning. The software enables fitting mixed linearand nonlinear models to data with a two-/three-levelhierarchical or nested structure. ML3 provides ameans for estimating variance components from surveyswith complex designs and analyzing data from studies

. employing matrix sampling.

The analysis of programming languages above confirms theimportance of BASIC, COBOL*, PASCAL, FORTRAN and C languagesin informatics. Languages like COGO, Coursewriter, ML3 andSPSS are to a large extent application specific. Theyshould be used to develop computer application skills invarious areas where these languages/programmes areapplicable.

We illustrate below” the attributes of, similarities anddifferences between BASIC, COBOL, PASCAL and FORTRAN byproviding programme statements to calculate the discountedsales value at the discount rate RATE1 for all sales, RATE2for sales over $1000.

BASIC

30 LET SALES = PRICE * QUANTITY40 IF SALES>= 1000 THEN 70 (i.e. go to line 70)50 LET DISCOUNT = SALES * RATE160 GO TO 80 (i.e. go to line 80)70 LET DISCOUNT = SALES * RATE280 LET SALESVAL = SALES-DISCOUNT90 PRINT ‘DISCOUNTED SALES VALUE IS"; SALESVAL

COBOL

MULTIPLY PRICE BY QUANTITY GIVING SALES.IF SALES IS LESS THAN 1000 THENMULTIPLY SALES BY RATE1 GIVING DISCOUNT.ELSE MULTIPLY SALES BY RATE2 GIVING DISCOUNT.SUBTRACT DISCOUNT FROM SALES GIVING SALESVAL.MOVE SALESVAL TO PRINT-VALUE.WRITE PRINT-LINE.

PASCAL

SALES:= PRICE * QUANTITY;BEGIN

IF SALES < 1000 THENDISCOUNT:= SALES * RATE1ELSE DISCOUNT:= SALES * RATE2

END;SALESVAL: = SALES - DISCOUNT;WRITELN (’DISCOUNTED SALES VALUE IS', SALESVAL) ;

18


10 SALES = PRICE * QUANTITYIF (SALES. LT.1000) THEN

DISCOUNT = SALES * RATE1‘ELSE DISCOUNT = SALES * RATE2END IF

20 SALESVAL = SALES - DISCOUNTWRITE (7, *) ‘SALES VALUE is’, SALESVAL

Key: < and LT mean less than. >= means greater than orequal to.

4.4 Application Software

Application softwares are computer programmes designedto perform business functions or to meet user needs.Examples are:

banking software.accounting software.CAD/CAM software.data processing software.spreadsheet software.graphics-software.data base software.stock control software.educational software.

Application softwares may be divided into twocategories, namely custom-built software and standardsoftware. Custom-built softwares are developed byusers or for users to perform specific tasks. Theirmain disadvantages are time, manpower and financialresources required to develop and test them. Standardapplication ‘software consist of packages soldmagnetic media with full documentation coveringsetting up and use of the package. These packagesusually supported by producers with updatestraining. The following are further advantagesusing standard application software:

(i) It saves on software development effortexpense on the part of the user.

(ii) The timescale required to get the system up

theareandfor

and

andrunning is considerably shorter than for acustom-built software.

(iii) The software should already be tried and tested.So the user immediately implements the softwareto address the identified problems.

(iv) The user can test or see demonstration of thesoftware before purchase is done.

19


(v) Maintenance should be minimal but updates will beneeded to keep step with improvements in thesoftware.

However, some disadvantages of standard application “software need noting.

(a) The software may not meet the requirementsperfectly.

(b) Control of the development and maintenance of thesoftware rests outside the organization or theuser control.

AS a result, maintenance might prove difficult if thesupplier goes out of business or has no qualifiedrepresenting agent in the neighborhood of the user orproduces versions that cannot be afforded by users.

We highlight below main features and functions ofselected standard application softwares.

4.4.1

Bankingrecordssavings

Business Related Software

computer applications include processing theof bank liabilities (cheque/current accounts,accounts, time/fixed deposits), bank assets

(personal loans, business loans), fee-based financialservices (funds transfer, letters of credit, custodianservices, credit cards, electronic funds transfer,automated teller) , and reports (accounting, managementreports) .

Other money related computer application areas includeaccounting (sales order processing and invoicing,sales ledger, purchase ledger, nominal ledger), andstock control (holding costs, order costs, stock-outcost, shrinkage cost).

Several packages directed at different moneyrelated activities exist. For example, TurboCASH+provides a powerful accounting system with the

* following capabilities: ,.

Accounts: 999, each with 999 sub-accounts.Categories: 52 user-defined, e.g. income, assets.Cash Books: 5 separately reconcilable cash books.Creditors: 999 active creditors.Journals: 16 user-defined, e.g. cheques, receipts,sales.Periods: 1 to 13, user-defined. 26 over 2 years.Tax Types: 15 user-defined tax types.Passwords: 10 passwords, 5 different accesslevels.

20


TurboCASH+ is supported on IBM PC/XT/AT/PS2 or IBMcompatible, 1Mb RAM, 30+ Mb Hard Disk, DOS 3.1 orhigher, any printer. TurboCASH LAN for local areanetwork exists and supports a maximum of 10 usersworking simultaneously.

There are many integrated accounting packages thatinclude stock control as well as the main accountingledgers. Well-known brands for microcomputers includeAnagram, Graffcom, Omicron, Pulsar, Pegasus,Systematic and TABS. Worth noting are the mainadvantages of the Omicron. First, the package is ,portable across microcomputers that operate under CP/Mand MS-DOS. Second, the software is verycomprehensive and provides a wide range of reports.

4.4.2 CAD/CAM Software

An important area of application of informatics isComputer-Aided Design/Computer-Aided Manufacturing(CAD/CAM) . CAD/CAM can be defined as the directapplication of specialized computer hardware orsoftware engineering and manufacturing operations. Aspecial feature of CAD/CAM is the engineering ortechnical computing orientation of the work comparedto administrative data processing applications whichinclude file handling and record-processing.

Typical engineering functions of CAD/CAM systems aresummarized below.

Engineering Functions of CAD/CAM Systems

Function CAD/CAM System Examples

1. Design layout

2. Design analysis

3. Manufacturingengineering

4. Facilitiesengineering

5. Fabricationautomation

6. Assemblyautomation

Computer-aided drafting, printedcircuit board layout.

Computer optimization, finite elementanalysis, piping interferenceanalysis.

Group technology, tool design,process planning.

Plant architecture and layout,equipment optimization.

Numerically controlled tools, processcontrol systems.

Robotics, computer controlledtransfer lines.

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7. Materials Stacker cranes, driverless tractorhandling systems, automated storage and

retrieval systems.

‘8. Industrial Shop floor data collection, labourengineering standards calculations.

9. Quality Coordinate measuring machines,Assurance automated circuit test equipment.

4.4.3 “Computer Graphics

Computer graphics have made a significant impact onthe analysis and visualization of complex anatomicalstructures including biomedical image analysis,biomedical signal analysis, modelling physiologicalsystems, therapy and surgery.

Other notable uses of computer

(i) Interactive plotting intechnology;

(ii) cartography: geographical

graphics include:

business, science and

maps, relief maps,exploration maps for drilling and mining,oceanographic charts, weather maps, contour maps,oil maps, and population density maps.

(iii) computer-aided drafting and design of componentsand systems of mechanical, electrical,electromechanical, and electronic devices;

(iv) simulation and animation; .

(v) process control, e.g. at airports, .

(vi) office automation and electronic publicationwhich give rise to the production of textincluding tables, graphs, and other three-dimensional or two-dimensional information;

(vii) art and commerce for producing aestheticallypleasing pictures and for producing commercial,scientific, and educational slides.

Several computer graphics packages exist on themarket. These include:

(a) TurboCAD3-D with capabilities of developingwireframe representations of three dimensionalobjects; of viewing the front, top and left viewsof an object as well as a three dimensionalorthographic representation of the object; ofrotating,the three

moving, copying and scaling objects indimensional drawing space.

22


Hardware requirements for TurboCAD3-D include 30Mb Hard Disk, IBM colour Graphics Monitor orHercules Screen, 1Mb RAM, 286 or highermicroprocessor, HP Laser Printer, PS/2 Mouse or ,Microsoft Mouse or Logitech Mouse or SummaMouse.DOS3.3 or higher environment will support thepackage.

(b) Harvard graphics with a variety of capabilities.Hardware requirements are similar to thosespecified for TurboCAD3-D above.

Although Harvard Graphics remains the top software incomputer graphics, other packages have filtered ontothe software market. We present below a comparativeanalysis of four business graphics softwarehighlighting their main features.

23


Feature

v a i l

sYes

24


Documentation:

Disk tutorialPaper tutorial

User Interface:

Help screensContext-sensitive helpCommand-drivenMenu-drivenBatch mode

File Size:

Test image file (bytes)Total program size (bytes)

NoNo

YesYesNoYesNo

512 *1058653

NoYes

YesYesNoYesNo

1152961759

NoYes

YesYesNoYesYes

57151935360

YesYes

NoNoNoYesNo

11552.75M

Source: PC Magazine, Vol. 7, No. 5. (1988), 98-99.

4.4.4 . Survey Data Processing Software

The analysis of large bodies of data is the main useof the computer made- by social scientists. Due to thespecial nature of social science data, specialstatistical computer packages were developed toanalyze the data. Packages developed now permit usersto carry out several statistical tests in addition tocross-tabulations, histograms, and descriptivestatistics. Typical tests include

(i) linear and partial correlation,(ii) multiple regression analysis,(iii) parametric tests,(iv) nonparametric tests,(v) analysis of variance,(vi) multivariate analysis,(vii) factor analysis,(viii) time-series analysis.

Of the several packages developed, the StatisticalPackage for the Social Sciences (SPSS) developed underNorman Nie of the National Opinion Research Centre,University of Chicago, has become very widely used.

The latest version of the package for microcomputers●

has some powerful additional features. It containssophisticated statistical procedures such asdiscriminant, logistic regression, loglinear,nonlinear regression, probit, and survival; curvefitting, smoothing, spectral analysis, and Box-Jenkins/ARIMA modelling procedures; a variety ofconjoint analysis and optimal scaling proceduresincluding correspondence analysis; and graphicsfacility featuring Harvard Graphics.

25


The computer requirements for SPSS/PC+ 4.0 are IBMPC/XT, PC/AT, PS/2, or IBM compatible computers; 640Kof memory (RAM), at least 30M Hard Disk (The wholepackage requires about 16.2M) ; Version 2.0 or later ofMS-DOS.

A major deficiency of the current SPSS package is itsinability to take into account the hierarchy(multilevel nature) of social science data inregression analysis activities. This deficiency leadsto a number of modelling errors. We only cite two.

1. Coefficients in a model are always assumedconstant when in fact they could be variables ofinterest at another level.

2. Because of the incorrect consideration ofmultilevel data, coefficients of within-unitrelations among variables are misestimated.

To deal with such inadequacies, the so-calledmultilevel software was developed. The table belowsummarizes and compares three multilevel softwares:

HLM = Hierarchical Linear ModelsVARCLML3 = Multilevel Software for Three-LevelAnalysis

●

26


Hardware requirements for TurboCAD3-D include 30Mb Hard Disk, IBM colour Graphics Monitor orHercules Screen, 1Mb RAM, 286 or highermicroprocessor, HP Laser Printer, PS/2 Mouse orMicrosoft Mouse or Logitech Mouse or SummaMouse.DOS3.3 or higher environment will support thepackage.

(b) Harvard graphics with a variety of capabilities.Hardware requirements are similar to thosespecified for TurboCAD3-D above.

Although Harvard Graphics remains the top software incomputer graphics, other packages have filtered ontothe software market. We present below a comparativeanalysis of four business graphics softwarehighlighting their main features.

23


Size of problem handledin PC version

Speed of execution

Number of levels

On-line help

Runs in 640k under DOS.No limit on number of level1 units

Fast .

3

None

Runs in 640k under DOSand can handle largeproblems

Very fast

3. Up to 9 for simplevariance componentsmodels

None .

Extended memory versionavailable to handle largeproblems

Moderate

3

Basic command reference

Source: Multilevel Modelling Newsletter, Vol. 4, No. 2, ( 1992) p2.

4.4.5 Database and Spreadsheet Software

Database Software

A data base is a collection of structured data whichcan be easily accessed and used. The concept ofdatabase is much more sophisticated than that of datafile. In particular file-based systems have thefollowing main disadvantages:

(i) There is a tendency to have duplicate data inorder to achieve acceptable machine efficiencywhen processing the files.

(ii) Inconsistency may arise because all files whichcontain a particular item of data may not beupdated simultaneously.

(iii) A change in the structure or contents of awill have widespread repercussionsprogrammes..

Database systems overcome these problems and

filefor

alsoprovide some important features. ‘The main databasefeatures include:

1. Data should be input only once.2. Duplication of data can be avoided.3. The structure should be flexible and should

permit adding of new data items and structures., 4. It should provide facilities for*

controlling access, namely users andpasswordsboth batch and on-line processingrecovery and restarta comprehensive audit trail.

5. It is able to consolidate the data from severalformerly sequential files so as to avoidredundancy and the consistency problems which arecaused by redundancy.

28


Database packages (also referred to as Data BaseManagement Systems- (DBMS)) fall into two maincategories. First, there are the simpler menu-drivenpackages. These are easy to use but lack somesophisticated facilities. Second, there are moresophisticated packages which are command-driven.These have very flexible reporting and facilitatemacro-programming, i.e. writing a computer programmein the command language. The macro-programmingprovides a means of running a series of commandsautomatically.

DMS produced by Compsoft Ltd is a typical example ofa menu-driven DBMS. A powerful and very successfulexample of a command-driven DBMS is dBase III Plus (orlater versions) produced by Ashton-Tate Inc of LosAngeles, USA. The ’capabilities of dBase III includeplanning and designing a database, editing data,viewing and updating data, sorting and indexing,performing calculations, printing reports and labels,working with multiple data bases, and exchanging datawith other software.

The hardware and operating system requirements fordBase III Plus include IBM PC, PC/XT, PC/AT, and PS/2computers or IBM compatible computers; 1M RAM, MS-DOS3.0 or higher, 30M Hard Disk, any printer that uses aparallel interface.

Spreadsheet Software

Spreadsheets are important business analysis tools.They possess some calculating capacity, databasemanagement facility, graph creating capacity, andreport generating capacity.

Of the many spreadsheet packages that have come on themarket, VisiCalc, Supercalc, Multiplan and Lotus 1-2-3have been fairly successful. However, Lotus 1-2-3 hasbecome the best-selling applications programme and thespreadsheet standard. We present below a comparativeanalysis of three of these well-known spreadsheetpackages, namely Multiplan, Lotus 1-2-3 and Supercalc4.

29


Spreadsheet programmes: Summary of Features

. Name of SpreadsheetFeature

Multiplan Lotus 1-2-3 (2.01) SuperCalc 4(Microsoft (Lotus Development (ComputerCorp.) Corp.) Associates

International“ Inc.)

Size and Speed:

Max. # of Columns and rows in work area 255 X 4095 256 X 8192 255 X 9999Max. # characters in cell/ range name 255/31 240/15 240/32Range of column widths 1-64 1-240 1-127Sparse memory matrix to conserve RAM Yes Yes YesUses expanded memory No Yes YesUses math coprocessor Yes Yes Yes

Functions and Formulas:

# math/logic/financial functions 11/12/8 17/7/11 16/16/18# date and time functions 12 11 9# statistical/string functions 6/15 14/11 15/0# logical and arithmetic operators 17 15 12

Macro Capabilities: .

Learn mode for macros Yes No YesCan run 1-2-3- macros No Yes YesMacros reside in worksheet/library Yes/No Yes/No Yes/Yes

Miscellaneous:

# split screens 8 2 2Hides columns/rows Yes/No Yes/No Yes/YesHides individual cell contents No Yes YesCell protection Yes Yes YesCan merge contents of spreadsheets Yes Yes YesCan import/export 1-2-3 files Yes/Yes Yes/Yes Yes/YesWarns against file overwrite Yes Yes YesContext-sensitive help No Yes Yes# graph types None+ 5 7Does recalculations in logical order No Yes Yes

Notes: + Uses separate programme to produce graphs.Source: PC Magazine, Vol.6, No.18 (1987), 98-99.

4.4.6 Text Processing Software.

Historically, the term word processing was invented bythe IBM Corporation in 1964 to facilitate themarketing of a typewriter which could record words onmagnetic tape. Word or text processing is concernedwith the efficient processing of words or text. Thetext processing technique is designed to provide amore efficient way of meeting disseminating needs ofan expanding world of business, science andtechnology. Word processing activities now includedata processing activities, electronic mail services,and data access to internal and external databases.

30


Word processing is available in at least three forms:

(i) Dedicated word processors with very limited or nocomputing applications. Such systems can besingle-user, twin-user or multiple-user.

(ii) Use of standard word processing package on ageneral purpose microcomputer. Typical wordprocessing packages include the popularWordPerfect and Wordstar.

(iii) Manufacturer supplied word processing package onsome microcomputers.

Such word processing facility is based on the texteditor available to programmes of the system.

A good standard word processing package will have thefollowing facilities:

1.

2.

3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.

The

document creation, storage, retrieval anddeletion;automatic word wrap, page numbering, centring,underlining, overtyping and reformatting, textenhancement, left and right justification,proportional spacing;efficient search and replace;special characters creation;document preview;sort and select;spell checking;column handling;comparing documents;headers and footers;synonyms and antonyms;records management;spreadsheet importing;file extract and file merge;help facility;graphics (usually limited) ;subscript and superscript creation;printer selection;font/typeface selection;*uppercase and lowercase facility.

list of facilities above provides a minimum rangeof competencies which should be imparted to traineestaking a course on text/word processing. In a way,the list constitutes a curriculum guide for wordprocessing.

WordPerfect and Wordstar packages meet the criteriadefined above. Developments in WordPerfect are worthnoting.

31


WordPerfect Works which is compatible with WordPerfect5.1 is an integrated package composed of wordprocessor facility, spreadsheet, database, graphicseditor facility, and communications facility. Alsonow on the market is WordPerfect 5.1 for UNIX. It canbe operated on SUN SPARC stations, HP9000 series700/800, IBM AIX RS/6000, SCO UNIX, and Data GeneralAViiON. WordPerfect 5.2 which is an upgrading ofWP5.1 for Windows is also now on the market. Itsadditional features include a graphical installation, .a conversion for MS Word2.0, improved spellerdialogue, bitmap rotation in 90 degree increments, anda better support for Windows printer drivers.Requirements for WPWin5.2 include Windows3.O orhigher, 4M RAM, a 386 or better microprocessor, Laserprinter.

Other important word processing packages include XeroxVentura and Pagemaker for desktop publishing.Important facilities on desktop publishing softwarepackages include:

Creating textCreating picturesStyle sheets handlingMulti-chapter operationsFontsBinding pagesFile managementTypographic functions facilityGraphic techniques.

Both Ventura and Pagemaker operate in a DOS3.3 orhigher environment, a 286 or-betterover 1M RAM, Laser printer.

4.5 Curriculum and Pedagogical Issues

A curriculum for informatics shouldstudy of the communication processesindustry, and the development of

microprocessor,

facilitate thein science andtechniques and

systems-for more efficient organization, storage, anddissemination of information.

,

Typical themes for such a curriculum include:

(i) An awareness of computer information systemspaying special attention to businessapplications;

(ii) Microcomputers and their impact on the businesscommunity and the wider society;

(iii) Computer programming design highlighting theCOBOL, FORTRAN, PASCAL, and the C languages;

32


(iv) Computer operating systems such as MS-DOS andUNIX ;

(v) Database systems emphasizing management softwarepackages;

(vi) Computer graphics and its impact on spreadsheetsoftware and in social science applicationssoftware;

(vii) Mathematics for informatics emphasizing discretemathematics.

The most critical issue that impinges on the successof teaching informatics is the methodology employed.Our basic assumption is that informatics is an appliedsubject just like physics, and therefore a wellequipped computer laboratory is an important featurefor the teaching of informatics. An importantcharacteristic of informatics is its firm place ineveryday social, economic and business activities.Hence, the training offered should not be divorcedfrom practice. Several methods contain features thatwill help students integrate both theory and practice.Among these methods, we have

(i) Hands-on approach with computers. This method isparticularly effective for learningwordprocessing, computer graphics, and socialscience applications software.

(ii) Practically based instruction using a computerlaboratory. This method should prove effectivefor problem solving of real life problems throughdesigning computer programmes under variousprogramming languages.

(iii) Individual problem solving approach to reinforcecomputer language skills such as searching,sorting, merging, etc.

(iv) Small group projects working on meaningful reallife problems in small-scale businesses, in ,institutions, etc. This approach will provideopportunities for cooperative work by studentsand should help students appreciate the impact ofcomputers in society.

(v) Use of video films to create an awareness of thevarious uses of computers in productionfactories, in medicine, in economics, intelecommunications, etc. This approach has thepotential of serving as career guidance toprofessions and jobs that utilize computers.

33


(vi) Industrial attachment or work experienceattachment to industries and organizations thatheavily use computers. This training methodhelps students get business orientation with athrust on computers. It also gives students anopportunity to integrate their theory withbusiness practice.

(vii) Visits to computer applications establishments toexpose students to computer practitioners in awork environment.

(viii) Another useful strategy for teaching informaticsis preparing training manuals that focus onskills and processes necessary for efficient useof the computer for performing the specifiedtasks. The manual "Using WordPerfect 5.1"illustrates this strategy.

5. Relationship between Informatics and other Disciplines

Almost every discipline/area which involves some kind ofintellectual activity has some relationship withinformatics. We will only highlight relationships betweeninformatics and the following disciplines: Mathematics,Library Science, Linguistics, Psychology, Business,Education, and Medicine.

5.1 Mathematics

The heavy usage of mathematical tools in informaticsgives rise to a strong relationship betweeninformatics and mathematics. Computer technology canbe used to stimulate mathematical exploration anddiscovery. For example, computer graphics will assistlearners to improve their visualization of threedimensional curves and figures, of intersecting linesand planes, and of planes. Complex processes ofapproximating continuous functions defined on compactsets by polynomials can be meaningfully taught even inhigh schools.

5.2 Library Science .

Library science has distinct features that are sharedby informatics. Problems of organizing and managingknowledge, and retrieval in the form of documents ondifferent media are common. Often customization of adatabase package or creation of one provides a linkbetween informatics and library science.

5.3 Linguistics and Psychology

Linguistics shares with informatics the areas oflanguage and communication. Psychology is linked toinformatics through studying linguistic processes and

34


information processing of models of cognition,perception, and other mental activities.

5.4 Business

The impact of informatics on business is on theincrease. Word processing, business graphics,personnel management, manpower planning, financialplanning and management, accounting, etc. arespecialized activities in informatics.

5.5 Education

Computers have significantly influenced pedagogicalmethods in a variety of curriculum subjects at almostall levels of learning. For example, technicalgraphics and design are made more accessible throughCAD; ideal processes in Biology, chemistry and Physicscan be simulated using computers; language studies canbe profitably conducted at an individual level; etc.

5.6 Medicine

Significant advances have been made in medicinethrough the use of computers. Complicated operationscan be performed more accurately and moresuccessfully. In particular, computer graphics havemade a significant impact on the analysis andvisualization of complex anatomical structures.

35


Appendix ISurvey of Training Materials in Informatics including References

to this Document

Survey Data Processing Materials

SPSS/PC+ 4.0 Base Manual for the IBM PC/XT/AT and PS/2. MarijaNorusis/SPSS Inc 1990.

SPSS/PC + Statistics 4.0 for the IBM PC/XT/AT and PS/2. MarijaJ Norusis/SPSS Inc. 1990.

Multilevel Models: Selected References

Albander, J.M. & Goldstein, H. (1992). Multilevel statisticalmodels in studies of periodontal diseases. Journal ofPeriodontology (in press) .

Berkey, S., Laird, N.M., Valadian. I. & Gardener, J. (1989)., Theanalysis of longitudinal growth data with covariates.Auxology 88; Perspectives in the Science of growth anddevelopment, J.M. Tanner. (cd.) London: Smith-Gordon, p. 31-39.

Rock, R.D.New York:

Bondi, L.modelling

(cd. ) (1989) . Multilevel Analysis of Educational Data,Academic Press.

& Bradford, M. (1990). Applications of multilevelto geography. Area 22:256-263.

Bryk, A.S. & Raudenbush, S.W.. (1989). Toward a more appropriateconceptualisation of Research in School effect: a three levelhierarchical linear model. In: Multilevel Analysis ofEducational data, R.D. Bock. (cd.) New York: Academic Press.

Bryk, A.S. & Raudenbush, S.W. (1992). Hierarchical LinearModels, Newbury Park, California: Sage.

Chi, Ee.M. & Reinsel, G.C. (1989). Models for longitudinal datawith random effects and AR(1) errors. J. Amer. Statist. Assocn,84:452-459.

Creemers, B., Peters, T. & Reynolds, D. (1989). Schooleffectiveness and school improvement, Amsterdam: Swets andZeitlinger.

DiPrete, T.A. & Grusky, D.B. (1990). The multilevel analysis oftrends with repeated cross sectional data. Sociologicalmethodology 20:337-368.

Geary, D.N. (1989) . Modelling the covariance structure ofrepeated measurements. Biometrics 45:1183-1195.

Goldstein, H. (1989) . Restricted Unbiased Iterative GeneralisedLeast Squares Estimation. Biometrika 76:622-623.

36


Goldstein, H. (1991). Nonlinear multilevel models, with anapplication to discrete response data. Biometrika 78:54-51.

Goldstein, H. (1991). Multilevel modelling of survey data. TheStatistician 49:235-244.

Goldstein, H. (1992). The analysis of randomly cross classifiedmultilevel data. Sociological Methodology (in press)

Goldstein,H. & Rasbash, J. (1992) . Efficient computationalprocedures for the estimation of parameters in multilevel modelsbased on iterative generalised least squares. computationalStatistics and Data Analysis. 13:63-71.

Goldstein, H. & Silver, R. (1989). Multilevel and Multivariatemodels in survey analysis. In: Analysis of Data from ComplexSurveys, edited by D. Holt, C.J. Skinner and T.M.F. Smith.Chichester: J. Wiley.

Jones, K. & Moon, G, (1991). Multilevel assessment ofimmunization uptake as a performance measure in general practice.British Medical Journal 303:28-30.

Jones, R.H. & Boadi-Boateng, F. (1991). Unequally spacedlongitudinal data with AR(l) serial correlation. Biometrics 47:l61-175.

Kreft, I.G.G.& Kim, KOS. (1991) . Statistical Software Reviews.Appl.Statist.. 40:343-354.

Kreft, I.G.G., De Leeuw, J. & Kim, K-S. (1990). Comparing fourdifferent statistical packages for hierarchical linearregression: GEN-MOD, HLM, ML2, VARCL. UCLA Centre for researchon evaluation, Los Angels, California, USA.

Laird; N.M. & Louis, T.A. (1989) . Empirical Bayes rankingmethods. J. Educ. Stas. 14:29-46.

Lee, S. (1990). Multilevel analysis of structural equationmodels. Biometrika 77:763-772.

Liang, K-Y., Zeger, S.L. & Qaquish, B. (1992). Multivariateregression analyses for a categorical data. JRSSB 54:3-40.

Lindstrom, M.J. & Bates, D.M. (1990). Nonlinear mixed effectsmodels for repeated measures data.. Biometrics 46:673-687.

Lipsitz, S.R., Laird. N.M. & Barrington, D.P. (1991).Generalised estimating equations for correlate binary data:using the odds ratio as a measure of association. Biometrika78:153-160.

Lockheed, M.E. & Longford, N.T. (1991). School effects onmathematics achievement gain in Thailand. In: Schools,classrooms and pupils, S.W. Raudenbush and J.D. Willms. (cd.) NewYork: Academic Press.

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McDonald, R.P. & Goldstein, H. (1989) . Balanced versus unbalanceddesigns for linear structural relations in two-level data. Brit.J. Math. Statist. Psychol. 42:215-232.

Miller, M.E. & Landis, J.R. (1991) . Generalised variancecomponent models for clustered categorical response variables.Biometrics 47:33-44.

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Goldstein, H. (1992). A 2-level cross sectionalusing grafted polynomials. Annals of Human Biology

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Petkau, A.J. & Sitter, R.R. ,(1989) . Models for quantal responseexperiments over time. Biometrics 45:1299-1308.

Plewis, 1. (1991) . Using multilevel models to link educationalprogress with curriculum coverage. In: Schools, classrooms andpupils, SOW. Raudenbush & J.D. Willms. (cd. ) New York: AcademicPress.

Presser, R., Rasbash, J. & Goldstein, H. (1991). Data Analysiswith ML3: London, Institute of Education. .

Raudenbush, S.W. (1989) . The analysis of longitudinal multileveldata. Int. J. Ed. Research 13:721-740.

Ridden, A.B. (1989). An alternative approach to the study ofschool effectiveness in third world countries. ComparativeEducation Review 33:481-497.

Than, P.F. & Vail, S.C. (1990). Some covariance models forlongitudinal count data with overdispersion, Biometrics 46:657-671.

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Programming LanguaagesBASIC 2nd Edition R. Albrecht, L. Finkel and J Brown/Wiley1978.

BASIC for Home Computers. R. Albrecht, L. FinkelBrown/Wiley & Sons 1978.

& Sons

and J

Structured FORTRAN 77 Programming with Hewlett-Packard ComputersSeymour V. Pollack/Boyd & Fraser 1983.

FORTRAN77 Loren P. Meissner and Elliot I. Organick/Addison-Wesley1980.Programming in Pascal with Hewlett-Packard Pascal Peter Grogono.Hewlett-Packard 1984.

An Introduction to Programming & Problem Solving in Pascal M.Schneider, S. Weingardt and D. Perlman/Wiley & Sons 1978.

OH! pa~cal! D. Cooper and M.

Software Tools in Pascal B.Wesley 1981.

Structured Programming using

Clancy/Norton 1982.

Kernighan and P. Plaugher\Addison-

Pascal J. Winston Crawley & WilliamG. McArthur/Prentice Hall 1988.

Art of Computer Programming-Volumes I, II & III DonaldKnuth/Addison-Wesley 1973, 1981 and 1983.

Volume I: fundamental Algorithms, 2nd Edition.Volume II: Seminumerical Algorithms 2nd edition.Volume III: Sorting and Searching

Managing a Programming Project P. Metzger/Prentice Hall 1981.

Introduction to Computer Programming Walter S. Brainerd, CharlesH. Goldberg, and Jonathan L. Gross/Harper & Row 1979.

Computer Organisation and Programming (3rd cd.) Charles W.Gear/McGraw-Hill 1980.

Introduction to Computer Programming Judi N. Fernandez and RuthAshley/John Wiley & Sons Inc. 1984.

Programs that Write Programs Chris Nayler/Sigma Technical Press1983.

Advanced Structured COBOL (COBOL 4) Ruth Ashley and Judi N.Fernadez/John Wiley and Sons Inc. 1985.

Program Style, Design, Efficiency, Debugging and Testing (secondcd.) Dennie Van Tassel/Prentice Hall 1978.

BASIC: A Short Self-instruction Course Micheal Oatey and CarlPayne/Pitman 1984.

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BASIC Programming forHubin/Prentice-Hall 1978

A Complete Text on BASIC.Publications Ltd 1985.

Scientists and Engineers Wilbert N..

Programming (second ed.)

BASIC Programming: Using Structured ModulesBarren/CBS College Publishing 1984.

Structured BASIC and Beyond Wayne Amsbury/Computer1980.

B.J.Holmes/DP

Jonathan C.

Science Press

Using Microsoft C (Version 5.1) Werner Feibel/Osborne/McGraw-Hill1989.

Operating systems

An Introduction to Operating Systems H.Deitel/Addison-Wesley1983.

Introducing UNIX H.McGilton and R Morgan/McGraw-Hill 1993.

MS-DOS User's Guide 2nd Edition1984. .

Computer Operating Systems David

Operating Systems Theory EdwardDenning/Prentice-Hall 1973.

Introduction to Operating Systems

Chris DeVoney/QUE Corporation

Barren/Chapman and Hall 1984.

G. Coffman. Jr. and Peter J.

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Computing Today (second Edition): microcomputer concepts andapplications David R. Sullivan, Theodore G Lewis and Curtis R.Cook/ Houghton Mifflin Co. 1988.

Understanding MS-DOS Kate O'Day and John Angermeyer/Howard W.Sams & Co. 1987.

Operating Systems: Concepts, Policies, and Mechanisms James R.Pinkert and Larry L. Wear/Prentice-Hall 1989.

Operating System Design: The XINU Approach DouglasComer/Prentice-Hall 1984.

Operating Systems: Design and Implementation Andrew S.Tanenbaum/Prentice-Hall 1987.

The UNIX System S.R. Bourne/Addison-Wesley 1983.

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Computer Graphics

Steps to Effective Business Graphics B. Matkowski/Hewlett-Packard1983.

Fundamentals of Interactive Computer Graphics J. Foley and A. VanDam/Addison-Wesley 1982.

Text/Word Processing

Wordstar Made Easy, 2nd edition Walter Ettlin/Osborne/McGraw-Hill 1982.

Inside Xerox Ventura Publisher. James Cavuoto andJesse Berst/Micro Publishing 1987.

Xerox Desktop Publishing Series: Ventura PublisherEdition Training Guide /Xerox 1987.

Microsoft Word Made Easy, 2nd edition PaulHoffman/Osborne/McGraw-Hill 1985.

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Data Base and Spreadsheets

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Understanding dBASEIII Alan Simpson/SYBEX 1985.

Guide to Using Lotus 1-2-3 Edwards Baras/Osborne/McGraw-Hill1984.

1-2-3 For Business D. Cobb and L Anderson/QUE Corporation 1984.

Mastering Symphony, 2nd Edition Douglas Cobb/SYBEX 1986.

Lotus 1-2-3- Release 3.1 Reference Manual /LotusDevelopment Corporation 1990.

Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2 Reference Manual /LotusDevelopment Corporation 1985.

Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2 Getting Started / LotusDevelopment Corporation 1985.

dBase III Plus: The Complete Reference. Joseph-DavidCarrabis\Osborne/McGraw-Hill 1987.

Practical Database for Major Mini-and Micro-computers. Frank H.George/Chiltern Educational and T-S Services 1981.

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Design of Computer Data Files Owen Hanson\Pitman 1982.

Relational Database Design with Microcomputer Application GlennA. Jackson/Prentice-Hall 1988.

Understanding Database Management Systems (second cd.). JosephA Vasta/Wadsworth Publishing co. 1989.

Principles of Database Systems. Jeffrey D. Unman/ComputerScience Press 1980.

Data Base Adminstration. Jay-Louise Weldon/Plenum Press 1981.

Data Base Management Systems. Alfonso F. Cardenas/Allyn and Bacon1979.

Database System Concepts Plus Instructors Manual. Henry F.Korthand Abraham Silberschatz/McGraw-Hill 1987.

Database Design (second cd.). Gio Wiederhold/McGraw-Hill 1983.

PCs and Peripherals

LaserJet Unlimited T. Nace and M. Gardner/Peachpit Press 1986.

16-Bit Microprocessor Handbook. Traver Raven/Newness TechnicalBooks 1986.

A Practical Guide to Computer Communications and Networking.Richard Deasington/Ellis Horwood Ltd 1982.

The Architecture of Microcomputers Volume 1: Fundamentals. S.E.Greenfield/Little, Brown, Brown Co. 1983.

The Architecture of Microcomputers Volume 1: Fundamentals. S.E.Greenfield/Little, Brown, Brown CO. 1983.

Computer Architecture: Software and Hardware. R.Y.Kain/Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall 1989.

Structured Computer Organization (3rd cd.) A.S. Tanenbaum/Prentice-Hall International, Inc. 1990.

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