Exposé

Influence of colour-coded nutrition labels on perceived healthfulness

Submitted by

Marta Gismano

European Master in Business Studies

University of Kassel

Kassel, 16th December 2014

II

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of contents.......................................................................................................... II

Table of abbreviations ................................................................................................ III

List of figures ............................................................................................................. IV

Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 2

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Background .................................................................................................... 3

1.2 Problem statement .......................................................................................... 4

1.3 Purpose/Research questions and hypotheses ................................................. 5

2 Review of literature ............................................................................................... 8

2.1 Consumer’s response to nutritional labels ..................................................... 8

2.2 Traffic light label ......................................................................................... 10

2.3 Colours ......................................................................................................... 15

3 Methodology ....................................................................................................... 18

4 Overview of chapters........................................................................................... 20

5 Plan of work ........................................................................................................ 21

Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 22

III

TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS

FoP Front of pack

FSA Food Standard Agency

GDA Guideline Daily Amount

TL Traffic Light

WHO World Health Organization

IV

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Example of coloured traffic light label. Retrieved from FSA. ..................... 19

Figure 2 Example of monochrome traffic light label. Retrieved from FSA. .............. 19

2

ABSTRACT

Keywords: Food labelling, colour, colour perception, health knowledge, nutrition

policy.

Background: In order to tackle rising obesity rate and health related diseases, in June

2013 the UK government introduced voluntary traffic light labels to help consumers

make healthier food choices. The colour-coded system tells people at a glance if the

product they are thinking about buying has a high (red), medium (amber) or low

(green) content of fat, salt and sugar. After the label intervention, some Mediterranean

European countries have objected that colours may influence consumers’ choices,

harming exports of red-labelled products such as cheese, olive oil and salami.

Purpose: The purpose of this thesis is to explore whether and how the colours

employed in the traffic light label -specifically, red and green- might influence

consumer perceptions on product’s healthfulness. This paper will investigate whether

green labels convey healthfulness perception no matter the actual nutrient content and

whether red labels can dissuade consumers’ willingness to buy.

Method: A quantitative approach will be used to gather primary data by means of an

online questionnaire. The survey will be spread via social media and personal contacts

3

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

‘We are what we eat’ asserted in the nineteenth century the German

philosopher Feuerbach (1862), arguing that people can improve by improving their

diet. In fact, although his view was more philosophical than scientific, nutritional

education and its rules of a balanced and proper diet are increasingly penetrating into

the common social fabric.

Over the past few decades, there has been a growing interest globally, for the

relationships among lifestyle, diet and health. In developed countries, in fact, there has

been a worrying spread of chronic-degenerative pathologies whose origin involves

multiple factors. In this sense, diet certainly plays an important role not only as a risk

factor but also as a protective factor.

The data provided by the WHO, the World Health Organization, indicate that

in Europe cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer and chronic respiratory diseases

cause 86% of deaths, 77% of the loss of years of life in good health and 75% of

healthcare costs. These diseases have common risk factors such as overweight and

obesity, alcohol abuse, the low consumption of fruits and vegetables, physical

inactivity and tobacco smoking (Ministero della salute, 2007).

In particular, overweight and obesity are presented as emerging phenomena in

Western countries: the year 2000 marked a real turning point for humanity since, for

the first time in history, the number of overweight adults has exceeded the number of

those underweight (Caballero, 2007). Thus, developing strategies for prevention and

awareness on these issues, especially in relation to children and adolescents, is of

crucial importance today. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development) reports that 52% of the adult European population is overweight of

which an average of 16.6% is obese. The analysis of the individual countries reveals

that more than 50% of the population is overweight or obese in 18 of 27 EU states.

The record high is registered in Hungary (28.5%), followed by United Kingdom

(26.1%) and by Ireland (23%) (2012). Obesity tends to be more common among

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disadvantaged groups, particularly among women, and shows rates that nearly doubled

since 1990.

In this respect, food labelling is a helpful tool to make informed food choices.

However, findings from former studies evidence the urgent need to improve nutrition’s

knowledge and simplify nutrition labelling (Dickson-Spillmann & Siegrist, 2011;

Easton, Entwistle, & Williams, 2010; Grunert, Wills, & Fernández-Celemín, 2010;

Rothman et al., 2006)

Since it has been demonstrated that consumers’ attention decreases as the

complexity of information increases (Bialkova, Grunert, & van Trijp, 2013), the

European Commission started to develop a standardized system of front-of-pack

nutrition labelling to attract consumer’s consideration (European Parliament, 2007).

Different signpost and logos have been proposed and people seem to agree on the

desire for simplified front of package label but they differ in preferences for the format

(Grunert & Wills, 2007).

In June 2013, UK government introduced on a voluntary basis the traffic light

labelling system that proved to be the preferred and most understandable by consumers

(Malam, Clegg, Kirwan, McGinigal, & BMRB Social Research, 2009). This system

uses a reference value of 100 g/ml for product and classifies levels of fat, saturated fat,

sugars and salt as low (green), medium (amber) or high (red) (Department of Health,

Food Standards Agency, & British Retail Consortium, 2013) .

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

After the introduction of this scheme, some Mediterranean countries, including

Spain, France, Italy and Greece, complained against the use of such labelling that

assigns “red lights” to some of their regional products. They claim that the system may

hinder the exports of their traditional and regional foods by biasing consumers against

red-labelled products (Robinson, 2014). Under this scheme, even healthy foods like

milk, whole grain bread and olive oil have red lights (Blythman, 2012) that consumer

associate to dangerous or unhealthy food (Grunert et al., 2010). FSA replies stating

that red does not mean “unhealthy” but stands for a high level of the respective

nutrient, while green does not stand for healthy but means low level of the respective

nutrient (Department of Health et al., 2013). Last 1st October 2014, European

5

Commission opened infraction proceedings against the British colour-coded scheme

to prevent obstacles to trade between EU countries (Roberts, 2014).

In shared knowledge, red, amber and green are not only associated to the traffic

signs. Red means also danger, avoidance and warning (Elliot, Maier, Moller,

Friedman, & Meinhardt, 2007) while green is linked to safety, environment and

positive impressions (Schuldt, 2013).

Extensive research in medical, agro-food and psychological journals revealed

only one study that explored so far the relationship between green colour on calorie

labels and healthfulness perception. Results of this study suggests that products

carrying a green calorie label are perceived as more healthful especially by people who

place high importance on healthy eating (Schuldt, 2013). However, no study

investigated if it exists any correlation between traffic light label’s colours and

perceived product’s healthfulness.

1.3 PURPOSE/RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To answer the purpose of my thesis, the following research questions will be

examined:

-What type of influence do red/green lights labels have on perceived

healthfulness?

In particular, we want to investigate whether the mere presence of the green colour on

a label is automatically associated to a healthier product even if the text and the

numerical data suggest that the product has high level of certain nutrients. On the other

hand, consumers may avoid products with red lights because they are perceived as

dangerous for their health.

-How people concerned with healthy eating reacts to products labelled with

green lights?

As Schuldt (2013) highlighted in his paper, consumer often associate green to

bio or organic food which in turn is perceived as healthier (Harris Interactive, 2007;

Schuldt & Schwarz, 2010). Results from his study suggest that people who are more

motivated to eat healthily are more likely to perceive as more healthful a green-labelled

food.

6

Over the years, several studies asserted that colour affects behaviour. Based on

scientific literature, shorter wavelength colours such as green are perceived as calming

and less arousing than longer wavelength colours (Elliot et al., 2007). Caivano (1998)

pointed out that some meanings are associated to colures; for instance, green is

conventionally accepted as the “go” traffic sign and it is related to envy and safety. In

nature, organisms use colours for survival and food gathering: Birds have shown

preference for green insects rather than red ones because they are adapted to associate

warning-coloured preys as harmful animals (Gamberale-Stille & Tullberg, 2001).

In the food context, Schuldt (2013) suggested that colours influence

healthfulness perception, specifically the participants of his survey associated the

colour green to healthfulness and healthy eating. His experiment demonstrated that a

candy bar was perceived healthier when bearing a green front-of-package calorie label

rather than a red one. That the green colour reduces riskiness perception is consistent

with psychological research indicating that the level of hazard conveyed by the signal

word “deadly” decreases when printed in green ink (Braun & Silver, 1995). We thus

expect that the evaluation of a high amount of some or all the four nutrients may be

biased when the latters carry a green label.

H1a: Participants will be more likely to choose the least healthy food product

in the green condition study—when all the four nutrients are labelled with green

lights—than in the white or TL condition.

As stated above, red is perceived as a more arousing colour than green. Wilson

was the first to demonstrate this hypothesis and the subjects used for his experiment

described the colour as “more stimulating, exciting, awakening, attention- drawing,

overpowering, and lively” (1966, p.948). However, red carries some negative

meanings; for instance, individual in an anger state are more likely to perceive red

(Fetterman, Robinson, Gordon, & Elliot, 2011). In achievement contexts, red has been

shown to impair performance and to activate avoidance motivation because it is

associated with danger and the possibility of failure (Elliot et al., 2007). This finding

is consistent with Chapanis' (1994) assertions that the signal word “danger” is

associated with red and Braun and Silver (1995) who found that red is rated as more

hazardous than either orange, black, green or blue.

7

Colours do not have just an aesthetic function but they work also as a sign, i.e.

an icon or a symbol that substitutes something and conveys a specific meaning

(Caivano, 1998). When an individual learns a colour association, its perception

activates an autonomous reaction. For example, a pedestrian who encounters a stop

sign knows that the sign anticipate a situation: car drivers will start moving so he has

to stop. The reaction is involuntary and automatic because, in this context, the colour

red is paired with the meaning “stop” (Bargh, 1992). Of course, a different

combination of colures would not lead to the same attitude: probably an accident

would occur because people would not recognize the colour relationship (Caivano,

1998). Based on this finding, a study proposed that the colour red might influence

conscious awareness reducing food and drink consumption. The participants of the

experiment avoided to drink form cups with red stickers and ate fewer snacks form red

plates compared to white and blue ones. These findings suggest that the colour red

affects food and drink intake evoking avoidance motivation (Genschow, Reutner, &

Wänke, 2012).

As discussed above, the red colour reflects negative feelings and it has an

impact at a non-conscious level. In his study, Schuldt (2013) suggests that the colour

of a label, rather than the simple nutritional information, can influence healthfulness

perceptions of food products. Indeed, the same calorie information was regarded

differently according to the label’s colour. However, the researches that we have

reviewed used unhealthy food and drinks in their studies. For this reason, the current

research will investigate whether red elicits an avoidance effect on healthy food and

drinks as well.

H1b: Participants will tend to avoid food with more red lights even when it

contains nutrients recommended for a balanced diet.

Green is often associated to different meanings: safety, go, pro-

environmentalism in politics, natural, organic… (Caivano, 1998; Schuldt, 2013). In

the last years, purchase of organic food has increased because it is considered safer for

the environment and healthier (Harris Interactive, 2007). Thus, consumers assume that

it contains a lower calorie content and, hence, it can be consumed more frequently

(Schuldt & Schwarz, 2010). These findings carry the implication of a halo effect:

8

consumers concerned with healthy eating may be inclined to judge poor food bearing

a green nutritional label in a positive way (Schuldt, 2013).

H2: Participants who place high importance in healthy eating will be more

inclined to perceive poor food as more healthful in the green condition than in the

white or TL condition.

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The following section presents an overview of the literature and theoretical

material used for this paper. The sources are grouped in three thematic areas:

consumers understanding of nutritional labels, efficacy of traffic light labels in

healthier food decisions and influence of colures in human psychology.

2.1 CONSUMER’S RESPONSE TO NUTRITIONAL LABELS

The first part of the literature review concerns the relationship between current

obesity rates and consumer understanding of nutritional labels. Some scholars question

consumers’ ability to understand traditional nutrition tables while others report that

just some consumers look at nutritional information.

Consumers with low levels of education have difficulties in interpreting

numerical data contained in nutritional guidelines (Dickson-Spillmann & Siegrist,

2011). Younger people, with higher income and education have higher nutritional

knowledge while people who are old or with health problems, who are concerned with

healthy eating, who are not price or time sensitive are more likely to use food labels

(Drichoutis, Lazaridis, & Nayga Jr., 2005; Grunert et al., 2010).

In order to simplify nutritional label and provide information on nutrition

content at a glance, the European Commission allows the voluntary adoption of front

of pack nutrition labels (Official Journal of the European Union, 2011) which

summarizes key information. Since then, several FoP label have been promoted,

including the traffic light scheme.

9

Title Content Author, source

A review of

European

research on

consumer

response to

nutrition

information

on food labels

Review research on consumer response to

nutrition labels carried out in EU-15 countries.

Findings show that consumers are interested in

nutrition information also because of the

relationship between health and food. They agree

on the desire for simplified front of package label

while they differ in preferences for the format.

Generally, they believe they can understand

common signposting formats (traffic light

systems, GDA-based systems and health logos or

rating systems).

Grunert, K.

Wills, J.

(2007).

Journal of

Public Health,

15(5), 385-

399.

Attacking the

obesity

epidemic: the

potential

health

benefits of

providing

nutrition

information in

restaurants

Customers of diner house restaurants

underestimate levels of calories, fat and sodium

in less-healthful food items. After the provision

of nutrition and calories information, purchase of

less-healthful items decreased.

Burton, S.

Creyer, E.

Kees, J.

Huggins, K.

(2006).

American

journal of

public health,

96(9), 1669-

1675.

Consumers’

knowledge of

healthy diets

and its

correlation

with dietary

behaviour

The study verifies the knowledge of Swiss

consumers on how to eat a healthy diet. Most

consumers know how to follow a balanced diet;

still many do not know the food pyramid. Some

consumers believe that a healthy diet means

eating less, rather than having a varied diet. Many

consumers do not know the importance of

increasing fruit and vegetable consumption in

their diet.

Dickson-

Spillmann, M.

Siegrist, M.

(2011).

Journal of

human

nutrition and

dietetics: the

official journal

of the British

Dietetic

Association,

24(1), 54-60.

Health in the

“hidden

population” of

people with

low literacy.

A systematic

review of the

literature

This research reviews literature on “hidden

population”, who can communicate orally about

health issues but have problems in reading and

writing. Findings demonstrate that low

functional or health literacy is associated with

poor health in the “hidden population”.

Easton, P.

Entwistle, V.

A.

Williams, B.

(2010). BMC

Public Health,

10, 459-469.

Nutrition

knowledge,

and use and

understanding

of nutrition

information

Degree of understanding of nutrition labels is

higher than degree of usage. Level of usage

depends on product category and interest in

healthy eating. On the other hand, level of

understanding is directly related to nutritional

knowledge. In turn, both variables are affected by

Grunert, K. G.

Wills, J. M.

Fernández-

Celemín, L.

(2010).

Appetite,

10

on food labels

among

consumers in

the UK.

demographic determinants. Respondents tend to

overestimate the severity of amber and red lights

in TL labels.

55(2), 177-

189.

Patient

understanding

of food labels:

the role of

literacy and

numeracy

Despite the majority of patients claim usage and

understanding of food labels, only 69% of the

questions were answered correctly. Poor

understanding of nutritional labels is highly

correlated to low literacy and numerical skills.

However, even high literate patient have

difficulties in interpreting food labels.

Rothman, R.

L., Housam,

R., Weiss, H.,

Davis, D.,

Gregory, R.,

Gebretsadik,

T., Elasy, T.

A. (2006).

American

Journal of

Preventive

Medicine,

31(5), 391–

398.

Standing out

in the crowd:

The effect of

information

clutter on

consumer

attention for

front-of-pack

nutrition

labels

The research explores how information density

on FoP labels affect consumers’ attention to

nutrition labels. Attention decreases as

information density increases. Congruency of

information does not affect performance.

Monochrome labels capture attention better than

colour-coded schemes.

Bialkova, S.,

Grunert, K. G.,

van Trijp, H.

(2013). Food

Policy, 41, 65-

74.

The Dieter’s

Paradox

According to this study, people believe that the

combined calorie content of a healthy item and

an unhealthy one is lower than a meal containing

the unhealthy item alone. This misconception is

more pronounced among weight-conscious

individuals.

Chernev, A.

(2011).

Journal of

Consumer

Psychology,

21(2), 178-

183.

2.2 TRAFFIC LIGHT LABEL

The second part is dedicated to the review of studies that evaluated the FoP

labelling scheme that best facilitate the correct interpretation of nutritional

information. Advantages and disadvantages of different FoP schemes are presented as

well as their efficacy and effects on purchasing decisions.

UK Food Standards Agency started developing signpost labelling in 2003 and

in 2008 assessed the preferred FoP of consumers and the one that helped them to make

healthier food choices. Two options resulted to have the highest level of

11

understanding: the Guideline Daily Amount (GDA) and the Traffic Light label (TL)

(Malam et al., 2009). After this consultation, the FSA in agreement with the UK

government recommends the TL system (Barclay, 2012) while the European Union

rejected the proposal for the compulsory adoption of the TL labelling and favoured the

rival scheme (Griffits, 2011).

Given that the adoption of the TL label was voluntary in UK, retailers divided

into two coalitions: Sainsbury's, Waitrose, the Co-op, Marks & Spencer and Asda

supported the colour-coded scheme while Tesco, Morrison, Lidl, Somerfield and some

food manufacturers back the GDA system (Brindley, 2007). Opponents of the TL

system argue that consumers will not buy red-coded foods while the GDA system

provides information that is more detailed (Parkinson, 2007). This hypothesis is in

agreement with Balcombe, Fraser, and Falco (2010) who confirm that consumers have

an aversion for basket of goods containing red foods. A study conducted by the Co-

operative Food (2013) found that 41% of women and 30% of men would not buy a

product if it bore a red traffic light. Likewise, the results of another survey indicate

that 73% of respondents interpret red as “try not to eat this product” whereas only 35%

correctly choose the definition “It's fine to have this product occasionally as a

treat”(Grunert & Wills, 2008). Some European countries too believe that TL scheme

is too simplistic and misleading. They claim that the colour-coded label indicates only

the presence of bad nutrients and fails to consider the presence of good ones such as

fiber, vitamins, minerals and so forth (Parkinson, 2007). Thus, some traditional

products like cheese, olive oil, red meat, fish, nuts and fruit would be labelled red for

some nutrients even if they contain important nutrients for a balanced diet (Roberts,

2014). Some food processors may take advantage of this reformulating their products

and substituting, for instance, fats with carbohydrates, which, however, are eventually

metabolised as sugar in our bodies (Blythman, 2012). For these reasons, the European

Commission was concerned that because of the UK’s voluntary scheme some foods

would be perceived as inferior thus creating a barrier to the free trade that is a violation

of EU law (Harrison-Dunn, 2014).

On the other hand, critics of the GDA label argue that the latter protects the

financial interest of food industry (Lovell, 2007) and it causes confusion among

12

shoppers because they find the percentage daily intake difficult to understand

(Parkinson, 2007).

The increase of sales of products with more green lights and the decrease of

sales of products with more red lights, observed after the introduction of the colour-

coded scheme (ECO for the European Commission & Rand Institute Europe, 2008;

Games, 2012), suggests that TL labels help consumers make healthier choices.

Title Content Author, source

A 2-phase

labelling and

choice

architecture

intervention to

improve

healthy food

and beverage

choices

Study divided in 2 phases. In phase 1, a color-

coded labelling (red, yellow or green) was

applied to food and beverages in a cafeteria.

Phase 2 involved a rearrangement of food and

beverages to increase the visibility of healthier

items.

During phase 1, sales of red items decreased

while sales of green items increased. In phase

2, only sales of green beverages increased

compared to phase 1.

Thorndike, A.

Sonnenberg, L.

Riis, J.

Barraclough, S.

Levy, D.

(2012).

American

journal of public

health, 102(3),

527-533.

A traffic light

food labelling

intervention

increases

consumer

awareness of

health and

healthy

choices at the

point-of-

purchase

The study compares responses to survey

questions and purchases made before and after

the implementation of traffic light label in a

cafeteria. After the labelling intervention,

more customers reported to have noticed

labels, to look for nutrition information and to

consider nutrition as an important factor in

their purchase and similarly the amount of

green items bought increased while their red

purchases decreased.

Sonnenberg, L.

Gelsomin, E.

Levy, D.

Riis, J.

Barraclough, S.

Thorndike, A.

(2013).

Preventive

Medicine, 57(4),

253-257.

Comprehensio

n and use of

UK nutrition

signpost

labelling

schemes

Consumers can understand front-of-package

(FoP) labels. The level of comprehension is

highest for FoP combining text (the words

high, medium, low), and % Guideline Daily

Amount (GDA).

Malam, S.

Clegg, S.

Kirwan, S.

McGinigal, S.

BMRB Social

Research.

(2009). BMRP,

1-150.

Consumer

perceptions of

front-of-

package

traffic-light

food labelling

Results of a study conducted in Minnesota

determine that traffic-light food label is

perceived as visually appealing and user-

friendly. The meaning of the yellow-light

appears to be clearer than green and red-lights

meaning.

Bronner, K.

(2009). The

Graduate

School

University of

Wisconsin-Stout.

1-74.

Consumer

testing of the

According to this survey, respondents are more

likely to identify healthier foods with colour-

Kelly, B.,

Hughes, C.,

13

acceptability

and

effectiveness

of front-of-

pack food

labelling

systems for the

Australian

grocery market

coding traffic light labels than with

monochrome labels.

Chapman, K.,

Louie, J.,

Dixon, H.,

Crawford, J.,

King, L., Daube,

M., Slevin, T.

(2009). Health

promotion

international,

24(2), 120-129.

Facts up front

versus traffic

light food

labels. A

randomized

controlled trial.

The study assesses respondent’s ability to

compare two foods on nutrient level based on

their labels. Participants using Traffic Light

labels outperformed on all nutrient quizzes.

Roberto, C.,

Bragg, M.,

Schwartz, M.,

Seamans, M.

Musicus, A.,

Novak, N.,

Brownell, K.

(2012).

American

journal of

preventive

medicine, 43(2),

134-141.

Food choices

of minority

and low-

income

employees: a

cafeteria

intervention

The research examines whether food choices

improved across different racial and

socioeconomic groups after labelling

intervention. At baseline, Latino and black

employees and employees in low-skilled job

consumed more red items than white

employees or high-skilled employees.

Following labelling intervention, employees

across all race/ethnicity and job types

decreased red purchases.

Levy, D., Riis, J.

Sonnenberg, L.,

Barraclough, S.,

Thorndike, A.

(2013).

American

Journal of

Preventive

Medicine, 43(3),

240-248

Food labelling

nutrition –

voluntary

schemes

The report summarizes the latest events

occurred in UK on food labelling nutrition.

Food Standard Agency supports Traffic Light

System while UK government and other

retailers favour GDA. The EU food regulation

that will come into force in 2015 may

introduce GDA as a voluntary scheme. An

American study argues that nutrition labelling

has little effect on purchases.

Barclay, C.

(2012). House of

Commons

Library, 1-8.

Guide to

creating a front

of pack (FoP)

nutrition label

for pre-packed

products sold

This guide provides support for the voluntary

provision of FoP information in UK. It

indicates how to calculate the amount of

nutrient and energy present in 100g/ml of the

product, how to determine the percentage

reference intake information and colour coding

(red, amber and green).

(2013).

Department of

Health, Food

Standards

Agency,

devolved

administrations

14

through retail

outlets

in Scotland,

Northern

Ireland and

Wales, the

British Retail

Consortium, 1-

26.

Healthful food

decision

making in

response to

traffic light

color-coded

nutrition

labelling

The two studies prove that FoP traffic light

labels influence actual food purchase

behaviour. In particular, traffic light labels

help customers with low self-control (who

cannot control their eating behaviour) make

healthier food decisions.

Koenigstorfer, J.

Groeppel-Klein,

A.

Kamm, F.

(2014). Journal

of Public Policy

& Marketing,

33(1), 65-77.

Impact of

different food

label formats

on healthiness

evaluation and

food choice of

consumers: a

randomized-

controlled

study.

Without food labelling only few individuals

are able to make correct choices. The traffic

light system is more efficient in helping

customers identify healthier food variants.

However, signpost labelling have no impact on

actual food choices.

Borgmeier, I.

Westenhoefer, J.

(2009). BMC

public health, 9,

184-196.

Impact of

front-of-pack

“traffic-light”

nutrition

labelling on

consumer food

purchases in

the UK

This study examines change in total week

product sales in a major UK retailer’s stores

before and after the introduction of traffic light

labels. The analysis focuses on two product

categories: ready meals and sandwiches. There

is no evidence of association between

healthiness of products and a change in product

sales.

Sacks, G.

Rayner, M.

Swinburn, B.

(2009). Health

promotion

international,

24(4), 344-352.

Is simpler

always better?

Consumer

evaluations of

front-of-

package

nutrition

symbols

The effects of two FoP icons (Smart Choices

Versus Traffic Light–Guideline Daily

Amount) on US consumers’ perceptions of

nutrient levels are examined. Results evidence

that TL-GDA icon offers simpler and

irrefutable information on the most critical

nutrients attributes.

Andrews, J. C.

Burton, S.

Kees, J.

(2011). Journal

of Public Policy

& Marketing,

30(2), 175-190.

Mandatory

front-of-pack

“traffic light

labelling” on

food and

beverages

In this paper, the Royal Australasian College

of Physicians supports the mandatory adoption

of Traffic Light labelling in Australia and New

Zealand following positive outcomes of

researches conducted on the label.

Royal

Australasian

College of

Physicians.

Nutrient

profile

The Belgian and German consumers’ attitudes

towards GDA and TL label are explored. In

Moeser, A.

Hoefkens, C.

15

labelling:

consumers’

perceptions in

Germany and

Belgium

Germany consumers prefer TL label while in

Belgium consumers appreciate the GDA

system. However, in both countries

preferences for the different labels are affected

by socio-demographic characteristics.

Camp, J. V.

Verbeke, W.

(2009).

University of

Giessen, Ghent

University, 1-16.

Nutritional

Information :

traffic light

labelling is the

best way to

reach

consumers

This report analyses pros and cons of two

nutrition labels: GDA and TL. Colour coded

labelling has the advantage of being easily

assimilated by poor educated consumers.

Hagen, K.

(2010). DIW

Weekly Report,

6(19), 141-151.

The impact of

restaurant

calorie labels

on food

choice: results

from a field

experiment

In an Oklahoma restaurant, the adoption of

traffic light symbols on menus lead to a

decrease in high calories meals ordered.

Ellison, B.,

Lusk, J. L.,

Davis, D.

(2014).

Economic

Inquiry, 52(2),

666-681.

Traffic-light

labels and

choice

architecture:

promoting

healthy food

choices

This study analyses sales of food items over a

period of 24 months to evaluate the

effectiveness of traffic light labelling

introduction. Results demonstrate that

individuals exposed to TL labels change their

purchase behaviour choosing healthier items.

Largest reduction occurred in sugar-sweetened

beverages.

Thorndike, A.

N., Riis, J.,

Sonnenberg, L.

M.,

Levy, D. E.

(2014).

American

journal of

preventive

medicine, 46(2),

143-149.

Working paper

on platform

commitments

in

reformulation

and labelling

After the introduction of TL scheme,

Sainsbury’s and Waitrose reported an increase

in sales of healthy products increased while

sales of less healthy items decreased. This data

suggests that consumers are making healthier

choices but they do not avoid products with red

lights.

ECO for the

European

Commission;

Rand Institute

Europe.

(2008). EU

Platform on

Diet, Physical

Activity and

Health, 22-23.

2.3 COLOURS

The third part of the literature review examines the effects of colours on human

psychology. In this part, studies on psychology of colours and the semiotic function of

colour are presented.

16

Colour can imply concepts other than the colour itself. Red is associated to

passion, danger and stop while green is related to envy, safety and go (Caivano, 1998).

Several studies reported differential colour effects on physiology and psychology.

Gerard (1958) observed an increase in blood pressure, palmar conductance, respiration

rate, eye blink frequency and alert feeling in presence of red illumination. Red has also

been shown to evoke anger (Fetterman et al., 2011) and impair performance in

achievement contexts (Elliot, Maier, Binser, Friedman, & Pekrun, 2009). In contrast,

green is perceived as a calming colour and less arousing, stimulating, and exciting

than red (Wilson, 1966).

In the food context, researchers combined these findings and proposed that red

colour could induce avoidance of food and drink intake (Genschow et al., 2012) while

green may elicit positive impressions that influence the interpretation of nutritional

labels (Schuldt, 2013).

Title Content Author, source

Anger as

seeing red:

perceptual

sources of

evidence

The result of the two experiments demonstrate

that when experiencing anger, people are more

likely to perceive the colour red.

Fetterman, A.

Robinson, M.

Gordon, R.

Elliot, A.

(2011). Social

psychological

and

personality

science, 2(3),

311-316.

Arousal

properties of

red versus

green

The experiment’s results indicate that red is

perceived as a more arousing colour than green.

Red is indicated as more stimulating, exciting,

awakening, attention-drawing, overpowering, and

lively colour.

Wilson, G.

(1966).

Perceptual and

Motor Skills,

23, 947-949.

Colour and

psychological

functioning:

the effect of

red on

performance

attainment

Six experiments examine the link between the

colour red and its influence on performance in

achievement contexts. Results reveal that

participants in the red condition performs worse

than those who viewed green or an achromatic

colour. Moreover, the influence of red in such

contexts occurs without one’s conscious

awareness.

Elliot, A.

Maier, M.

Moller, A.

Friedman,

Meinhardt, J.

(2007).

Journal of

experimental

psychology,

17

136(1), 154-

168.

Color and

semiotics: a

two-way

street

Colours work as a sign (the colour serves to

represent or substitute something) or as an icon by

means of an iconic association (colours and

objects are linked based on their similarities).

Colour associations differ according to social and

cultural contexts.

Caivano, L.

(1998). Color

Research and

Application,

23(6), 390-

401.

Does green

mean

healthy?

Nutrition

label color

affects

perceptions

of

healthfulness.

Nutrition label colours influence healthfulness

perceptions. When a non-healthful food item bore

a green calorie label, it was perceived as more

healthful than when the same item bore a red

calorie label. Green labels carry a halo effect:

consumers who place a high importance in

healthy eating are more inclined to see foods with

green nutrition labels in a more positive light.

Schuldt, J.

(2013). Health

communicatio

n, 28(8), 814-

821.

Environment

al Color,

Consumer

Feelings, and

Purchase

Likelihood

Colours red and blue are used in a shopping-

related experiment. More positive reaction and

simulated purchases occurred in blue retail

environments.

Bellizzi, J.

Hite, R.

(1992).

Psychology &

Marketing,

9(5), 347-363

The color red

reduces

snack food

and soft drink

intake

The research proves that colour red can reduce

snack food and soft drink intake.

Genschow, O.,

Reutner, L.,

Wänke, M.

(2012).

Appetite,

58(2), 699-

702.

The effect of

red on

avoidance

behavior in

achievement

contexts

In achievement contexts (e.g. IQ test), the colour

red evokes avoidance behaviour without

conscious awareness. Students in the red

condition moved their body backward when the

test cover was presented.

Elliot, A. J.,

Maier, M.,

Binser, M. J.,

Friedman, R.,

Pekrun, R.

(2009).

Personality &

social

psychology

bulletin, 35(3),

365-375.

18

3 METHODOLOGY

The data needed to answer the research questions will be collected through an

online questionnaire that will be spread to European consumers through both social

media and personal contacts.

The questionnaire will be divided in four sections. In the first section, I will

show participants two products of the same product category and their respective TL

labels. One product will have lower nutrients’ content (salt, fat and sugar) than the

other one. However, the nutrients will not be coloured in green, amber or red according

to the amount of the nutrient. The first group of five pairs of pictures will have labels

coloured in green whereas the second group of five pair of pictures will present labels

coloured in white (a neutral colour). Still, the text high, medium and low of the five

nutrients will be maintained. Respondents will be asked to choose the product they

would buy. Doing so, we can verify:

- If food of poor nutritional quality when labelled with green lights is perceived

in a more positive way than it otherwise would;

- Whether this correlation depends on the colour green or if it occurs also in the

monochromatic condition;

- Whether consumers read the text in the green condition—and hence they

choose the product with lower amount of fat, sugar, salt and saturates— or whether

they just trust their gut.

In the second section, I will reply the above experiment with the TL labels.

This time I can find out if the red light helps respondents to identify poor nutritional

foods or if participant still choose them. Moreover, I can check also some of the claims

made by the opponents of the TL system. For example, one of the complaints made

against the colour-coded label is that it considers only the presence of bad nutrient and

fails to consider the presence of good ones. Thus, I will propose one food option that

appears healthier according to traffic light indicators, while the other will present more

red or amber lights but it will contain more fiber, vitamins, minerals…

19

Figure 1 Example of coloured traffic light label. Retrieved from FSA.

In the third section, I will ask participant to express their agreement or

disagreement with a number of questions concerning the TL system (to understand the

reasoning behind their choices in the previous section), shopping attitudes (be on diet,

buy healthy items…)... The results of this section will allow me to test if “healthy”

people are more inclined to see green-labelled product in a positive way.

Figure 2 Example of monochrome traffic light label. Retrieved from FSA.

The fourth section will measure socio-demographic variables of the

participants such as age, gender, education, place of residence and nationality.

20

4 OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS

Abstract

Table of content

Table of figures

Table of abbreviations

1. Introduction: presentation of the background, purpose and methodology of the

Mater thesis.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Consumer response to food labelling: this section will provide an overview of the

latest researches on consumer usage, understanding and knowledge of food labels.

2.2 Effectiveness of traffic light labels in healthy food choices: this section is dedicated

to efficacy and influence of TL labels on consumers’ healthy food decisions and actual

purchases.

2.3 The role of green and red colours on consumer behaviour: this section will examine

the influence of red and green colours on consumers’ decisions.

3. Hypotheses: In this section, hypotheses will be developed on the basis of literature

review.

4. Methodology: explanation of the research methodology applied

5. Analysis of results: In this section, hypotheses will be tested against statistical data.

6. Implications: implications on findings will be provided.

7. Conclusions: limitations and further research.

8. Bibliography

9. Appendix

21

5 PLAN OF WORK

Time Phase Description

12.09.2014 – 12.10.2014

Exposé

Selection of the topic,

literature review and write

exposé

13.10.2014-1.12.2014

Literature review- Theory

Further literature review

and write the theoretical

part of the thesis

26.11.2014-15.12.2014

Methodology

Design questionnaire, pre-

test of online survey, write

methodology, first draft

intermediate presentation

16.12.2014-31.1.2015

Survey, intermediate

report and presentation

Conduct online survey,

finalize intermediate

report and prepare

intermediate presentation

1.2.2015-15.3.2015

Analysis phase

Analysis of the online

questionnaire results,

evaluate results, write

analysis section

16.3.2015-31.3.2015

Implications, limitations,

conclusion

Finish writing

implications, limitations

and conclusion

1.4.2015-deadline

Finalisation

Review the work

(adaptation, correction),

prepare final report and

presentation

22

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