Inductance

Self-inductance

A time-varying current in a circuit produces an induced emf opposing the emf that initially set up the time-varying current.

Basis of the electrical circuit element called an inductor

Energy is stored in the magnetic field of an inductor.

There is an energy density associated with the magnetic field.

Mutual induction

An emf is induced in a coil as a result of a changing magnetic flux produced by a second coil.

Circuits may contain inductors as well as resistors and capacitors.

Introduction

Joseph Henry

1797 – 1878

American physicist

First director of the Smithsonian

First president of the Academy of

Natural Science

Improved design of electromagnet

Constructed one of the first motors

Discovered self-inductance

Didn’t publish his results

Unit of inductance is named in his

honor

Section 32.1

Some Terminology

Use emf and current when they are caused by batteries or other sources.

Use induced emf and induced current when they are caused by changing magnetic fields.

When dealing with problems in electromagnetism, it is important to distinguish between the two situations.

Section 32.1

Self-Inductance

When the switch is closed, the current

does not immediately reach its

maximum value.

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic

induction can be used to describe the

effect.

As the current increases with time, the

magnetic flux through the circuit loop

due to this current also increases with

time.

This increasing flux creates an induced

emf in the circuit.

Section 32.1

RL Circuit, Current-Time Graph, Charging

The equilibrium value of the current is e /R and is reached as t approaches infinity.

The current initially increases very rapidly.

The current then gradually approaches the equilibrium value.

Section 32.2

RL Circuit, Current-Time Graph, Discharging

The time rate of change of the current is a maximum at t = 0.

It falls off exponentially as t approaches infinity.

In general,

t τd I εe

dt L

Section 32.2

EXAMPLE 34.13 Large voltage across an

inductor

EXAMPLE 34.15 An AM radio oscillator

QUESTION:

Rank in order, from largest to smallest,

the time constants τa, τb, and τc of these

three circuits.

A. τa > τb > τc

B. τb > τa > τc

C. τb > τc > τa

D. τc > τa > τb

E. τc > τb > τa

A. τa > τb > τc

B. τb > τa > τc

C. τb > τc > τa

D. τc > τa > τb

E. τc > τb > τa

Rank in order, from largest to smallest,

the time constants τa, τb, and τc of these

three circuits.

LC Circuits

A capacitor is connected to an inductor

in an LC circuit.

Assume the capacitor is initially

charged and then the switch is closed.

Assume no resistance and no energy

losses to radiation.

Section 32.5

Oscillations in an LC Circuit

Under the previous conditions, the current in the circuit and the charge on the capacitor oscillate between maximum positive and negative values.

With zero resistance, no energy is transformed into internal energy.

Ideally, the oscillations in the circuit persist indefinitely.

The idealizations are no resistance and no radiation.

The capacitor is fully charged.

The energy U in the circuit is stored in the electric field of the capacitor.

The energy is equal to Q2max / 2C.

The current in the circuit is zero.

No energy is stored in the inductor.

The switch is closed.

Section 32.5

Oscillations in an LC Circuit, cont.

The current is equal to the rate at which the charge changes on the capacitor.

As the capacitor discharges, the energy stored in the electric field

decreases.

Since there is now a current, some energy is stored in the magnetic field of

the inductor.

Energy is transferred from the electric field to the magnetic field.

Eventually, the capacitor becomes fully discharged.

It stores no energy.

All of the energy is stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.

The current reaches its maximum value.

The current now decreases in magnitude, recharging the capacitor with its plates

having opposite their initial polarity.

Section 32.5

Oscillations in an LC Circuit, final

The capacitor becomes fully charged and the cycle repeats.

The energy continues to oscillate between the inductor and the capacitor.

The total energy stored in the LC circuit remains constant in time and equals.

221

2 2IC L

QU U U L

C

Section 32.5

LC Circuit Analogy to Spring-Mass System, 1

The potential energy ½kx2 stored in the spring is analogous to the electric

potential energy (Qmax)2/(2C) stored in the capacitor.

All the energy is stored in the capacitor at t = 0.

This is analogous to the spring stretched to its amplitude.

Section 32.5

LC Circuit Analogy to Spring-Mass System, 2

The kinetic energy (½ mv2) of the spring is analogous to the magnetic energy (½ L I2) stored in the inductor.

At t = ¼ T, all the energy is stored as magnetic energy in the inductor.

The maximum current occurs in the circuit.

This is analogous to the mass at equilibrium.

Section 32.5

LC Circuit Analogy to Spring-Mass System, 3

At t = ½ T, the energy in the circuit is completely stored in the capacitor.

The polarity of the capacitor is reversed.

This is analogous to the spring stretched to -A.

Section 32.5

LC Circuit Analogy to Spring-Mass System, 4

At t = ¾ T, the energy is again stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.

This is analogous to the mass again reaching the equilibrium position.

Section 32.5

LC Circuit Analogy to Spring-Mass System, 5

At t = T, the cycle is completed

The conditions return to those identical to the initial conditions.

At other points in the cycle, energy is shared between the electric and magnetic fields.

Section 32.5

Time Functions of an LC Circuit

In an LC circuit, charge can be expressed as a function of time.

Q = Qmax cos (ωt + φ)

This is for an ideal LC circuit

The angular frequency, ω, of the circuit depends on the inductance and the

capacitance.

It is the natural frequency of oscillation of the circuit.

1ωLC

Section 32.5

Time Functions of an LC Circuit, cont.

The current can be expressed as a function of time:

The total energy can be expressed as a function of time:

max

dQI ωQ sin(ωt φ)

dt

22 2 21

2 2max

C L max

QU U U cos ωt LI sin ωt

c

Section 32.5

Charge and Current in an LC Circuit

The charge on the capacitor oscillates

between Qmax and -Qmax.

The current in the inductor oscillates

between Imax and -Imax.

Q and I are 90o out of phase with each

other

So when Q is a maximum, I is

zero, etc.

Section 32.5

1ωLC

Energy in an LC Circuit – Graphs

The energy continually oscillates between the energy stored in the electric and magnetic fields.

When the total energy is stored in one field, the energy stored in the other field is zero.

Section 32.5

22 2 21

2 2max

C L max

QU U U cos ωt LI sin ωt

c

1ωLC

Notes About Real LC Circuits

In actual circuits, there is always some resistance.

Therefore, there is some energy transformed to internal energy.

Radiation is also inevitable in this type of circuit.

The total energy in the circuit continuously decreases as a result of these

processes.

Section 32.5

The RLC Circuit

A circuit containing a resistor, an

inductor and a capacitor is called an

RLC Circuit.

Assume the resistor represents the total

resistance of the circuit.

Section 32.6

RLC Circuit, Analysis

The total energy is not constant, since there is a transformation to internal energy

in the resistor at the rate of dU/dt = -I2R.

Radiation losses are still ignored

The circuit’s operation can be expressed as 2

20

d Q dQ QL R

dt dt C

Section 32.6

RLC Circuit Compared to Damped Oscillators

The RLC circuit is analogous to a damped harmonic oscillator.

When R = 0

The circuit reduces to an LC circuit and is equivalent to no damping in a

mechanical oscillator.

When R is small:

The RLC circuit is analogous to light damping in a mechanical oscillator.

Q = Qmax e-Rt/2L cos ωdt

ωd is the angular frequency of oscillation for the circuit and

12 2

1

2d

Rω

LC L

Section 32.6

RLC Circuit Compared to Damped Oscillators, cont.

When R is very large, the oscillations damp out very rapidly.

There is a critical value of R above which no oscillations occur.

If R = RC, the circuit is said to be critically damped.

When R > RC, the circuit is said to be overdamped.

4 /CR L C

Section 32.6

Damped RLC Circuit, Graph

The maximum value of Q decreases

after each oscillation.

R < RC

This is analogous to the amplitude of a

damped spring-mass system.

Section 32.6

Summary: Analogies Between Electrical and Mechanic Systems

Section 32.6

Problem-Solving Strategy: Electromagnetic

Induction

Self-Inductance, cont.

The direction of the induced emf is such that it would cause an induced current in

the loop which would establish a magnetic field opposing the change in the

original magnetic field.

The direction of the induced emf is opposite the direction of the emf of the

battery.

This results in a gradual increase in the current to its final equilibrium value.

This effect is called self-inductance.

Because the changing flux through the circuit and the resultant induced emf

arise from the circuit itself.

The emf εL is called a self-induced emf.

Section 32.1

Self-Inductance, Equations

An induced emf is always proportional to the time rate of change of the current.

The emf is proportional to the flux, which is proportional to the field and the

field is proportional to the current.

L is a constant of proportionality called the inductance of the coil.

It depends on the geometry of the coil and other physical characteristics.

L

d Iε L

dt

Section 32.1

Inductance of a Coil

A closely spaced coil of N turns carrying current I has an inductance of

The inductance is a measure of the opposition to a change in current.

B LN εL

I d I dt

Section 32.1

Inductance Units

The SI unit of inductance is the henry (H)

Named for Joseph Henry

A

sV1H1

Section 32.1

Inductance of a Solenoid

Assume a uniformly wound solenoid having N turns and length ℓ.

Assume ℓ is much greater than the radius of the solenoid.

The flux through each turn of area A is

The inductance is

This shows that L depends on the geometry of the object.

B o o

NBA μ nI A μ I A

Section 32.1

22oB

o

μ N ANL μ n V

I

RL Circuit, Introduction

A circuit element that has a large self-inductance is called an inductor.

The circuit symbol is

We assume the self-inductance of the rest of the circuit is negligible compared to

the inductor.

However, even without a coil, a circuit will have some self-inductance.

Section 32.2

Effect of an Inductor in a Circuit

The inductance results in a back emf.

Therefore, the inductor in a circuit opposes changes in current in that circuit.

The inductor attempts to keep the current the same way it was before the

change occurred.

The inductor can cause the circuit to be “sluggish” as it reacts to changes in

the voltage.

Section 32.2

RL Circuit, Analysis

An RL circuit contains an inductor and a

resistor.

Assume S2 is connected to a

When switch S1 is closed (at time t = 0),

the current begins to increase.

At the same time, a back emf is

induced in the inductor that opposes

the original increasing current.

Section 32.2

RL Circuit, Analysis, cont.

Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the previous circuit in the clockwise direction

gives

Looking at the current, we find

0d I

ε I R Ldt

1 Rt LεI e

R

Section 32.2

RL Circuit, Analysis, Final

The inductor affects the current exponentially.

The current does not instantly increase to its final equilibrium value.

If there is no inductor, the exponential term goes to zero and the current would instantaneously reach its maximum value as expected.

Section 32.2

RL Circuit, Time Constant

The expression for the current can also be expressed in terms of the time

constant, t, of the circuit.

where t = L / R

Physically, t is the time required for the current to reach 63.2% of its maximum

value.

1 t τεI e

R

Section 32.2

RL Circuit Without A Battery

Now set S2 to position b

The circuit now contains just the right

hand loop .

The battery has been eliminated.

The expression for the current becomes

t tτ τ

i

εI e I e

R

Section 32.2

Energy in a Magnetic Field

In a circuit with an inductor, the battery must supply more energy than in a circuit

without an inductor.

Part of the energy supplied by the battery appears as internal energy in the

resistor.

The remaining energy is stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.

Section 32.3

Energy in a Magnetic Field, cont.

Looking at this energy (in terms of rate)

Ie is the rate at which energy is being supplied by the battery.

I2R is the rate at which the energy is being delivered to the resistor.

Therefore, LI (dI/dt) must be the rate at which the energy is being stored in

the magnetic field.

2 d II ε I R LI

dt

Section 32.3

Energy in a Magnetic Field, final

Let U denote the energy stored in the inductor at any time.

The rate at which the energy is stored is

To find the total energy, integrate and

dU d ILI

dt dt

2

0

1

2

I

U L I d I LI

Section 32.3

Energy Density of a Magnetic Field

Given U = ½ L I2 and assume (for simplicity) a solenoid with L = mo n2 V

Since V is the volume of the solenoid, the magnetic energy density, uB is

This applies to any region in which a magnetic field exists (not just the solenoid).

22

21

2 2o

o o

B BU μ n V V

μ n μ

2

2B

o

U Bu

V μ

Section 32.3

Energy Storage Summary

A resistor, inductor and capacitor all store energy through different mechanisms.

Charged capacitor

Stores energy as electric potential energy

Inductor

When it carries a current, stores energy as magnetic potential energy

Resistor

Energy delivered is transformed into internal energy

Section 32.3

Example: The Coaxial Cable

Calculate L of a length ℓ for the cable

The total flux is

Therefore, L is

2

ln2

bo

Ba

o

μ IB dA dr

πr

μ I b

π a

ln2

oB μ bL

I π a

Section 32.3

Mutual Inductance

The magnetic flux through the area enclosed by a circuit often varies with time

because of time-varying currents in nearby circuits.

This process is known as mutual induction because it depends on the interaction

of two circuits.

Section 32.4

Mutual Inductance, cont.

The current in coil 1 sets up a magnetic

field.

Some of the magnetic field lines pass

through coil 2.

Coil 1 has a current I1 and N1 turns.

Coil 2 has N2 turns.

Section 32.4

Mutual Inductance, final

The mutual inductance M12 of coil 2 with respect to coil 1 is

Mutual inductance depends on the geometry of both circuits and on their

orientation with respect to each other.

2 1212

1

NM

I

Section 32.4

Induced emf in Mutual Inductance

If current I1 varies with time, the emf induced by coil 1 in coil 2 is

If the current is in coil 2, there is a mutual inductance M21.

If current 2 varies with time, the emf induced by coil 2 in coil 1 is

12 12 2 12

d d Iε N M

dt dt

21 21

d Iε M

dt

Section 32.4

Induced emf in Mutual Inductance, cont.

In mutual induction, the emf induced in one coil is always proportional to the rate

at which the current in the other coil is changing.

The mutual inductance in one coil is equal to the mutual inductance in the other

coil.

M12 = M21 = M

The induced emf’s can be expressed as

2 11 2and

d I d Iε M ε M

dt dt

Section 32.4