About the authors xi

Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy xiii

Preface xv

1 Biodiesel as a renewable energy source 1

1.1 Introduction 11.2 Energy policy 21.3 Transformation of biomass 201.4 Global biodiesel development 261.5 Value chain of biodiesel 381.6 Bibliography 401.7 References 44

2 Development of non-food agricultural industries for biofuel applications 50

2.1 Introduction 502.2 Biofuels 512.3 Biomass potentials and limitations 522.4 Advanced agroenergy crops 562.5 Bibliography 592.6 References 60

3 Oleochemical sources: basic science, processing and applications of oils 62

3.1 Introduction 623.2 Biochemistry of lipid metabolism 643.3 Modification of vegetable oil quality 763.4 Industrial use of vegetable oils 803.5 Unusual fatty acids 85

Contents

v

3.6 Oil processing techniques 903.7 Bibliography 1003.8 References 103

4 Vegetable oil formulations for utilisation as biofuels 114

4.1 Introduction 1144.2 Fuel properties of oils and fats 1164.3 Low-viscosity formulations 1214.4 Bibliography 1254.5 References 125

5 Feedstocks for biodiesel production 130

5.1 Introduction 1305.2 Global oilseed and oil production 1355.3 Resources for biodiesel production 1375.4 Main biodiesel crops 1435.5 Minor edible oil crops 1595.6 Fish oils 1635.7 Algae mass culture systems 1685.8 Oleaginous microorganisms 1875.9 Non-edible oilseeds 1885.10 Low-quality feedstocks 1975.11 Bibliography 2065.12 References 208

6 Emerging new energy crops for biodiesel production 226

6.1 Introduction 2266.2 Crop selection criteria for biodiesel application 2276.3 Structure and quality parameters for evaluating alternative

feedstocks 2316.4 Agronomic potential of underexploited oil crops by region 2446.5 Bibliography 2736.6 References 274

7 Transesterification processes for biodiesel production from oils and fats 285

7.1 Introduction 2857.2 Process variables 2877.3 Transesterification kinetics 2957.4 In-situ transesterification 3087.5 Non-catalytic fatty acid alkyl ester production 3107.6 References 314

Contentsvi

8 Biodiesel catalysis 322

8.1 Introduction 3228.2 Homogeneous alkaline catalysis in biodiesel synthesis 3278.3 Liquid-phase acid catalysis 3408.4 Heterogeneous catalysis in biodiesel synthesis 3488.5 Bibliography 3718.6 References 371

9 Processes for biodiesel production from unrefined oils and fats 386

9.1 Introduction 3869.2 Fatty acid esterification 3899.3 Transesterification of acidic feedstocks 3949.4 Jatrodiesel 4129.5 Algal biodiesel 4149.6 Vegetable oil soapstocks for biodiesel application 4209.7 Tall biodiesel 4239.8 Bibliography 4259.9 References 425

10 Biocatalytic production of biodiesel 434

10.1 Introduction 43410.2 Enzymatic (trans)esterification 43510.3 Bioplastic-to-biodiesel 45410.4 Bibliography 45410.5 References 455

11 Industrial process technology for biodiesel production 462

11.1 Introduction 46211.2 Biodiesel plant design and engineering 46711.3 Selected proprietary transesterification processing

technologies 48711.4 Selected biodiesel producers 49711.5 Biodiesel blending techniques 50511.6 Bibliography 50811.7 References 509

12 Analytical methods and standards for quality assurance in biodiesel production 514

12.1 Introduction 514

Contents vii

12.2 Quality control of biodiesel feedstocks 51512.3 Biodiesel standardisation 51612.4 Biodiesel quality management 52612.5 Biodiesel analytical methodology 54012.6 Bibliography 56212.7 References 563

13 Valorisation of the glycerol by-product from biodiesel production 571

13.1 Introduction 57113.2 Industrial glycerol production 57213.3 Glycerol purification 57513.4 Industrial uses and markets 57913.5 Innovative use of glycerol 58413.6 Renewable diesel synthesis without glycerol co-production 61113.7 Bibliography 61513.8 References 615

14 Sustainability and use of biodiesel 625

14.1 Introduction 62514.2 Energy balance 62714.3 Life cycle assessment of biodiesel 63014.4 Performance characteristics for biodiesel 63714.5 Biodiesel cost structure 65814.6 Biodiesel use and markets 67714.7 Bibliography 70114.8 References 703

15 Evolution of biodiesel and alternative diesel fuels 713

15.1 Introduction 71315.2 Second-generation biofuels 71915.3 Biodiesel: the next generations 72415.4 Hydroprocessing technology 74215.5 Perspectives of biomass-to-liquid fuels 75615.6 Renewable energy and biomass 77215.7 Bibliography 77515.8 References 776

16 Epilogue: outlook for biodiesel science and technology 783

16.1 Introduction 78316.2 State of the biodiesel industry 784

Contentsviii

16.3 Challenges for the global biodiesel industry 789

Appendix I Acronyms/abbreviations of techniques 799Appendix II (Bio)chemical nomenclature 801Appendix III Physical and mathematical symbols 810Appendix IV General abbreviations 814Appendix V Main websites 820

Index 822

Contents ix