indian schools of philosophy

7/31/2019 Indian Schools of Philosophy

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David Cadman www.davidcadman.net Page 1

The Systems of Indian Philosophy1

1. The Nature of Indian philosophy

It is a common place to say that the Western and Eastern minds work in

different ways, that they see the world from different perspectives. And to

the extent that, at least in recent times, the latter has been more inclined

than the former to see the world as a whole, to understand the connections

between things, this would seem to be true. But it is not the case that it is

only the Western mind that seeks order and classification. In the Eastern

tradition, too, there is cosmology and science and the classification of

categories of existence.

Nevertheless, and as a generality, it can be said that Eastern philosophy,

at least as it is represented by the traditions of India, is not so much a

matter of abstract analysis as a way of life, a way of life which has at its

heart a deeply spiritual orientation:

Hindu philosophy is therefore closer to the spirit of ancient

Greek philosophy (the love of wisdom) than to the

contemporary philosophy of academic disciplines of conceptual

analysis

Hindu philosophy comprises the same areas of rational enquiry

that have pre-occupied the philosophers of the West since the

time of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle namely ontology (which

deals with the nature of being), epistemology (which is

concerned with the processes of knowledge by which we come

to know what there is in reality) logic, and ethics. But in

contrast to Western philosophy, the Indian genius has not

included aesthetics in its philosophical programme, nor did it

develop a philosophy of history. However, Hindu philosophy,like Christian philosophy, is greatly concerned with the ultimate

spiritual destiny of humankind.2

1 These notes are based upon four major texts:Pandit Usharbudh Arya, Yoga-Sutras of Patanjali, Vol 1: Samadhi-pada, The Himalayan International Instituteof Yoga Science and Philosophy, 1986.Georg Feuerstein, Yoga: The Technology of Ecstasy, Crucible, 1989.Georg Feuerstein, The Philosophy of Classical Yoga, Inner Traditions International,1996.

Pandit Rajmani Tigunait, Seven Systems if Indian Philosophy,The Himalayan Institute of Yoga, Science andPhilosophy, 1983.2 Feuerstein, 1996, pp. 77-8.


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Indeed, it is suggested3

that Indian philosophy is much more

comprehensive than Western philosophies and sciences that tend to

compartmentalize the various aspects of life into distinctly separate

disciplines. By contrast, Indian philosophy, or direct vision,4

is made

up of both the theoretical and the practical.

A distinction can also be made in the two traditions between what, in

each, is meant by religion and by philosophy:

In the West, the answers to ultimate questions are usually

provided by religion, but this is not the case in India. That

which is known in the West as religion, is in India merely a set

of social laws including ethics, custom, and ritual. India has

always held a holistic approach toward life, which is seen asbeing composed of two inseparable aspects. Life related to the

outer world (family, society, nation, humanity) is regulated byreligion, and life related to the inner world is studied and

guided by philosophy.5

Indeed, perhaps with this in mind, it is claimed that Indian philosophyrequires a particular approach, and the approach of the pedant who

refutes the views of all others and challenges them to prove theirs right

and his wrong and the savant who focuses narrowly on the logic of

argument, are compared unfavourably with the way of the wise man, aperson of intuitive vision and inspiration, the yogi.

6

2. The Schools of Philosophy

If for a moment one leaves aside the philosophies of Buddhism and

Jainism, there are generally agreed to be six main schools of Indian

philosophy, each one stemming from the root of the sacred scriptures of

the Vedas. As an example, Feuersteins illustration of them is shown in

Figure 1 below.

There are some common characteristics and some differences. Dealing

first with that which is common, it can be said that a key element of these

philosophies is that they should each pay allegiance to their ancient Vedic

heritage, from which there is an unbroken and steady flow of tradition, as

each school develops in parallel with, but also in co-operation with, each

3 Tigunait, p. 3.

4 Ibid.5 Tigunait, p.6.6 Arya, pp. 23-4.


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other. Indeed, Arya describes a chronology of development that fits

within a universal system referred to as the Epic philosophy,

expounded as it is in the vast texts of theMahabharata of which The

Bhagavad Gita forms part.7

In this form, says Arya, it served as a vehicle:

for simplified statements of truth regarding reality for the

benefit of millions of non-pedantic aspirants, to whom these are

still read, sung or chanted by pandits in the village temples,

royal palaces and suburban homes alike.8

7 Arya, pp. 23-39.8 Ibid. pp. 26-7


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Feuersteins Illustration of the Schools of Philosophy9

9 Feuerstein, 1989, p. 78.Feuerstein uses a Sanskrit rather than a Pali form.

The Sacred Scriptures of Hinduism:The Four Vedas

VedantaNon-dualistic metaphysicsEspecially the Upanishads

Shankara

NyanaSchool of Logic

MimamsaPhilosophy of Ritualism

VaisheshikaNaturalistic Philosophy

YogaMystical TraditionPatan ali

SamkhyaDualistic Philosophy

The evolution of NatureAnd categories of existenceKapila


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Between the particular teachings of each school there is a bridge

linking one level of reality to the next. In simple terms it would

seem to be as follows:

In the Vedanta school there is a single Transcendental Reality(Brahman) whose nature is Consciousness (chit) Existence (sat), andBliss (ananda). This is the Self of all that is. But then, in the syncretic

philosophy of the Epics and the Puranas, maya, the inherent potency

of the One, eclipses the Bliss principle and divides into two

Consciousness and Existence.

These two principles are taken up by the Sankhya school:- The conscious spiritual-energy principle becomespurusha- The unconscious material-energy principle becomesprakrti

The purusha principle is ever-pure, ever-wise and ever-free. Coming

into contact with the rays of purusha, prakrti is then the unmanifest,

subtlest origin of what later becomes tangible matter.

At the point where Sankhya leaves off, the Vaisheshika and theNyaya schools pick up. Whilst the Vaisheshikas experimented withphysical properties of matter (forming the foundation for the physical

sciences), the Nyaya philosophers established the principles of logic.

From this basis, the Mimamsa school concerned itself with ethics,laws and rules of social interaction, and with the doctrine of karma.

Finally, the ClassicalYoga school, whilst taking all of this intoaccount, through Patanjali, asked the question: So what?

What are the practical implications of all the experimenting

(Vaisheshika), reasoning (Nyaya), categorizing (Sankhya) or

studying of inspired scriptures (Mimamsa)? How can one

finally see and experience that self and non-self are indeed

ever-separate and that the self is ever-pure, ever-wise and

ever-free?10

Thus, despite their differences, the schools can be seen to be within a

universal system and tradition.

10 Arya, p. 38.


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3. Dualism, non-dualism and the nature of matter

Perhaps the key difference between schools of philosophy is whether theyregard reality as dualistic or singular. And here, the Sankhya and Yoga

philosophies stand out as representing the dualistic perspective in contrast

to the non-dualism of the Vedanta.

The philosophy of Vedanta is seen as a philosophy of unity where the

part and the whole are at one. Tigunait expresses it thus:

Brahman and Atman are identical, exactly as the forest and the

trees are identical.

11

By contrast, the schools of Sankhya and Yoga are said to express adualistic philosophy in which the realm of the aspatial, atemporal and

transcendental Self (purusha) is distinguished from the realm of Nature,

the structure of the world (prakrti). Feuersteins version of this

categorisation is shown in Figure 2 below.

Indeed, Feuerstein refers to the three major foci of Classical Yoga, by

adding to the concepts of purusha and prakrti the concept ofisvara orGod. Although it is clear that scholars differ as to whether or not either

one or both of the Yogic and Sankhyan Schools are theistic, Feuersteinappears to show isvara as the highest and purest from of aspatial and

atemporal Consciousness or purusha. However, he also suggests that in

Patanjali there is an insistence on the absolute separateness of purushaand isvara, albeit that the former is eclipsed by the latter:

the relation between isvara andpurusa is one of enclosure

by coalescence; the Self is eclipsed by the being ofisvara.

12

As we have seen, the purusha principle is said to be ever-pure, ever-wise

and ever-free:

It is that self (atman) which never comes into the trap of

ignorance and bondage. It is only prakrti, activated like a

magnet, that comes into association with purusha, and receives

his rays.13

11 Tigunait, p. 221.12 Feuerstein, 1996, p.12.13 Arya, p. 29.


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Prakrti is the unmanifest, subtlest origin of what later becomes tangible

matter. Created by the interplay of three primary forces or gunas or

strands it consists of three attributes:

Figure 2: Feuersteins Categories14

ISHVARA

The numerous transcendental Selves

(purusha)

14 Feuerstein, 1989, p. 84.

The transcendental Ground of Naturerakrti

The great [principle] (mahat) alsoknown as buddhi or higher mind

The I-makerahamkara

The lower mind

(manas)

The five subtle essences

(tanmatra)

The five cognitive senses(Jnana-indriya)

sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing

The five gross material elements(bhuta)

earth, water, fire, air and ether

The five conative senses(karma-indriya)

speech, prehension, movement, excretionand reproduction


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Sattva luminosity, purity, lightness and harmony producingpleasure.

Rajas activity, energy and movement producing pain. Tamas dullness, inertia, darkness and stasis producing stuporFrom the interaction of the gunas, evolves a progression from the most

sattvic or luminous to the most tamasic or dull, through:

mahatthe Greatand

ahamkara the egoto, on the one hand, mind and the senses and, on the other, the subtle and

gross elements earth, water, fire, air and space. Thus prakrti creates all

forms other than the transcendental Selves.

4. Yoga and Classical Yoga

Feuerstein suggests that yoga, in the sense of practice (as in buddhi-

yoga meaning the practice of application of discriminative knowledge15

),

can be used as a generic name for the various Indian paths of ecstatic self-transcendence. It can mean to bind together, to yoke; it can mean

union, concentration (rather than conjunction). In theMahabharata it

is used to mean skill in action and in theBhagavad-gita to mean

equanimity. It also means practitioner.

Feuerstein then describes six major schools of Yoga16

. They are:

Raja-Yoga the resplendent yoga of spiritual kings (Classical Yoga) Hatha-Yoga the yoga of the adamantine body Jnana-Yoga cultivating the eye of wisdom Bhakti-Yoga the self-transcending power of love Karma-Yoga freedom in action Mantra-Yoga sound as a vehicle of transcendenceTo this, he says, must be added:

Laya-Yoga dissolving the universe15 Feuerstein, 1989, p. 39.16 Ibid. Chpt. 2.


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And, others that include:

Kriya-Yoga yoga of ritual actionwhich he shows as part of the eightfold wheel of yoga, with

transcendence at its centre and the ethical requirements of all forms of

yoga as a rim.

Of these, at least for me, Jnana-Yoga is particularly interesting as it is

said to be part of the Sankhya tradition:

which is the contemplative path of distinguishing between

the products of Nature and the transcendental Self, until the Self

(purusha) is realized.17

Jnana-Yoga is concerned with discerning the Real from the unreal. In

this way it is akin to gnosis and wisdom.18

Krishna equates Jnana-

Yoga with Buddhi-Yoga (wisdom-faculty):

It signifies illumined reason. Buddhi-Yoga is the path of Self-

realization that applies discriminative wisdom to all situations

and conditions of life.19

In contrast with Raja-Yoga, which, as we shall see, operates on the basis

of a dualistic metaphysics that distinguishes between the transcendental

Selves and Nature, the metaphysics of Jnana-Yoga is strictly non-

dualistic.20

Feuerstein quotes the opinion of the Indian scholar N. K.

Brahma:

Jnana-Yoga is fundamentally different from all other forms and

stands really unique in the history of the world. It is not the

worship of God as an object different from the self and is not a

discipline that leads to the attainment of anything distinct from

ones own self. It may be described as atma-upsana (the

worship of God as ones Self).21

There are said to be four principal means for attaining emancipation22

:

17 Ibid. p. 44.18 Ibid.19 Ibid.

20 Ibid. p. 45.21 Ibid.22 Ibid. p. 47.


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Discrimination Renunciation The six accomplishments Urge towards emancipationAnd the Six Accomplishments are

23:

Tranquillity Self-restraint Cessation Endurance Mental collectedness FaithSometimes, the accomplishments are described as being seven-fold,excluding mental collectedness and adding listening or the reception

of sacred teachings and pondering on their import, as well as

meditation.24

The word yoga, then, has a variety of meanings but it can in general be

said to mean:

the technology ofself-transcendence25

And:

Liberationis the continuous ecstatic enjoyment of the

transcendental Self-identity. It is the raison detre of all

authentic Yoga[but] liberation isa way of being in the

world.26

As we have already noticed, if in Pre- and Post-Classical schools of

Yoga, yoga is usually interpreted as unity. However, this is not so in

the system of Classical Yoga formulated by Patanjali:

23 Ibid. pp. 47-8.

24 Ibid. pp. 46-7.25 Ibid. p. 11.26 Ibid. p. 15.


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Given Patanjalis dualitic metaphysics, which strictly separates

the transcendental self from Nature (prakrti) and its products,

this would not even make any sense.27

Patanjali merely refers to:

coming into contact with ones chosen deity as a result

of intense self-study.28

Patanjali defines Yoga simply as the restriction of the whirls

of consciousness (citta-vritti-nirodha. That is to say, Yoga is

the focussing of attention to whatever object is being

contemplated to the exclusion of all others. Ultimately,

attention must be focused on the transcendental Self.29

Classical Yoga, says Feurstein:

avows a strict dualism between Spirit (purusha) and Matter

(prakrti)30

So, as we have seen, it is in this way that Classical Yoga fits into the

system of the schools of Indian philosophy, asking the question So

what? and proposing a practice that will help us see and experience thatself and non-self are indeed ever-separate and that the self is ever-pure,

ever-wise and ever-free.31

And the teaching of Classical Yoga is held in the Yoga-sutras of Patanjali.Arya gives them a real emphasis:

If all the vast traditions of Indias philosophies and literatureswere to vanish and the Yoga-sutras of Patanjali alone were to

be saved, each of those philosophies and literatures could in

time be created againbecause these sutras form the manual

of the yoga practice, the culmination of which is that processof intuitive knowledge which alone constituted the source of

almost all of Indias philosophies and literatures.32

And this is his definition ofsutra:

27 Ibid. p. 12.28 Ibi.d.29 Ibid. p. 13.

30 Ibid.31 Ibid. p. 38.32 Arya. p. 3.


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The word sutra is often translated as aphorism. However, an

aphorism can be read and understood on its own. A sutra is often

unintelligible by itself. It is alwaysin need of an exposition. It

is an extremely succinct statement of a truth which has been

realized by a rishi in the state of samadhi.33

Also:

The word sutra actually means string, and every aphorism is

like a single flower on a garland.34

Finally, given the way the practice of Yoga is developing in the West, it

is, perhaps, worth noting that the system of Yoga presupposes the

guidance of an initiate, a master

35

and, contrary to what sometimesseems to be the claim, authentic Yoga is never a do-it-yourself.36

Furthermore:

Much of what the teacherimparts to the disciple falls under

the category of spiritual transmission37

5. The Place of Jainism and BuddhismThis leads us to the place of Jainism and Buddhism, which, together withHinduism, represent the three major socioreligious movements to which

the Indian spiritual genius has given birth38

.

Jainism

If we associate Hinduism with a breathtaking nondualisticmetaphysics and Buddhism with a stringent analytical approach

to spiritual life, we find that Jainism excels in its rigorous

observance of moral precepts, especially non-violence

(ahisma).39

Although acknowledging his indebtedness to previous teachers or ford-

makers, Vardhamana Mahavira, a contemporary of Gautama the

Buddha, founded Jainism in the sixth century BCE. In time, two sects

33 Ibid. pp. 5-634 Ibid. p. xi35 Feuerstein, 1989, p. 19.36 Ibid. p. 20.

37 Ibid.38 Feuerestein, 1989, p. 129.39 Ibid.


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developed, those who walked naked (the air-clothed) and the white-

clothed who wore simple white cloth.

In addition to placing great emphasis upon non-violence, Jainism also

proclaims the need for sanyhama or restraint and tamas or penance.Tamas takes the form of periodic fasting, whilst ahisma and sanyhama

lead to a radical practice of reverence for life.

At the heart of Jainism lies a carefully worked out path:

that leads the faithful from the fetters of conditioned

existence and suffering to absolute freedom, unexcellable joy,

and incomparable energy.40

This pathway, requires that:

the individual makes every effort to gains control over the

mechanism of attention.41

It also requires the following of a strict moral code or discipline,

including:

Forebearnce Humility Uprightness Purity Truthfulness Self-discipline Austerity Renunciation Poverty ChastityAnd for the lay person:

Almsgiving Virtuous conduct Austerity Spiritual disposition42This, then, is the path of Jainism.

40 Ibid. p. 133.41 Ibid.42 Ibid. p. 134.


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Buddhism

It is within this context that we can begin to understand the way of

Buddhism, the Middle Way between strict asceticism and unrestrained

self-indulgence. This is a story.

A long, long time ago, Maya, the wife of King Suddhodana who lived

and ruled in a province of northern India, gave birth to a son, Siddhattha,

meaning all prospering. The wise men of the kingdom were gathered

together to prophesy. Most proclaimed that the Prince would become a

great ruler, extending his fathers kingdom by conquest. But one amongst

them proclaimed that this was not so and that the boy would grow up to

be a holy man, spreading his teaching far and wide.

The King was not at all pleased with this last prophesy and throughout

the Princes childhood did all that he could to protect him from theoutside world, building him the most delightful palaces and surrounding

him with things of beauty. Furthermore, the King commanded that within

these walls no mention should ever be made of death, of age, of sorrow,

of pain or of sickness. Thus he tried to protect the Prince so that he wouldnever wish to leave.

In this way, Siddhattha Gautama grew up and was married to the

beautiful Princess Yasodhara, from the kingdom of Suprabuddha. And intime and in turn they too were blessed with a son, Rahula. But one day,

Siddhattha felt strangely restless. For a while he paced around the rooms

of the palace and then walked out into the gardens. But despite the beauty

of the gardens and the cooling streams and fountains that ran through

them, the restlessness would not leave him. And so he persuaded his

bodyguard and charioteer, Channa, to take him out of the palace, to

explore the streets of the town and the villages and countryside that

surrounded it.

It was here that for the first time Siddhattha experienced the anguish of

life. He saw a sick man beside the road and realised the pain of illness.

He saw and old man bent with age and realised that he would not stay

young forever. He saw a corpse being trundled through the streets on a

cart and realised that his life too would at some time give way to death.

All the certainties of his life were shattered and his eyes were opened to

the reality of suffering and impermanence. Finally, as he returned to his

palace, deeply affected by all that he had seen, he came across a holy man

walking beside the road. The man had nothing but the rags that he woreand his begging bowl for food. And yet, the gentleness of his expression,


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the strength of his demeanour and the simplicity of his life struck deep

into the heart of Siddhattha. With tears in his eyes, the Prince returned to

his palace knowing what it was that he must do.

Some days later, Siddhattha left his fathers palace, leaving behind himhis wife, his son and all of his previous life, and set out on the path of a

holy man. There is much to tell of what happened next but eventually,

having abandoned both the extremes of asceticism and sensuality in

favour of a Middle Way, Siddhattha sat down beneath a wild fig tree and

resolved that he would not rise until he had attained the extinguishment of

suffering. Thus, still and tranquil, he delved into the reality of both the

inner and the outer world, moving deeper and deeper, from one plane of

understanding to the next, until, at last, as the first light of dawn crept

across the sky, he became enlightened.

When he arose, he spoke of that which he now understood. He spoke ofthe Four Noble Truths. These are: that there is suffering; that there is a

cause of suffering; that there is the cessation of suffering; and that there is

the Noble Eightfold Path, which is the Way to the end of suffering.

But the Buddha, as he had now become, meaning the awakened one, did

not claim that these truths were to constitute a set of beliefs, something

that you had to sign up to. Rather he said, to all that asked, that the Path

was a path of practice, and that to walk along it it was necessary: tounderstandthat there was suffering; to let go ofits causes; to realise its

cessation; and to cultivate the Path.

The Eightfold Path that he described (see Appendix 1) begins and ends

with understanding, and includes at one and the same time both quite

practical matters such as Right Speech, Right Conduct and Right

Livelihood and more subtle matters such as Right Effort, Right

Mindfulness and Right Concentration. But ever at the heart of the

teaching there is the wisdom of compassion. Without wisdom,compassion would be ineffective and misdirected. Without compassion,

wisdom would be heartless and abstracted. Love is of the essence.

So this is the teaching of the Buddha and because the teaching was

spoken and not written down, much use was made of numbers to help

people to remember. Thus, for example, in addition to the Four Noble

Truths and the Eightfold Path there are:

Four Sublime States: of loving kindness; compassion; joy in others;and equanimity.


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Five Precepts, which are to refrain: from harming living beings; fromtaking that which is not given; from sexual misconduct; from false

and malicious speech; and from intoxicating drinks and drugs.

And there are:

The Six Perfections: of generosity; of a lack of self-righteousness; ofpatience and acceptance; of vigour in treading the Path; of awarenessof every action of body, speech and mind; and of acting wisely.

These then are the beginnings of the teachings of the Buddha.

David Cadman, 2000

Not to be published without the authors consent.


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David Cadman www davidcadman net Page 17

Appendix 1: The Eightfold Path43

Right View or Understanding mundane right view of the nature and

course of kamma and superior right view or understanding of the FourNoble Truths.

Right Intention the intention of renunciation, the intention of goodwill

and the intention of harmlessness.

Right Speech abstaining from false and harsh speech and from

malicious gossip.

Right Action or Conduct abstaining from the taking of life, the takingof that which is not given and from sexual misconduct.

Right Livelihood not based upon illegality, coercion, violence and

deceit; a way that is peaceful and proceeds without harming others.

Right Effort to arouse and maintain wholesome states and to preventand abandon unwholesome states.

Right Mindfulness to contemplate, be attentive to and clearly

comprehend the body, feelings, states of mind and phenomena.

Right Concentration the factor of one-pointedness that leads to

cognition. Thejhanas.

43 Based upon Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Noble Eightfold Path: Way to the End of Suffering, Buddhist PublicationSociety, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1994.

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