ThePartition of Indiawas thepartitionof theBritish Indian Empire[1]that led to the creation of thesovereign statesof theDominion of Pakistan(it later split into theIslamic Republic of Pakistanand thePeople's Republic of Bangladesh) and theUnion of India(laterRepublic of India) on 15 August 1947. "Partition" here refers not only to thedivisionof theBengalprovince of British India intoEast PakistanandWest Bengal(India), and the similar partition of thePunjab provinceintoPunjab(West Pakistan) andPunjab, India, but also to the respective divisions of other assets, including theBritish Indian Army, theIndian Civil Serviceand other administrative services, therailways, and the central treasury.In the riots which preceded the partition in the Punjab region, between 200,000 to 500,000 people were killed in the retributive genocide.[2][3]UNHCRestimates 14 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims were displaced during the partition; it was the largestmass migrationin human history.[4][5][6]ThesecessionofBangladeshfromPakistanin 1971 is not covered by the termPartition of India, nor is the earlier separation ofBurma(nowMyanmar) from the administration of British India, or the even earlier separation ofCeylon(nowSri Lanka). Ceylon was part of theMadras Presidencyof British India from 1795 until 1798 when it became a separateCrown Colonyof the Empire. Burma, gradually annexed by the British during 182686 and governed as a part of the British Indian administration until 1937, was directly administered thereafter.[7]Burma was granted independence on 4 January 1948 and Ceylon on 4 February 1948. (SeeHistory of Sri LankaandHistory of Burma.)Bhutan,Nepaland theMaldives, the remaining countries of present-day South Asia, were unaffected by the partition. The first two, Nepal and Bhutan, having signed treaties with the British designating them asindependent states, were never a part of the British Indian Empire, and therefore their borders were unaffected by the partition of India.[8]The Maldives, which had become aprotectorateof theBritish crownin 1887 and gained its independence in 1965, was also unaffected by the partition.

In 1905, the viceroy,Lord Curzon, who was considered by some to be both brilliant and indefatigable, and who in his first term had built an impressive record of archaeological preservation and administrative efficiency, now, in his second term, divided the largest administrative subdivision in British India, theBengal Presidency, into the Muslim-majority province ofEast Bengal and Assamand the Hindu-majorityprovinceofBengal(present-day Indian states ofWest Bengal,Bihr, Jharkhand andOdisha).[9]Curzon's act, thePartition of Bengalwhich some considered administratively felicitous, and, which had been contemplated by various colonial administrations since the time ofLord William Bentinck, but never acted uponwas to transform nationalist politics as nothing else before it.[9]The Hindu elite of Bengal, among them many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to Muslim peasants, protested fervidly. The large Bengali Hindu middle-class (theBhadralok), upset at the prospect of Bengalis being outnumbered in the new Bengal province by Biharis and Oriyas, felt that Curzon's act was punishment for their political assertiveness.[9]The pervasive protests against Curzon's decision took the form predominantly of theSwadeshi("buy Indian") campaign led by two-time Congress president,Surendranath Banerjee, and involved boycott of British goods. Sporadicallybut flagrantlythe protesters also took to political violence that involved attacks on civilians.[10]The violence, however, was not effective, most planned attacks were either preempted by the British or failed.[11]The rallying cry for both types of protest was the sloganBande Mataram(Bengali, lit: "Hail to the Mother"), the title of a song byBankim Chandra Chatterjee, which invoked a mother goddess, who stood variously for Bengal, India, and the Hindu goddessKali.[12]The unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcutta's English-educated students returned home to their villages and towns.[13]The religious stirrings of the slogan and the political outrage over the partition were combined as young men, in groups such asJugantar, took to bombing public buildings, staging armed robberies,[11]and assassinating British officials.[12]Since Calcutta was the imperial capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became nationally known.[12]The overwhelming, but predominantly Hindu, protest against the partition of Bengal and the fear, in its wake, of reforms favouring the Hindu majority, now led the Muslim elite in India, in 1906, to meet with the new viceroy,Lord Minto, and to ask for separate electorates for Muslims. In conjunction, they demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as former rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This led, in December 1906, to the founding of theAll-India Muslim LeagueinDacca. Although Curzon, by now, had resigned his position over a dispute with his military chiefLord Kitchenerand returned to England, the League was in favour of his partition plan. The Muslim elite's position, which was reflected in the League's position, had crystallized gradually over the previous three decades, beginning with the 1871 Census of British India, which had first estimated the populations in regions of Muslim majority.[14](For his part, Curzon's desire to court the Muslims of East Bengal had arisen from British anxieties ever since the 1871 censusand in light of the history of Muslims fighting them in the1857 Mutinyand theSecond Anglo-Afghan Warabout Indian Muslims rebelling against the Crown.[14]) In the three decades since that census, Muslim leaders across northern India, had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups.[14]TheArya Samaj, for example, had not only supported Cow Protection Societies in their agitation,[15]but alsodistraught at the 1871 Census's Muslim numbersorganized "reconversion" events for the purpose of welcoming Muslims back to the Hindu fold.[14]In UP, Muslim became anxious when, in the late 19th century, political representation increased, giving more power to Hindus, and Hindus were politically mobilized in the Hindi-Urdu controversy and the anti-cow-killing riots of 1893.[16]In 1905, whenTilakandLajpat Raiattempted to rise to leadership positions in the Congress, and the Congress itself rallied around symbolism of Kali, Muslim fears increased.[14]It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the rallying cry, "Bande Mataram," had first appeared in the novelAnand Mathin which Hindus had battled their Muslim oppressors.[17]Lastly, the Muslim elite, and among itDacca Nawab,Khwaja Salimullah, who hosted the League's first meeting in his mansion inShahbag, was aware that a new province with a Muslim majority would directly benefit Muslims aspiring to political power.[17]World War I, Lucknow Pact: 19141918[edit]

Indian medical orderlies attending to wounded soldiers with theMesopotamian Expeditionary ForceinMesopotamiaduringWorld War I.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi(seated in carriage, on the right, eyes downcast, with black flat-top hat) receives a big welcome in Karachi in 1916 after his return to India from South Africa.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, seated, third from the left, was a supporter of the Lucknow Pact, which, in 1916, ended the three-way rift between the Extremists, the Moderates and the League.

World War Iwould prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1.4 million Indian and British soldiers of theBritish Indian Armywould take part in the war and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers fromdominionslike Canada and Australia, would travel to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by the new medium of the radio.[18]India's international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s.[18]It was to lead, among other things, to India, under its own name, becoming afounding memberof theLeague of Nationsin 1920 and participating, under the name, "Les Indes Anglaises" (British India), in the1920 Summer Olympicsin Antwerp.[19]Back in India, especially among the leaders of theIndian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians.[18]The 1916 Lucknow Session of the Congress was also the venue of an unanticipated mutual effort by the Congress and the Muslim League, the occasion for which was provided by the wartime partnership between Germany and Turkey. Since theTurkish Sultan, orKhalifah, had also sporadically claimed guardianship of the Islamic holy sites ofMecca,Medina, andJerusalem, and since the British and their allies were now in conflict with Turkey, doubts began to increase among some Indian Muslims about the "religious neutrality" of the British, doubts that had already surfaced as a result of thereunification of Bengalin 1911, a decision that was seen as ill-disposed to Muslims.[20]In theLucknow Pact, the League joined the Congress in the proposal for greater self-government that was campaigned for by Tilak and his supporters; in return, the Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in the provincial legislatures as well as the Imperial Legislative Council. In 1916, the Muslim League had anywhere between 500 and 800 members and did not yet have its wider following among Indian Muslims of later years; in the League itself, the pact did not have unanimous backing, having largely been negotiated by a group of "Young Party" Muslims from theUnited Provinces(UP), most prominently, two brothersMohammadandShaukat Ali, who had embraced the Pan-Islamic cause;[20]however, it did have the support of a young lawyer from Bombay,Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who was later to rise to leadership roles in both the League and the Indian independence movement. In later years, as the full ramifications of the pact unfolded, it was seen as benefiting the Muslim minoritylitesof provinces like UP and Bihar more than the Muslim majorities of Punjab and Bengal, nonetheless, at the time, the "Lucknow Pact," was an important milestone in nationalistic agitation and was seen so by the British.[20]MontagueChelmsford Reforms: 1919[edit]Montague and Chelmsford presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter.[21]After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, theGovernment of India Act of 1919(also known as theMontague-Chelmsford Reforms) was passed in December 1919.[21]The new Act enlarged both the provincial andImperiallegislative councils and repealed the Government of India's recourse to the "official majority" in unfavorable votes.[21]Although departments like defense, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications, and income-tax were retained by theViceroyand the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land-revenue, local self-government were transferred to the provinces.[21]The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a newdyarchicalsystem, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council.[21]The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps.A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate.[21]In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts.[21]Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principal of "communal representation," an integral part of theMinto-Morley Reforms, and more recently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved forMuslims,Sikhs,Indian Christians,Anglo-Indians, and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils.[21]The Montague-Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control.[21]Muslim homeland, provincial elections, World War II, Lahore resolution: 19301945[edit]

Allama Muhammad Iqbal, fifth from left, arriving at the 1930 session of theAll India Muslim League, where he delivered his presidential address outlining his plan for a homeland for the Muslims of British India.

Jawaharlal Nehru,Sarojini Naidu,Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, andMaulana Azadat the 1940 Ramgarh session of the Congress in which Azad was elected president for the second time.

Chaudhari Khaliquzzaman(left) seconding the 1940 Lahore Resolution of theAll-India Muslim LeaguewithJinnah(right) presiding, andLiaquat Ali Khancentre.

AlthoughChoudhry Rahmat Alihad in 1933 produced a pamphlet,Now or never, in which the term "Pakistan," "the land of the pure," comprising the Punjab, North West Frontier Province (Afghania), Kashmir, Sindh, and Balochistan, was coined for the first time, the pamphlet did not attract political attention.[22]A little later, a Muslim delegation to the Parliamentary Committee on Indian Constitutional Reforms, gave short shrift to the Pakistan idea, calling it "chimerical and impracticable."[22]Two years later, theGovernment of India Act 1935introduced provincial autonomy, increasing the number of voters in India to 35 million.[23]More significantly, law and order issues were for the first time devolved from British authority to provincial governments headed by Indians.[23]This increased Muslim anxieties about eventual Hindu domination.[23]In theIndian provincial elections, 1937, the Muslim League turned out its best performance in Muslim-minority provinces such as theUnited Provinces, where it won 29 of the 64 reserved Muslim seats.[23]However, in the Muslim-majority regions of the Punjab and Bengal regional parties outperformed the League.[23]In the Punjab, theUnionist PartofSikandar Hayat Khan, won the elections and formed a government, with the support of theIndian National Congressand theShiromani Akali Dal, which lasted five years.[23]In Bengal, the League had to share power in a coalition headed byA. K. Fazlul Huq, the leader of theKrishak Praja Party.[23]The Congress, on the other hand, with 716 wins in the total of 1585 provincial assemblies seats, was able to form governments in 7 out of the 11 provinces ofBritish India.[23]In its manifesto the Congress maintained that religious issues were of lesser importance to the masses than economic and social issues, however, the election revealed that the Congress had contested just 58 out of the total 482 Muslim seats, and of these, it won in only 26.[23]In UP, where the Congress won, it offered to share power with the League on condition that the League stop functioning as a representative only of Muslims, which the League refused.[23]This proved to be a mistake as it alienated the Congress further from the Muslim masses. In addition, the new UP provincial administration promulgated cow protection and the use of Hindi.[23]The Muslim elite in UP was further alienated, when they saw chaotic scenes of the new Congress Raj, in which rural people who sometimes turned up in large numbers in Government buildings, were indistinguishable from the administrators and the law enforcement personnel.[24]The Muslim League conducted its own investigation into the conditions of Muslims under Congress-governed provinces.[25]Although its reports were exaggerated, it increased fear among the Muslim masses of future Hindu domination.[25]The view that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress was now a part of the public discourse of Muslims.[25]With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the viceroy,Lord Linlithgow, declared war on India's behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest.[25]The Muslim League, which functioned under state patronage,[26]in contrast, organized "Deliverance Day," celebrations (from Congress dominance) and supported Britain in the war effort.[25]When Linlithgow, met with nationalist leaders, he gave the same status to Jinnah as he did to Gandhi, and a month later described the Congress as a "Hindu organization."[26]In March 1940, in the League's annual three-day session inLahore, Jinnah gave a two-hour speech in English, in which were laid out the arguments of theTwo-nation theory, stating, in the words of historians Talbot and Singh, that "Muslims and Hindus ... were irreconcilably opposed monolithic religious communities and as such no settlement could be imposed that did not satisfy the aspirations of the former."[25]On the last day of its session, the League passed, what came to be known as theLahore Resolution, sometimes also "Pakistan Resolution,"[25]demanding that, "the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign." Though it had been founded more than three decades earlier, the League would gather support among South Asian Muslims only during the Second World War.[27]In March 1942, with the Japanese fast moving up theMalayan Peninsulaafter theFall of Singapore,[26]and with the Americans supporting independence for India,[28]Winston Churchill, the wartime Prime Minister of Britain, sent SirStafford Cripps, the leader of theHouse of Commons, with an offer ofdominionstatus to India at the end of the war in return for the Congress's support for the war effort.[29]Not wishing to lose the support of the allies they had already securedthe Muslim League, Unionists of the Punjab, and the Princesthe Cripps offer included a clause stating that no part of the British Indian Empire would be forced to join the post-war Dominion. As a result of the proviso, the proposals were rejected by the Congress, which, since its founding as a polite group of lawyers in 1885,[27]saw itself as the representative of all Indians of all faiths.[29]After the arrival in 1920 of Gandhi, the preeminent strategist of Indian nationalism,[30]the Congress had been transformed into a mass nationalist movement of millions.[27]In August 1942, the Congress launched theQuit India Resolutionwhich asked for drastic constitutional changes, which the British saw as the most serious threat to their rule since theIndian rebellion of 1857.[29]With their resources and attention already spread thin by a global war, the nervous British immediately jailed the Congress leaders and kept them in jail until August 1945,[31]whereas the Muslim League was now free for the next three years to spread its message.[26]Consequently, the Muslim League's ranks surged during the war, with Jinnah himself admitting, "The war which nobody welcomed proved to be a blessing in disguise."[32]Although there were other important national Muslim politicians such as Congress leaderAb'ul Kalam Azad, and influential regional Muslim politicians such asA. K. Fazlul Huqof the leftistKrishak Praja Partyin Bengal,Sikander Hyat Khanof the landlord-dominatedPunjab Unionist Party, andAbd al-Ghaffar Khanof the pro-CongressKhudai Khidmatgar(popularly, "red shirts") in theNorth West Frontier Province, the British were to increasingly see the League as the main representative of Muslim India.[33]Cabinet Mission, Direct Action Day, Plan for Partition, Independence 19461947[edit]

Members of the1946 Cabinet Mission to IndiameetingMuhammad Ali Jinnah. On the extreme left isLord Pethick Lawrence; on the extreme right,Sir Stafford Cripps.

An aged and abandoned Muslim couple and their grand children sitting by the roadside on this arduous journey. "The old man is dying of exhaustion. The caravan has gone on," wrote Bourke-White.

An old Sikh man carrying his wife. Over 10 million people were uprooted from their homeland and travelled on foot, bullock carts and trains to their promised new home.

Gandhi in Bela, Bihar, after attacks on Muslims, 28 March 1947.

In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain.[34]The mutinies came to a head withmutiny of the Royal Indian Navyin Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed, they had the effect of spurring thenew Labour governmentin Britain to action, and leading to the Cabinet Mission to India led by the Secretary of State for India,Lord Pethick Lawrence, and includingSir Stafford Cripps, who had visited four years before.[34]Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India. Earlier, at the end of the war in 1945, the colonial government had announced the public trial of three senior officers ofSubhas Chandra Bose's defeatedIndian National Armywho stood accused of treason. Now as the trials began, the Congress leadership, although ambivalent towards the INA, chose to defend the accused officers.[35]The subsequent convictions of the officers, the public outcry against the convictions, and the eventual remission of the sentences, created positive propaganda for the Congress, which only helped in the party's subsequent electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces.[36]The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stumbled over the issue of the partition.Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946,Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland inBritish India. However, on the morning of the 16th armed Muslim gangs gathered at theOchterlony Monumentin Calcutta to hearHuseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, the League's Chief Minister of Bengal, who, in the words of historian Yasmin Khan, "if he did not explicitly incite violence certainly gave the crowd the impression that they could act with impunity, that neither the police nor the military would be called out and that the ministry would turn a blind eye to any action they unleashed in the city."[37]That very evening, in Calcutta, Hindus were attacked by returning Muslim celebrants, who carried pamphlets distributed earlier showing a clear connection between violence and the demand for Pakistan, and implicating the celebration of Direct Action day directly with the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946".[38]The next day, Hindus struck back and the violence continued for three days in which approximately 4,000 people died (according to official accounts), Hindus and Muslims in equal numbers. Although India had had outbreaks of religious violence between Hindus and Muslims before, theCalcuttakillings was the first to display elements of "ethnic cleansing," in modern parlance.[39]Violence was not confined to the public sphere, but homes were entered, destroyed, and women and children attacked.[40]Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress-led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India's prime minister.The communal violence spread to Bihar (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), toNoakhaliin Bengal (where Hindus were targeted by Muslims), inGarhmukteshwarin theUnited Provinces(where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), and on toRawalpindiin March 1947 in which Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims.[39]Late in 1946, the Labour government in Britain, its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948. However, with the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy,Louis Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence. In June 1947, the nationalist leaders, including Nehru andAbul Kalam Azadon behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League,B. R. Ambedkarrepresenting theUntouchablecommunity, andMaster Tara Singhrepresenting theSikhs, agreed to a partition of the country along religious lines in stark opposition to Gandhi's views. The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation ofPakistan; the plan included a partition of the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal. The communal violence that accompanied the announcement of theRadcliffe Line, the line of partition, was even more horrific.Of the violence that accompanied the Partition of India, historians Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh write:There are numerous eyewitness accounts of the maiming and mutilation of victims. The catalogue of horrors includes the disembowelling of pregnant women, the slamming of babies' heads against brick walls, the cutting off of victims limbs and genitalia and the display of heads and corpses. While previous communal riots had been deadly, the scale and level of brutality was unprecedented. Although some scholars question the use of the term 'genocide' with respect to the Partition massacres, much of the violence manifested as having genocidal tendencies. It was designed to cleanse an existing generation as well as prevent its future reproduction."[41]On 14 August 1947, the newDominion of Pakistancame into being, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in as its first Governor General inKarachi. The following day, 15 August 1947, India, now a smallerUnion of India, became an independent country with official ceremonies taking place in New Delhi, and with Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of theprime minister, and the viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its firstGovernor General; Gandhi, however, remained in Bengal, preferring instead to work among the new refugees of the partitioned subcontinent.Geographic partition, 1947[edit]Mountbatten Plan[edit]

Mountbatten with a countdown calendar to the Transfer of Power in the backgroundThe actual division of British India between the two new dominions was accomplished according to what has come to be known as the3 June PlanorMountbatten Plan. It was announced at a press conference by Mountbatten on 3 June 1947, when the date of independence was also announced 15 August 1947. The plan's main points were: Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in Punjab and Bengal legislative assemblies would meet and vote for partition. If a simple majority of either group wanted partition, then these provinces would be divided. Sindh was to take its own decision. The fate of North West Frontier Province and Sylhet district of Assam was to be decided by a referendum. India would be independent by 15 August 1947. The separate independence of Bengal was ruled out. A boundary commission to be set up in case of partition.The Indian political leaders accepted the Plan on 2 June. It did not deal with the question of theprincely states, but on 3 June Mountbatten advised them against remaining independent and urged them to join one of the two new dominions.[42]TheMuslim League's demands for a separate state were thus conceded. TheCongress' position on unity was also taken into account while making Pakistan as small as possible. Mountbatten's formula was to divide India and at the same time retain maximum possible unity.WithinBritish India, the border between India and Pakistan (theRadcliffe Line) was determined by a British Government-commissioned report prepared under the chairmanship of a Londonbarrister,Sir Cyril Radcliffe. Pakistan came into being with two non-contiguous enclaves,East Pakistan(today Bangladesh) andWest Pakistan, separated geographically by India. India was formed out of the majority Hindu regions of British India, and Pakistan from the majority Muslim areas.On 18 July 1947, theBritish Parliamentpassed theIndian Independence Actthat finalized the arrangements for partition and abandoned Britishsuzeraintyover theprincely states, of which there were several hundred, leaving them free to choose whether toaccedeto one of the new dominions. TheGovernment of India Act 1935was adapted to provide a legal framework for the new dominions.Following its creation as a new country in August 1947, Pakistan applied for membership of the United Nations and was accepted by the General Assembly on 30 September 1947. TheDominion of Indiacontinued to have the existing seat as India had been a founding member of the United Nations since 1945.[43]Radcliffe Line[edit]Further information:Radcliffe Line A map of the Punjab regionc.1947.The Punjab the region of the five rivers east ofIndus:Jhelum,Chenab,Ravi,Beas, andSutlej consists of interfluvialdoabs, or tracts of land lying between two confluent rivers. These are theSind-Sagardoab (between Indus and Jhelum), theJechdoab (Jhelum/Chenab), theRechnadoab (Chenab/Ravi), theBaridoab (Ravi/Beas), and theBistdoab (Beas/Sutlej) (see map). In early 1947, in the months leading up to the deliberations of the Punjab Boundary Commission, the main disputed areas appeared to be in theBariandBistdoabs, although some areas in theRechnadoab were claimed by the Congress and Sikhs. In theBaridoab, the districts of Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Lahore, and Montgomery (Sahiwal) were all disputed.[44]All of these disputed districts (other than Amritsar, which was 46.5% Muslim) had Muslim majorities; albeit, in Gurdaspur, the Muslim majority, at 51.1%, was slender. At a smaller area-scale, only threetehsils(sub-units of a district) in the disputed section of theBaridoab had non-Muslim majorities. These were: Pathankot (in the extreme north of Gurdaspur, which was not in dispute), and Amritsar and Tarn Taran in Amritsar district. In addition, there were four Muslim-majority tehsils east of Beas-Sutlej (with two where Muslims outnumbered Hindus and Sikhs together).[44]Before the Boundary Commission began formal hearings, governments were set up for the East and the West Punjab regions. Their territories were provisionally divided by "notional division" based on simple district majorities. In both the Punjab and Bengal, the Boundary Commission consisted of two Muslim and two non-Muslim judges with SirCyril Radcliffeas a common chairman.[44]The mission of the Punjab commission was worded generally as the following: "To demarcate the boundaries of the two parts of the Punjab, on the basis of ascertaining the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims. In doing so, it will take into account other factors."[44]Each side (the Muslims and the Congress/Sikhs) presented its claim through counsel with no liberty to bargain. The judges too had no mandate to compromise and on all major issues they "divided two and two, leaving Sir Cyril Radcliffe the invidious task of making the actual decisions."[44]Independence, population transfer, and violence[edit]Massive population exchangesoccurred between the two newly formed states in the months immediately following Partition. The population of undivided India in 1947 was approx 390 million. After partition, there were 330 million people in India, 30 million inWest Pakistan, and 30 million people inEast Pakistan(now Bangladesh). Once the lines were established, about 14.5 million people crossed the borders to what they hoped was the relative safety of religious majority. The 1951 Census of Pakistan identified the number of displaced persons in Pakistan at 7,226,600, presumably all Muslims who had entered Pakistan from India. Similarly, the 1951 Census of India enumerated 7,295,870 displaced persons, apparently all Hindus andSikhswho had moved to India from Pakistan immediately after the Partition.[citation needed]The two numbers add up to 14.5 million. Since both censuses were held about 3.6 years after the Partition, the enumeration included net population increase after the mass migration.About 11.2 million ( 77.4% of the displaced persons) were in the west, with thePunjabaccounting for most of it: 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan, and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan to India; thus the net migration in the west from India to West Pakistan (now Pakistan) was 1.8 million.

A crowd of Muslims at the Old Fort (Purana Qila) in Delhi, which had been converted into a vast camp for Muslim refugees waiting to be transported to Pakistan.Manchester Guardian, 27 September 1947.The remaining 3.3 million (22.6% of the displaced persons) were in the east: 2.6 million moved from East Pakistan to India and 0.7 million moved from India to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh); thus net migration in the east was 1.9 million into India. The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths vary, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000.[45]Punjab[edit]The Indian state ofEast Punjabwas created in 1947, when the Partition of India split the former British province of Punjab between India and Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan'sPunjab province; the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became India's East Punjab state. Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and the fears of all such minorities were so great that the Partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence.LahoreandAmritsarwere at the centre of the problem; the Boundary Commission was not sure where to place them to make them part of India or Pakistan. The Commission decided to give Lahore to Pakistan, whilst Amritsar became part of India. Some areas in Punjab, including Lahore,Rawalpindi,Multan, andGujrat, had a large Sikh and Hindu population, and many of the residents were attacked or killed. On the other side, in East Punjab, cities such as Amritsar,Ludhiana,Gurdaspur, andJalandharhad a majority Muslim population, of which thousands were killed or emigrated.Bengal[edit]Main article:Partition of Bengal (1947)The province ofBengalwas divided into the two separate entities ofWest Bengalbelonging to India, andEast Bengalbelonging to Pakistan. East Bengal was renamedEast Pakistanin 1955, and later became the independent nation ofBangladeshafter theBangladesh Liberation Warof 1971.While the Muslim majority districts ofMurshidabadandMaldawere given to India, the Hindu majority district ofKhulnaand the majority Buddhist, but sparsely populatedChittagong Hill Tractswas given to Pakistan by the award.Sindh[edit]Hindu Sindhis were expected to stay inSindhfollowing Partition, as there were good relations between Hindu and MuslimSindhis. At the time of Partition there were 1,400,000 Hindu Sindhis, though most were concentrated in cities such asHyderabad,Karachi,Shikarpur, andSukkur. However, because of an uncertain future in a Muslim country, a sense of better opportunities in India, and most of all a sudden influx of Muslim refugees fromGujarat, Uttar Pradesh,Bihar,Rajputana(Rajasthan) and other parts of India, many Sindhi Hindus decided to leave for India.Problems were further aggravated when incidents of violence instigated by Muslim refugees broke out in Karachi and Hyderabad. According to the 1951 Census of India, nearly 776,000 Sindhi Hindus fled to India.[46]Unlike thePunjabiHindus and Sikhs, Sindhi Hindus did not have to witness any massive scale rioting; however, their entire province had gone to Pakistan and thus they felt like a homeless community. Despite this migration, a significant Sindhi Hindu population still resides in Pakistan's Sindh province where they number at around 2.28 million as per Pakistan's 1998 census; the Sindhi Hindus in India were at 2.57 million as per India's 2001 Census. Some bordering districts in Sindh were Hindu Majority likeTharparkar District,Umerkot,Mirpurkhas,SangharandBadin, but their population is decreasing and they consider themselves a minority in decline. In fact, onlyUmerkotstill has a majority of Hindus in the district.[47]Resettlement of refugees in India: 19471957[edit]Many Sikhs and Hindu Punjabis fledWestern Punjaband settled in the Indian parts of Punjab and Delhi. Hindus fleeing from East Pakistan (nowBangladesh) settled acrossEastern IndiaandNortheastern India, many ending up in neighboring Indian states such asWest Bengal, Assam, andTripura. Some migrants were sent to theAndaman islandswhere Bengalis today form the largest linguistic group.Delhi received the largest number of refugees for a single city the population of Delhi grew rapidly in 1947 from under 1 million (917,939) to a little less than 2 million (1,744,072) during the period 19411951.[48]The refugees were housed in various historical and military locations such as thePurana Qila,Red Fort, and military barracks inKingsway Camp(around the present Delhi University). The latter became the site of one of the largest refugee camps in northern India with more than 35,000 refugees at any given time besides Kurukshetra camp near Panipat. The camp sites were later converted into permanent housing through extensive building projects undertaken by the Government of India from 1948 onwards. A number of housing colonies in Delhi came up around this period likeLajpat Nagar,Rajinder Nagar,Nizamuddin East,Punjabi Bagh, Rehgar Pura,Jangpuraand Kingsway Camp. A number of schemes such as the provision of education, employment opportunities, and easy loans to start businesses were provided for the refugees at the all-India level.[49]Resettlement of refugees in Pakistan: 19471957[edit]In the aftermath of partition, a huge population exchange occurred between the two newly formed states. About 14.5 million people crossed the borders, including 7,226,000 Muslims who came to Pakistan from India while 7,295,000 Hindus and Sikhs moved to India from Pakistan. Of the 6.5 million Muslims that came to West Pakistan (now Pakistan), about 5.3 million settled inPunjab, Pakistanand around 1.2 million settled inSindh. The other 0.7 million Muslims went to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).Most of those migrants who settled in Punjab, Pakistan came from the neighbouring Indian regions ofPunjab, Haryana andHimachal Pradeshwhile others were fromJammu and KashmirandRajasthan. On the other hand, most of those migrants who arrived in Sindh were primarily ofUrdu-speaking background (termed theMuhajir people) and came from the northern and central urban centres of India, such asUttar Pradesh, Bihar,Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan via the Wahgah andMunabaoborders; however a limited number of Muhajirs also arrived by air and on ships. People who wished to go to India from all over Sindh awaited their departure to India by ship at theSwaminarayan templeinKarachiand were visited byMuhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan.[50]Later in 1950s, the majority of Urdu speaking refugees who migrated after the independence were settled in the port city ofKarachiin southern Sindh and in the metropolitan cities ofHyderabad,Sukkur,NawabshahandMirpurkhas. In addition, some Urdu-speakers settled in the cities ofPunjab, mainly inLahore,Multan,BahawalpurandRawalpindi. The number of migrants in Sindh was placed at over 1,167,000 of whom 617,000 went to Karachi alone. Karachi grew from a population of around 400,000 in 1947 into more than1.3 million in 1953.Rehabilitation of women[edit]See also:Rape during the partition of IndiaBoth sides promised each other that they would try to restore women abducted during the riots. The Indian government claimed that 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women were abducted, and the Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted during riots. By 1949, there were governmental claims that 12,000 women had been recovered in India and 6,000 in Pakistan.[51]By 1954 there were 20,728 recovered Muslim women and 9,032 Hindu and Sikh women recovered from Pakistan.[52]Most of the Hindu and Sikh women refused to go back to India fearing that they would never be accepted by their family; similarly, the families of some Muslim women refused to take back their relatives.[53]Perspectives[edit]

Refugees on train roof during PartitionThe Partition was a highly controversial arrangement, and remains a cause of much tension on theIndian subcontinenttoday. The BritishViceroy,Lord Mountbatten of Burmahas not only been accused of rushing the process through, but also is alleged to have influenced theRadcliffe Linein India's favour.[54][55]The commission took longer to decide on a final boundary than on the partition itself. Thus the two nations were granted their independence even before there was a defined boundary between them.Some critics allege that British haste led to increased cruelties during the Partition.[56]Because independence was declaredpriorto the actual Partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new border. It was a task at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest population movements in recorded history. According to Richard Symonds: At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless.[57]However, many argue that the British were forced to expedite the Partition by events on the ground.[58]Once in office, Mountbatten quickly became aware if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India.[58]Law and order had broken down many times before Partition, with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second World War, Britain had limited resources,[59]perhaps insufficient to the task of keeping order. Another viewpoint is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty he had no real options left and achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances.[60]The historian Lawrence James concurs that in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be involvement in a potentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out.[61]Conservative elements in England consider the partition of India to be the moment that theBritish Empireceased to be a world power, followingCurzon's dictum: "the loss of India would mean that Britain drop straight away to a third rate power."[62]A cross border student initiative,The History Projectwas launched in 2014 in order to explore the differences in perception of the events during the British era which lead to the partition. The project resulted in a book, that explains both interpretations of the shared history in Pakistan and India.[63][64]Artistic depictions of the Partition[edit]Main article:Artistic depictions of the partition of IndiaThe partition of India and the associated bloody riots inspired many inIndiaandPakistanto create literary/cinematic depictions of this event.[65]While some creations depicted the massacres during the refugee migration, others concentrated on the aftermath of the partition in terms of difficulties faced by the refugees in both side of the border. Even now, more than 60 years after the partition, works of fiction and films are made that relate to the events of partition. The early members of the Progressive Artist's Group of Bombay cite "The Partition" of India and Pakistan as a key reason for its founding in December 1947. They included FN Souza, MF Husain, SH Raza, SK Bakre, HA Gade and KH Ara went on to become some of the most important and influential Indian artists of the 20th Century.[66]Literature describing the human cost of independence and partition comprises Bal K. Gupta's memoirsForgotten Atrocities(2012),Khushwant Singh'sTrain to Pakistan(1956), several short stories such asToba Tek Singh(1955) bySaadat Hassan Manto,Urdupoems such asSubh-e-Azadi(Freedom's Dawn, 1947) byFaiz Ahmad Faiz,Bhisham Sahni'sTamas(1974),Manohar Malgonkar'sA Bend in the Ganges(1965), andBapsi Sidhwa'sIce-Candy Man(1988), among others.[67][68]Salman Rushdie's novelMidnight's Children(1980), which won theBooker Prizeand theBooker of Bookers, weaved its narrative based on the children born with magical abilities on midnight of 14 August 1947.[68]Freedom at Midnight(1975) is a non-fiction work byLarry CollinsandDominique Lapierrethat chronicled the events surrounding the first Independence Day celebrations in 1947.There is a paucity of films related to the independence and partition.[69][70][71]Early films relating to the circumstances of the independence, partition and the aftermath includeNemai Ghosh'sChinnamul(Bengali) (1950),[69]Dharmputra(1961)[72]Lahore (1948), Chhalia (1956), Nastik (1953).Ritwik Ghatak'sMeghe Dhaka Tara(Bengali) (1960),Komal Gandhar(Bengali) (1961),Subarnarekha(Bengali) (1962);[69][73]later films includeGarm Hava(1973) andTamas(1987).[72]From the late 1990s onwards, more films on this theme were made, including several mainstream ones, such asEarth(1998),Train to Pakistan(1998) (based on the aforementined book),Hey Ram(2000),Gadar: Ek Prem Katha(2001),Pinjar(2003),Partition(2007) andMadrasapattinam(2010).[72]The biographical filmsGandhi(1982),Jinnah(1998) andSardar(1993) also feature independence and partition as significant events in their screenplay. A Pakistani dramaDaastan, based on the novel Bano, tells the tale of Muslim girls during partition.The novelLost Generations(2013) by Manjit Sachdeva describes March 1947 massacre in rural areas of Rawalpindi by Muslim League, followed by massacres on both sides of the new border in August 1947 seen through the eyes of an escaping Sikh family, their settlement and partial rehabilitation in Delhi, and ending in ruin (including death), for the second time in 1984, at the hands of mobs after a Sikh assassinated the prime minister.The 2013 Google India advertisementReunion(about the Partition of India) has had a strong impact inIndiaandPakistan, leading to hope for the easing of travel restrictions between the two countries.[74][75][76]Itwent viral[77][78]and was viewed more than 1.6 million times before officially debuting on television on 15 November 2013.[79]

History of ChinaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia"Empire of China" redirects here. For other uses, seeEmpire of China (191516).

Approximate territories occupied bythe various dynastiesand states throughout the history of ChinaThis article containsChinesetext.Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofChinese characters.

History of China

ANCIENT

Neolithicc. 8500 c. 2100 BC

Xia dynastyc. 2100 c. 1600 BC

Shang dynastyc. 1600 c. 1046 BC

Zhou dynastyc. 1045 256 BC

Western Zhou

Eastern Zhou

Spring and Autumn

Warring States

IMPERIAL

Qin dynasty221206 BC

Han dynasty206 BC 220 AD

Western Han

Xin dynasty

Eastern Han

Three Kingdoms220280

Wei,ShuandWu

Jin dynasty265420

Western Jin

Eastern JinSixteen Kingdoms

Southern and Northern Dynasties420589

Sui dynasty581618

Tang dynasty618907

(Second Zhou690705)

Five Dynasties andTen Kingdoms907960Liao dynasty9071125

Song dynasty9601279

Northern SongW. Xia

Southern SongJin

Yuan dynasty12711368

Ming dynasty13681644

Qing dynasty16441911

MODERN

Republic of China19121949

People's Republicof China1949presentRepublic ofChina on Taiwan1949present

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Written records of thehistory of Chinacan be found from as early as 1200 BC under theShang dynasty(c. 17001046 BC).[1]Ancient historical texts such as theRecords of the Grand Historian(ca. 100 BC) and theBamboo Annalsdescribe aXia dynasty(c. 21001700 BC), which had no system of writing on a durable medium, before the Shang.[1][2]TheYellow Riveris said to be the cradle of Chinese civilization, although cultures originated at various regional centers along both the Yellow River and theYangtze Rivervalleys millennia ago in theNeolithicera. With thousands of years of continuous history,Chinais one of the world's oldestcivilizations.[3]Much ofChinese culture,literatureandphilosophyfurther developed during theZhou dynasty(1045256 BC). The Zhou dynasty began to bow to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the kingdom eventually broke apart into smaller states, beginning in theSpring and Autumn periodand reaching full expression in theWarring States period. This is one of multiple periods offailed statehoodin Chinese history, the most recent being theChinese Civil Warthat started in 1927.Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far asXinjiangandTibet, as at present. In 221 BCQin Shi Huangunited the variouswarring kingdomsand created for himself the title of "emperor" (huangdi) of theQin dynasty, marking the beginning of imperial China. Successivedynastiesdevelopedbureaucraticsystems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. China's last dynasty was theQing(16441912), which was replaced by theRepublic of Chinain 1912, and in themainlandby thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1949.The conventional view of Chinese history is that of alternating periods of political unity and disunity, with China occasionally being dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were in turn assimilated into theHan Chinesepopulation. Cultural and political influences from other parts of Asia and theWestern world, carried by successive waves of immigration, expansion, foreign contact, andcultural assimilationare part of the modern culture of China.

PaleolithicSee also:List of Paleolithic sites in ChinaWhat is now China was inhabited byHomo erectusmore than a million years ago.[4]Recent study shows that the stone tools found atXiaochangliangsite aremagnetostratigraphicallydated to 1.36 million years ago.[5]The archaeological site ofXihouduin Shanxi Province is the earliest recorded use of fire byHomo erectus, which is dated 1.27 million years ago.[4]The excavations atYuanmouand laterLantianshow early habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen ofHomo erectusfound in China is the so-calledPeking Mandiscovered in 192327.NeolithicSee also:List of Neolithic cultures of ChinaThe Neolithic age in China can be traced back to about 10,000 BC.[6]Early evidence for proto-Chinesemilletagriculture isradiocarbon-datedto about 7000 BC.[7]Farming gave rise to theJiahuculture (7000 to 5800 BC). AtDamaidiin Ningxia, 3,172cliff carvingsdating to 60005000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing." These pictographs are reputed to be similar to the earliest characters confirmed to be written Chinese.[8][9]Excavation of aPeiligang culturesite inXinzhengcounty,Henan, found a community that flourished in 5,5004,900 BC, with evidence of agriculture, constructed buildings, pottery, and burial of the dead.[10]With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators.[11]In lateNeolithictimes, theYellow Rivervalley began to establish itself as a center ofYangshao culture(5000 BC to 3000 BC), and the first villages were founded; the most archaeologically significant of these was found atBanpo,Xi'an.[12]Later,Yangshao culturewas superseded by theLongshan culture, which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 BC to 2000 BC.The early history of China is obscured by the lack of written documents from this period, coupled with the existence of later accounts that attempted to describe events that had occurred several centuries previously. In a sense, the problem stems from centuries of introspection on the part of the Chinese people, which has blurred the distinction between fact and fiction in regards to this early history.[citation needed]Ancient ChinaXia dynasty (c. 2100 c. 1600 BC)Main article:Xia dynastyTheXia dynastyof China (from c. 2100 to c. 1600 BC) is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such asSima Qian'sRecords of the Grand HistorianandBamboo Annals.[1][2]Although there is disagreement as to whether the dynasty actually existed, there is some archaeological evidence pointing to its possible existence.Sima Qian, writing in the late 2nd century BC, dated the founding of theXia dynastyto around 2200 BC, but this date has not been corroborated. Most archaeologists now connect the Xia to excavations atErlitouin centralHenanprovince,[13]where a bronze smelter from around 2000 BC was unearthed. Early markings from this period found on pottery and shells are thought to be ancestral to modern Chinese characters.[14]With few clear records matching theShangoracle bonesor theZhoubronze vessel writings, the Xia era remains poorly understood.According to mythology, the dynasty ended around 1600 BC as a consequence of theBattle of Mingtiao.Shang dynasty (c. 16001046 BC)

Remnants of advanced,stratifiedsocieties dating back to the Shang found primarily in the Yellow River ValleyMain article:Shang dynastyCapital:Yin, nearAnyangArchaeological findings providing evidence for the existence of the Shang dynasty, c. 16001046 BC, are divided into two sets. The first set from the earlier Shang period comes from sources atErligang,Zhengzhou, and Shangcheng. The second set from the later Shang or Yin () period is atAnyang, in modern-dayHenan, which has been confirmed as the last of the Shang's nine capitals (c. 13001046 BC).[citation needed]The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of Chinese past so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals the so-called "oracle bones", dating from around 1200 BC.[15]31 Kings reined over the Shang dynasty. During their rein, according to theRecords of the Grand Historian, the capital city was moved six times.[citation needed]The final (and most important) move was toYinin 1350 BC which led to the dynasty's golden age.[citation needed]The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to specifically refer to the latter half of the Shang dynasty.[citation needed]Chinese historians living in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the actual political situation in early China is known to have been much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can possibly refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou is known to have existed at the same time as the Shang.[citation needed]Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty,[citation needed]Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings atSanxingduisuggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to asChina proper.[citation needed]Zhou dynasty (1046256 BC)

Bronzeritual vessel (You), Western Zhou dynastyMain articles:Zhou dynastyandIron Age ChinaCapitals:Xi'an,LuoyangThe Zhou dynasty was the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, from 1066 BC to approximately 256 BC. By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, theZhou dynastybegan to emerge in theYellow Rivervalley, overrunning the territory of the Shang. The Zhou appeared to have begun their rule under asemi-feudalsystem. The Zhou lived west of theShang, and the Zhou leader had been appointed "Western Protector" by the Shang. The ruler of the Zhou,King Wu, with the assistance of his brother, theDuke of Zhou, as regent, managed to defeat the Shang at theBattle of Muye.The king of Zhou at this time invoked the concept of theMandate of Heavento legitimize his rule, a concept that would be influential for almost every succeeding dynasty. Like Shangdi, Heaven (tian) ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China. It was believed that a ruler had lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven.The Zhou initially moved their capital west to an area near modernXi'an, on theWei River, a tributary of the Yellow River, but they would preside over a series of expansions into theYangtze Rivervalley. This would be the first of many population migrations from north to south in Chinese history.Spring and Autumn period (722476 BC)

Chinese pu vessel with interlaceddragondesign,Spring and Autumn periodMain article:Spring and Autumn periodCapitals: Beijing(State of Yan);Xi'an(State of Qin)In the 8th century BC, power became decentralized during theSpring and Autumn period, named after the influentialSpring and Autumn Annals. In this period, local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie forhegemony. The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples from the northwest, such as theQin, forcing the Zhou to move their capital east toLuoyang. This marks the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou. The Spring and Autumn period is marked by a falling apart of the central Zhou power. In each of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only. Some local leaders even started using royal titles for themselves. China now consisted of hundreds of states, some of them only as large as a village with a fort.TheHundred Schools of Thoughtof Chinese philosophy blossomed during this period, and such influential intellectual movements asConfucianism,Taoism,LegalismandMohismwere founded, partly in response to the changing political world.Warring States period (476221 BC)Main article:Warring States periodCapitals:several(multiple states)After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other are known as theWarring States period. Though there remained a nominalZhouking until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead and held little real power.As neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modernSichuanandLiaoning, were annexed, they were governed under the new local administrative system ofcommanderyandprefecture(/). This system had been in use since the Spring and Autumn period, and parts can still be seen in the modern system ofSheng & Xian(province and county, /).The final expansion in this period began during the reign ofYing Zheng, the king of Qin. His unification of the other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions ofZhejiang, Fujian,GuangdongandGuangxiin 214 BC, enabled him to proclaim himself theFirst Emperor(Qin Shi Huang).Imperial ChinaQin dynasty (221206 BC)

Qin Shi HuangMain article:Qin dynastyCapital:XianyangHistorians often refer to the period from Qin dynasty to the end ofQing dynastyas Imperial China. Though the unified reign of theFirst Qin Emperorlasted only 12 years, he managed to subdue great parts of what constitutes the core of theHan Chinesehomeland and to unite them under a tightly centralizedLegalistgovernment seated atXianyang(close to modernXi'an). The doctrine of Legalism that guided the Qin emphasized strict adherence to a legal code and the absolute power of the emperor. This philosophy, while effective for expanding the empire in a military fashion, proved unworkable for governing it in peacetime. The Qin Emperor[when defined as?]presided over the brutal silencing of political opposition, including the event known as theburning of books and burying of scholars. This would be the impetus behind the later Han synthesis incorporating the more moderate schools of political governance.

TheTerracotta ArmyofQin Shi HuangConstruction of theGreat Wall of China, still extant and now aUNESCO World Heritage Site, started during the Qin dynasty; it was later augmented and improved during theMing dynasty. The other major contributions of the Qin include the concept of a centralized government, the unification of the legal code, development of the written language, measurement, and currency of China after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. Even something as basic as the length of axles for cartswhich need to match ruts in the roadshad to be made uniform to ensure a viable trading system throughout the empire.Han dynasty (202 BCAD 220)Main article:Han dynastyFurther information:History of the Han dynastyCapitals:Chang'an,Luoyang,Liyang,XuchangWestern Han

AHan dynastyoil lamp, with sliding shutter, in the shape of a kneeling female servant (2nd century BC)TheHan dynastywas founded byLiu Bang, who emerged victorious in thecivil warthat followed the collapse of the unified but short-livedQin dynasty. Agolden agein Chinese history, the Han dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennium. During the Han dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of theChina properand to areas far west.Confucianismwas officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape the subsequent Chinese Civilization. Art, culture and science all advanced to unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name "Han" had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now thedominant ethnic groupin modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language andwritten characters.After the initialLaissez-faire policiesof EmperorsWenandJing, the ambitiousEmperor Wubrought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power,Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society, was given exclusive patronage to be the guiding philosophical thoughts and moral principles of the empire.Imperial Universitieswere established to support its study and further development, while otherschools of thoughtswere discouraged.Major military campaignswere launched to weaken the nomadicXiongnu Empire, limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led byZhang Qian, the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to thestates in the Tarim Basin, opened up theSilk Roadthat connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond theYangtze RiverValley were formally incorporated into the empire.Emperor Wu also dispatched aseries of military campaignsagainst theBaiyuetribes. The Han annexedMinyue in 135 BCand 111 BC,Nanyue in 111 BC, andDian in 109 BC.[16]Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of the south.[17]It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade.[18]AfterEmperor Wu, the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Variousconsort clansexerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation ofWang Mang.Xin dynastyIn AD 9, the usurperWang Mangclaimed that theMandate of Heavencalled for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-livedXin ("New") dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored thepeasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of theYellow River; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed inWeiyang Palaceby an enraged peasant mob in AD 23.Eastern HanEmperor Guangwureinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families atLuoyang,eastof the former capitalXi'an. Thus, this new era is termed theEastern Han dynasty. With the capable administrations of EmperorsMingandZhang, former glories of the dynasty was reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. TheXiongnu Empirewasdecisively defeated. The diplomat and generalBan Chaofurther expanded the conquests across thePamirsto the shores of theCaspian Sea,[19]thus reopening theSilk Road, and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with thearrival of Buddhism. With extensive connections with the west, the first of severalRoman embassies to Chinawere recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284.The Eastern Han dynasty was one of themost prolific era of science and technologyin ancient China, notably the historic invention ofpapermakingbyCai Lun, and the numerous contributions by thepolymathZhang Heng.Three Kingdoms and Western Jin (AD 265316)Main articles:Cao WeiandJin dynasty (265420)Capitals:Luoyang(Cao Weiand Western Jin);Chengdu(Shu Han);Jiankang(Eastern Wuand Eastern Jin);Chang'an(Western Jin)By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding betweenconsort clansandeunuchs. TheYellow Turban Rebellionbroke out in AD 184, ushering in an era ofwarlords. In the ensuing turmoil, three states tried to gain predominance in the period of theThree Kingdoms. This time period has been greatly romanticized in works such asRomance of the Three Kingdoms.AfterCao Caoreunified the north in 208, his son proclaimed theWeidynasty in 220. Soon, Wei's rivalsShuandWuproclaimed their independence, leading China into theThree Kingdomsperiod. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families.In 280, theJin dynastyreunified the country, but this union was short-lived.Sixteen Kingdoms and Eastern Jin (AD 304439)Main article:Sixteen KingdomsCapitals:several(multiple states)The Jin Dynasty was severely weakened byinterceine fighting among imperial princesand lost control of northern China afternon-Han Chinese settlersrebelledand captured Luoyang and Changan. In 317, aJin princein modern-dayNanjingbecame emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held southern China for another century. Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin dynasty as the Western Jin.Northern China fragmented into a series ofindependent kingdoms, most of which were founded byXiongnu,Xianbei,Jie,DiandQiangrulers. These non-Han peoples were ancestors of theTurks,Mongols, andTibetans. Many had, to some extent, been "sinicized" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably theQiangand the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times. During the period of theSixteen Kingdoms, warfare ravaged the north and prompted large-scale Han Chinese migration south to theYangtzeBasin and Delta.

Alimestonestatue of theBodhisattva, from theNorthern Qi dynasty, AD 570, made in what is now modernHenanprovince.Southern and Northern Dynasties (AD 420589)Main article:Southern and Northern DynastiesCapitals:Ye,Chang'an(Northern Dynasties);Jiankang(Southern Dynasties)In the early 5th century, China entered a period known as theSouthern and Northern Dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the country. In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to theLiu Song,Southern Qi,Liangand finallyChen. Each of these Southen Dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling families and usedJiankang(modern Nanjing) as the capital. They held off attacks from the north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern barbarian regimes began to sinify.In the north, the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by theNorthern Wei, a kingdom founded by theXianbei, a nomadic people who unified northern China. The Northern Wei eventually split into theEasternandWestern Wei, which then became theNorthern QiandNorthern Zhou. These regimes were dominated by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families.Despite the division of the country, Buddhism spread throughout the land. In southern China, fierce debates about whetherBuddhismshould be allowed were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. Finally, towards the end of the Southern and Northern Dynasties era, Buddhists andTaoistsreached a compromise and became more tolerant of each other.In 589, theSui dynastyunited China once again, ending a prolonged period of division in Chinese history. In the nearly four centuries between the Han and Sui dynasties, the country was united for only 24 years during the Western Jin.Sui dynasty (AD 589618)Main article:Sui dynastyCapital:Daxing(official);Dongdu(secondary)TheSui dynasty, which lasted 29 years, played a role more important than its length of existence would suggest. The Sui brought China together again and set up many institutions that were to be adopted by their successors, theTang. These included the government system ofThree Departments and Six Ministries,standard coinage, improved defense and expansion of the Great Wall, and official support for Buddhism. Like the Qin, however, the Sui overused their resources and collapsed.Tang dynasty (AD 618907)

A ChineseTang dynastytricoloredglazeporcelain horse (c.AD 700)Main article:Tang dynastyCapitals:Chang'an,LuoyangTheTang dynastywas founded byEmperor Gaozuon 18 June 618. It was agolden age of Chinese civilizationwith significant developments in art, literature, particularlypoetry, and technology. Buddhism became the predominant religion for common people.Chang'an(modernXi'an), the national capital, was thelargest city in the world of its time.The second emperor,Taizong, started military campaigns to eliminate threats from nomadic tribes, extend the border, and submit neighboring states intoa tributary system. Military victories in theTarim Basinkept theSilk Roadopen, connecting Chang'an to Central Asia and areas far to the west. In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes began from port cities such asGuangzhou. There was extensive trade with distant foreign countries, and many foreign merchants settled in China, encouraging a cosmopolitan culture. The Tang culture and social systems were observed and imitated by neighboring countries such asJapan. Internally theGrand Canallinked the political heartland in Chang'an to the economic and agricultural centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire.Underlying the prosperity of the early Tang dynasty was a strong centralized bureaucracy with efficient policies. The government was organized as "Three Departments and Six Ministries" to separately draft, review, and implement policies. These departments were run by royal family members as well asscholar officialswho were selected byimperial examinations. These practices, which matured in the Tang dynasty, were continued by the later dynasties, with some modifications.Under the Tang "equal-field system" all land was owned by the Emperor and granted to people according to household size. Men granted land were conscripted for military service for a fixed period each year, a military policy known as the "Fubing system". These policies stimulated a rapid growth in productivity and a significant army without much burden on the state treasury. By the dynasty's midpoint, however,standing armieshad replaced conscription, and land was continuously falling into the hands of private owners.The dynasty continued to flourish under EmpressWu Zetian, the onlyempress regnantin Chinese history, and reached its zenith during the reign ofEmperor Xuanzong, who oversaw an empire that stretched from the Pacific to theAral Seawith at least 50 million people.At the zenith of prosperity of the empire, theAn Lushan Rebellionfrom 755 to 763 was a watershed event thatdevastated the populationand drastically weakened the central imperial government. Regional military governors, known asJiedushi, gained increasingly autonomous status while formerly submissive states raided the empire. Nevertheless, after the An Lushan Rebellion, the Tang civil society recovered and thrived amidst the weakened imperial bureaucracy.From about 860, the Tang dynasty declined due to a series of rebellions within China itself and in the former subjectKingdom of Nanzhaoto the south. One warlord,Huang Chao, captured Guangzhou in 879, killing most of the 200,000 inhabitants, including most of the large colony of foreign merchant families there.[20][21]In late 880,Luoyangsurrendered to Huang Chao, and on 5 January 881 he conqueredChang'an. The emperorXizongfled toChengdu, and Huang established a new temporary regime which was eventually destroyed by Tang forces. Another time of political chaos followed.Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (AD 907960)Main article:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periodCapitals: variousThe period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as theFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, lasted from 907 to 960. During this half-century, when China was in all respects a multi-state system, five regimes rapidly succeeded one another in control of the old Imperial heartland in northern China. During this same time, sections of southern and western China were occupied by ten, more stable, regimes so the period is also referred to as the Ten Kingdoms.Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (AD 9601234)

Homeward Oxherds in Wind and Rainby Li Di (12th century)Main articles:Song dynasty,Liao dynasty,Western XiaandJin dynasty (11151234)Further information:History of the Song dynastyCapitals:KaifengandLin'an(Song dynasty);Shangjing,Nanjing,Tokmok(Liao dynasty);Shangjing,Zhongdu,Kaifeng(Jin dynasty);Yinchuan(Western Xia dynasty)In 960, theSong dynastygained power over most of China and established its capital inKaifeng(later known asBianjing), starting a period of economic prosperity, while theKhitanLiao dynastyruled overManchuria, present-dayMongolia, and parts ofNorthern China. In 1115, theJurchenJin dynastyemerged to prominence, annihilating the Liao dynasty in 10 years. Meanwhile, in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces ofGansu, Shaanxi, andNingxia, aWestern Xia dynastyemerged from 1032 to 1227, established byTanguttribes.The Jin dynasty took power andconquered northern China in the JinSong Wars, capturing Kaifeng from the Song dynasty, which moved its capital toHangzhou(). The Southern Song dynasty had to acknowledge the Jin dynasty as formal overlords. In the ensuing years, China was divided between the Song dynasty, the Jin dynasty and theTangutWestern Xia. Southern Song experienced a period of great technological development which can be explained in part by the military pressure that it felt from the north. This included the use ofgunpowderweapons, which played a large role in the Song dynasty naval victories against the Jin in theBattle of TangdaoandBattle of Caishion the Yangtze River in 1161. China's first permanent standing navy was assembled and provided anadmiral's office atDinghaiin 1132, under the reign ofEmperor Renzong of Song.The Song dynasty is considered by many to be classical China's high point in science and technology, with innovative scholar-officials such asSu Song(10201101) andShen Kuo(10311095). There was court intrigue between the political rivals of the Reformers and Conservatives, led by the chancellorsWang AnshiandSima Guang, respectively. By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma ofNeo-Confucianphilosophy formulated byZhu Xi. Enormous literary works were compiled during the Song dynasty, such as the historical work of theZizhi Tongjian("Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government"). Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such asAlong the River During the Qingming FestivalandEighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute, along with great Buddhist painters such as the prolificLin Tinggui.Yuan dynasty (AD 12711368)Main article:Yuan dynasty

Yang GuifeiMounting a HorsebyQian Xuan(12351305 AD)Capitals:Xanadu,DaduTheJurchen-foundedJin dynastywasdefeated by the Mongols, who then proceeded to defeat the Southern Song in a long and bloody war, the first war in whichfirearmsplayed an important role. During the era after the war, later called thePax Mongolica, adventurous Westerners such asMarco Polotravelled all the way to China and brought the first reports of its wonders to Europe. In the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols were divided between those who wanted to remain based in the steppes and those who wished to adopt the customs of the Chinese.Kublai Khan, grandson ofGenghis Khan, wanting to adopt the customs of China, established theYuan dynasty. This was the first dynasty to rule the whole of China from Beijing as the capital. Beijing had been ceded to Liao in AD 938 with theSixteen Prefectures of Yan Yun. Before that, it had been the capital of theJin, who did not rule all of China.Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reported approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest had been completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people.[22]This major decline is not necessarily due only to Mongol killings. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than an actual decrease; others such asTimothy Brookargue that the Mongols created a system ofenserfmentamong a huge portion of the Chinese populace, causing many to disappear from the census altogether; other historians including William McNeill and David Morgan consider thatplaguewas the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period.In the 14th century China suffered additional depredations from epidemics of plague, estimated to have killed 25 million people, 30% of the population of China.[23]Ming dynasty (AD 13681644)

Court Ladies of the Former ShubyTang Yin(14701523)Main article:Ming dynastyFurther information:History of the Ming dynastyCapitals:Nanjing, Beijing,Fuzhou,Zhaoqing

Hongwu Emperor, founder of theMing dynastyThroughout the Yuan dynasty, which lasted less than a century, there was relatively strong sentiment among the populace against Mongol rule. The frequent natural disasters since the 1340s finally led to peasant revolts. The Yuan dynasty was eventually overthrown by theMing dynastyin 1368.Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such asNanjingand Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil.Despite thexenophobiaand intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school ofneo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with thevoyages of Zheng He.TheHong-wu EmperorZhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the dynasty, laid the foundations for a state interested less in commerce and more in extracting revenues from the agricultural sector. Perhaps because of the Emperor's background as a peasant, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture, unlike that of the Song and the Mongolian dynasties, which relied on traders and merchants for revenue. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death ofEmperor Yong-le, independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes.

Ming China under the reign of theYongle EmperorThe dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Zhu Yuanzhang necessarily continued to use what he called the "Grand Secretaries" () to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, includingmemorials(petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline.The Yong-le Emperor strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500tons. A standing army of 1 million troops (some estimate as many as 1.9 million[who?]) was created. The Chinese armiesconquered Vietnamfor around 20 years, while theChinese fleet sailedthe China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in easternMoghulistan. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded and became a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing'sForbidden Cityreached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished.In 1449Esen Tayisiled anOiratMongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of theZhengtong EmperoratTumu.In 1521, Ming dynasty naval forcesfought and repulsed Portuguese shipsatTuen Munand againfought off the Portuguese in 1522.In 1542 the Mongol leader,Altan Khan, began to harass China along the northern border, reaching the outskirts of Beijing in 1550. The empire also had to deal withJapanese piratesattacking the southeastern coastline;[24]GeneralQi Jiguangwas instrumental in their defeat. In 1556, during the rule of the MingJiajing Emperor, theShaanxi earthquakekilled about 830,000 people, the deadliest earthquake of all time.During the Ming dynasty the last construction on the Great Wall was undertaken to protect China from foreign invasions. Most of what remains of the Wall in modern times was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watch towers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length.China defeated the Dutch in theSinoDutch conflictsin 16221624 over thePenghuislands and again defeated the Dutch at theBattle of Liaoluo Bayin 1633. The Ming loyalistKoxingadefeated the Dutch in theSiege of Fort Zeelandiain Taiwan in 1662.Qing dynasty (AD 16441911)

The reception of the Diplomatique (Macartney) and his suite, at the Court of Pekin, drawn and engraved byJames Gillray (published September 1792).

Territory ofQing Chinain 1892Main article:Qing dynastyCapitals:Shenyang, BeijingTheQing dynasty(16441911) was the last imperial dynasty in China. Founded by theManchus, it was the second non-Han Chinesedynasty to rule all over Chinese territory. The Manchus were formerly known asJurchen, residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the Great Wall. They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming dynasty afterNurhaciunited all Jurchen tribes and established an independent state. However, theMing dynastywould be overthrown byLi Zicheng's peasants rebellion, with Beijing captured in 1644 and the last Ming EmperorChongzhencommitting suicide. The Manchu allied with the Ming dynasty generalWu Sanguito seize Beijing, which was made the capital of the Qing dynasty, and then proceeded to subdue theremaining Ming's resistance in the south. The decades of Manchu conquest causedenormous loss of livesand theeconomic scale of China shrank drastically. In total, theManchu conquest of China(16181683) cost as many as 25 million lives.[25]Nevertheless, the Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule and were considered a Chinese dynasty.The Manchus enforced a 'queue order,' forcing the Han Chinese to adopt the Manchuqueue hairstyle. Officials were required to wear Manchu-style clothingChangshan(bannermendress andTangzhuang), but ordinary Han civilians were allowed to wear traditional Han clothing, orHanfu. Most Han then voluntarily shifted to wearing Qipao anyway. TheKangxi Emperorordered the creation ofKangxi Dictionary, the most complete dictionary ofChinese charactersthat had been compiled. The Qing dynasty set up the "Eight Banners" system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military organization. Bannermen could not undertake trade or manual labor; they had to petition to be removed from banner status. They were considered a form of nobility and were given preferential treatment in terms of annual pensions, land and allotments of cloth.

Late-1890s French political cartoon showing China divided among Britain, Germany, Russia, France and JapanOver the next half-century, all areas previously under theMing dynastywere consolidated under the Qing.Xinjiang, Tibet, andMongoliawere also formally incorporated into Chinese territory. Between 1673 and 1681, the Emperor Kangxi suppressed theRevolt of the Three Feudatories, an uprising of three generals in Southern China who had been denied hereditary rule to large fiefdoms granted by the previous emperor. In 1683, the Qing staged an amphibious assault on southernTaiwan, bringing down the rebelKingdom of Tungning, which was founded by the Ming loyalistKoxingain 1662 after the fall of the Southern Ming, and had served as a base for continued Ming resistance in Southern China. The Qingdefeated the Russians at Albazin, resulting in theTreaty of Nerchinsk.By the end ofQianlong Emperor's long reign, the Qing Empire was at its zenith. China ruled more thanone-third of the world's population, and had the largest economy in the world. By area it wasone of the largest empires ever.In the 19th century the empire was internally stagnant and externally threatened by western powers. The defeat by theBritish Empirein theFirst Opium War(1840) led to theTreaty of Nanking(1842), under whichHong Kongwas ceded to Britain and importation ofopium(produced by British Empire territories) was allowed. Subsequent military defeats andunequal treatieswith other western powers continued even after the fall of the Qing dynasty.Internally theTaiping Rebellion(18511864), a quasi-Christian religious movement led by the "Heavenly King"Hong Xiuquan, raided roughly a third of Chinese territory for over a decade until they were finally crushed in theThird Battle of Nankingin 1864. This was one of the largest wars in the 19th century in terms of troop involvement; there was massive loss of life, witha death toll of about 20 million.[26]A string of civil disturbances followed, including thePuntiHakka Clan Wars,Nian Rebellion,Dungan Revolt, andPanthay Rebellion.[27]All rebellions were ultimately put dow