indian journal of psychological science, jan-2013

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L OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Volume-3 (2)

NAPSA PUBLICATION OF

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE (Regd.)

IJPSIJPS

NAPS

January - 2013 ISSN 0976 9218

Indexed & Listed at:Ulrich's Periodicals Directory ©, ProQuest, U.S.A.,

INDIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

01. General Self-efficacy, Health Locus of Control and Lifestyle 001-011as Predictors of Self-Rated Health*Radhey Shyam **Renu ***S.R. Khan

02. A Study of Relationship of Spiritual Intelligence and 012-016Adjustment of Adolescents*Meena Jain **Santosh Meena

03. Positive Psychology and Organizational Effectiveness 017-029*Aakanksha Kataria **Pooja Garg ***Renu Rastogi

04. Percieved Self among the Managers of Telecom Sector: 030-039A Gender Study*Shukla Archana **Fatima Amreen

05. Problems Faced by The Teachers Engaged in Special and 040-046Integrated Schools for Hearing Impaired Children*Swaha Bhattacharya **Monimala Mukherjee

06. Body Mass Hurts Adolescent Girls More Than 047-060Thin-Ideal Images*Javaid Marium **Ahmad Iftikhar

07. Stress, Somatic Complaints and Anxiety : A Comparative 061-072Study of The Adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir Regions.*Nila Majied **Mahmood S. Khan

08. Demographic Correlates of Emotional Intelligence: 073-084Indian Scenario*Soni Kewalramani **Mukta Rani Rastogi

NAPS

Volume-3 (2) January-2013 ISSN-0976 9218

Contents

INDIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

09. Influence of Peer Relationship on Adolescents' Well-Being 085-089*Manika Mohan **Aditi Sharma

10. Achievement Motivation, Study Habits and Inferiority 090-102among Children of high and low Educated Parents*Mandeep Kaur **Puneet Kaur

11. The Effect of 'Sahaj Marg Raja Yoga Meditation' Practice 103-111on Mental Health*Samriddhi Singh **Manika Mohan Saxena

12. Effects of Stress on Caregivers of Chronically ILL Patients 112-122*Tanushree Saha **Reeta Kumar ***Bipin Kumar

13. Self-efficacy in Militancy Affected Youth of Kashmir Valley 123-128*Ahmad Kaiser Dar **AhmadNavshadWani

NAPS


Contents

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Kumar, R. & Lal, R (2006). Role of Self e-fficacy and gender differences among

adolescents. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology; 32 (3): 345-350.

Lal, R. & Kumar, R. (2007). Vigilance in children as a function of psyhcoticism and

intelligence. Indian Journal of Psychology and Mental Health,1, 77-85.

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Introduction :Health is an asset, most valuable

resource of one's l i fe. I t is usual ly

conceptualized as a state or disposition of a

person's freedom either from illness or capacity

to resist illness in a discrete manner. It affects

every aspect of life i.e. ability to work, to play, to

enjoy etc. all depend upon health. Health is not

merely the absence of disease rather it is more

than that. It has been clearly outlined in WHO's

definition of health (World Health Organization,

001

Abstract

General Self-efficacy, Health Locus of Control and Lifestyle as

Predictors of Self-Rated Health

*Radhey Shyam **Renu ***S.R. Khan

Through several factors affect the health of a person yet the lifestyle related factors have

been reported to play a major role in the maintenance and promotion of health. Self- efficacy and

health locus of control have also been reported to be related to health, though there are variations in

the direction and strength of relationship. Present study was intended to examine the relationship of

self-efficacy, health locus of control and lifestyle with self- reported health. It was also intended to

identify the role of self- efficacy, health locus of control and lifestyle in determining health. A sample

of 300 adults (150 male and 150 female) selected on incidental basis from Rohtak city and adjoining

villages (Haryana state, India) were administered self- efficacy scale (Sud, Schwarzer and Jerusalem,

1998), health locus of control scale of Wallston and Wallston and De Vellis (1978) and lifestyle check

assessment (Hall and Ches, 2001). All the respondents were asked to rate their health status on a five

point scale ranging from “poor” (1) to “excellent” (5). The obtained data were analyzed by Pearson

coefficient of correlation. To identify the role of self-efficacy, health locus of control and lifestyle in

predicating self – reported health stepwise multiple regressions was done. Result revealed that self-

efficacy, health locus of control (internal, chance, powerful others) and lifestyle (total score as well

as component parts) were significantly and positively related with self –reported health, through

the strength of the relationship varied from low to moderate. Lifestyle emerged as the strongest

predictor of self- reported health accounting 31% of variance. The other significant predicators were

internal health locus of control, eating practices (component of lifestyle scale) and self- efficacy and

taken together with lifestyle (total score) all these accounted for 36% of the variance in self –

reported health. Findings are discussed in the light of previous studies and implications are

discussed.

1946) which says “Health is a state of complete

physical, mental and social well being and not

merely, the absence of disease or infirmity.”

Health is commonly measured by

health status, health care and health

maintenance (Bond and Bond, 1994). Campbell

et al. (1976) found respondents to judge, “good

health” as the most important of various life

domains. Watten et al. (1997) suggested that

perception of health is more important than

objective health in their effects on subjective

Indian Journal of Psychological Science, ISSN-0976 9218 January-2013

wellbeing. Multiple studies, conducted in a

variety of cultures and settings, have

consistently shown that persons reporting

poorer self-rated health suffer a higher

subsequent risk of mortality. Such studies have

spanned a wide range of populations, from

persons with illnesses such as cancer (Shadbolt,

Barresi and Craft, 2002) and cardiovascular

disease (Bardage, Isacson and Pedersen, 2001),

to the elderly (Ishizaki, Kai and Imanaka, 2006;

Idler, Kasl and Lemke, 1990; Mossey and

Shapiro, 1982) and to general populations

(Franks, Gold and Fiscella, 2003; Larsson,

Hemmingsson, Allebeck and Lundberg, 2002).

Poor self-rated health has also been shown to

be independently predictive of subsequent

morbidity and higher healthcare utilization

(Salvo, Fan, McDonell and Fihn, 2005).

Health is not a matter of luck, there are

many factors which independently and

interactively influence health. Psychosocial

factors affecting health include belief,

personality, stress, coping strategies, locus of

control, attitude, general self-efficacy, social

support, self-esteem, negative affectivity etc.

Dahlgren and Whitehead (1991) gave a

framework for the determinants of health. His

framework was multilayered onion like

structure which placed the individual at the

centre, endowed with fixed factors of age, sex

and genetic factors, but firmly surrounded by

four layers of influence consisting of individual

lifestyle, social and community influences,

living and working conditions and general

socioeconomic, cultural and environmental

conditions. Han, Lee, Lee and Park (2003)

revealed that the combination of health

promoting behaviour, activity related

affect, self-esteem, health perception and

002

commitment to planned action, social support

and perceived barriers to action accounted for

57% of the variance in quality of life. Kaplan,

Sallies and Patterson (1993) on the basis of their

study reported that about 40% of variance in

health is accounted for by behavioural factors.

A person who believes in being able to

cause an event can conduct a more active and

self-determined life course. This “can

do”cognition mirror a sense of control over

one's environment. The feeling of “can do”

refers to self-efficacy. In 1977, the famous

psychologist Albert Bandura at Stanford

University introduced the concept of perceived

self-efficacy in the context of cognitive

behaviour modification. This concept has been

applied to such diverse areas as school

achievement, emotional disorders, mental and

physical health, career choice and sociopolitical

change. It has become a key variable in clinical,

educational, social, developmental, health and

personality psychology (Bandura, 1977, 1992).

A strong sense of personal efficacy has been

reported to be related to better health

(Schwarzer and Fuchs, 1995). In one study

Fallon, Wilcox and Ainsworth (2005) examined

the correlates of self-efficacy for physical

activity in African-American women and

reported that self-efficacy was positively

correlated with perceived health status,

physical activity and negatively with social role

constraint. Similarly, Riazi, Thompson and

Hobart (2004) found both baseline and changes

in self-efficacies were strong and independent

predictors of changes in health status.

Health locus of control is defined as

one's belief that the state of one's health is

determined by internal or external factors as

well as, the level of personal control over

*Radhey Shyam **Renu ***S.R. Khan Volume-3 (2)

desired outcomes (Bane, Hughes and McElnay,

2006; Takaki and Yano, 2006). Locus of control

refers to an individual 's general ized

expectations concerning where control over

subsequent events resides (Rotter, 1954). It has

been suggested that those who strongly believe

that internal factors control their health tend 'to

seek more health related information,

remember the information better and respond

more readily to messages encouraging medical

examination than do those who believe in

external control. Many researchers for example

Poortinga, Dunstan and Fone (2008) found and

reported that the HLC was significantly

associated with individual and neighborhood

socio-economic status, as well as with self-rated

health. Simoni and Ng (2002) examined abuse,

health locus of control and perceived health

among 230 predominantly poor Hispanic and

African American women aged 25 to 61 years

living with HIV/AIDS in New York City.

Multivariate analysis revealed that controlling

for relevant covariates, the powerful others and

i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l s u b s c a l e s o f t h e

Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale

acted as independent predictors of perceived

health rather than (as hypothesized) mediators

of the association between trauma and

perceived health. Swinney (2002) reported that

subjects tended to view God as the powerful

other capable of influencing their health and

well-being. Self-esteem and an internal health

locus of control were found to account for 23%

of the perceived variance in health status and a

significant positive relationship was discovered

between self-esteem and powerful others

health locus of control. Though, there is an

abundant literature suggesting association

003

between health and internality yet there are

some studies suggesting lack of agreement and

ambiguities and that the relationship is far from

established (Norman and Bennett, 1995).

Life style refers to the general pattern of

living and behaving e.g. diet, exercise, sleep,

etc. There are some people who have faulty

habits; they may either not exercise at all or

indulge in very heavy exercise. In health

psychology two types of life style/behaviours

have been mentioned. These are health

promoting and health endangering life

style/behaviours. Health promoting life style

may include, taking a balanced/nutritious diet,

doing exercise regularly, adequate and sound

sleep, abstinence from smoking and heavy

drinking etc. Smoking, heavy drinking, taking

unbalanced diet, lack of exercise, irregular

sleeping schedules, etc. on the contrary are

health-endangering behaviours. The behaviour

pattern followed by a person, predicts his

health e.g. in a study of Japanese-Americans, it

was found that smoking accounted for 29% of

all cancers and 85 percent of lung cancers

(Chyou, Nomura and Stemmermann, 1992). De

Groot, Verheijden, Henauw, Schroll and Van

Staveren, et al. (2004) reported that a healthy

lifestyle was related to stable self-perceived

health, a delay in functional dependence and

mortality. Faulty lifestyle i.e. alcohol use, lack of

exercise and being a current smoker were

associated with poor self-rated health (Rutten,

Abel, Kannas et al., 2001; Okosun, Seale, Daniel

and Eriksen, 2005).

There is abundant research literature

whereby the relationship between such factors

as the general self-efficacy, health belief or

health locus of control with health has been


examined. Though majority of studies have

reported a positive relationship, yet there are

studies which either failed to find such

relationship or have contrary findings.

Moreover, in such studies general health or

psychological health has been taken up. In

recent years in health psychology, the health

behaviour or lifestyle choice of the person have

also been examined and linked with health. The

healthy lifestyle or health promoting behaviour

is reported to be associated with good health

and health endangering behavior has been

found to be associated with poor health.

Therefore, the present study was planned to

examine the relationship among general self-

efficacy, health locus of control, lifestyle and

self-rated health. It was also intended to

identify the role of general self- efficacy, health

locus of control and lifestyle in predicting self-

rated health.

Sample

The sample of the study comprised of

300 (150 male & 150 female) persons in the age

range of 20-50 years (Mean age = 34.95,

S.D=10.07 years). The sample was selected on

incidental sampling basis from urban and rural

areas of Rohtak district (Haryana, India).

Tools

Self Rated Health

Self-rated health is frequently used in

large population surveys and is a useful

"opener" in interview situations that allow

interviewers to seek more nuanced and

complex responses about people's perceptions of their health (Lim, Ma, Heng,Bhalla and Chew,

2007). It was measured by single item i.e. “in

general, what would you say about your present

health?” It was rated on 5 point scale ranging

004

from 'excellent' (5) to 'poor' (1). A score of 5 was

given to 'excellent', 4 to 'very good', 3 to 'good',

2 to 'fair', 1 to 'poor'. The score ranged from 1 to

5 and high score indicate good self rated health.

Such single item measures and checklists of

happiness health and wellbeing / l ife

satisfaction have been used extensively

(Easterlin, 2001; Veenhoven, 1993).

Self-efficacy Scale

Self-efficacy was measured by self-

efficacy scale (Sud, Schwarzer and Jerusalem,

1998). The scale was originally developed in

German by Jerusalem and Schwarzer in 1981. It

is a 10-item scale designed to assess optimistic

self-beliefs used to cope with a variety of

demands in life. Items were rated on 4 point

scale from “not at all” (1) to “exactly true” (4).

Thus, the score may range from a minimum of

10 and maximum of 40. Higher scores indicate

stronger belief in self-efficacy. Studies have

shown that the general self efficacy scale has

high reliability and construct validity (Leganger,

Kraft and Roysamb, 2000; Schwarzer, Mueller

and Greenglass, 1999).

Health Locus of Control Scale (HLOC)

HLOC belief was assessed by using form

A of the multidimensional health locus of

control scale, developed by Wallston, Wallston

and DeVellis (1978). It measures one internal

and two external dimensions (chance and

powerful others) of health locus of control. It

consists of 18 items. There are 6 items for each

of the subscales i.e. internal, chance and

powerful others. Subjects were required to

mark their responses using a 6 point response

scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly

agree”. A scoring weight of 1 was given for

strongly disagree and a weight of 6 was given for


strongly agree, thus the possible score of each dimension (internal, chance and powerful others) of

health locus of control ranged from 6-36. Reliability indices for internal, chance and powerful others

were 0.60, 0.58, 0.74 respectively (Moshki, Ghofranipour, Hajizadeh and Azadfallah, 2007). The

Cronbach alpha coefficient was 0.68 for internal, 0.72 for powerful others and 0.66 for chance

health locus of control. The concurrent validity was 0.57 for internal, 0.49 for powerful others and

0.53 for chance (Moshki, Ghofranipour, Hajizadeh and Azadfallah, 2007).

Lifestyle Check Assessment

For measuring lifestyle choices lifestyle check assessment developed by Hall and Ches

(2001) was used. It is based on the U.S. Department of health and Human Services of healthy people

on 2010 health objectives. It consist of 29 items related to five areas of life style i.e. practices, eating

practices, mental and social health, safety and health examination. There are 7 items for practices, 9

for eating practices, 7 for mental and social health and 4 for safety and 1 item for health

examination. High score indicate healthier or health promoting lifestyle.

Results and Discussion

To examine the relationship among the variables (i.e. self-reported health, health locus of

control, lifestyle and self-efficacy) coefficients of correlations were calculated and the

intercorrelation matrix is given in Table1. For identifying the role of health locus of control, lifestyle

and self-efficacy stepwise- multiple regression was done and results are given in Table 2.

005

Table-1 Intercorrelation matrix (Mean and SD'S are given in the last two rows)

SE IN C PO LS (TS) P EP M&SH S HE SRH

SE 1

IN 0.21** 1

C 0.08

0.26**

1

PO 0.19**

0.44**

0.47** 1

LS(TS) 0.19** 0.14* 0.13* 0.19** 1

P 0.02 0.05 0.15* 0.04 0.69** 1

EP 0.12* 0.10 0.10 0.12* 0.68** 0.33** 1

M&SH 0.21**

0. 14*

0.02 0.17* 0.72** 0.23** 0.24** 1

S 0.14* 0.07 0.10 0.17* 0.41** 0.19** 0.17** 0.12* 1

HE 0.06 0.05 -0.02 0.14* 0.19** -0.08 0.04 0.13* 0.19** 1

SRH 0.24**

0.26**

0.17** 0.16** 0.55** 0.39** 0.45** 0.34** 0.23** 0.06 1

Mean 3.40 27.4 19.56 22.99 33.57 11.41 9.52 9.86 1.50 1.28 3.04

S.D 5.67 6.09 6.53 6.89 4.06 1.71 1.56 2.01 0.73 0.45 0.90

**Significant at the 0.01 level * Significant at the 0.05 level.


In-Internal health locus of control

It was found that except health

examination (r=0.06) all other factors i.e. health

locus of control (internal, chance and powerful

others), lifestyle (total score, practices, eating

practices, mental and social health, safety) and

general self-efficacy were found to be

significantly and positively associated with self-

006

SE = Self-efficacy EP = Eating practices

IN = Internal MH & SH = Mental and Social Health

C = Chance S = Safety

PO = Powerful Others HE = Health exam

LS(TS) = Lifestyle total score SRH = Self rated health

P = Practice

Index :

Table-2 Stepwise Multiple Regression of Self rated health on other variables

Model No.

Variables Mean

Regression Coefficient (b)

SE R R2 F-value

Criterion SRH 3.04

Predictors 1

LS Constant

33.57 0.12 -1.09

0.01 0.36

0.55 0.31 131.05 (1,298)

2 LS In Constant

33.57 27.64

0.12 0.03 -1.65

0.01 0.01 0.38

0.58 0.34 76.27 (2,297)

3 LS

In EP Constant

33.57 27.64 9.52

0.10 0.03 0.08 -1.71

0.01 0.01 0.04 0.38

0.59 0.35 53.21 (3,296)

4 LS

In EP SE Constant

33.57 27.64 9.52 30.40

0.09 0.03 0.08 0.02 -2.02

0.01 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.40

0.60 0.36 41.70 (4,295)

SRH - Self rated healthLS-Lifestyle

EP-Eating behaviourSE-Self-efficacy

reported health (Table-1). The size of the

coefficients varied from r=0.55 (for lifestyle

total score), r=0.45(eating practices, r=0.39 (for

practices) to as low as r=0.16 for powerful

others. Stepwise multiple regression revealed

(Table-2) that lifestyle (total score) was the

strongest predictor of self-reported health. It 2

accounted 31 percent(R=0.55, R = 0.31) of the


variance in self-reported health. When the next

significant predictor was taken up, internal

health locus of control along with lifestyle (total

score) accounted for 34 percent of the variance

in self-reported health. Eating practices (a

component of lifestyle) and self-efficacy were

the third and fourth significant predictors of

self-reported health. But both of these

accounted only one percent additional variance

(each). Thus, all the four significant predictors

[Lifestyle (total score), internal health locus of

control, eating practices and general self-

efficacy] together accounted 36 percent of the

variance in self-reported health (Table 2).

Results of the study (Table-1) revealed

that general self-efficacy was significantly and

positively correlated with self-rated health. It

implies that those who believed that they are

efficacious enough and believe in themselves

had reported their health as good. Finding of

the present study are in agreement with earlier

study of Fallon, Wilcox and Ainswoth, (2005)

reporting that self-efficacy was positively

correlated with perceived health status.

Schwarzer and Fuchs, (1995) also found that a

strong sense of personal efficacy is related to

better health. In patients with clinical

manifestations of atherosclerotic vascular

diseases appeared to have high levels of self-

efficacy regarding medication use, exercise and

controlling weight (Sol, van der Graff, van der

Bijl, Goessens and Visseren, 2006).

Dimensions of health locus of control

i.e. internal, chance, powerful others health

locus of control found to be positively and

significantly related with self-rated health.

Finding attest the result of Poortinga, Dunstan

and Fone (2008) reporting that health locus of

control (internal, chance and powerful) were

significantly associated with self rated health it

007

seems to forms a part of the pathway between

individual, neighborhood socioeconomic status

and health. Johansson, Grant, Plomin et al.

(2001) found modest associations between

health control beliefs and self rated health.

Internal health locus of control found to be the

significant and positive predictor of self-rated

health. This finding implies that people, who

believe that they are responsible for their

health, rated their health as good. Internal

factors control their health tend 'to seek more

health related information, remember the

information better and respond more readily to

messages encouraging medical examination

than do those who believe in external control

(Quadrel and Lau, 1989).Results of the present

study do not support findings of Simoni and Ng,

(2002) who reported that multidimensional

health locus of control acted as independent

predictor of perceived health, where as

Norman, Bennett, Smith and Murphy (1998)

revealed that overall health locus of control

found to be weak predictor of health/ health

behaviour.

Lifestyle total score was found to be

significantly and positively correlated with self-

rated health. Taking the components of lifestyle

checklist, it was found that practices, eating

practices, mental and social health and safety

were significantly correlated with self-rated

health and the direction was positive. Lifestyle

total score emerged as strongest predictors

(Table 2) of self rated health. Results are in

consonance with popular belief that 'one's

health is the product of one's actions' i.e. what

one is doing is related with his/her health. The

importance of lifestyle as a determinant of

health status is also reported by Rohrer, Arif,

Pierce and Blackburn, (2004). Several studies

conducted in this area (e.g. Wei-yen, Stefan,


Derrick, Vineta and Kai, 2007) have also

reported results similar to the present study.

Results of the present study are in line with

those of earlier studies of De Groot, Verheijden,

de Henauw, van Staveren and Seneca (2004)

reporting that a healthy lifestyle was related to

stable self-perceived health. Many researchers

(Rutten, Abel, Kannas et al., 2001; Okosun,

Seale, Daniel and Eriksen, 2005) have reported

that faulty lifestyle i.e. alcohol use, lack of

exercise and being a current smoker were

associated with poor self-rated health. The

component of lifestyle i.e. eating practices also

emerged as the significant and positive

predictor of health. This implies that good

eating practices like eating balanced diet leads a

person to report their health as positive.

Findings of the present study have

implications for the health professionals as well

as for the lay man as it suggest the casual link

between lifestyle, general self-efficacy, health

locus of control and self rated health. The

increasing incidence of diabetes, cardiovascular

and other diseases is a challenge for the health

professionals and the government of these

countries. The intervention programs need to

be focused on increasing the level of awareness

as well as for the prevention and management

of these illnesses and promotion of health.

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*Professor of Psychology, M.D.University, Rohtak** Department of Psychology, M.D.University, Rohtak

*** Department of Psychology and Counseling, Sultan Idris Education University(UPSI),Sultan Azlan Shah Campus,Proton City, Tanzong Malim, Perak dar ul Ridzuan, Malaysia


Introduction : Spiritual Intelligence can be defined as a deep

self awareness in which one becomes more and

more aware of the dimensions of self, not

simply as a body, but as the mind, body and

spirit. (Sisk and Torrance, 2001).

Spiritual Intelligence holds the key for

attaining our highest human potential. It frees

us from the limitations of the obvious, the

material, and the immediate (Khaveri, 2000).

According to Gomes (2005), it is an act of

freedom, a state of inner tranquility.

However, Spiritual Iintelligence, According to

Zohar, and Marshall (2000) refers to the

development of our longing and capacity for

012

Abstract

A Study of Relationship of Spiritual Intelligence andAdjustment of Adolescents

*Meena Jain **Santosh Meena

Spiritual values and methods have a potential role in helping to increase emotional stability

and improve adjustment. Values energize everything concerned with. For an individual, committing

to and applying values release fresh energies, which always attract success, achievement and well-

being.Adjustment refers to utilization of skills and experiences that facilitate personal integration

into the society to which one belongs. Adjustment is what everybody needs to cope with life. There is

no perfect individual, but adjustment makes the difference for excellence among individuals. Only

an adjusted person can be happy, hopeful and productive in whatever environment he finds himself.

The key objective of the present study is to enlighten how spiritual intelligence related with

various facets of adjustment (home, educational, health, social and emotional) of adolescent

college girls. Purposive Sampling was planned for the study. The sample of 100 female adolescents

was taken from Banasthali University of Rajasthan. The subjects were administered (i) Spiritual

intelligence test (Khalil A. Khaveri, 2000) (ii) Adjustment inventory for college students (A.K.P Sinha

and R.P Singh,2002). Data analysis was done with the help of product moment correlation. The

results disclosed the significant positive relationship with spiritual intelligence and adjustment

among adolescents.

meaning, vision and value which facilitates a

dialogue between reason and emotion,

between mind and body, and which enables us

to i nte g rate t h e i nte r p e rs o n a l a n d

intrapersonal, to transcend the gap between

self and others. Wigglesworth(2002) further

conceptualized Spiritual Intelligence to be the

ability to behave with Compassion and Wisdom

while maintaining inner and outer peace

(equanimity) regardless of the circumstance.

Spiritual Intelligence is therefore a necessary

Personal Empowerment which enables one to

maintain both inner and outer peace and

display love regardless of the circumstances


whether stress or acute conflict. It could

therefore help in conflict management and

peaceful co-existence in the Society.

College Students Encounter obstacles

which interfere with their Involvement,

integration and thus, prevent them from taking

full Advantage of the college Experiences. First

year Students face a number of problems in

Adjusting to University life. These include

developing an appropriate identity and

becoming Socially integrated into the college as

well as attaining and learning generic Skills and

Qualities such as Critical thinking and

Intellectual rigour. (Astin, 1984 and Tinto, 1987)

Adolescence is a period of Social Expansion and

development. The Adolescents spend a great

deal of their life around the activities, interest

and attitudes of their peers. As the result, the

peers attain great importance during this

period. According to Slas (1993) the

Belongingness to the group becomes

progressively important for the Adolescents

Adjustment refers to utilization of skills

and experiences that facilitate personal

integration into the society to which one

belongs. Adjustment is what everybody needs

to cope on with life. There is no perfect

individual, but Adjustment makes the

difference for excellence among individuals.

Only an Adjusted person can be happy, hopeful

and be productive in whatever Environment he

finds Himself (Animasahun 2010).

H o w e v e r, t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n

Psychological factors that enhance individuals'

Adjustment. Some of these are identified to be

intelligence quotient Emotional Intelligence

and spiritual intelligence (Goleman 1998;

Goltfredson 1998; Zohar andMarshall 2000;

Zohar and Berman 2001; Akinboyeet et. al.

013

2002; and Adeyemo 2007, 2008.).

Objective

To study the relationship between

spiritual intelligence and adjustment (home,

health, social, emotional and educational).

Hypoyhesis

There would be a positive correlation between

spiritual intelligence and adjustment (home,

health, social, emotional and educational).

MethodSample

A sample of 100 female adolescents in the age

range of 18-20 years was taken through

purposive sampling, residing in Banasthali

University.

Tools

1. Spiritual Intelligence Test Developed By

Khalil A. Khavari, (2000)

2. Adjustment Inventory for College

Students Developed By A.K.P Sinha and

R.P Singh (2002).

Procedure

In this study, the sample was selected

from the students of graduation of Banasthali

University. After deciding the tools to be used

for the study purpose, the investigation was

carried out. The participants were made aware

of the purpose of the study and were

confidentiality of responses and mutual rapport

was established. Thereafter a set of

questionnaire comprising a test of spiritual

intelligence, emotional intelligence and

adjustment was handed to each subject. The

subject was thanked for voluntary participation

and cooperating in administration of the test.

100 questionnaires were thus completed for

the study.

*Santosh Meena **Sandhya Gupta Volume-3 (2)

ResultThe present study is aimed to studying

the relationship between Spiritual Intelligence

and Adjustment (Home Health Social Emotional

Educational) among Adolescent girls of

Banasthali University. Coefficient of Correlation

was applied according to the aims of the study.

Correlational Table

Discussion

Spiritual intelligence and adjustment

has a positive correlation (r = 0.75, significant at

0.01 level). The finding is consistent with the

studies by Rotimi and Animasahun (2001),

results revealed significant positive correlations

between the intelligent quotient, spiritual

intelligence and prison adjustment with

emotional intelligence.

Tate and Forchheimer(2002) conducted

an extensive study on spirituality and found it to

be associated with quality of life, life satisfaction

and adjustment.

Insignificant positive correlation

between spiritual intelligence and home

adjustment (r = 0.18, insignificant at 0.01 level)

was seen.

014

Table shows significant positive

correlation between Spiritual intelligence and

Health Adjustment (r = 0.56, significant at 0.01

level). The results are in accordance with Zarina

and Mohamad (2010), who concluded that

spiritual intelligence positively associated with

general health. Those who had spiritual

intelligence tended to have better health. The

ability to conduct daily life with sanctification

based on one's spiritual

belief was the most dominant factor of good

Health. The study suggested that spirituality is

related to Health and has a positive effect on

participants' overall Health.

Health can be influence by spiritual

intelligence and emotional intelligence.

(Shabani, Hassan, Ahmad& Baba, 2010). Gurklis

and Menke (1988), after an extensive study

concluded that spirituality plays a very

important role in coping with chronic illness.

Similar results obtained from a study by

Rowe and Allen (2004), suggests an inverse

relationship between ill health and spiritual

well-being.

In order to test the hypothesis

constructed in the present study, an attempt

was made to study the relationship between

spiritual intelligence and social adjustment in

table. The results obtained indicate a positive

and significant relationship (r = 0.72, significant

S.No. VARIABLES CORRELATION

1 Spiritual intelligence & Total adjustment 0.75*

2 Spiritual intelligence & Home adjustment 0.18

3 Spiritual intelligence & Health adjustment 0.56*

4 Spiritual intelligence & Social adjustment 0.72*

5 Spiritual intelligence & Emotional adjustment 0.63*

6 Spiritual intelligence & Educational adjustment 0.51*

*Value significant at p<.01


at 0.01 level). Similar results were found in the

study of Landis (1996), who concludes that

there is positive relationship between spiritual

well-being and psychosocial adjustment.

The correlation scores between

spiritual intelligence and emotional adjustment

shows positive and significant correlation (r =

0.63, significant at 0.01 level).

Spiritual intelligence and values and

methods have a potential role in helping to

increase emotional stability and improve

adjustment. Values energized everything

concerned with. For an individual, committing

to and applying values releases fresh energies,

which always attract success, achievement and

well-being.

It can be observed from the results in

table that spiritual intelligence and educational

adjustment have the positive and significant

correlation (r = 0.51, significant at 0.01 level).

Hosseini, Elias, and Aishah (2010) concluded

that Conceiving spirituality as a sort of

intelligence extended the psychologist's

conception of spirituality and allowed its

association with the rational cognitive

processes like goal achievement and problem

solving.

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015

Adeyemo, D. A. (2008). Demographic

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http://www.innerworkspublishing.co

m.

*Santosh Meena **Sandhya Gupta Volume-3 (2)

Khavari, K. A. (2000). Spiritual intelligence: A

Practical Guide to Personal Happiness.

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wellbeing and psychosocial adjustment

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Estimates of Emotional Intelligence,

Spiritual Intelligence, Self- Efficacy and

Creativity Skills on Conflict Resolution

Behavior among the NURTW in the

South-Western Nigeria, Pakistan

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Rowe, M. M. & Allen, R. G. (2004). Spirituality as

a means of coping with chronic illness.

American journal of health studies.

Shabani, Hassan, Ahmad, & Baba (2010). Age as

Moderated Influence on the Link of

Spiritual and Emotional Intelligence

with Mental Health in High School

Students. Journal of American Science,

6(11).

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Inventory for College Students.

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Sisk, D., & Torrance, E.P. (2001). Spiritual

Intell igence: Developing higher

consciousness. Buffalo, New York;

Creative Education Press.

Slas, C. (1993). Social and emotional adjustment

of adolescents extremely talented in

verbal and mathematical reasoning.

Journal of Youth and Adolescence 15,

1-18.

016

Tate, D., Forchheimer, M. (2002). Quality of life,

life satisfaction and spirituality:

compar ing outcomes between

rehabilitation and cancer patients.

American journal of physical and

medical rehabilitation. 81(6), 400-10.

Tinto, V. (1987). Leaving college: rethinking the

ca u s e s a n d c u re s o f s t u d e nt

attribution. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.

Wigglesworth, C. (2002). Spiritual Intelligence

and Why it Matters. Bellaire TX.:

Conscious Pursuit Inc.

Zarina, Z. H., & Mohamad (2010) .The Impact of

Spiritual Intelligence on the Health of

the Elderly in Malaysia. Asian Social

Work and Policy Review, 4(2), 84–97.

Zohar, D., & Marshall, I. (2000). SQ: Spiritual

Intelligence, the ultimate intelligence.

Bloomsbury, New York.

Zohar, D., Berman, M. (2001). Developing

Spiritual intelligence through ELT.

Paper presented at the Brighton IATEFI

Conference.


*Associate Professor, Dept. of Psychology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur**Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychology, Banasthali Vidyapeeth, Tonk, Rajasthan

Introduction :THE PROCREATIVE INTEGRATION OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY to the organizational settings (Luthans, 2002) has certainly led to a paradigm shift from the traditional notions of job satisfaction, involvement, and organizational commitment to a more comprehensive and dynamic approach of 'employee engagement'. Employee engagement refers to “an individual employee's cognitive, emotional, and behavioral state directed toward desired organizational outcomes” (Shuck & Wollard, 2010). Therefore, in pursuit of adopting positive practices at workplace while focusing on human strengths and optimal functioning, employee engagement has increasingly been looking at as a potential psychological capacity (Luthans et al., 2008), the benefits of which are directly oriented towards both individuals as well as organizations. For instance, engaged employees have consistently been shown to be more productive, profitable, safer, healthier, and less likely to turnover (Fleming & Asplund,

017

Abstract

Positive Psychology and Organizational Effectiveness

*Aakanksha Kataria **Pooja Garg ***Renu Rastogi

With the advent of positive psychology movement in almost every sphere of human life including organizations advocating for the investment of employees' focused efforts and positive energies towards organizational goals, there has been a tremendous encouragement to human creative capabilities and optimism. Keeping this in view, the present study focuses its attention on investigating the function of employee engagement, a positive individual-level behavioral construct in occupational psychology towards increased organizational effectiveness. Data was collected from 152 managers in Indian IT organizations and the results of regression analysis depicted a positive association between the elite study variables as expected. The study posits employee engagement as a substantial element to the sustenance of organizational performance and growth, and further, establishes the need to develop conditions via positive organizational–climate for higher engagement level of employees.Keywords: Positive Psychology, Employee Engagement, Organizational Effectiveness, Organizational-Climate.

2007; Wagner & Harter, 2006; Wollard, 2011).In addition, increased complexities in

surmounting global competition and uncertain conditions of state economies have intensified expectations of organizations for their employees. Organizations expect their employees to be proactive and show initiative, collaborate smoothly with others, take responsibility for their own professional development, and to be committed to high quality performance standards (Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008). In specific, the notion of employee engagement has become salient and gained considerable attention in present times. In fact, engaged employees being highly involved, committed, and enthusiastic about the success of employer have been recognized as constitutional in sustaining organizational success and performance.

Though the vast popularity of the notion of employee engagement has often been attributed to the practitioners' community, yet substantial academic research


has also been flourishing determining construct validity, establishing its potential antecedents, and consequences lately. Consequences of engagement are particularly important, as organizations are increasingly looking for the cost effective ways to improve organizational performance (Halbesleben, 2011). Previous researches have established engagement as a substantial antecedent to many bottom line organizational outcomes such as productivity, profits, business growth, quality, customer satisfaction, employee retention, and low absenteeism (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999; Coffman & Gonzalez- Molina, 2002; Buchanan, 2004; Gallup Organization, 2004; Hewitt Associates LLC, 2005; Fleming and Asplund, 2007; Lockwood, 2007; Sundaray, 2011). Therefore, consequences of employee engagement are thought to be valuable to achieve organizational effectiveness (Saks, 2008; Sundaray, 2011; Welch, 2011; Cameron et al., 2011). But, no explicit empirical research investigating the association between employee engagement and organizational effectiveness has been coming from any side of the world and the relationship is yet to be confirmed.

Keeping in view, organizational effectiveness as the continuing theme of management research and practice for more than over 50 years and also as a unifying idea of achieving organizational success and continuous performance through collaborative efforts of skilled employees, present study focuses its attention on examining the role of employees' level of engagement to achieve and sustain organizational effectiveness.

State of the art Employee engagement

Recent research studies in psychology, management and organizational sciences have

018

manifested employee engagement as a positive organizational construct which reflects not only physical and cognitive involvement of employees' but also emotional attachment to their work and organization. Employees' psychological connection with their work has gained critical importance in management discourse of the twenty first century (Bakker, Albrecht, & Leiter 2011). According to Saks, (2006) employee engagement is “a distinct and unique construct that consists of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components that are associated with individual role performance”. In spite of the recent emergence, the term 'employee engagement' has captivated substantial interest from industry and management in a short span of time. The vast popularity has been attributed to the beguiling organizational outcomes of engagement in terms of high involvement, passion and zeal in employees' efforts to perform up to their potential, while creating the high performing organizations. Engaged employees have a clear and defining connection to the organization's mission and purpose, and employee engagement is reflected in behaviors that meet or exceed expectations of service at the work place (Litten et al., 2011).

Kahn (1990) has been credited for pioneering the engagement research in academic literature. While using the framework of personal engagement and disengagement Kahn (1990) posited engagement as “a state in which employees “bring in” their personal selves during work role performances, investing personal energy and experiencing an emotional connection with their work”. In specific, the term “Employee Engagement” was first used distinctively in 1990's by Gallup organization (Buckingham, & Coffman, 1999). The Gallup Research Group coined the term Employee

Volume-3 (2)*Aakanksha Kataria **Pooja Garg ***Renu Rastogi

Engagement as a result of 25 years of interviewing and surveying employees and managers (Little & Little, 2006). With the popular release of the book “First Break All the Rules” (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999), touted pos i t ive consequences o f employee engagement became overnight sensation in the business consulting world. There has been a sharp increase in the number of academic researches on engagement thereafter. Leiter & Maslach (1998); Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter (2001); Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, & Bakker (2002) posited employee engagement as positive antithesis to burnout and it was the first major work on engagement. Robinson (2004); May (2004); Hallberg, & Schaufeli (2006); Saks (2006); Schaufeli (2002) explored the uniqueness of the concept and stated employee engagement is positively related to but distinct from other similar constructs such as, organizational citizenship behavior, job satisfaction, job involvement organizational commitment etc. Schaufeli et al.'s (2002) conceptualization of engagement has been very popular in engagement literature which states engagement as “a positive fulfilling, work related state of mind characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption”.

Vigor – is characterized by the high levels of energy and mental resilience while working, the willingness to invest effort in one's work and persistence even in the face of difficulties.

Dedication – explicates being strongly involved in one's work, and experiencing a sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and challenge.

Absorption – refers being fully concentrated and happily engrossed in one's work whereby time passes quickly and one has difficulties with detaching oneself from work.

019

In sum, engagement is posited as the

high levels of personal investment in the work

tasks performed on job (e.g., Kahn, 1990;

Macey & Schneider, 2008; May et al., 2004; Rich

et al., 2010; Schaufeli et al, 2002). Previous

researches concerning employee engagement

have well established its possible importance

for the organizations for example; engagement

leads to better job performance (Bakker & Bal,

2010; Demerouti & Cropanzano, 2010;

Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, & Schaufeli,

2009) and focused more on individual level

analysis. In fact, there is a paucity of empirical

research concerning employee engagement

and its organizational outcomes (Cameron, et

al., 2011). Furthermore, more researches

establ ishing the val idity, differential

antecedents and differential outcomes

associated with engagement is warranted

(Gruman, & Saks, 2011). Hence, the concept of

employee engagement is an important arena of

research that deserves further attention

(Christian, et al., 2011).

Organizational effectiveness

In order to develop and gain sustainable

competitive advantage in contemporary

business world organizations need to be

effective. Organizational effectiveness serves as

a unique source of strategic advantage to

organizations for their continuous growth and

development. Therefore, the underlying goal of

most research on organizations is to improve

their effectiveness (Noruzi, 2010). There have

been many foci on defining organizational

effectiveness (Mzozoyana, 2002).

§ Organizational effectiveness is defined

in terms of the extent to which an organization

achieves its goals (Steers, 1977).


§ Hannan & Freeman (1977) defined organizational effectiveness as “the degree of congruence between organizational goals and observable outcomes”.

§ Organizational effectiveness is “a company's long term ability to achieve consistently its strategic and operational goals” (Fallon & Brinkerhoff, 1996).

§ Mott (1972) defined organizational effectiveness as “the ability of an organization to mobilize it centres of power, for action, production and adaptation”. In fact, effective organizations are those that tend to produce more and adapt more easily to environmental and internal problems than do other similar organizations.

In sum, organizational effectiveness has been widely accepted as “the degree to which an organization realizes its goals” (Daft, 1995). Notwithstanding, organizations are typically viewed as rational entities in the pursuit of goals (Perrow, 1970; Etzioni, 1964) and organizational effectiveness is a broader term encompassing multiple constituents of organizational performance in terms of increased output , qual i ty, quant i ty, adaptability, and efficiency. In fact, it has been hard to describe what exactly constitutes organizational effectiveness (Cameron & Whetton, 1981; Rahimi, & Noruzi, 2011) and due to its multidimensional and paradoxical character (Cameron, 1986), it has been observed that an organization can be simultaneously judged effective by one criterion and ineffective by another (Mi Cho, 2008). In addition, a variety of approaches and frameworks have been developed to understand the dynamic perspective of organizational effectiveness such as goal-

020

attainment, system resource, internal process,

strategic constituency, and competing values

approach. Different approaches involve

different criteria for evaluating organizational

effectiveness. For instance, goal attainment

approach evaluates the extent to which an

organization is able to achieve its short and long

term goals, while system resource approach

refers to the ability of an organization in either

absolute or relative terms, to exploit its

environment in the acquisition of scarce and

valued resources to sustain its functioning, and

strategic constituencies approach focuses its

attention on the minimal satisfaction of all the

strategic constituencies of the organization for

instance, consumers of the products,

supporters, facilitators, dependents and the

resource providers (Cameron, 1981; Ashraf &

Kadir, 2012). This paper includes the

stakeholder approach towards organizational

effectiveness while considering employees'

percept ion of effect iveness in their

organizations. Perceived organizational

effectiveness refers to the subjective employee

attitudes about how well their organization is

performing (Caillier, 2011), and it has been

recommended as a reasonable measure of

organizational effectiveness (Brewer & Selden,

2000; Ca i l l ier, 2011) . Mott 's (1972)

measurement of perceived organizational

effectiveness has been found to be the most

frequently used criteria in various models

pertaining to effectiveness (Steers, 1975;

Sharma & Samantara, 1995; Luthans et al.,

1988).


021

psychologically involved are more able to invest

their active physical strength and emotional

energy towards the fulfilment of organizational

goals. Furthermore, it has also been suggested

that engaged employees not only contribute

more but are also more loyal and therefore less

likely to voluntarily leave the organization

(Macey & Schneider, 2008).

Thus, based on the previous findings,

assumptions, and axioms in existing literature

concerning organizational context of employee

engagement, it is argued that employee

engagement in general and as a whole will be

related to organizational effectiveness.

Positive psychology, employee engagement,

and organizational effectiveness

Employees' active commitment and

involvement is of greater significance when it

comes to innovat ion, organizat ional

performance, and competitive advantage

(Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008). Therefore, the

positive psychology movement has certainly

persuaded organizations to adopt positive

practices at work place in order to create and

develop a positive psychological context to help

employees thrive at workplace. Positive

practices such as respectful treatment of

employees at work place, career planning and

development etc. are significantly associated

with organizational effectiveness. The

association between positive practices and

organizational effectiveness takes into account

that positive practices at work place (for

instance, organizational justice, managerial

support, fair rewards, recognition, performance

management, fulfilment of psychological

contract, trust, integrity, workplace spirituality,

and work-life balance etc.) produce positive

affect (such as satisfaction, psychological well-

being) in employees resulting into the positive

individual behaviours for instance, retention

and engagement which is further suggested as

an antecedent to the organizational

effectiveness (Cameron, et al., 2011). In this

connection, the construct of employee

e n ga g e m e n t h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d i n

organizational context, connoting it as “a

desirable condition, has an organizational

purpose, and connotes involvement,

commitment, passion, enthusiasm, focused

effort, and positive energy”, (Erickson, 2005;

Macey & Schneider, 2008). This posits, engaged

employees being enthusiastic, dedicated, and

Study HypothesisH1. Employee engagement will positively and

significantly influence organizational

effectiveness.

H1a. Vigor will positively and significantly

influence organizational effectiveness.

H1b. Dedication will positively and significantly


H1c. Absorption will positively and significantly


MethodParticipants

The respondents were 152 middle level

managers from different IT organizations. Of the

152 participants', a large proportion (71 %)

were males and the rest of the others were

females. The average age of the participants

was 31 years. The work experience profile of the

participants varies from the minimum 3 year of

experience from maximum of 7 years and the

average work experience was 4.5 years. 32 %

were unmarried of all the participants and the


022

Organizational effectiveness

An 8-item scale developed by Mott (1972) is

used as a measure of organizational

effectiveness, summative overall effectiveness

scale. The scale consists of 8 items e.g.,

“Thinking now of the various things produced

by the people you know in your division, how

much are they producing? Their production is,

measured on a five-point scale ranging from 1 to

5. Each item needed a different adjective as its

response, so the scaling of the items was

different. The Cronbach's alpha (á) was .88.

Data analysis technique

The Statistical Package for Social Science

version 17.0 (SPSS 17.0) was used to analyze the

data. Correlation and regression analysis was

conducted to investigate the relationship

between employee engagement and

organizational effectiveness in the IT industry.

Results Relationship between employee engagement

and organizational effectiveness

Table 1 presents the means, standard

deviations, correlations of the key study. It is

worth noting here that a significant relationship

has been found between employee

engagement and organizational effectiveness

on an over-all basis with the calculated r =.47

(significant at .01 level). This clearly outlines

that higher engagement level of employees in

organization is associated with increased

organizational effectiveness.

rest was married. The sample was comprised of

management graduates (55%) and engineering

graduates (45%).

ProcedureThe present study attempts to explore the

relationship between employee engagement in

terms of vigor, dedication, and absorption and

organizational effectiveness. The study was

carried by means of a self administered

questionnaire using the scales discussed below.

Purposive sampling was used for the data

collection.

MeasuresEmployee engagement

Employee engagement was measured using the

Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9) as

reported by Schaufeli et al. (2006a). This scale

consists of 9 – items and measures three sub-

dimensions of employee engagement.

Vigor is characterized by willingness to invest

efforts while experiencing high levels of positive

energy and mental resiliency at work. (e.g., “At

my work, I feel bursting with energy).

Dedication refers to the strong involvement in

one's work, a feeling of meaningfulness,

significance, pride and challenge. (e.g., “My job

inspires me”).

Absorption explains one's state of being fully

engrossed and concentrated in the work

(Schaufeli, Bakker & Salanova, 2006). (e.g., “I

get carried away when I am working”)

All items relating to these three sub dimensions

were measured on a seven- point scale ranging

from 0 = “Never” to 6 = “Always”. Cronbach

alpha (á) for this scale was 0.92.


023

organizational effectiveness was regressed on

the all three dimensions of employee

engagement. As depicted in Table 2, the

criterion variable employee engagement on an

over-all basis accounted for 22 % of the variance

in the prediction of organizational effectiveness

with F value = 42.35, p<.01, â = .47, and ? = .18.

All the three dimensions of employee

engagement exhibited significant variance in

organizational effectiveness as the first

dimension vigor accounted for remarkable

variance as 17% with the calculated R=.41 (F=

29.98, p<.01, â = .41, ? = .17). The second

dimension that is dedication also explained a

signif icant variance in organizational

effectiveness as 15% with the calculated R=.40

(F= 27.77, p<.01, â = .40, ? = .15). Lastly,

another significant dimension of employee

engagement, Absorption explained highest

variance as 18% of all the dimensions with the

calculated R=.43 (F= 33.45, p<.01, â = .43, ? =

.18), depicting that absorption was the

strongest predictor of organizational

effectiveness among all the dimensions of

employee engagement.

A perusal of correlations shown in

Table 1 illustrates that all three dimensions of

employee engagement as: vigor, dedication,

and absorption correlate positively with

organizational effectiveness. A significant

relation between vigor and organizational

effectiveness has been found with the

calculated correlation value as .41, (significant

at .01 level). Another dimension dedication has

also been found to be correlated with the

organizational effectiveness as shown in Table

1, and has been found that dedication is

significantly correlated with organizational

effectiveness with the correlation value as

.40** (significant at .01 level). The correlation

between the third dimension of employee

engagement that i s absorpt ion and

organizational effectiveness has been found to

be most favourable with the calculated r value =

.43**, (significant at .01 level).

Impact of employee engagement on

organizational effectiveness

Further, in order to know how much

variance will be explained in organizational

effectiveness by employee engagement,

regression analysis was conducted. In which

Mean Standard deviations 1 2 3 4 5

1.2.3.4.

5.

VigorDedicationAbsorptionEmployeeEngagementOrganizationalEffectiveness

5.175.835.39

16.20

11.15

1.03.75.92

2.23

1.44

1.53**.47**

.68**

.41**

1.45**

.64**

.40**

1

.62**

.43**

1

.47** 1

Notes : *p =.05; **p=.01


Table 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations of the key variables (N-152)

024

and perform better in their jobs. They are better

able to meet the increasing job demands at

c o n t e m p o ra r y w o r k p l a c e . S e c o n d ,

organizational performance is the collaborative

efforts of engaged employees, as engagement

of one person may transfer to others and

indirectly improve composite performance of

teams (Bakker, 2011). A positive gain spiral of

engagement at workplace would constructively

lead to increased organizational performance

as engaged employees does not only contribute

more but are also more loyal and therefore less

likely to voluntarily leave the organization

(Macey & Schneider, 2008).

Third, it has been suggested that

engaged employees are also willing to invest

extra efforts and go beyond the call of the duty

(Schaufeli et al., 2006b; Christian et al., 2011).

Engaged employees often experience positive

emotions, they are happier at work and more

helpful to others than non-engaged employees

(Bakker & Demerouti, 2008). In this direction,

Rurkkhum & Barlett, (2012) have recently

reported a positive and significant relationship

between employee engagement and OCB's.

Engaged employees have a clear and defining

connection to the organization's mission and

purpose, and employee engagement is

Discussion and conclusionsThe investigation of variables provided

support for the hypotheses that employee

engagement in general and as a whole is

significantly related to the organizational

effectiveness. On the whole, research findings

suggest that absorption is the most significant

d imension leading to organizat ional

effectiveness although with no remarkable

difference with the other two dimensions of

employee engagement as vigor and dedication.

Results of the study are consistent with

conceptual suppositions in existing literature as

it has been clearly observed that engaged

employees are a vital element in achieving

organizational success, performance, and

competitive advantage. In fact, leaders and

mangers across the globe recognize employee

engagement as a vital element affecting

organizational effectiveness (Welch, 2011).

E n ga g e d e m p l o y e e s a u g m e n t

organizational performance and effectiveness

in four ways. First, as discussed earlier,

engagement is a positive and high arousal

affective state characterized by energy and

involvement (Bakker et al., 2011), engaged

employees being highly enthusiastic,

efficacious and involved tend to work harder

DependentVariable

OrganizationaleffectivenessOrganizationaleffectivenessOrganizationaleffectivenessOrganizationaleffectiveness

Notes: significant at .01 level

IndependentVariable

R R2 Adjusted R2 F-Value Standardized Valueâ

EmployeeengagementVigor

Dedication

Absorption

.47

.41

.40

.43

.22

.17

.16

.18

.22

.16

.15

.18

42.33**

29.98**

27.77**

33.45**

.47**

.41**

.40**

.43**


Table 2 Regression analysis with employee engagement and its dimensions as independent

variable and organizational effectiveness as dependent variable.

025

to sustain and develop conditions for high

engagement level of employees. Employers

should create an organizational context where

employees feel enthusiastic and motivated

about their jobs (Bakker et al., 2011). For

instance, increased job demands require

greater efforts on the part of organizations to

provide employees necessary job resources

(supervisor support, recognition, job autonomy,

feedback, person-job fit, skill variety) that are

conducive to intrinsic motivation, personal

learning, growth, and development (Bakker,

2011). When an organization anytime is

ineffective to meet the expectations and

requirements of the employees, they also tend

to drawback their energies from job

engagement (Frank, 2004; Rashid et al., 2011).

Thus, there is a need to acknowledge the factors

that would lead to high commitment and

psychological attachment of employees

towards the organization and to develop a

positive psychological and social context in

which employees can perform up to their full

potential. Specifically, human resource

managers play a significant role to facilitate

engagement among their employees (Bakker,

2011; Fairlie, 2011; Shuck et al., 2011; Wollard,

2011). Integrating engagement enhancing

strategies into human resource practices at

work place would be a substantial step in

creating effective organizations.

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*Research Scholar, Department of HSS, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,Uttarakhand (India) – 247667

**Assistant Professor, Department of HSS, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,Uttarakhand (India) – 247667

***Professor, Department of HSS, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,Uttarakhand (India) – 247667


Introduction :Self is the center of our being; it is a core

of our personality. Self is above all, totally

unaffected by the flow of bodily conditions. In

words of Sullivan (1950) “the self is said to be

made up of reflected appraisals.” Self includes

the totality of man; the four functions of

thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition, man's

relationships with life and with the inanimate

universe. Self on the one hand, provides

awareness of one's unique nature and on the

other hand, a feeling of oneness with the

cosmos. According to Jung (1940) “Self is not

only the center but also the circumference that

encloses consciousness and unconsciousness; it

is the center of this totality as the ego is the

center of consciousness.”

Most theorists have assigned a major

role to the environment and experience in the

development of self. The social experiences play

a very significant role in the formation of self-

perception. An Individual perception of his

physical and psychological attributes is known

as the perceive self. Perceived self can be

positive or negative depending upon the

favorable and unfavorable appraisals assigned

030

Abstract

Percieved Self among the Managers of Telecom Sector: A Gender Study

*Shukla Archana **Fatima Amreen

The objective of the present study is to find out the perceived self among the managers of

telecom sector and to study the gender difference among them. 50 managers were selected (25

males and 25 females) through purposive sampling. The age range of the sample is 30 to 40 years.

WHO AMI? Technique by Bugental and Zelen(1950) is used in the present study for the better

understanding of perceived self among the managers of telecom sector. Gender differences were

found in the perception of self. Male managers' personality bears more positive shades as compared

to female managers. Males' perception is more self-focused as compared to females whose

perception of self is other- focused.

Keywords: Percieved Self, Ideal Self, Real Self, Personality

to self. According to Rogers (1961) perceived

self is composed of three sides of the triangle;

the perceived self (how person see self & and

others see him/her), the Real Self (how person

really is), and the Ideal Self (how person would

like to be). In views of Rogers the ideal self is the

base for the other two elements of self - the

perceived and the real self.

Interestingly the importance of self has

been recognized by the modern organizations.

Many researches Shamir (1991), Vathanophas

and Thaingam (2007) and Wright (2007) has

accepted the role of manager's self-concept as a

source behind the organizational success.But

surprisingly there is a dearth of literature on

perceived self especially with reference to the

managers of telecom sector in Indian

perspective. Very limited and scanty work has

been done studying perceived self and gender

differences in the managers of telecom sector,

as the managers have to be vigilant in their

work, meet the targets, work at the odd hours of

the day etc. This encouraged the researcher to

take up the present study. While reviewing the

literature some questions came in the mind of

the researcher; how does the managers of


telecom sector perceived themselves? Is there any gender difference in the perceived self among

the managers of telecom sector? Do males managers have better perceived self as compared to

female managers? Since it's impossible to answer all the questions in a single study, hence an

attempt has been made to answer some of them in the present study.

Objective of The Study:

To study the perceived self among the managers of telecom sector and to find out the

gender difference among them.

Sample:

The study was conducted on 50 managers of telecom sector. Age range of the subjects was 30 -40 years and the mean age was 112.3. Subjects were selected through purposive sampling.

Nature of the Study:

An ex post facto research with exploratory orientation in nature.

Varaible:

· Perceived self

· Gender

Tool Used:

Who am I? Technique was given by Bugental and Zelen (1950). There are many variant of Who am I? Technique In the present study one of the variant of Who am I? – (What is good and not so good about me – the positives and negatives of the self) introduced by Arkoff (1985) was used. Who am I? Is a tool, which explores one's perceived self on the one hand, and on the other hand serves as the base for identifying how the individual view does him /her?

Administration of “Who Am I? Technique:

Who am I? Technique was administered with the generation of self-descriptive statements. Following instructions were given to the subjects:

“You must have seen yourself in a mirror, in a pot of water, or in a pool. What did you see? Right you saw your face, how you look physically, or how others see you. Today we are going to show you a different kind of a mirror, which will tell you how you are from within. Look in it and see “who are you?”

Initially the managers were motivated by the researcher and were informed that there is no right and wrong answer. Further they were also ensured that their responses will be kept confidential and their identity will not be disclosed to anyone.

031

Volume-3 (2)*Shukla Archana **Fatima Amreen

032

Figure .1

Figure .2


033

When the responses of male and females were looked into (fig.1 and fig.2.) it depicts a clear picture that there is a gender difference in terms of positive and negative statements. Majority 58% of male's responses (fig.1) were positive while only 42% responses fall in to negative category. On the other hand, maximum responses (52%) of females (fig 2) were negative and only 48% of responses were positive.

First and foremost positive responses of males were analysed and divided into 6 sub- categories. Male positive responses were depicted in the diagram below:

Figure .3

First category with maximum number of responses indicates that 26% of males were self-

focused. Some of the responses in this category were: “I am a Fighter” and “I have a happy nature”.

A positive perceived self, adheres confidence and trust in ones capabilities. Therefore the above

percentage suggests males possess the feelings of self-worth and they are aware of their strengths

and are willing to use it in a positive manner (Shamir 1991)

Next category that emerged is job with 21% of males' statements. The positive attitude

towards job was marked by the verbatim like “I feel content with my job” and my job provides me

the opportunity to explore more.” This category go hand in hand among the managers of Indian

telecom sector, as they are more job oriented, they are spending most of their hours in their job,

making an effort to perform better at the expense of their respective personal lives. This finding was

also supported by Abbas, Hameed and Waheed (2011)

Further (17%) of male responses suggests “the dominance of others”. In words of Hurlock

(1965) “Others focused self refers to how a person views herself/ himself through the eyes of


034

others“This category goes hand in hand with the present scenario, where positive appraisal by

others becomes necessary in order to keep up with the daily problems of life. Statements like “my

colleagues think I am hard working, and “People trust me for my honesty”were given by the

subjects.

Fourth category was approach towards life. 14 % of male managers stated that they have

adopted a positive approach towards life. Statements in this category were for example “I have a

positive approach towards life.” They further reported that the positive approach helps them to

strike a balance with their hectic schedule and stress.

Surprisingly 12% of the managers perceived themselves in terms of relationships. Some of

the statements were; “I value relationships”. Relationships are said to be the core of our lives, which

is the reason that the focus of responses in this category was on relationship development,

maintenance of relationship with family members and friends.

Spirituality can be defined as the ultimate reality. It is a path which enables a person to

discover the essence of his/ her being. It provides deepest values and meanings to a person's life.

Spirituality is (10%) the last category among positive responses. Responses in this category were “I

pray every day, because it helps me to stay claim even in the worst of situations” Managers also

mentioned that they do meditation everyday which in return helps them to feel content with what

they have in live.

Further when the data was reviewed in terms of females' positive responses, six categories

emerged. These categories are mentioned below:

Figure .4


035

Fig.4 shows that majority (23 %) of females self is other focused. This in comparison to

males' positive responses (fig.3) is in complete contrast; as the males were more self-focused where

as females perception of self is entirely based on the judgements of others. Statements in this

include;” People say I have an attractive face”, and “others think I am charming personality”. This

finding was supported by findings of Crocker, Sabiston, Kowalski, McDonough and Kowalski (2006)

indicated that specific physical self-perceptions by others were the important predictors of physical

activity, dietary restraint and social physique anxiety in females.

Further 24% of females reported positive attitude towards their job. Statements in this

were “I am good at managing work”. Positive attitude towards job suggests all the positive

experiences which a person holds towards their job. With reference to this finding Grobeleny and

Wasiak (2010) stated “The most satisfied with income were masculine women managers, the least

feminine women non-managers.

Moving on to the next category of positive responses, (19%) of females perceived

themselves with regards to their family. Some of the responses in this category were like; “I love my

family” and “I like to spend time at home”. It is ironical yet true, that in our Indian culture no matter

at what position a female is, how much she is earning, family remains the prime importance. The

present finding similarly supports the Indian values of working women.

Another category was social with 16% of the females' responses. Verbatim under this were,

“I like to be with others”, “I am good at maintaining relationship” and “I like to socialize at

times.”Major focus of responses in this category was on socializing, interacting with others, and

developing interpersonal skills.

It is an interesting finding to know that only 13% of females' perception is self-focused.

Statements in this category were as “I respect myself” and I am good at managing things”. This

finding indicates the feminine stereotype. Feminine stereotype in our Indian culture suggests that

females have a tendency of self-negligence. They think about themselves in the last; for them their

family, children and others come first, despite the fact how educated they are and at what position

they were working. This stereotype also goes hand in hand among the female managers of telecom

sector.

Lastly 9% of females 'mentioned that they have positive life expectations. Some of the

verbatim were:” “things will improve in the future” and “I will be able to accomplish my goals very

soon”. Positive expectations about life indicates the optimism among females about future, this

also suggests that despite the present situations females try to maintain a positive outlook towards

their lives.


036

Majority of males 42 % have a negative perceived self. Statements in this category were like

“I havea bad temper” and “I slightly egoistic”. A negative perceived self in words of Besser and Priel

(2011) is marked by the “personality predisposition of dependency, higher levels of negative affect

and interpersonal rejection.” With reference to the previous finding (fig.3) this was opposite of what

managers reported about positive perception of self.

Fig.4 clearly depicts that (34%) of males hold the negative attitude towards their job.

Verbatim in this category were like: Due to my job I have become aggressive in nature” and “I have a

very demanding job.” Negative responses clearly suggest their dissatisfaction in job. Thus the

feeling of negative affect can said to result due to the aggressive and hectic nature of their jobs in

the telecom sector.

Moving to the last category, of males' negative responses it was found that 24% of male

managers self is other focused. Following were some of the example; “others think I am a bad

person.” It was very shocking to find out that the manager holds such a negative view about

themselves despite the fact that their job requires them to maintain a positive outlook as they have

to largely deal with others. Present finding supports the concept of “dissonance”. It becomes

ironical yet true that for the managers working in telecom sector have to represent themselves as a

positive person in front of the others, despite the fact how negative and gloomy they feel within

themselves.

After the reviewing the males' negative responses, females' negative responses were taken

into the consideration. The five categories for negative responses were mentioned below:

Moving on to the next, the percentage of negative responses among males was divided into the

three sub categories were as under:

Figure .5


037

Majority of females perceived themselves

negatively (38%). Negative perceived self is

witnessed in the verbatim like“I have a very

short temper” and “I am easily frustrated.” A

negative perception towards self suggests that

one is not content with herself/ himself and

holds negative views about self.

(26%) of females negative responses

states that their self is other focused.

Statements in this category were like: “Others

think I am in decisive”. For a person having a

negative perceived self, what others think is

more important than how he or she is in reality.

In other words negative perceived self is

characterized by the negative evaluations by

others.

Next category of was job with 22% of

females instances. Responses in this category

were “My job is very demanding in nature and

“Due to hectic schedule at work I am not able to

spend time at home.” Females also mentioned

that they had problems in their job and because

of the nature of job they were unable to

Figure .6

maintain a proper balance between job and

personal life.

Gossip was the last category with 14%

of female's responses. Verbatim in this category

were: “I like to include in office politics” and

“Often I like to talk about others”Gossip refers

to the talking bad about others, back biting and

interest in others doing. It also refers to idle talk

or rumour about the personal or private affairs

of other. De Gouda, Vuuren and Crafford (2005)

“mentioned workplace gossip could have direct

implications on trust in workplace relationships,

might undermine principles espoused by

corporate governance and could therefore lead

to higher staff absenteeism and turnover.

The data analysis clearly points that

majority of males perception is self-focused.

Further suggesting that they are aware of their

strengths and positives points. Job has

predominance in their lives. They also

acknowledge themselves through the eyes of

others. Males try to maintain a positive

approach towards life to strike a work life


038

balance. They also seem to value relationships.

Lastly spirituality helps them in maintaining this

positive outlook of life. Whereas the data

analysis of females positive responses suggests

that largely females perception is other

focused. Family is of great importance in the

lives of females. They were more concerned

about maintaining relationships. While trying to

maintain this positive outlook in life females

have positive expectations from their

respective lives.

Interestingly the content analysis of

negative responses portrays that the males in

the sample had a negative perception of self.

They hold a negative perception of their job,

suggesting that they were not happy with their

present job conditions, pressure at job and

exhaustive working hours. On the other hand

females perceived more themselves negatively

as compared to males. They are more

influenced by the how negatively others

perceived them than what they actually are.

Females have a negative job perception; they

feel their job is very demanding and time

consuming and to add more negativity at times

they like to gossip about others.

Summary and Conclusion:

Findings of the study suggest that there

is a gender difference in the perceived self

among the managers of telecom sector.

Reasons could be the nature of jobs in telecom

sector is very demanding and requires dealing

with lot of pressure, working at odd hours of the

day. Which males can do easily than females

due to the social norms? As a result of this it is a

male dominated industry. With reference to

males dominance in the managerial positions,

the Office for National Statistics (2008) showed

that 19% of men in the United Kingdom

occupied managerial and positions of seniority

compared to 12% of women, Further, as of

2009, the overall pay gap between men and

women in the industry was 22% in favour of

men (Government Equalities Office, 2009)

Females on the other hand have more

responsibilities; they have to manage their

homes, children, and their respective lives. This

imposes certain limitations and creates

imbalance in personal and professional life. This

further develops feelings of job demotivation,

and results in negative perception of self. This

finding was also supported by Iacobucci and

Ostrom, (1993) In the emerging telecom sector

of India the present study provides insights on

the perceived self among the managers working

in telecom sector. This study provides useful

inputs to the future researches by exploring the

ways in which perceived self, effects the work

life of the managers. On the basis of the findings

it can be suggested that personal counselling

and useful training programs should be

organized by the company for the managers to

overcome feelings of negative self-perception

and stress and to make the working

environment more conducive. In the end to sum

up in words of Assagioli (1966) can be said “the

SELF is the universal and I am aware that I am

SELF.”

References: Abbas, Q., Hameed, A. & Waheed, A. (2011).

“Gender Discrimination and Its Effect o n E m p l o y e e P e r f o r m a n c e / Productivity”, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol. 1, No.15.

Besser, A.& Priel, B. (2011). “Dependency, Self-Criticism and Negative Affective Responses Following Imaginary Rejection and Fai lure Threats:


039

Meaning-Making Processes as Moderators or Mediators”, Psychiatry 74, Guilford Publications, Inc.

Crocker, P. R. E., Sabiston, C. M., Kowalski, K. C., McDough, M. H. & Kowalski, N. (2006). “Longitudinal Assessment of the Relationship between Physical Self-Concept and Health-Related Behaviour and Emotion in Adolescent Girls”, Journal of Applied Sports Psychology. Drive, Belmont, C.A., 94002-3098, U.S.A.

Grobelny, A.L. & Wasiak, K. (2010) “Job Satisfaction and Gender Identity of Women Managers and Non Managers”, International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, pp 161 -166.

Gouda, C. M., Vuuren, van, L. J. & Crafford A. (2005). “Towards A Typology of Gossip in the Workplace”, SA Journal of Human Resource Management; Vol 3, pp. 2.

Gardner, D. G., Dyne, L. V. & Pierce J. L. (2004). “ The effects o f pay leve l on organization-based self-esteem and performance: A field study”, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, The British Psychological Society, pp. 77, 307–322.

H u r l o c k , E . B . ( 1 9 7 6 ) . “ Pe rs o n a l i t y Development”, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company limited New Delhi, India

Jacobucci, D., Ostrom, A. & Grayson. K. (1993). “Distinguishing Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction: The Voice of the Consumer”, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Lawrence Er lbaum Associates, Inc.

Jones, J. G. & Stowing, R. W. (1968). “Adolescent Identity and Self-Perception as Predictors of Scholastic Achievement”, The Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 62, pp. 78-82,

http://www.jstor.org/stable/27532145Sara, L. R., Gerhart, B. & Minette, K. A. (2004).

“The Importance of Pay In Employee Motivation: Discrepancies Between What People Say and What They Do”, Human Resource Management, Vol. 43, No. 4, Pp. 38-394, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley Inter Science (www.interscience.wiley.com)

Shamir, B. (1991). “Meaning, Self and M o t i v a t i o n i n O r g a n i z a t i o n s , Organization Studies , vol. 12 , no .3, Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.

Taylor, G. C. “Who Am I?” Techniques in Psychotherapy,

McGil l University, Montreal, Canada, (http://synthesiscenter.org/articles/0123.pdf)

“Women and the labour market”,http://www.businessteacher.org.uk/free-business-essays/women-and-the-labour-market/

*Assist. Professor Dept. of Psychology Lucknow University** Research Scholar Dept. of Psychology Lucknow University


Introduction :Hearing impairment in children does

not only make it difficult for them to

communicate with other people but it also

slows down their learning. Hearing is what

keeps us in touch with our world. It plays a

significant role in expressing and receiving

language. Hearing loss creates problems in how

an individual expresses and receives language

which in turn causing social, communication,

and educational problems (Hall et al., 2001).

Educators therefore need to consider the short

and long term effects of how hearing loss

impairs a person's ability to understand spoken

language when developing their programs.

Teachers need to make special considerations

when teaching with the hearing impaired

children.

It is commonly held that placing

disabled children in special schools leads to

their segregation from their non-disabled

counterparts, which in turn, can isolate them

from day-to-day experiences with other

040

Abstract

Problems Faced by The Teachers Engaged in Special and IntegratedSchools for Hearing Impaired Children

*Swaha Bhattacharya **Monimala Mukherjee

Hearing impairment is a generic term including both deaf and hard of hearing which refers

to persons with any type or degree of hearing loss that causes difficulty in many cases. Hearing

impairment is a permanent hearing loss or decrease in hearing that is so significant which

negatively affects a child's performance in school or ability to learn. The aim of the present

investigation is to study the problems of hearing impaired children as perceived by the teachers of

integrated and special school. Accordingly, a group of 40 (20 from Integrated and 20 from Special

school) teachers were selected as sample in this investigation. General Information Schedule and

Perceived Problem of Hearing Impaired Children Questionnaire were used as tools in this

investigation. The findings reveal that communication, lack of accurate information, attendance are

the main reasons behind the difference between the two groups of teachers engaged in integrated

and special schools for hearing impaired children. Measures may be taken to reduce the problems as

children, while integrating them into regular

schools which will help them to achieve their

maximum potential in a more favourable

educational and social environment.

Integration is an ongoing process of learning to

live together, and it also involves increasing

knowledge about self and others. For deaf

children, the question of integration is more

complex than it usually appears. An integrated

educational programme with no special

methods, prepares the child for a life in a

hearing community (Webster and Ellwood,

1985). It is said that integration is the way to

provide deaf children with what they cannot

ga in f rom their deaf environmental

experiences. Social, business and professional

contacts in life cannot be fully achieved without

effective language and communication skills

(Blumberg, 1973). According to Dalvi (1992)

success or failure of an hearing impaired child

initially depends not so much on whether the

child is severely or profoundly deaf, as on his

level of intelligence, ability to lip-read, his


language development, the help and training he

gets from his parents and his special school, and

the availability of a resource teacher to guide

him in studies in the regular school curriculum.

Integration thus involves the efforts of many

people working as a team, such as teachers of

regular schools and special schools, parents of

the deaf child, other specialists like the resource

teacher, social worker, audiologist and speech

therapist. The identification, development and

co-ordination of this team effort are both a

challenge and a critical requirement in meeting

the needs of deaf children (La Porta et al, 1978).

According to Musselman et al. (1996), although

not all results are equally negative, the

preponderance of the evidence supports the

conclusion that special schools for the deaf

foster socio-emotional growth better than

mainstream schools. Deaf students in

mainstream schools report feeling socially

isolated and lonely and have lower self-esteem

than those students in special schools.

Considering the above the present investigation

has been designed to study the problems of

hearing impaired children as perceived by the

teachers of integrated and special school.

Objective

To study the problems faced by the teachers

engaged in Special and Integrated School for

taking care of hearing impaired children.

Hypothesis

Teachers engaged in Special and Integrated

School differ significantly in terms of problems

faced by them for taking care of hearing

impaired children.

Study Area and Subjects

A group of 40 teachers (20 from Special School

and 20 from Integrated School) engaged in

different Special and Integrated Schools of

Kolkata and Howrah Districts were selected as

041

sample in this investigation. The pertinent

characteristics of the subjects are :

a) Age range : 35 to 50 years

b) Educational qualification : At least

graduate with B.Ed in special

education.

c) Duration of service : At least three

years.

TOOLS USED

(1) General Information Schedule. It

consists of items like name, age,

address, education, marital status,

duration of service etc.

(2) Perceived problem of hearing impaired

children questionnaire

It consists of 15 statements answerable in a

three point scale viz; Yes (Y), Sometimes (S) and

No (N) in connection with communication,

infrastructural facilities, attendance, accurate

information, curriculum, emotional instability

etc.

Administration, Scoring and Statistical

Treatment

General Information Schedule and Perceived

problem of hearing impaired children

questionnaire were administered to a group of

40 teachers engaged in Special and Integrated

school by giving proper instruction. Data were

collected and properly scrutinized. Frequency

and percentages were calculated for General

Information Schedule and also for Perceived

Problem of Hearing Impaired Children

Questionnaire. Comparisons were made by

applying Chi- square test.

Results and Interpretation

The General Characteristic data inserted in

Table – 1 reveals the characteristic features of

the subjects under study.

*Swaha Bhattacharya **Monimala Mukherjee Volume-3 (2)

Data inserted in Table – 2 reveals the problems faced by the teachers engaged in special

school who are taking care of hearing impaired child. 85% teachers opined that they face problems

due to lack of infrastructural facilities regarding proper hearing aids and sound proof rooms. 80% of

them have expressed about the necessity of more advanced technologies and aids for hearing

impaired children. Less emotional stability, bullyed by the normal children are some of the

remarkable problems faced by the teachers engaged in special school (70%). They gave emphasis on

appointment of psychologists, audiologists and therapists for guiding both the hearing impaired

children and their parents about the problems so that they can adjust with the school environment.

Social structure for the hearing impaired children is also an important factor in this regard. Besides

this, 60% teachers have expressed that due to lack of accurate information about the problems of

hearing impaired children sometimes creates problem to cope with properly.

042

Table – 1: General Characteristic features of the teachers engaged in Special andIntegrated School.

General Characteristic Features

Teachers of Special school

(N=20)

Teachers of Integrated

school (N=20)

f % f %

1. Age in years (mode value) 39 years 42 years

3. Education

(a) B.A/ B.SC & B.ED in special education (b) M.A/ M.SC & B.ED in special education

08

12

40

60

11

09

55

45

4. Marital Status

(A) Married

(b) Unmarried

16

4

80

20

14

6

70

30

5. Duration of Service

(a) Below 10 years

(b) Above 10 years

7

13

35

65

9

11

45

55


Data inserted in Table – 3 reveals the problems faced by the teachers engaged in integrated

school. 85% of them gave emphasis mainly on poor infrastructural facilities viz., proper hearing aids,

sound proof rooms etc. 70% teachers opined that they face problems due to bullied by normal

children. Sometimes, it is very difficult to communicate properly. 60% of them have expressed

about the necessity of more advanced technologies and aids of hearing impaired. Adjustment

problem and poor attendance in class are also the significant factors which creates problem for

proper handling the hearing impaired children.

043

Table – 2: Problem faced by the teachers engaged in Special School

Sl

no.

STATEMENTS

Problems faced by the teachers of special school (N=20)

Yes

Sometimes

No

f % f % f %

1. Difficult to introduce new lessons in the class. 3 15 3 15 14 70

2. Difficult to communicate with hearing impaired children.

3 15 3 15 14 70

3. Difficult to handle the student properly. 10 50 5 25 5 25

4. Lack of infrastructural facilities which creates problem.

17 85 3 15 0 0

5. Bullied by normal children is difficult to control. 14 70 3 15 3 15

6. Hearing impaired children always create disturbances.

3 15 3 15 14 70

7. Inadequate information about hearing impaired children creates confusion.

12 60 4 20 4 20

8. Faces problems for adjustment between normal and hearing impaired children.

8 40 8 40 4 20

9. Faces problems due to lack of infrastructural facilities.

16 80 4 20 0 0

10. Poor attendance in the class. 4 20 4 20 12 60

11. Lack of cooperation of parents. 10 50 5 25 5 25

12. Faces problem due to coping. 12 60 5 25 3 15

13. Lack of emotional stability which creates problem.

14 70 3 15 3 15

14. Inadequacy of involvement of other professionals for betterment.

14 70 3 15 3 15

15. Inadequate social structures negatively affect the learning process.

14 70 3 15 3 15


When comparison was made between these two groups of teachers engaged in Special and

Integrated school in terms of problems faced by them to handle the hearing impaired children,

significance difference was observed for the item number 1 – (difficult to introduce new lessons in

the class), 2 – (difficult to communicate with hearing impaired children), 6 – (hearing impaired

children always creates disturbances), 7 – (inadequate information about hearing impaired children

which creates problems) and 10 – (poor attendance in the class) respectively. On the contrary,

teachers engaged in both special and integrated schools face some common problems, viz; poor

infrastructural facilities, lack of advancement of modern technologies etc. Thus the Hypothesis,

044

Table – 3: Problem faced by the teachers engaged in Integrated School

Sl no.

STATEMENTS

Problems faced by the teachers of integrated school (N=20)

Yes

Sometimes

No

f % f % f %

1. Difficult to introduce new lessons in the class. 10 50 5 25 5 25

2. Difficult to communicate with hearing impaired children.

10 50 5 25 5 25

3. Difficult to handle the student properly. 8 40 8 40 4 20

4. Lack of infrastructural facilities which creates problem.

17 85 3 15 0 0

5. Bullyed by normal children is difficult to control. 14 70 3 15 3 15

6. Hearing impaired children always create disturbances.

7 35 7 35 6 30

7. Inadequate information about hearing impaired children creates confusion.

6 30 6 30 8 40

8. Faces problems for adjustment between normal and hearing impaired children.

10 50 5 25 5 25

9. Faces problems due to lack of infrastructural facilities.

12 60 6 30 2 10

10.

Poor attendance in the class. 10 50 5 25 5 25

11.

Lack of cooperation of parents. 6 30 10 50 4 20

12.

Faces problem due to coping. 8 40 8 40 4 20

13.

Lack of emotional stability which creates problem.

8 40 8 40 4 20

14.

Inadequacy of involvement of other professionals for betterment.

10 50 8 40 2 10

15.

Inadequate social structures negatively affect the learning process.

10 50 6 30 4 20


which states, “Teachers engaged in Special and Integrated School differs significantly in terms of

problems faced by them for taking care of hearing impaired children” - is accepted for item nos. 1, 2,

6, 7 and 10 and is rejected for other statements.

045

Table – 4: Comparison between perceived problems of teachers engaged in Special andIntegrated School for taking care of hearing impaired children.

Item Numbers Chi – square value Item Numbers Chi – square value 1. 8.52** 9. 2.06*

2. 8.52** 10. 5.54**

3. 1.02* 11. 2.76*

4. 0.00* 12. 1.64*

5. 0.00* 13. 4.06*

6. 6.40** 14. 3.14*

7. 3.74** 15 1.80*

8. 1.02*

* Difference is insignificant**p<0.05

Major Findings1. Teachers of both Special and Integrated

schools have faced some common

problems to take care of hearing

impaired children properly.

2. The problems are mainly due to poor

infrastructural facilities viz., proper

hearing aids, sound proof rooms, lack

o f a d v a n c e m e n t o f m o d e r n

technologies etc.

3. Teachers of Special school gave much

emphasized on appointment of

psychologists, audiologists and

therapists for guiding both the hearing

impaired children and also for their

parents so that they are able to adjust

with school environment properly.

4. According to the teachers of integrated

s c h o o l i t i s ve r y d i f f i c u l t to

communicate with the children in the

class mainly because hearing impaired

children are bullied by the normal

children. They also face difficulty to

maintain the curriculum properly.

5. Comparative picture reveals significant

difference between these two groups

for item no 1, 2, 6, 7 and 10 respectively.

Concluding Remarks

In conclusion it can be said that

teachers engaged in special and integrated

school have expressed some problems which

they face to take care of hearing impaired

children. Teachers of special schools gave

emphasis on infrastructural facilities viz.,

proper hearing aids, sound proof rooms and

necessity for more advanced technologies and

aids. On the other hand teachers engaged in

integrated school gave emphasis on

communication problem. Attendance is also an

important factor in this regard. To reduce the

problem appointment of psychologists,

audiologists and therapists are required for


046

guiding not only for the children but also for

their parents so that they can understand the

problem properly which will ultimately help to

adjust with the school environment and

teachers are able to do their duties properly.

ReferencesBlumberg C. (1073) A school for the Deaf

Facilities Integration. In: Nort hcott W

(Ed), The Hearing Impaired Child in a

Regular Classroom: Pre-school,

E l e m e n t a r y a n d S e c o n d a r y

Years.Washington: The Alexander

Graham Bell's Association For Deaf.

Dalvi K. (1992) The Study of the Experiments

Done In Oral Education of Deaf Children

Through the Conversational Method.

Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of

Mumbai,

La Porta M., (1978). Mainstreaming Pre-

schoolers: Children with Hearing

Impairment- A Guide for Teachers,

Parents and Others who Work with

Hearing Impaired Pre-schoolers.

Washington : US Dept. of Health,

Education and Welfare, Office of

Human Development Services.

Musselman, C., Mootilal, A., and MacKay, S.

(1996). The social adjustment of deaf

adolescents in segregated, partially integrated,

and mainstreamed settings. Journal of

Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 1, 52-

63.

Hall, B. J., Oyer, H. J. and Haas, W. H. (2001).

Speech Language & Hearing Disorders:

A guide for the teacher (3rd ed.).

Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Webster A, Ellwood J. (1985.) The Hearing

impaired Child in the Ordinary School.

London : Croom Helm.

*Associate Professor, Department of Applied Psychology, University of Calcutta **Lecturer, Department of Psychology, Women's College, Calcutta.


Introduction :Images of thin-ideal women as

portrayed in magazines, movies and

commercials glorify slenderness of female

body. These images influence socio-cultural

norm for young people. Young girls idealize and

internalize thin-ideal models and judge their

body image after them (Heinberg & Thompson,

1995). The social desirability of thin body shape

and physical attractiveness involve young

adolescents in actual-ideal body comparisons.

047

Abstract

Body Mass Hurts Adolescent Girls More Than Thin-Ideal Images

*Javaid Marium **Ahmad Iftikhar

This study was aimed to identify factors that affect negative mood and body image

dissatisfaction in women. Positive and Negative Affect, Self Esteem, Body Image Satisfaction and

Figure Rating Scale was administered to 97 female undergraduate students. This served as a base

line data for correlation analysis in the first instance. One week later participants who volunteered

to appear in the second phase of the study (N=47) were shown thin- ideal images as an intervention

and soon after they completed Positive and Negative Affect Schedule and Body Image States Scale

again as a post test. Results indicated body mass as a strong negative predictor of body image

dis/satisfaction, self esteem was a moderate predictor and mood was not a significant predictor.

The participants whose actual body shape was markedly discrepant with the ideally desired body

shape had significantly low level of body image satisfaction (p < .001) than those with low

discrepancy. Similar results were found for self esteem (p <.004). Both self esteem and body mass

predicted body satisfaction about equally and significantly. However, on viewing thin-ideal images,

the participants of different body weight showed no change in their body image satisfaction than

before. Only the overweight participants were significantly affected on negative mood as a short

term reaction after viewing the thin ideal images. Comparing the three groups based on their body

mass, one-way ANOVA revealed significant difference in mean score of thin, average and

overweight participants on negative mood as well as body image satisfaction. This reveals body

mass as a potent and stable factor that consistently and strongly affected body satisfaction not the

transient portrayal of thin ideal images. Further, there is some evidence on the moderating role of

self esteem between body mass and body image satisfaction linkage. It therefore appears necessary

to explore in future researches whether enhancing self esteem can trade off body mass negative

effects on young girls.

Keywords: Body image satisfaction, thin-ideal images, media, mood affects, self esteem.

Most women perceive their actual figure as

significantly larger than the ideal figure

(Tiggemann & Pickering, 1996). According to

Ozer and Brindis (1998) about 44% of

adolescent girls believe they are overweight

and 60% are actively trying to lose weight

although majority of these girls are within

normal weight range. Similarly in a study

involving 15-19 years old 303 girls, Cash, Ancis

and Strachan (1997) found that 78.5% females

desired to be underweight, whereas based on


048

Body Mass Index (BMI) 79.2% were normal

weight, 18.2 % were underweight and 2.6%

were overweight. Watching television shapes

women mindset such that they become biased

against their body self causes mood

annoyances and even body disorders such as

anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, badly

interfering in their everyday life. The media

constructed reality of a slender and perfect

ideal figure is though pervasive but largely

unrealistic and almost unattainable by common

man (Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990). Thus women

suffer at large from 'body dissatisfaction'—a

term generally used to refer to subjective

unhappiness with one's appearance

(Thompson et al. 1999). A meta-analysis of the

studies of exposure to idealized images of

female body concluded that viewing these

images lead to a consistent but small effect on

body dissatisfaction (Groesz, Levine & Murnen,

2002).Several psychological theories have

been referred to explain how one becomes desirous of thin-ideal body self. Higgins (1987) self-discrepancy theory holds that discrepancy between a women's actual body shape and what she ideally desires it to look like causes distress, body dissatisfaction and eating disorder. Leon Festinger (1954) held that individuals tend to rate and evaluate themselves in social comparison. Media, a common household item, invokes comparison of young viewers to the thin body that is heavily idealized in the cultural shows, drama serials and commercial ads. This causes negative affect, low self esteem and high level of body-image self-discrepancy in young female viewers. For example, Triggeman and Slater (2004) conducted a study exposing women to ordinary looking women and then to music video clips of highly attractive ones. They found subjects feeling mood changes as they involved

themselves differently in the two conditions on mood whi le involving themselves in comparison with the idealized figures. Comparison with the ideally thin and attractive figures is in fact accentuated under culture and familial influences as well (Schwartz, 1986) that endorse notions of body perfect. For example one of the popular notions is that physical body is the true person and if the body is good (thin-ideal) then the person is good enough. The popular media, according to Pollack-Seid (1989) does not show heavy women leading normal and happy social lives. Girls are taught to be “good enough” in order to be happy in their marriages, their jobs, their families, and their lives. This social cultural thin body ideal has a great following among the young people. The psychological toll of such self focused narratives has a tremendously negative effect: unhappiness, shame, guilt, depression and low self-esteem (Stice & Shaw 1994; Unger & Crawford, 1996).

The ideal images are focused on a woman's physical appearance. Appearance stereotype affects self-esteem when television screen depicts thin women as successful. The envious mostly overweight persons, reactively battle their bodies to achieve the thin body by dieting and reconstructive surgeries. Culture usually promotes battling against negative body image. Needless to say discrimination against overweight persons is acceptable even today. The media, as a cultural tool, contributes to negative body image by depicting the thin ideal as means to live a happy life.

Cash, Ancis and Strachan (1997) are of the view that body image is psychological in nature and is more about a person's self perception than their actual physical appearance / attractiveness. Majority of the women desire to reduce weight although very few are actually overweight. They hold that a person's early socialization about physical

Volume-3 (2)*Javaid Marium **Ahmad Iftikhar

049

appearance and their experience of their body during childhood and adolescence influences how they will view their body as they grow up. These feelings, impressions and experiences partially shape their self or personality especially self esteem. Tiggemann (2005) reported that high school girls with perception of being overweight were particularly vulnerable to developing low self esteem. Self esteem is how much one values one's self as a valued person. Comparing groups based on BMI, ANOVA detected small but significant difference on self esteem scores. Secure attachment in childhood however has been found to withstand the socio-cultural stereotype of the thin-ideal and the media ons laught of the th in- ideal images. Enlightenment as a result of education and worldly exposure can also shield against the stereotypical propaganda in favor of the thin-ideal (Bostrom & Didrichson, 1997). In fact the antecedents and correlates of body image are complex and include the developmental influences; cultural, familial, interpersonal as well as actual physical characteristics (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002; Thompson & Smolak, 2002). This study aims at finding problems of BMI as a stable factor as well as those of media-culture sponsored thin-ideal images as an ongoing influence affecting young girls' body-self image.

Rationale of the studyThe purpose of the study is to see how

well data from Pakistan support the western literature on the effect of thin-ideal images on the young women. There has been an influx of media in the last 10 years with over 100 channels emerging in the private sector in Pakistan. The life style of people has been changed resultantly, especially of the middle class.

A second interest in this investigation concerns if self esteem can moderate the influence of media portrayal of thin ideal images and the body mass on body-image satisfaction in women. The findings along these lines are mixed. It could be that low self esteem enhances vulnerability to media images or low self esteem could be the effect of watching and overly internalizing thin ideal images (Clay et al., 2005).

The results of this study would likely suggest how much body mass as well personal-social construction of 'thin ideal image' affect the women folk in Pakistan and the role of self esteem as corrective factor towards healthy life and well being.

HypothesesTwo set of hypotheses pertaining to

correlational and experimental part of the study were tested:

Phase -1

1. Participants' body mass will be

inversely related to mood affects and

body image satisfaction.

2. Participants with small discrepancy

between their ideal (desired) body-self

and actual (perceived) body-self will

have higher self-esteem and body

image satisfaction than those with large

discrepancy.

3. Self esteem mediates the effect of body

mass on body image satisfaction.Phase- 2

4. Exposure to thin-ideal images will affect

mood and body image satisfaction

more in the overweight than in thin or

average body size participants in pre-

post comparisons.


050

Method

Participants In all 97 undergraduate female students between the age of 16 and 21 years participated from a local private university. Their mean age was 20.5 years (SD = 1.7). They were enrolled in undergraduate programs in Psychology, Media Studies, Textile Designing and Business studies. All participants were single, belonging to good household background and had access to the television and internet. They were recruited purposively for this study; persons with different body shapes; thin, average and the overweight. Their weight to height ratio (kg /

2)m ) or BMI was about normal (M = 22.30, SD = 4.61). The participants reported watching TV almost daily as one of their household chores for the purpose of information and entertainment.

MeasuresRosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965) The 10 item Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale (RSES) was or ig inal ly des igned to measure adolescents' levels of global self-esteem: 'I feel useless at times', 'I am satisfied with myself, 'I am no good at al'. Participants respond to these statements on a four point scale; strongly agree =1 to strongly disagree=4. Scores range from 10 – 40, high score indicate greater level of self-esteem. RSES has become the most widely used instrument to measure self esteem in all age groups, and is seen as highly reliable and internally consistent instrument (Gray et al., 1997). A Cronbach alpha of .88 is reported in this study. It had sufficient test-retest reliability of .84 (Rosenberg, 1965). Convergent validity of RSES has been demonstrated with other measures of self esteem (Ellis & Tayler, 1983).

Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et al., 1988)

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is a widely used measure of current positive and negative moods. It consists of 20 words which describe emotions and feelings, half of which are positive (Proud, Inspired, Interested etc.) and the other half negative (Distressed, Upset, Guilty etc.). The participants rate how well these terms describe how they feel right now on 5 point scale; not at all =1, extremely =5 . High score on positive affect (PA) indicates individual's pleasant involvement with the environment while high score on negative affect (NA) indicates feelings of distress. In the present study PANAS had Cronbach alpha of .70 and .82 for positive and negative affect, respectively. The reliability coefficients are reported as .89 for PA and .85 for NA in the original research (Watson et al., 1988). The two affectivities are inversely related as opposite concepts. The Body Image States Scale (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002)

The Body Image States Scale (BISS) is designed to evaluative self body image dis/satisfaction. It is a short questionnaire of six items that investigate the subjects' perception of their physical appearance in a given moment, participants express level of satisfaction or otherwise with their body shape, size, overall appearance, weight, feelings of physical attractiveness or unattractiveness, current feelings about one's looks. The questions are answered on a nine point bipolar scale. High scores on BISS indicate satisfaction with body characteristics and low scores indicate dissatisfaction. The current study reports Cronbach alpha of .80. Cash and Pruzisky (2002) reported an alpha of .77 in a sample of undergraduate women and a test-retest coefficient of .69 over 2-3 weeks. Sandoval (2008) found that BISS is sensitive to


051

imaginational manipulation of body image state. Figure Rating Scale. (Stunkard et al., 1983)

The Figure Rating Scale (FRS) depicts body shapes in nine categories; from very thin to obese: The images 1 and 2 are underweight, images 3 and 4 are appropriate weight, image 5 is slightly overweight, images 6 and 7 are moderately overweight and images 8 and 9 is very overweight. A participant rates how she perceived her actual body shape close to the corresponding image pictured on the FRS. In this study participants were asked to indicate along 1-9 images of different weight on FRS the one which is closer to their actual body figure ---'pick the figure that best represents how you feel you look most of the time'. They also indicated the body shape that would best represent their body ideal. Finally, the Body Image Discrepancy (BID) score is worked out by subtracting ideal from the actual weight-size figure: The greater the discrepancy, the lower the level of satisfaction with ones body. A negative discrepancy score indicates that the subject perceives herself as fatter than her desired figure whereas a positive score indicates that a subject perceives her body thinner than the ideal body figure. A score of zero indicates that the participant perceives her actual body just close to the ideal body shape. Body Mass Index

Body Mass Index (BMI) is calculated as 2

[(weight (kg) / height (m )]. BMI is considered as a major factor predicting body image concerns among females. According to Thompson (2004) BMI of 18.5 is the lower end of biologically healthy body size. In another study, BMI up to 22 was considered thin, whereas persons between 25 and 30 were considered overweight (Zaninotto et al., 2006). Body Mass Index can be considered as an alternative for

direct measures of body fat. All participants were weighed on machine and their height was scaled in feet to work out their BMI. The M BMI was 22.31 (SD = 4.61) in this study.

F i n a l l y, p a r t i c i p a nt s p rov i d e d biographical information such as age, year of education and subject. They were asked one question as well: 'Do you watch TV daily at home as a household chore for entertainment purposes'? This question was asked to make certain that they were media watchers and could be potentially under media effect for the thin ideal images.Material / Thin Ideal Images

A set of 60 full body shots of thin images of female models clad in revealing dress were gathered from Asian websites and fashion magazines, in the Pakistani / Indian culture context. The images emphasized appearance and were of unknown persons, not of celebrities, so that other aspects e.g. life history, work or public reputation etc. do not confound participants' judgment or liking of the images. A group of five girls other than the participants, were asked to rate each picture overall as unattractive = 1, attractive = 2 or highly attractive = 3. A set of 30 attractive and highly attractive pictures were then selected that were unique and non-redundant within the set. This stimuli / material were used as intervention in this study. The images were purported to evoke upward comparison with the participants as they watched them in a power point presentation and reported their resultant / current feelings on a post exposure questionnaire.

ProcedurePhase -1

Data was collected in the spring semester 2012 at the university campus during free lesson hours. Subjects were briefed about


052

the research project and those who consented for participation took Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Positive and Negative Affect Scale, Body Image States Scale, Figure Rating Scale and Biographic Information in order. The latter included an open-ended question: Do you watch TV daily as a household chore for entertainment purposes? All the participants answered the question in the affirmative therefore they were included in the study for the purpose of data analysis. The participants were assured anonymity and the right to withdraw from the study anytime.

All the protocols were scored. The data

set thus generated served as a baseline to carry

out descriptive and correlation analysis to test

set-I hypotheses. It also served as a pre-test

data to be compared with after-intervention

(post-test) scores investigating set-I I

hypothesis.

Phase-IINext, the participants were invited to

participate in phase II of the study after a break of 7 days. They appeared in groups of 5-7 persons on the specified schedule. Only 47 participants turned up. Phase-II study comprised an intervention consisting of a set of 30 thin ideal images shown on power point displaying each picture for 30 seconds. As soon as they finished watching the slid show, they were handed over PANAS and BISS again with the instructions to complete them afresh expressing their current state of feelings / opinions through the questionnaires.

Finally, the participants were scaled for their body weight (bare-footed) on digital weighing scale reading to the nearest 0.1 kg and the height was measured upright and relaxed, with the help of a tape-meter affixed on the wall. This served to categorize participants as thin (BMI < 19), average (BMI 19-25) and

overweight (BMI > 25). The M BMI was 22.31 and SD = 4.61.

In the end, the participants were thanked and were debriefed. About half the participants were surprised over the true purpose of research. They were told to contact if they had any concern regarding their body image or any feeling resulting from participating in this study. They were encouraged to accept one's body well enough gift of nature and supplement it with other qualities of mind and character.

ResultsFirst, overall properties of the data

were examined in terms of descriptive statistics, relationship among study variables and reliability estimates of the measures (see Table 1). The participants had far higher positive mood than negative mood t = 8.32, p <.000. On BISS, a measure of body satisfaction where scores could range 6 to 54, a mean of 36 indicated participants as mostly satisfied. Mean score on self-esteem was also adequate. The mean discrepancy between the participants' idealized body figure and the perception of their actual body figure was small. The M MBI = 22.31 (SD = 4.61) indicated majority of the participants as average weight by WHO standards for Asia-Pacific region; < 18.5 as thin or underweight, > 25 as average, and >30 as obese (WHO, 2010).


053

Overall, this indicated that participants of the study were representative of normal people. These results, serving as base line, make one confident to proceed further with the analysis.

The BISS and NA scales showed good internal consistency of .82 and .80, whereas positive mood and self-esteem scales showed a moderate index of .70 and .65, respectively. The positive mood was inversely related with negative mood, as expected. Moreover, positive mood had moderate positive relation with body satisfaction as well as self esteem scores. It was otherwise with negative mood, meaningfully enough. Discrepancy between the actual-self and the ideal-self score was negatively related with body image satisfaction and self-esteem indicating that individuals with l ittle discrepancy had more body satisfaction and high self-esteem than others. BMI was strongly and inversely related with body satisfaction and moderately related with the ideal-actual body

discrepancy score or DIAS. Interestingly, body based measures i.e. BMI, BISS and DIAS were more interrelated than the psychological measures i.e. mood affects and self esteem. This evidence lends validity to these constructs: Correlation coefficients among variables made psychological sense and was theoretically in line. It also indicated that the data generated in this study was discrete, non- random and credible enough to test the hypotheses as follow.H1: Body mass is inversely related to mood affects and body satisfaction.

There was a strong and inverse correlation between body image satisfaction and body mass or the BMI (r = - .71, p < .001). The latter was not related to either positive (r = -.01) or negative moods (r = -.04). Thus the hypothesis is partially supported. It means

2 one's BMI [(weight (kg) / [height (m) ] did not affect mood but it did influence body image satisfaction of the participants; lower the body

Variables

M (SD)

á

2

3

4

5

6

1

PM

31.3 (7.7)

.70

-.46**

.27**

.38**

-.05

.01

2 NM 20.5 (7.8)

.82 -.30** -.46**

.00 .04

3 BISS 36.3 (9.3)

.80 .37** -.51** -.71***

4 SE 19.3 (4.0)

.65 -.20* -.19*

5

DIAS .75 (1.3)

_

-.41**

6 BMI 22.30(4.61 _

Note: PM = Positive Mood, NM = Negative Mood, BISS = Body Image States Scale, SE = Self-esteem, DIAS = Discrepancy Ideal- Actual Self, BMI = Body Mass Index.

*p <0.05, **p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

Table 1 : Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlation Matrix of the Study Variables (N=97)


054

mass, greater the body image satisfaction. The body image satisfaction therefore appears to be more credible and sensitive psychological correlate of BMI than mood affects.H-2 Participants with small discrepancy between their ideal (desired) body-self and actual (perceived) body-self will have higher self-esteem and body image satisfaction than those with large discrepancy.

Self esteem and body image satisfaction scores were compared of the two groups; those with discrepancy of 2-5 points (between their actual-body self and the ideal-body self) and ones

with minimal discrepancy i.e. ≤ 1 points, on a nine point FRS (subtracting actual from ideal body-

shape rating). An independent sample t-test revealed significant difference (p<.004) between the two groups (Table 2) on self-esteem as well as on body image satisfaction (p < .000). It means that if participants perceive the actual-body self closer to their idealized body self, they would enjoy greater self esteem and body image satisfaction and vice versa. There is sufficient power of statistics (Cohen's d) supporting hypothesis 2, particularly for body image satisfaction.

Table 2 : Self-Esteem and Body Satisfaction Scores of Subjects With and Without Discrepancybetween Ideal and Actual Body Self (DIAS)

Variables

With(n=31)M(SD)

Without(n=66)M(SD) t p 95%CI Cohen's d

DIAS

Self-Esteem

Body Satisfaction

17.7(4.01)

30.5(9.7)

20.1(3.80)

39.0(7.8)

3.0

4.2

.004

.000

[.80,4.1]

[4.8, 12.1]

0.60

0.85

Note: DIAS = Discrepancy between ideal and Actual Self


055

Table 3 : Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Self Esteem and Body Size as Predictors of

Body Satisfaction

Procedure R2 R2Change B SE â t p

Step-1

Step-2

Step-3

Constant

Self-Esteem

Constant

Self-Esteem

BMI

Constant

Self-Esteem

BMI

Negative affect

Positive affect

.143

.257

.305

.143

.114

.047

19.32

.88

37.94

.72

-.70

44.66

.41

-.77

-.20

.16

4.37

.22

6.39

.21

.18

8.39

.24

.18

.13

.12

.38

.31

-.34

.18

-.38

-.17

.13

3.98

3.42

-3.80

1.69

-4.19

-1.59

1.26

.000

.001

.000

.094

.000

.115

.208

(N=97)

H3: Self esteem mediates the effect of body 2

mass (kg /m ) on mood affects and body satisfaction.

Body mass or BMI has emerged as a major variable thus far which is associated with creating a self judgment of dis/satisfaction about one's body image and producing concomitant mood affects. There is evidence for self esteem bearing on body image dis/satisfaction and negative mood effects as outcomes (see Table 1). Taking lead from these findings a hierarchical regression analysis was run to estimate the effect of body mass i.e. BMI on body image satisfaction controlling for self esteem (Table 3). Self esteem was entered at the first step in hierarchical regression analysis

in view of its logical priority and it explained 14% of variance in body satisfaction scores. BMI, entered in the second step explained another 11% of the variance, however, mood affects, entered at the third step, could account for only 5% of the additional variance (p <.115 & p < .208). Step-3 could well be dropped for insignificance, confining regression analysis to the second step. The regression coefficients for the self esteem (â =.31) and body mass (â = -.34) were nearly comparable towards determining body image satisfaction, in opposite direction. It means body mass discounts towards body image satisfaction whereas self esteem adds or compensates it. The moderating potential of self esteem between BMI and body image


056

satisfaction is discerned also since all the three variables are significantly inter correlated : Independent and mediating variables predict dependent variable in step-2 of and independent and mediating variables are significantly related (r =.19, p < .05).

The mediation analysis was further supplemented by Sobel (1982) test. The test statistic determines the indirect effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable through a mediator. Reported p values are acquired from the unit normal distribution under the assumption of a two-tailed test of hypothesis assuming the mediated effect is zero in the population using +/- 1.96 as the critical values (Preacher & Hayes, 2004). Results obtained after running the Sobel test equation (z =1.92, p<.058) appear to be marginally significant at .05 level.

H4: Exposure to thin-ideal images will increase the feelings of body image dissatisfaction among overweight participants more than on thin and average weight participants

Body Image States Scale (BISS) measures participants' self judgment of their body called body image dis/satisfaction. The participants who were shown images of thin-ideal girls (intervention) were also re-administered BISS and PANAS soon after as a post test. Table 4 presents pre and post scores of thin, average and overweight participants. Difference in the pre and post mean scores on BISS were not found significant for any category of participants, contrary to the expectation. Similar results were found for positive mood affects. Negative mood affects were however found in overweight participants t = 2.12, p <.05 followed by average body mass participants who also showed somewhat similar scores. The overweight group marginally declined on positive mood affect as well. The hypothesis that feeling of body image satisfaction would change significantly after watching thin-ideal images more in the overweight than thin and average groups of participants could not be supported. However, there was a partial support for the negative mood effects. The Participants of different weight categories however strongly differed on negative mood F (3, 45) = 6.1, p <.01 and body image satisfaction F (3, 45) = 5.6, p Table 4 : Effect of Thin-Ideal Images on Participants' Mood and Body Satisfaction (N=49)

Conditions

Thin(n=15)M(SD)

Average(n=20)M(SD)

Overweight(n=14)M(SD)

F

PrePost

Positive Affect

Negative Affect

Body Satisfaction

32.3(4.5)29.0(8.7)

t=1.56, p</83

18.0(9.0)16.0(7.8)

t=0.63, p<.53

40.0(7.8)37.5(9.2)

t=1.40, p<.18

PrePost

PrePost

32.0(8.7)31.1(7.2)

t=1.56, p<.13

21.0(7.0)19.0(8.4)

t=1.92, p<.06

38.0(7.5)36.0(8.1)

t=1.93, p<.07

31.2(6.4)29.2(7.2)

t=2.05, p<.83

19.1(5.7)22.5(9.1)

t=2.12, p<.05

31.0(9.2)29.0(9.6)

t=1.62, p<.13

F(3,45)=.21, p<.88

F(3,45)=6.1, p<.01

F(3,45)=5.6, p<.02

Note: Thin = BMI >19, Normal = BMI 20 - 25, Overweight = BMI < 25


057

<. 02. These categories of participants had been set up on the basis of body mass or BMI. It evidenced that BMI or body mass not the portrayal of thin body images adversely influenced body image satisfaction consistently and strongly. Resultantly, body image dis/satisfaction seems to be a stable factor: the overweight were significantly less satisfied than the average and thin body participants at the outset (pre test) and their body image satisfaction did not change any more after the intervention (post test). Negative mood affect was however discerned among the overweight persons only, as a state / temporary sentiment.

DiscussionIt was hypothesized that body mass

would directly affect mood and body image satisfaction and that exposure to thin ideal images would adversely affect the overweight women still more. It was also hypothesizes that self esteem protects body image satisfaction and it mediates between BMI and body image satisfaction.

P r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s y i e l d e d psychologically meaningful indices of correlation among the variables of the study and most of the instruments displayed sufficient dispersion of scores indicating the sample following a general population. On another count, participants' BMI was comparable to a study conducted by the Agha Knan Medical University, Pakistan which regarded incidence of BMI > 26 as overweight and > 30 as obesity. MBI having a strong inverse relationship with body satisfaction emerged as the major variable of the study; larger the BMI, lower the body satisfaction as well as ideal actual body-self discrepancy. This is consistent with the findings of Cash, Jakatdar and Williams (2004) that increasing levels of BMI is related to a poorer body image / quality of life among females. Zain-Ul-Abideen, Farooq, Latif and

Khan (2010), conducted a study on the females in Lahore and found that there was an inverse relationship between the participants' BMI and body image satisfaction.

One-Way ANOVA revealed that overweight participants had significantly lower body image satisfaction compared to the average and thin body participants (p <.02). However, exposure to thin-ideal images (intervention) did not affect the body image satisfaction further in any of the three groups contrary to the expectation except that negative mood increased and positive mood decreased in the overweight group only (Table 4). This is an interesting result given the view that meta-analysis of the media exposure studies conducted by Groesz et.al. (2002) found an effect of viewing ideal images on body dissatisfaction. Stice and Shaw (1994) report other studies that found no difference between the scores of those watching ideal images and the control (no model images) group.

To sum up BMI or body mass influenced body image satisfaction, not the ideal-body image display. One might question the efficacy of the intervention in not affecting the body image satisfaction. Besides, the study had certain limitations such as involving a small sample. These findings may thus be taken as tentative. A major explanation to the findings is that the concept of body dis/satisfaction is a stable cognition or a trait based on very cognizable MBI unlike mood states which are transitory and subject to state effects. Following Stice (2002) who postulated two distinct pathways to body image satisfaction; one involving social pressures to be thin and the other involving body size, our findings support the latter pathway; the intervention effects were comparatively weak.

Weight reduction by traditional methods is a popular way of managing the MBI


058

to counteract body dissatisfaction. However, the latter can be reduced by alternatively focusing on the positive aspects of the self unique to an individual; ability, effort, education, positivity and other characteristics that might outweigh the body shape virtue. Holding these in good esteem can be self boosting and satisfying in body self judgment.

ConclusionBMI is the major biological and

temporal-causal variable effecting body image dis/satisfaction. The two are strongly inversely correlated. More specifically, body size influenced body image satisfaction and negative mood in overweight persons more than the average and the thin ones. Moreover, self esteem as a psychological variable has been found to have a moderating effect between body size and body satisfaction and can potentially trade off the effect of body size in overweight persons. The enhanced self esteem could bring about a re-cognition of one's body self judgment compensating the body mass effect. This can be investigated in future research.

Limitations and suggestions for future research. The present study involved small sample and was limited to just one university in order to control for variation in age and education across different body weight categories. Future studies may extend the study to diverse samples in age as well as those with different level of education and income to comprehensively investigate the subject. Levels of education and income could also affect our perspective on self judgment of the body. There must be multiple predictors of this very complex construct called 'body image '. Second, this study alluded to self esteem as a moderator between body weight and body satisfaction. In this regard, one might test the effect of boosting

self esteem to counteract hurting effect of large BMI on body satisfaction. For example, self compassion or a caring self outlook may trade off body mass effect on body dissatisfaction. Intervention on these lines could be carried out aiming at 'thinking body positive' to feel good in our bodies.

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*&** University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan


Introduction :The WHO estimated that, in the

situations of armed conflicts throughout the

world, "10% of the people who experience

traumatic events will have serious mental

health problems and another 10% will develop

behaviour that will hinder their ability to

function effectively. The most common

conditions are depression, anxiety and

psychosomatic problems such as insomnia, or

back and stomach aches".People witnessing

061

Abstract

Stress, Somatic Complaints and Anxiety : A Comparative Study ofThe Adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir Regions.

*Nila Majied **Mahmood S. Khan

Armed conflict, political uncertainty and unavoidable circumstances prevalent in the state

of Jammu and Kashmir since last two decades has a lasting and profound implication on the

emotional, psychological ,behavioural and other aspect of personality on the people of these

regions. It needs a specific mention that the adolescents experiencing 'storm and stress 'seemingly

to be the most consistently affected and are at extreme risk of psychological trauma during armed

conflict. Keeping these ideas in mind the present study was designed to examine the level of stress,

somatic dysfunction and anxiety among the adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir .Data was collected

from 200 adolescents studying in different higher secondary schools of two regions; Kashmir valley (

considered to be high conflict region)and Jammu (considered to be relatively low conflict region).

General Health questionnaire -28(GHQ-28) developed by Goldberg (1978) and Stress measuring

scale developed by Chashu &Khan (2009) was used to gather the response from adolescents. GHQ-

28 questionnaire has four subscales: Somatic complaints(1-7), Anxiety – Insomnia(8-14), Social

dysfunction(15-21), Major depression(22-28).For the purpose of this study only 2 dimensions,

Somatic complaints(1-7), Anxiety – Insomnia(8-14) were taken in to consideration. Data was

analysed by applying t-test as it fulfils the purpose of the study. The trend of the result showed that

adolescents belonging to Kashmir region have higher level of stress and somatic symptoms, and

lower level of anxiety as compared to adolescents belonging to Jammu region. Further comparing

male and female adolescents of Kashmir region it was found that female adolescents scored high on

all the above mentioned three variables than the males. While in case of adolescents belonging to

Jammu region it was found that both male and female have almost same scores on somatic

complaint and anxiety but females outscore males on the scores of stress. Showing that female

adolescents of Jammu region are more stressful than male counterparts.

Keywords: Armed conflict. Stress, Somatic Complaints , Anxiety ,Adolescents.

armed conflict and repeated political violence

often experience a continued threat to life and

to their sense of safety as well as disruption of

daily functioning. The state of Jammu and

Kashmir has been witnessing a conflict situation

for more than 20 years, with thousands of

people dead, injured and handicapped, many

missing or confined, thousands of children

orphaned, and women widowed, a enormous

damage to the property, and a damage to the

cultural ethos including en-mass migration of a

minority community.


Stress caused by feeling of insecurity

and dependency can deplete physical and

psychological buoyancy leading to many mental

problems, this has happened in most cases of

Jammu and Kashmir. According to Chang's

Dictionary of Psychology Terms, stress is “a state

of physical or mental tension that causes

emotional distress or even feeling of pains to an

individual” (Lai et al., 1996). Bronfenbrenner's

in his stress model (1977) explains adolescents

stress at each level of environment to create a

more complete picture of factors affecting the

adolescents .The first level is the micro system

and involves stressors immediately affecting

the adolescents. Adolescents experience of

stress may affect their emotions. The effect of

stress from immediate environment on the self

are well accepted (Lovallo,2005).The second

level is the meso system and involves the

interaction of various components at the level

of micro system. Multiple social risks like

poverty,terrorism,larger house holds create

greater stress and lead to impared child

outcome(Burchinal,Roberts,Zeisel,&Rowely,20

08).Experiencing social stressors seems to

affect adolescents health outcomes in a variety

of adolescents area including caregiver

relationships ,child academic achievements and

child personality factors .The third level is the

exosystem and involve stressors resulting from

settings not having a direct influence on the

adolescents. Socioeconomic andenvironmental

demands place adolescents in apposition more

vulnerable to stress .The fourth level is the

macrosystem and involves stressors resulting

from broader factors like cultural norms and

laws. The final level is the chronosystem and is a

recognition that the adolescent and their

environment are consistently interacting

.Exposure to stress, particularly multiple

exposures, makes adolescents vulnerable to

062

experience negative health outcomes such as

psychopathology or maladaptive behaviour.

Childhood exposure to trauma has

been associated with increased rates of somatic

symptoms (SS), which may contribute to

diminished daily functioning. The term

"somatization" describes a tendency to

experience and communicate psychological

distress in the form of physical symptoms.

Somatic symptoms often occur in reaction to

stressful situations and are not considered

abnormal if they occur periodically. Some

individuals, however, experience continuing

somatic symptoms, attribute them to physical

illness in spite of the absence of medical

findings, and seek medical care for them.

Somatization thus is characterized by the

presence of physical symptoms that are not

better explained by a medical condition

(Janssens et.al; 2010 , Garralda,1999&

Huasainet.al2007). Somatization is quite

common in childhood and adolescence and is

responsible for a significant number of visits to

pediatric care centers Sandberg,2008;

Masiet.al2000). According to the health officials

in Kashmir, somatization (headaches,

palpitations) is widely used to express

'tension'(Kaz De Jong 2000).

In many studies, somatization has been

associated with psychopathology, particularly

anx iety and depress ion( Beck ,2008;

Campo2004). Anxiety is an unpleasant

emotional state characterised by fearfulness

and unwanted and distressing physical

symptoms. It is a normal and appropriate

response to stress but becomes pathological

when it is disproportionate to the severity of

the stress, continues after the stressor has

gone, or occurs in the absence of any external

stressor. Anxiety is best understood when

Volume-3 (2)*Nila Majied **Mahmood S. Khan

compared with the emotion of fear. Children

and youth experience different levels of anxiety,

and cope with anxiety in more, or less effective

ways. Anxiety becomes a problem when it

prevents individuals from enjoying normal life

experiences for a long period of time. Anxiety

disorders are the most prevalent class of mental

disorders, with lifetime prevalence rates found

to be 28.8%, (Kessler and Wang 2008). Among

youth, anxiety disorders are also the most

common psychological disorders (Cartwright-

Hatton 2006; Costello et al. 2005). Hawker and

Boulton (2000) found that peer victimization is

associated with social anxiety.

Previous studies have revealed that

children and adolescents are especially

vulnerable to traumatic events such as terrorist

attacks and are prone to developing post-

traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): re-

experiencing intrusive thoughts, avoidance,

and arousal (Barenbaum, Ruchkin & Schwab

Stone, 2004; Garbarino, 2001) and developing

somatic complaints such as headaches,

stomach-aches, fatigue, attention difficulties,

or behavior problems (Vogel & Vernberg, 1993).

Lavi (2002) reported a very high incidence of

PTSD symptoms among Israeli children in these

times of recurrent terror and armed conflict. ).

These studies found that the levels of distress or

PTSD symptoms were related to the amount of

exposure to violent political acts. Solomon and

Lavi (2005)in their study found that the variance

in PTSD rates has been related to level of

exposure, type of exposure, measures of

posttraumatic stress, and socio-cultural

contexts. Mental health disorders, behavior

problems, somatic complaints, and impaired

cognitive functioning were reported for

children living in countries with continuous

violent conflicts (Macksoud & Aber, 1996;

063

Straker et al., 1996). Youth growing up in urban

environments with high levels of poverty,

overcrowding, and violence show a wide range

of maladapt ive outcomes, inc luding

internalizing symptoms such as anxiety, post-

traumatic stress symptoms, depression,

academic failure, and school disengagement

(Gibbs 1984; Lorion et al. 1999; Myers et al.

1992; Osofsky et al. 1993; Singer et al. 1995). In

a previous study,10 we investigated the effect of

longstanding armed conflict (Intifada, between

1987 and the Oslo peace treaty in 1993) on

Palestinian children. Many (41%) reported

moderate to severe post-traumatic stress

reactions and high rates of anxiety and

behavioural problems (27%). Baker11 also

established a high frequency of problems such

as fears leaving home (28%), fears of soldiers

(47%), and nightmares (7%), during the same

period of political and military violence.

Although studies suggest that physical

proximity to traumatic events is related to a

greater likelihood of experiencing traumatic

symptoms (e.g., Schelenger et al., 2002;

Schuster et al., 2001), people who do not

experience the event directly also may report

stress reactions (e.g., Pfeferbaum et al., 2001).

Objectives

1. To examine the level of Stress,somatic

symptoms and anxiety among the

adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir

Regions.

2. To examine whether the adolescents of

Kashmir region differ from that of

Jammu region on the scores of stress,

somatic symptoms and anxiety.

3. To examine the gender difference

amongst the adolescents of Jammu and

Kashmir Region.


MethodSetting

The sample was collected from various

higher secondary schools of district Anantnag

and Srinagar from Kashmir region( considered

to be high conflict region) ,and from district

Ramban and main Jammu city of Jammu region

(considered to be relatively low conflict region) .

Participants

The sample of the study consisted of

200 hundred adolescents out of which 100(50

male ,50 female) were taken from Kashmir

region and 100(50 male ,50 female) from

Jammu region. The sample was collected

through systematic random technique. The age

range of participants was 16-20 years.

Procedure

Researcher first seeked the permission

from the principals of the schools from where

the data was to be collected. Informed consent

for participation was taken from the students.

Then Questionnaires were administered in the

class room school during free hours epically

allotted for conducting the study. Before the

questionnaires were distributed to the

voluntary participants a good rapport was build

.Detailed instruction on how to fill the

questionnaire were also provided. Further

participants were assured of the confidentiality

of their responses.

064

Instruments : All the participants completed

the set of questionnaires in paper pencil format

.The set of questionnaires included a

demographic sheet ,Stress measuring device ,

and General health Questionnaire -28(GHQ-

28).

General Health Questionnaire 28 (GHQ

28):To assess the level of somatic symptoms and

anxiety among adolescents researcher used a

general health questionnaire with 28 items

developed by Goldberg in 1978(Goldberg1978)

. A general health questionnaire 28 (GHQ 28) is a

multiple choice paper pen questionnaire. It is

designed to detect current non psychotic

psychiatric disorders in the general population.

The questionnaire has four subscales: Somatic

complaints (1-7), Anxiety – Insomnia(8-14),

S o c i a l d y s f u n c t i o n ( 1 5 - 2 1 ) , M a j o r

depression(22-28). Foe the present study only

two sub-scales, Somatic complaints (1-7),

Anxiety – Insomnia(8-14), were taken into

consideration.

Stress measuring scale: To asses the

level of stress, Stress measuring scale

developed by Chashu &Khan (2009) was used

.This scale was specially designed to asses the

stress level of adolescent living in conflict

areas.the scale has 20 of items.

Result:

Regions N Mean S.D Std. Error

Mean

t

Kashmir 100 64.8 12.05 1.20 1.55

Jammu 100 62.47 9.06 .960


Table 1;Mean ,S.D and t-value of the adolescents of jammu and Kashmir for Stress.

The table 1 reveals the comparison of adolescents living in Jammu region with the

adolescents living in Kashmir region in terms of stress. From the table it is clear that the two groups

do not differ significantly,but the trend of result shows that adolescents from Kashmir have high

stress score than those belonging to Jammu region.

Table2;Mean ,S.D and t-value of the adolescents of jammu and Kashmir for somatic symptoms.

065


Mean

t

Kashmir 100 31.48 11.40 1.14 2.41**

Jammu 100 27.80 10.14 1.01

** significant at 0.05

The table 2 shows the comparisons of adolescents living in Jammu region with the

adolescents living in Kashmir region in terms of somatic symptoms. The above table clearly shows

that the two groups differ significantly ,with adolescents living in Kashmir region showing more

somatic symptoms than those living in Jammu region.

Table 3 ;Mean ,S.D and t-value of the adolescents of jammu and Kashmir for Anxiety.


Mean

t

Kashmir 100 18.46 6.87 .68 2.19**

Jammu 100 20.48 6.15 .61

The table 3 reveals the comparison between adolescents from Jammu with that of belonging to

Kashmir region in terms of their score on Anxiety. Results from the table shows that the groups

differ significantly. with adolescents living in Jammu region showing more anxiety level than those

living in Kashmir region. It indicates that adolescents from Jammu have more anxiety than Kashmiri

adolescents.



066


Table 4 shows mean comparison of male and female adolescents from Jammu and Kashmir region

on stress. The mean score of males of Kashmir region is 60.74 and for females M=64. Showing that

female adolescents are more stressful in Kashmir than males. The mean score of males of Jammu

region is 60.32 and that for females M= 66.62 and the t-value is 3.45, which shows that groups differ

significantly from each other. In both the cases females were more stressful than males.

Table 5 : Mean ,S.D and t-value of the male and female adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir for

Somatic complaints.

Table 4 :. Mean ,S.D and t-value of the male and female adolescents of Jammu and Kashmirregions for Stress

Cc Gender N Mean S.D Std.

Error

Mean

t

Kashmir Male 50 60.74 9.47 1.34 1.76

Female 50 64.86 13.96 1.97

Jammu Male 50 60.32 9.56 1.35 3.45*

Female 50 66.62 8.64 1.22

Regions Gender N Mean S.D Std.

Error

Mean

t

Kashmir Male 50 29.58 12.06 1.70 1.681

Female 50 33.38 10.48 1.48

Jammu Male 50 27.82 9.74 1.37 .020

Female 50 27.78 10.62 1.50


067

Table 5 shows comparison between male and female adolescents of Kashmir region and of Jammu

region on Somatic symptoms .The mean score of males of Kashmir region is 29.58and for female

adolescents M=33.38 and t =1.68.From the scores it is evident that although the groups don't differ

significantly female adolescents tend to show more somatic symptoms than their counterpart in

Kashmir region. The mean score of males of Jammu region is 27.82 and for females it is 27.78 and

t=.020 which show that there is almost no difference between male and female adolescents of

Jammu region on the parameter of somatic symptom.

Table 6: Mean ,S.D and t-value of the male and female adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir for

Anxiety.

Regions Gender N Mean S.D t

Kashmir Male 50 17.68 5.67 1.136

Female 50 19.24 7.87

Jammu Male 50 20.84 6.74 .583

Female 50 20.12 5.54

Table 6 shows comparison between male and female adolescents of Kashmir region and of Jammu

region on Anxiety .If we look at the mean value we will find that the mean score of males living in

Kashmir region is 17.68 and that of female adolescents M=19.24 and t=1.13 which is not significant.

But the trend of the result shows that Female adolescents living in Kashmir have high level of anxiety

than males. The mean score of male adolescents from Jammu region is 20.84 and for females

M=20.12 ,showing that male and female adolescents of Jammu region are almost same in terms of

level of anxiety.


068

Table 7 shows the comparison of male adolescents of Jammu region with that of male adolescents

of Kashmir region on the scores of stress, somatic symptoms and anxiety. The above score reveals

that male adolescents belonging to Jammu do not differ much from those belonging to Kashmir

region in terms of stress score. But they differ in terms of somatic symptoms and anxiety, although

the difference is not significant, the trend of the result shows that adolescents belonging to Kashmir

show more somatic symptoms than adolescents from Jammu region. And adolescents from Jammu

region score more on anxiety than adolescents from Kashmir region.

Variables Region Mean S.D Std. Error

Mean

t

Stress

Kashmir 60.74 9.47 1.34 .22

Jammu 60.32 9.56 1.35

Somatic

symptoms

Kashmir 29.58 12.06 1.70 .80

Jammu

27.82 9.74 1.37

Anxiety

Kashmir 17.68 5.67 .80 .77

Jammu 20.84 6.74 .95


Table 7; Mean ,S.D and t-value of the male adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir for Stress,

Somatic Symptoms and Anxiety.

069

Table 8 reveals the comparison of female

adolescents of Jammu region with that of

female adolescents of Kashmir region on the

scores of stress, somatic symptoms and anxiety.

If we look at the mean scores we will find that

females adolescents belonging to Jammu

region differ from that belonging to Kashmir

region in terms stress ,although the difference is

not significant ,the trend shows that female

adolescents belonging to Kashmir region have

more stress than that belonging to Jammu

region. They also differ significantly (with

t=2.66)in terms of somatic symptoms, showing

that female adolescents from Kashmir show

Variables Region Mean S.D Std.

Error

Mean

t

Stress Kashmir 66.62 8.64 1.22

.76 Jammu 64.86 13.96 1.97

Somatic

Symptom

Kashmir 33.38 10.48 1.48

2.66* Jammu 27.78 10.62 1.50

Anxiety Kashmir 19.24 7.87 1.11

.65 Jammu 20.12 5.54 .78

more somatic symptoms than female

adolescents belonging to Jammu. Female

adolescents belonging to Kashmir region do not

differ significantly with that of belonging to

Jammu region on the scores of anxiety,but the

trend shows that female adolescents belonging

to Jammu region are more anxious than that

belonging to Kashmir region.

Discussion

The results obtained clearly indicate

that adolescents belonging to Kashmir region

(considered to be high conflict region) show

higher level of stress and somatic symptoms

than adolescents belonging to Jammu region

* signiticant at 0.01


Table8;Mean ,S.D and t-value of the female adolescents of Jammu and Kashmir for Stress,

Somatic Symptoms and Anxiety.

070

(considered to be low conflict region).

Fitzpatrick and Boldizar 1993; Freeman et al.

1993; Jenkins 1993; Martinez and Richters 1993

in their study also found that youth with higher

levels of exposure to community violence (via

incidence and/or severity) report significantly

more distress than those with lower exposure.

Mental health disorders, behaviour problems,

somatic complaints, and impaired cognitive

functioning were reported for children living in

countries with continuous violent conflicts

(Barenbaum et al., 2004; Macksoud & Aber,

1996; Straker et al., 1996) .From the tables it is

also evident that adolescents from Kashmir

exhibit lower level of anxiety than their

counterpart.this can be explained in terms of

the habituation or extinction model of fear

according to which prolonged contact with fear-

producing stimuli results in increased

physiological reactivity and subjective distress.

With repeated exposure, the physiological

reactivity and anxious distress are followed by

decreases in arousal and fear (i.e., the response

habituates or is extinguished; Mowrer 1960).

Repeated exposure to traumatic events has

enable the adolescents to get adapted to such

kind of situations, that is why Kashmiri

adolescents show low level of anxiety. It is also

revealed from the result that female

adolescents either living in Jammu region or

Kashmir region tend to show high level of

stress, somatic symptoms and anxiety as

compared to male adolescents . Khami (1998)&

Zakrison et al.(2004) also in their study on

Palestinian population living in the occupied

territories and subjected to continuous

violence, such as shooting, bombardment, and

physical injuries found that, especially women

and children, have developed severe

psychological distress .Garber et.al (1991) in

their study also found that girls endorse high

rates of somatic symptoms.

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** Professor, Department of Psychology ,AMU,Aligarh.


Introduction :Growing interest in the field of Positive

Psychology has led to a realization that human

life experiences are laden with a wide variety of

emotions which are inseparable part of our lives

and which govern how and why we behave the

way we do. Emotions are real time, on-line

indicators of how well we cope with our

environmental stresses. In this context, the

concept of Emotional Intelligence has gained

importance in every area of life be it in schools,

organizations, relationships to name a few.

The concept of Emotional Intelligence

was introduced to the general public in 1995

with the publication of Goleman's bestseller

"Emotional Intelligence" and it led to a

systematic study of emotions and their

importance in human life. Emotional

Intelligence relates to the area of affect and not

percept and cognition. Salovey and Mayer

(1990) defined EI as the "ability to monitor one's

own and other's feelings and emotions, to

discriminate among them and to use this

information to guide one's thinking and

actions". Daniel Goleman (1995) claimed that

"Emotional Intelligence is a master aptitude, a

capacity that profoundly affects all other

073

Abstract

Demographic Correlates of Emotional Intelligence: Indian Scenario

*Soni Kewalramani **Mukta Rani Rastogi

The interest and realization of the importance of emotions at work has resulted in a growing interest in the field of Emotional Intelligence in organizational context. Today, our lives are filled with changes at work and at home. The old expectations about work relationships just do not apply anymore. In this context, the researcher was curious to find the effect of demographic variables on Emotional Intelligence as this will give direction as how to enhance it. The organizational demographic correlates studied in the present research are management level, mode of recruitment, number of years in service, age and type of organization. The organizational variables which have yielded the most significant effect on Emotional Intelligence are management level followed by the type of organization and years in service.

abilities, either facilitating or interfering with

them". According to Harrod and Scheer (2005),

emotional intelligence “is the collection of a

person's success oriented traits”.

Whether we are at home or at work, Emotional

Intelligence is important in every area of life and

it can be developed. It thus becomes pertinent

to develop it from childhood. What are the

factors which help in its development? Studies

have shown that demographic correlates

influence many personality characteristics.

Thus, in this study demographic variables have

been taken so that factors which play an

important role in the development of Emotional

Intelligence can be identified. Various research

studies have been conducted to examine

whether emotional intelligence can be affected

by demographic factors. These studies revealed

s ignif icant relat ionship of emotional

intelligence with some demographic factors.

Review of LiteratureReview of literature suggests that

basically two demographic variables have been st u d i e d ex te n s i ve l y w i t h E m o t i o n a l Intelligence- Gender and Age.


GenderPerusal of literature suggest no

consistent findings regarding the relationship between gender and Emotional Intelligence.Few studies reveal no gender differences in Emotional Intelligence. Roberts (2002) carried out a research at an American based multi national company. The study reported no significant gender differences in Emotional Intelligence. Singaravelu (2007) found no significant difference in male and female student teachers.

On the contrary there are researches pointing out gender differences in Emotional Intelligence wherein females show higher E m o t i o n a l I n te l l i ge n c e t h a n m a l e s . Harrod and Scheer (2005) noted a significant relationship between Emotional Intelligence and gender in adolescents wherein females outscoring males.

TalentSmart researchers (2004) (in EQ and Gender : Women Feel Smarter by Su and Bradberry) in a worldwide study used Emotional Intelligence Appraisal and showed that women scored higher than men in three of the four Emotional Intelligence skills including Self -Management, Social Awareness and Relationship Management. Women also scored higher than men in overall Emotional Intelligence. Both sexes scored equal on Self-Awareness skill. The scores were highly consistent in different regions of the world.

Petrides and Furnham (2000) had two hundred and sixty participants complete a measure of trait Emotional Intelligence and estimated their score on 15 Emotional Intelligence facets through self-estimated EI. Results showed that females scored higher than males on the "social skills" factor of measured trait EI. The results also showed that males believed they had higher Emotional Intelligence than females. There was no

074

significant gender difference found in total measured trait EI. The study also showed that people had some insight into their Emotional Intelligence.

Few researches have also shown that males and females may be emotionally intelligent in different ways. Simmons (2001) reported that contrary to popular belief, women are not more emotionally intelligent than men. Women, on average, were more aware of their emotions, show more empathy, and are more adept interpersonally. Men are more self-confident, optimistic and adaptable and they handle stress better.

Similarly, research by Multi Health Systems Inc. (MHS) (1997) on 4,500 males and 3,200 females throughout United States and Canada showed that there were notable differences between men and women. Women had significantly stronger interpersonal skills than their male counterparts, men had a stronger sense of self and deal better with stress.

Concludingly it may be mentioned that findings of various researches do not posit a definite relationship between gender and Emotional Intelligence.Age

Again researches relating age to Emotional Intelligence bring out mixed findings. Some researches report an increase in Emotional Intelligence with age. A study by Gowdhaman and Murugan (2009) found a significant effect of age amongst B.Ed teacher trainees (N=300) on Emotional Intelligence. Goleman (1998) demonstrated a positive correlation between Emotional Intelligence and age in his research.

The results of study of Multi-Health Systems Inc. (1997) showed that as the people get older, they become more Emotionally Intelligent. Stein in this study reports, "There

*Soni Kewalramani **Mukta Rani Rastogi Volume-3 (2)

was a consistent and significant age effect. The total EQ score increased significantly with age, peaking in the late forties or early fifties..."

Salovey and Mayer (1990) found that adults had higher EQ. More than 3000 men and women of ages varying from teens to the fifties were evaluated and the results showed small but steady and significant increases in their Emotional Intelligence with advancing age. A peak was observed in the forties age group.

An increase in Emotional Intelligence was also reported. Cherniss, Goleman, Emmerling, Cowan and Adler (1998) report that a growing body of research on Emotional Learning and behaviour change suggests that it is possible to help people of any age to become more emotionally intelligent at work.

Other researches show a mix finding. A study by Fariselli, Ghini and Freedman (2008) found that some parts of Emotional Intelligence do increase with age, though the effect is slight; in addition there are elements of Emotional Intelligence which do not increase with age indicating some competencies must develop through training.

Harrod and Scheer (2005) studied the relationship between age and adolescent Emotional Intelligence. They used the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory Youth Short Version (Bar-On EQ-i YV(S), 2000). The results showed no significant relationship between Emotional Intelligence and age.

Still other researchers have found no effect of age on Emotional Intelligence. A study by Adeyemo (2008) on two hundred and fifteen workers randomly drawn from various organizations in Oyo State found no significant relationship between age and Emotional Intelligence.Other Demographic Characteristics

Few psychologists have also studied the relationship of Emotional Intelligence with

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other demographic variables like income, location of residence, number of years in service, management level and parental level of education. Such researches are very few.

Studies re lat ing income and Emotional Intelligence found a positive relationship. Harrod and Scheer (2005) studied the relationship between household income and adolescent Emotional Intelligence. The results showed significant relationship between the two. As the income increased, so did adolescent Emotional Intelligence. Derksen and Bogers in Holland also carried out the study looking at the relationship between income and EQ. They tested a large, carefully selected sample of the Dutch population. They found a significant relationship and concluded people with higher EQ earned more money.

A positive relationship was found between education and Emotional Intelligence. Harrod and Scheer (2005) also studied the relationship between parents' level of education and Emotional Intelligence. The results showed a significant positive relationship between Emotional Intelligence and mother's and father's education.

With reference to location of residence, Shanwal (2005) found higher emotional intelligence in primary students belonging to rural areas than those belonging to urban areas. However Harrod and Scheer (2005) found no significant relationship between Emotional Intelligence and location of residence.

For Civil status, Garcia (2002) in his study on Emotional Intelligence and leadership competence reported that civil status had no significant relationship with Emotional Intelligence.

With Nature of Appointment, Garcia (2002) in his study on Emotional Intelligence and leadership competence also reported that


it was not a significant factor of difference on Emotional Intelligence.

Garcia (2002) also studied the relationship of Emotional Intelligence and the number of years in service and the relationship was not found to be significant.Few studies have been reported for Organizational Positions which showed mixed results. Bradberry and Greaves (2003) who reviewed a study analyzing the Emotional Intelligence scores of individuals. EQ scores dropped sharply for individuals holding titles of Director and above. Mansi (2002) showed in her results that there was not much difference on Emotional Intelligence for assistant managers and managers. Roberts (2002) carried out a research at an American based multi-national company. The study indicated the two levels of managers- level 1 and level 2 did not have varied EQ. The mean values, however, indicated that level 1 managers are higher on EQ scores than lower level managers (level 2)

What are the factors that influence Emotional Intelligence in Indian context in the area of work? Does management level effect Emotional Intelligence or is it more influenced by number of years in service? Is there a difference in Emotional Intelligence in people who are recruited directly and those promoted to the present post? Is type of organization important? These are the questions which prompted this study. The demographic correlates, thus, studied in the present research are management level, mode of recruitment, number of years in service, type of organization and age.

With changes in the level of management, the responsibilities of the manager changes. As the manager approaches higher level of management, he is required to admit his mistakes. With self growth, he should assimilate all others working with him

076

otherwise he will not have his impact on the employees. When Emotional Intelligence is exercised at higher level of management, it can solve a number of problems.

With age, experience is accumulated. How a person utilizes his knowledge of experience brings a difference in his dealings with others. Experienced people are supposed to take benefit of their knowledge and thus age and number of years in service may have its influence on Emotional Intelligence.

Different types of organization - service and manufacturing - have different expectations and demands from their employees. Service sector is more oriented to wa rd s m e e t i n g p e o p l e a n d m o re interpersonal interactions are required than the manufacturing sectors. Such differences may have their impact on the perception of the individual regarding his job requirements. This may have its effect on Emotional Intelligence.

Mode of recruitment to the present level of management - whether through direct selection or through promotion - has its influence on the perception of the individual. Does this difference has its effect on the Emotional Intelligence in the manager is another inquiry of this study.

The study aims at relating Emotional Intelligence with four independent variables i.e. management level, type of organization, years in service, mode of recruitment and age.

Research Design- It is an Ex-post facto research

Variables:Independent Variable -1. Management level - Management

functions at three levels. The top level is policy management. It includes directors or vice-president. The level-II is that of executive management,


composed of those managerial employees who are charged by policy management with the execution of the organization's work within some broad scope or function. Level-III is the supervisory management. A manager's level in the organization determines the relative importance of possessing technical, human and conceptual skills. All levels of management need human skills in order to interact and communicate with other people successfully. In the present research, level-II and level-III managers have been included because there were very few managers at the top level.

2. Type of organization - The two type of organizations studied in the present research are manufacturing and service sector. The manufacturing sector organizations included in the sample are Parag Dairy, Eveready and Eldeco. For the service sector organization, Food Corporation of India, The Pradeshiya Industrial and Investment Corporation of U.P. (PICUP), HDFC Bank and HDFC Homeloans were included. All the organizations are from Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.

3. Years in service - Years in service refers to the number of years the manager is employed in his present job. Four groups in terms of years of service are as follows :

2 - 12 years12+ - 22 years 22+ - 32 years32+ - 40 years

4. Mode of recruitment - The two criteria taken in the present research for the mode of recruitment to the present post are whether the manager is directly selected to the post he holds or whether he was promoted on the basis of seniority.

5. Age - Four age levels have been included as follows :

Age Level- I 25 - 34 yearsAge Level- II 35 - 44 years Age Level- III- 45 - 54 yearsAge Level- IV -55 years and above.

Dependent VariableEmotional Intelligence - Emotional Intelligence is the ability to sense, understand and effectively

apply the power and acumen of emotions as a source of human energy, information, connection and influence (Cooper and Sawaf, 1996).

Sample: The sample consists of 200 managers of level-II and level-III from manufacturing and service sectors. The details of the sample according to the independent variables are reported in table 3.1.

077


Tools :1. EQ Map - EQ Map (1996) (version 4.5) employed in the present research is extensively

researched, statistically reliable and norm-tested on an employed work-force in United States and Canada. Esther M. Orioli, Robert K. Cooper and Ayman Sawaf have given the concept of the tool. It is amongst the oldest of the commercially available instruments for assessing Emotional Intelligence. The tool consist of five areas- Current Environment, Emotional Awareness, EQ Competencies, EQ Values and Attitudes and Outcomes. These areas contain subscales. In total EQ Map has 20 subscales and the data was analysed for all 20 subscales as EQ Map does not provide one single score for Emotional Intelligence.

2. Questionnaire for Biographical Information- To obtain information for various demographic variables, a questionnaire was developed by the researcher. The questionnaire sought information regarding name, age, years of service in the present job, management level, type of organization and mode of recruitment.

Method of Data Collection: Two hundred managers of level II and level III from service and manufacturing sector organization in Lucknow were administered the EQ Map and the questionnaire for biographical information. Permission was sought from the highest authority of the concerned organization in Lucknow before data collection. The researcher took prior appointment with the managers to get the questionnaires filled. On an average, the managers had to devote 45 minutes to fill the questionnaire. Data Processing: The obtained data for Emotional Intelligence and demographic correlates were statistically analyzed using Analysis of Variance.

Level II managers are charged with the execution of the organization's work within some broad scope and function. Level III is the supervisory management. Change in management level brings changes in responsibilities. Managers at higher management level are required to assimilate all those working with them and progress on the path of personal growth. The obtained results show that level II managers are higher on Life Satisfaction, Intentionality, Trust Radius, Personal Power and Optimal Performance.

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Variables Categories Total

Management Level Level-II 93 Level-III 107 200

Type of Organization Service Sector 116 Manufacturing Sector 84 200

Years in service 2-12

years 36

12+-22

years 40

22+-32

years 68 32+ years 56 200

Mode of

recruitment Direct Selected 64

Selected according to Seniority

136 200

Age 25-34

years 32

35-44

years 24

45-54

years 80 55 & above 64 200

Table 1 - Details of the Sample


Since the Emotional Intelligence scales are interdependent, high scores on one scale may

strengthen the other related scales. Level II managers exercise more power, authority and influence

than level III managers. They are also financially well off than level II managers which results in more

concentration on the satisfaction of higher order needs in life (Maslow, 1964). The result is greater

Life Satisfaction and the ability to take action on purpose which is Intentionality. Further, this helps

develop a positive attitude towards life which results in higher degree and inclination to trust

others. These characteristics further encourage level II managers to believe in their ability to meet

challenges in life which is personal power and give their optimal performance at work.

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Table 3 Mean, SD and F values according to Type of Organization.

Type of Org.

Scales

Service Sector Manufacturing

Sector

Mean

difference F p

Mean SD Mean SD

Life Pressures 36.15 16.68 30.82 16.62 -5.33 4.98 <.05

Life Satisfaction 39.87 10.66 40.57 10.09 0.70 0.22 >.05

Emotional Self Awareness 17.23 4.23 17.51 3.83 0.28 0.23 >.05

Emotional Expression 15.94 4.86 16.19 4.62 0.25 0.14 >.05

Emotional Awareness of

Others

22.19 5.95 21.80 5.80 -0.39 0.22 >.05

Intentionality 26.59 6.51 27.32 5.20 0.73 0.73 >.05

Creativity 17.63 6.27 18.76 5.76 1.13 1.70 >.05

Resilience 27.39 7.80 29.61 6.69 2.22 4.44 <.05

Interpersonal

Connections

20.27 4.45 20.21 4.22 -0.06 0.01 >.05

Constructive Discontent 16.49 3.50 17.35 4.77 0.86 2.13 >.05

Outlook 18.53 4.91 18.82 4.08 0.29 0.20 >.05

Compassion 23.50 5.05 23.44 4.59 -0.06 0.01 >.05

Intuition 20.02 5.94 20.37 5.20 0.35 0.19 >.05

Trust Radius 20.91 5.04 22.49 5.29 1.58 4.56 <.05

Personal Power 19.76 5.30 20.44 5.88 0.68 0.74 >.05

Integrated self 17.82 3.64 18.73 3.88 0.91 2.86 >.05

General Health Problems 23.09 16.73 22.06 16.81 -1.03 0.19 >.05

Quality of life 21.74 6.80 23.25 5.62 1.51 2.77 >.05

Relationship Quotient 15.43 4.92 15.83 3.65 0.40 0.40 >.05

Optimal Performance 15.05 4.07 15.51 3.63 0.46 0.68 >.05


Referring to table 3, type of organization has a significant effect on three scales of

Emotional Intelligence namely Life Pressures, Resilience and Trust Radius.

Manufacturing sector concentrates mainly on production. Their interactions are limited

to those within the organization. On the other hand, service sector managers have different

priorities and functions. The line of communication between customer and service provider is

shorter than that between manufacturer and customer.

The obtained results reveal more life stress in service sector (mean = 36.15) than in the

manufacturing sector (mean = 30.82). The former need to provide services outside normal working

hours or around the clock, affecting their personal life resulting into more life pressures.

Results further point out that manufacturing sector managers are high on resilience

(mean = 29.61) than service sector managers (mean = 27.39). They interact more with each other.

Their interpersonal relationships are more rewarding which results in high ability to bounce back

and be flexible after a set back. They are higher on Trust Radius also (mean = 22.49). Since they

require grouping together of certain activities, they interact and rely more among themselves.

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Years in Service Scales

2-12 Years 12+ - 22 years 22+ -32 years 32+ years

F p Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

Life Pressures 34.81 18.09 32.90 17.12 33.98 16.24 33.96 16.88 0.08 >.05

Life Satisfaction 38.89 10.38 40.77 10.31 39.96 9.91 40.80 11.25 0.30 >.05

Emotional Self

Awareness

17.94 3.77 17.33 3.87 17.15 4.37 17.23 4.05 0.33 >.05

Emotional Expression 16.36 4.35 17.05 4.33 15.79 4.96 15.43 5.01 1.03 >.05

Emotional Awareness

of Others

23.53 4.93 22.70 5.10 21.78 6.20 20.86 6.40 1.73 >.05

Intentionality 27.39 5.00 26.90 5.89 26.47 6.67 27.09 5.90 0.21 >.05

Creativity 20.08 4.62 18.78 6.11 18.13 6.28 16.32 6.26 3.14 <.05

Resilience 30.00 5.06 28.85 6.75 27.28 8.36 28.12 7.85 1.15 >.05

Inter-personal

Connections

20.08 4.48 20.35 3.98 19.97 4.38 20.61 4.53 0.24 >.05

Constructive

Discontent

17.28 4.09 17.43 4.08 16.19 4.06 16.96 4.14 1.00 >.05

Outlook 19.31 4.01 18.40 4.48 18.23 5.06 18.91 4.39 0.53 >.05

Compassion 23.44 5.03 23.75 4.91 23.87 4.71 22.82 4.91 0.53 >.05

Intuition 21.19 4.53 19.10 6.10 20.12 5.75 20.32 5.78 0.89 >.05

Trust Radius 22.31 5.38 21.65 4.97 21.35 5.06 21.32 5.47 0.32 >.05

Personal Power 21.75 5.59 20.40 5.29 19.60 5.61 19.23 5.48 1.75 >.05

Integrated self 18.25 2.83 18.37 4.14 17.69 4.03 18.66 3.69 0.72 >.05

General Health

Problems

24.31 18.52 19.32 15.65 23.78 18.01 22.62 14.64 0.74 >.05

Quality of life 21.42 6.72 22.82 5.72 22.84 6.35 22.11 6.64 0.49 >.05

Relationship Quotient 15.61 3.74 15.92 3.91 15.15 4.54 15.91 5.07 0.40 >.05

Optimal Performance 15.14 3.94 15.72 3.30 15.01 4.11 15.25 4.03 0.29 >.05

Table 4 Mean, SD and F values according to Years in Service.


Table 4 denotes that year in service has a significant effect on only one out of twenty scales of

Emotional Intelligence i.e. Creativity. The findings indicate that less experienced managers are more

creative. Managers in the age group of 2+ - 12 years are most creative (mean = 20.08) and the least

creative managers are in the age group of 32+ years (mean = 16.32). As experience accumulates,

initiation and innovations tend to loose significance in their life. Managers at the beginning of their

careers have to prove themselves, and therefore they require to adopt creative and innovative

method. Further their enthusiasm adds to their creativity.

081

Table 5 Mean, SD and F values according to Mode of Recruitment.

Mode of recruitment

Scales

Directly Selected

Promoted Mean difference F p

Mean SD Mean SD

Life Pressures 35.53 17.08 33.15 16.70 -2.38 0.87 >.05 Life Satisfaction 38.62 10.42 40.89 10.36 2.27 2.07 >.05 Emotional Self Awareness 16.84 3.98 17.59 4.08 0.75 1.47 >.05 Emotional Expression 15.61 4.65 16.25 4.80 0.64 0.79 >.05 Emotional Awareness of Others

21.41 5.92 22.32 5.85 0.91 1.04 >.05

Intentionality 26.94 5.67 26.87 6.16 -0.07 0.004 >.05 Creativity 18.22 6.16 18.05 6.05 -0.17 0.03 >.05 Resilience 29.78 7.44 27.63 7.33 -2.15 3.70 >.05 Interpersonal Connections

19.70 4.69 20.50 4.16 0.80 1.47 >.05

Constructive Discontent 16.72 4.44 16.91 3.93 0.19 0.10 >.05 Outlook 18.62 4.65 18.66 4.55 0.04 0.003 >.05 Compassion 23.42 5.13 23.50 4.73 0.08 0.01 >.05 Intuition 19.61 5.69 20.43 5.60 0.82 0.92 >.05 Trust Radius 21.70 5.36 21.51 5.13 -0.19 0.06 >.05 Personal Power 20.17 5.98 19.98 5.35 -0.19 0.05 >.05 Integrated self 17.78 3.95 18.40 3.67 0.62 1.17 >.05 General Health 23.83 18.45 22.11 15.90 -1.72 0.46 >.05 Quality of life 22.19 6.15 22.46 6.48 0.27 0.08 >.05 Relationship Quotient 15.37 4.39 15.71 4.46 0.34 0.24 >.05 Optimal Performance 14.80 4.01 15.46 3.83 0.66 1.25 >.05

Table 5 shows Mode of Recruitment does not have a significant effect on any of the scales of

Emotional Intelligence.


Table 4 denotes that year in service has a significant effect on only one out of twenty scales of

Emotional Intelligence i.e. Creativity. The findings indicate that less experienced managers are more

creative. Managers in the age group of 2+ - 12 years are most creative (mean = 20.08) and the least

creative managers are in the age group of 32+ years (mean = 16.32). As experience accumulates,

initiation and innovations tend to loose significance in their life. Managers at the beginning of their

careers have to prove themselves, and therefore they require to adopt creative and innovative

method. Further their enthusiasm adds to their creativity.

082

Table 6 Mean, SD and F values according to Age.

Life Pressures

Life Satisfaction

Emotional Self Awareness

Emotional Expression

Emotional Awareness of Others

Intentionality

Creativity

Resilience

Inter-personal Connections

Constructive Discontent

Outlook

Compassion

Intuition

Trust Radius

Personal Power

Integrated self

General Health Problems

Quality of life

Relationship Quotient

Optimal Performance

ScalesAge 25-34 Years 35-44 Years 45-54 Years 55+ Years

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SDF P

33.94

38.31

17.87

16.44

22.97

26.75

20.00

29.78

19.81

17.19

19.09

23.34

21.09

22.31

21.56

18.50

24.03

20.61

15.72

15.03

19.02

10.58

3.90

4.59

4.90

4.92

4.63

5.23

4.54

4.30

4.21

5.28

4.56

5.40

5.84

2.87

18.64

6.93

3.92

3.83

34.42

41.12

17.58

16.79

23.67

27.71

18.87

30.33

20.96

18.46

19.04

23.83

19.58

21.62

21.33

17.96

19.71

23.21

16.21

15.46

15.71

11.65

4.29

4.33

6.17

6.69

6.54

6.54

3.52

3.69

3.76

5.00

6.19

4.80

4.39

4.14

15.26

5.76

3.75

3.60

34.75

39.86

17.27

16.19

22.25

26.60

18.20

27.46

19.85

16.31

18.50

23.42

20.14

21.66

20.06

17.86

25.87

22.57

15.77

15.46

15.95

9.05

3.63

4.95

5.96

5.87

6.08

7.59

4.33

4.17

4.78

4.59

5.55

4.95

5.95

3.90

18.24

5.81

4.17

3.67

32.66

41.11

17.09

15.39

20.66

27.03

16.75

27.91

20.69

16.75

18.47

23.47

19.95

21.08

18.78

18.56

19.06

22.55

15.09

15.00

17.43

11.46

4.58

4.74

5.94

6.44

6.33

8.29

4.55

3.95

4.81

4.99

6.05

5.58

5.04

3.86

13.44

6.94

5.20

4.33

0.19

0.60

0.30

0.70

2.13

0.23

2.28

1.44

0.76

1.80

0.22

0.05

0.40

0.41

2.39

0.51

2.34

0.74

0.47

0.22

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05

>.05


083

Adeyemo (2008) from the research article Relationship of demographic factors with emotional intel l igence of university students by M. Nasir* and S. Iqbal from New Horizons in Science & Technology (NHS&T), Volume 1(1):17-21, ©International Network for Scientific & Industrial Information

Bradberry, Travis and Greaves, Jean (2003), The Emotional Intelligence Quickbook- Everything You Need To Know, TalentSmart, San Diego.

Cherniss, Cary, Golemen, Daniel, Emmerling, Robert, Cower, Kimberley and Adler, Mitchel (1998), A Technical Report Issued by The Consortium for Rsearch o n E m o t i o n a l I n t e l l i g e n c e i n Organizations,www.eiconsortium.org, An Article from the Internet

Cooper , Robert K., Sawaf, Ayman and Orioli, Esther M. (1996, 1997), The EQ Map, Version 4.5, AIT and Essi Systems Inc.

Derksen and Bogers, In Stein, Steven J. and Book, Howard E. (2001), The EQ Edge- Emotional Intelligence and Your Success, Macmillan India Limited.

Fariselli, Lorenzo; Ghini, Massimiliano; Freedman, Joshua, (2008) Publication Date: May 16, 2006, Last Updated: Jan 8 , 2 0 0 8 , f r o m t h e w e b s i t e http://www.6seconds.org/sei/media/WP_EQ_and_Age.pdf

Garcia, Resolito Amarillento (2002), Emotional Intelligence and Leadership and L e a d e r s h i p C o m p e t e n c e o f Department Heads of the University f Mindanao, An article for the Internet

Goleman (1998), In Goleman, Daniel (1999), Working with Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books, New York, Toronto.

Table 6 shows that age has not emerged

significant for Emotional Intelligence.

The findings suggest that some

organizational variables have a more profound

role in influencing Emotional Intelligence as

compared to other variables. The organizational

variables which have yielded the most

significant effect on Emotional Intelligence are

management level followed by the type of

organization and years in service. This goes well

along with Maslow's view on importance of

work in individual's life. He suggested that work

is an area of life which provides optimum

conditions for self growth. In his views, for self-

actualizing persons, work is subjectively

experienced as a defining characteristic of

themselves. They live to work rather than work

to live. Maslow portrayed the self-actualizing

person's commitment to and absorption in

work as "meant for each other... the person and

(the) job fit together and belong together

perfectly like a key and a lock" (1971).

The findings hold importance as it

points out that organizational variables are

important for development of Emotional

Intelligence and thus the responsibility of

maintaining a conducive environment which is

helpful to the overall development of the

employee lies on the organization. More such

researches in Indian context will bring to core

other factors which need to be focussed while

designing Emotional Intelligence Intervention

Programmes in India.

ReferencesPetrides, K.V. and Furnham, Adrian (March,

2000), Gender Differences in Measured and Self-Estimated Trait Emotional Intelligence, Sex Roles : A Journal of Research, An Article from the Internet


084

Shanwal (2005) from the research article Relationship of demographic factors with emotional intel l igence of university students by M. Nasir* and S. Iqbal from New Horizons in Science & Technology (NHS&T), Volume 1(1):17-21, ©International Network for Scientific & Industrial Information

Simmons, Kathy (2001), Emotional Intelligence : What Smart Managers Know, Source, Executive Update Feature, An Article from the Internet

Singaravelu (2007) from the research article Relationship of demographic factors with emotional intel l igence of university students by M. Nasir* and S. Iqbal from New Horizons in Science & Technology (NHS&T), Volume 1(1):17-21, ©International Network for Scientific & Industrial Information

Talent Smart (2004), EQ and Gender : Women Feel Smarter, www.talentsmart.com, An Article from the Internet

Golemen, (1995), In Goleman Daniel (1999), Working with Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books, New York, Toronto.

Harrod, Nicholas R. And Scheer, Scatt D. (Fall 2005), An Exploration of Adolescent Emotional Intelligence in Relation to D e m o g ra p h i c C h a ra c t e r i s t i c s , Adolescence, An Article from the Internet

K. Gowdhaman, K. And M. Bala Murugan, (2009), Emotional Intelligence among the B. Ed. Teacher Trainees, Psycho-lingua, 39, 2, 187-190

Mansi (2002), ), In Singh, Dalip (2003), Emotional Intelligence at Work- A Professional Guide, Response Books, New Delhi

Maslow, Abraham (1950), In Hjelle, Larry A. And Zeigler, Daniel J. (1992), Personality Theories – Basic Assumptions, Research and Applications, Mc. Graw Hill, Inc.

Multi Health Systems (1997), Men and Women have Different Kinds and Levels of Emotional Intelligence, EQ for both Sexes is the key to Workplace Success, www.mhs.com, An Article from the Internet

Roberts (2002), In Singh, Dalip (2003), Emotional Intelligence at Work- A Professional Guide, Response Books, New Delhi

Salovey and Mayer (1990), In Singh, Dalip (2003), Emotional Intelligence at Work- A Professional Guide, Response Books, New Delhi

*Lecturer, Amity University

**Head of the Department, Retd., Department of Psychology, University of Lucknow


Introduction :Subjective well-being (SWB)

Subjective well-being (SWB) refers to how

people experience the quality of their lives and

includes both emotional reactions and

cognitive judgments. Psychologists have

defined happiness as a combination of life

satisfaction and the relative frequency of

positive and negative affect. SWB therefore

encompasses moods and emotions as well as

evaluations of one's satisfaction with general

and specific areas of one's life. Concepts

encompassed by SWB include positive and

negative affect, happiness, and life satisfaction.

Positive psychology is particularly concerned

with the study of SWB. SWB tends to be stable

over time and is strongly related to personality

traits. There is evidence that health and SWB

may mutually influence each other, as good

health tends to be associated with greater

happiness, and a number of studies have found

that positive emotions and optimism can have a

beneficial influence on health.

Peer group

A peer group is a social group consisting

of humans. A peer group is a primary group of

085

Abstract

Influence of Peer Relationship on Adolescents' Well-Being

*Manika Mohan **Aditi Sharma

The present study aimed to find out the influence of peer relationship on adolescents' well-

being. The sample of 100 adolescents (25 boys and 25 girls from Government schools and 25 boys th th

and 25 girls from public schools) was taken who were the students of 11 and 12 standard from

various streams and administered on the Dimensions of Friendship Scale (DFS) by Sunanda Chandna

(Delhi) and N.K. Chadha (Delhi), 1986. Data interpretation of the peer group relations showed that

on the dimension of enjoyment, trust, mutual assistance, understanding and spontaneity the

students of Government and public schools did not differ significantly but on the dimension of

acceptance and confiding they showed significant difference.

Keywords- Well –being, peer group.

people, typically informal, who share a similar

or equal status and who are usually of roughly

the same age, tended to travel around and .

interact within the social aggregate Members

of a particular peer group often have similar

interests and backgrounds, bonded by the

premise of sameness. However, some peer

groups are very diverse, crossing social divides

such as socioeconomic status, level of

education, race, creed, culture, or religion.

Unlike the family and the school, the peer group

lets children escape the direct supervision of

adults. Among peers, children learn to form

relationships on their own. Peer groups also

offer the chance to discuss interests that adults

may not share with their children (such as

clothing and popular music) or permit (such as

drugs and sex).

Objectives

To study the adolescents' psychological well

being in relation to peer groups.


Methodology

Research methodology involves systematic

procedures which the researcher starts from

initial identification of the problem to its final

conclusion. The role of methodology consists of

procedures and techniques for conducting

study.

The purpose of the present study is to find out

how relation with peers influences the overall

personality and well being of adolescents.

Research Design

This study was designed to be descriptive,

correlation. Variables under study were-

a) Dependent variables i.e. personality

and wellbeing of adolescents

b) Independent Variables i.e. peer group.

Research Sample

The study was conducted on a sample of 100

adolescents (25 boys and 25 girls from

Government schools and 25 boys and 25 girls

from public schools) was taken who were the th th

students of 11 and 12 standard from various

streams belonging to various socio economic

status.

Sampling Design

A convenience sample was used in this study.

The inclusion criteria were: voluntarily

participating in this study, being 16- 18 years,

from various socio economic statuses.

086

Measurements

The following standardized tool was used for

the present study:

Dimensions of Friendship Scale- Sunanda

Chandna (Delhi) and N.K. Chadha (Delhi)-1986.

Procedure of data collection

Visits were made to the Government and public

schools by the researchers, so that initial

rapport can be established with the

respondents. After employing the tools the

requisite data was collected and adolescents

were assured that the information collected will

be used only for research purpose.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical methods included mean, SD, SE and D

t test.

Hypothesis

The healthy peer group relationship contributes

significantly to the psychological well being of

adolescents.

Results and Discussion :Table No. 1.1

Showing comparison between students of

Government and public schools on the

dimension of enjoyment

The mean of Government school students is

more than the students of public school. The t-

ratio is found to be 0.50 which is not significant

at both the levels.

Government

Public

N

50

50

Mean

5.58

5.46

S.D.

1.19

1.20

SED

0.169

.0170

Df

98

T

0.50Not

significant

*Manika Mohan **Aditi Sharma Volume-3 (2)

Table No. 1.2Showing comparison between students of Government and public schools on the dimension of Acceptance

087

Government

Public

N

50

50

Mean

5.58

6.60

S.D.

1.75

1.81

SED

0.25

0.26

Df

98

T

2.02

Significant

at 0.05

level

Results indicate that the mean scores of public school students are more than the Government

school students. It means level of acceptance is more in public school students than the

Government school students. The t- value is found to be 2.02 which is significant at 0.05 level.

Table No. 1.3

Showing comparison between students of Government and public schools on the dimension of

Trust

Government

Public

N

50

50

Mean

6.20

6.80

S.D.

1.77

1.44

SED

0.249

0.204

Df

98

T

1.86Not

Significant

Results from the table indicate that there is only minute difference in the mean of both the groups.

Public school students are more trustworthy as compare to Government school students. The t is

found to be 1.86 which is not significant at both the levels.

Table No. 1.4


Respect

Government

Public

N

50

50

Mean

4.12

5.80

S.D.

1.28

1.16

SED

0.189

0.159

Df

98

T

6.95

Significant

at both the

levels


Results indicate that public school students score more than the Government school students. The

t- value is found to be significant at both the levels.

Table No. 1.5


Mutual Assistance

088

Government

Public

N

50

50

Mean

6.38

5.46

S.D.

1.51

6.60

SED

0.214

1.36

Df

98

T

0.77Not

Significant

By observing the table it can be concluded that Government school students score high on the

mutual assistance dimension and t- value is found to be insignificant.

Table No. 1.6


Confiding

Government

Public

N

50

50

Mean

5.84

6.16

S.D.

1.61

1.46

SED

0.23

0.21

Df

98

T

1.04Not

Significant

Government

Public

N

50

50

Mean

5.08

7.28

S.D.

1.51

1.39

SED

0.214

0.196

Df

98

T

7.59

Significant

at 0.05

and 0.01

level

Results indicate that public school students show more confiding nature than the Government

school students. The t value is found to be significant at both the levels.

Table No. 1.7


Understanding

*Manika Mohan **Aditi Sharma Volume-3 (2)

Mean of public school students found to more

as compared to Government school students

and the t- value is found to be insignificant.

Table No. 1.8

Showing comparison between students of

Government and public schools on the

dimension of Spontaneity

089

Government

Public

N

50

50

Mean

5.88

5.74

S.D.

1.59

1.10

SED

0.224

1.56

Df

98

T

0.051Not

Significant

Results indicate that the mean of Government

school students is more as compared to public

school students. The t- value is 0.051 and

found to be insignificant at both the levels.

Disscussion and ConclusionData interpretation of the peer group

relations showed that on the dimension of

enjoyment, trust , mutual ass istance,

understanding and spontaneity the students of

Government and public schools did not differ

significantly but on the dimension of acceptance

and confiding they showed significant

difference. It has been seen that public school

students are more influenced by the peers as

compared to Government school students. The

reason can be that the public school students

are getting more exposure and spend more time

with the peers. Due to their healthy relationship

with peers they have more positive personality

and wellbeing in relation to Government school

students.

ReferencesBrown, B.B., Clasen, D.R., & Eicher, S.A. (1986).

“Perceptions of Peer Pressure, Peer

Conformity Dispositions, and Self-

R e p o r t e d B e h a v i o u r A m o n g

A d o l e s c e n t s ”. D e v e l o p m e n t a l

Psychology.

Chandna, Sunanda & Chadha, N.K. (1886).

Dimensions of Friendship Scale (DFS).

National Psychological Corporation,

Agra

Suggestions-

1. Sample size can be increased.2.

Sample can be taken from different

ethnic group.

*Prof. and Head, Dept. of Psychology, University of Jaipur**Research Scholar, Dept. of Psychology, University of Jaipur


Introduction :Parents play pivotal role in shaping

child's achievement, aspirations, education,

motivation, study habits and overall personality

(Hossler and Stage, 1992; Eccles and Harold,

1993; Beyer, 1995; Paulson, 1996). Their

educational level and unconditional love

provide necessary educational environment to

children which results in better performance.

By providing them various skills like problem

solving and decision making they enhance their

academic achievement and this supportive

behaviour helps the child to set goals in life and

to achieve them. Habel (1986) believed that the

psychological makeup of parents have a great

influence on the behaviour, attentiveness and

performance of a child. Lankard (1995)

indicated that motivation, norms, beliefs,

values, habits and attitudes of individuals with

the environment and expectations, the parents

have for their children influence educational

performances of their children. Children are

affected by who parents are (e.g., with respect

090

Abstract

Achievement Motivation, Study Habits and Inferiority amongChildren of high and low Educated Parents

*Mandeep Kaur **Puneet Kaur

Parental education provides a robust indicator of parental functioning that predicts child

well being across diverse communities. The family in which the child grows up markedly influences

the child's attitude and behaviour. The child imitates his parents as a model for adjustment in

society. If the parents are well educated, this gives the child good modelling to adjust in school and

society. Thus to study the effect of parental education on the achievement, study habits and

inferiority of children, 100 children (50 children of high educated parents and 50 children of low

educated parents) were taken. The data was subjected to t-test. Findings revealed that children of

high educated parents were high in achievement motivation, good in study habits and low on

inferiority complex as compared to children of low educated parents.

Keywords: Achievement motivation, Study Habits, Inferiority Complex.

to gender, age, race/ethnicity, intelligence,

education levels, temperament), what parents

know (e.g., about child development and

normative child behaviour), what parents

believe (e.g., attitudes toward childrearing),

what parents value (e.g., education,

achievement, obedience, interpersonal

relationships), what parents expect of their

children (e.g., age or developmentally

appropriate expectations for behaviour,

achievement expectations), and what parents

ultimately do (i.e., their parenting practices and

overall parenting styles). Thus the kind of

mental challenges to which a child is exposed at

various periods, is likely to determine the kind

of mental abilities which he/she displays.

Parents can take many positive steps to help

their children, they can encourage them to

pursue advanced course work, to invest

significant amount of time in their homework

and to devote more time to reading (Mullis,

2002). Bamidele (1987) asserts that parents'

aspiration for the child could affect his/her


achievement in school. Morish (1995), believes

that well educated parents will wish their own

children to benefit as they have done from their

good education and will provide them

necessary things to accomplish their goals.

Lankard (1995) points out that where parental

encouragement is low, relatively few children,

regardless of their intelligence or socio-

economic status levels, they plan to go to study.

On the other hand, where parental

encouragement is high even when socio-

economic status and intelligence are relatively

low; more students plan to go to study. They

concluded that the way and manner in which

the family is organised and the direction in

which the family system is changing is

important as this reflects on the child's

performance in school.

Onocha (1985) concludes that a child

from a well educated family with high socio-

economic status is more likely to perform better

than a child from an illiterate family. This is

because the child from an educated family has a

lot of support such as a decent and good

environment for academic work, parental

support and guidance, and good academic

materials. They are likely to be sent to good

schools where well qualified and trained

teachers will handle them.

According to Grissmer (2003), parents'

level of education is the most important factor

affecting child's academic achievement. Taiwo

(1993) suggests that parents' educational

background inf luence the academic

achievement of children because the parents

will guide and counsel the child on the best way

to perform well in education and provide the

necessary materials needed by child. Musgrave

(2000) supported that a child that comes from

091

an educated home would like to follow the steps

of his/her family and by this, work actively in

his/her studies. The parents who have more

than a minimum level of education are

expected to have a favoured attitude to the

child's education and to encourage and help

him/her with school work. They provide library

facilities to encourage the child for as reading of

newspapers, magazines and journals. They are

likely to have wider vocabulary by which the

children can benefit and develop language

fluency.

Achievement typically stresses the

importance of accompl ishments and

attainments with effort involved (Mandel &

Marcus, 1988). Achievement can also be

described as energy that is used to overcome

challenges and persevere to conquer a goal.

Motivation relates to an individual's reason for

engaging in an activity, the degree to which an

individual pursues the activity, and the

persistence of the individual (Graham & Weiner,

1996). Achievement motivation can be defined

as making good business or the orientation to

the actions which is important to compel with

the perfect standards (H.Can, 1992). It helps a

child to set realistic but challenging goals, they

need feedback and respond well to constructive

criticism. They do not fear failure which makes

them persistent towards their goals.

Achievement motivation has been associated

with task difficulty preferences. Atkinson (1957)

proposed that positively motivated subjects

(i.e., subjects with motive to achieve success

stronger than motive to avoid failure) would

prefer tasks of moderate difficulty, whereas

negatively motivated subjects (i.e., subjects

with motive to achieve success weaker than

Volume-3 (2)*Mandeep Kaur **Puneet Kaur

motive to avoid failure) would prefer either very

easy or very difficult tasks. Dykman (1998)

suggested that there are two main motivations

behind achievement, which he calls growth-

seeking vs. validation-seeking. Growth seekers

enjoy challenges and their ability to learn and

mature through chal lenges/mistakes.

Validation seekers, feel under constant pressure

to prove themselves as likable and acceptable

to others. It's a defensive coping strategy that

develops in the context of critical and

perfectionist parenting. Academic achievement

motivation can be defined as child's need or

drive towards the achievement of success in

academic work (Amalaha, 1975; Moen and

Doyle, 1978).

Atkinson and Feather (1966) observed

that the achievement motivation of children

whose fathers have attained high educational

level and are in high income occupations tend to

be high. The development of high level

achievement motivation is attributed to early

independence training and achievement

training (Atkinson, Feather and Majoribanks,

1979). Atkinson and Feather argue that

successful parents tend to provide early

independence training which is necessary in the

development of achievement motivation.

Ges inde (2000) sug gests that

achievement motivation is learnt through the

socialization process. He argues that the urge to

achieve varies from one individual to the other.

For some, the need for achievement is very high

while, for others it is very low. A high need for

achievement would develop among those who

have high achievers as their role models in their

early life experience, while those who have low

achievers as their role models will hardly

develop the need for achievement. The family is

092

a major socializing agent and therefore

important in determining the child's motivation

to achieve success in various areas.

Study habits are strongly linked and

related with academic performance (Reed &

Hagen, 1996; Elliot, McGregor & Gable, 1999;

Meter, 2001; Kagu, 2003 and Ossai, 2004).

Researchers have found that good study habits

contribute to high academic performance while

poor study habits lead to poor academic

performance. According to Mace (2002), “study

is a systematic acquisition of knowledge and an

understanding of facts and principles that calls

for retention and application”. Kelly (1998)

stated that study is the application of one's

menta l capac i ty to the acquis i t ion ,

understanding and organization of knowledge.

It often involves some form of formal learning.

Crow and Crow (2000) explained that study is a

programme of subject matter mastery which

involves hard work. However, study involves the

individual's thinking, feeling, personality, social

interaction, physical activities and health.

Narramore (1974) defined habit as “a pattern of

activity which, through repetition, has been

learned to the point that it has become

automatic and can be carried on with a

minimum of conscious effect”. Study habit,

therefore, refers to learning which leads to the

achievement of a learner's goal, through a

prescribed pattern of steady behaviour. Crede

and Kuncel (2008) defines study habit as study

routines, including, but not restricted to,

frequency of studying sessions, review of

material, self-testing, rehearsal of learned

material, and studying in a conducive

environment.

Study habits is a well planned and

deliberate pattern of study which has attained a


form of consistency on the part of the student

towards understanding academic subjects and

passing at examination (Deese, 1959; Pauk,

1962; Akinboye, 1974). Students' study habits

seem to show differences in how they learn and

how serious they are about their learning

(Young, 1998).

Nonis & Hudson (2010) found that

study habits have a significant direct

relationship with the academic performance of

college students. Although not every learning

strategy or study habit produces useful results

in terms of academic achievement, it would be

expected that students who possess good study

habits in general are better performers than

those students with poor study habits.

Study habits have been associated with

academic achievement, independently of

scholastic aptitudes. Given a similar scholastic

aptitude, students with better strategies and

better study habits tend to show higher

academic achievement. Even students with low

scholastic aptitudes, but with good study

habits, may obtain better results than those

with higher aptitudes (Weigel & Wei-gel, 1967;

Wikoff & Kafka, 1981; Matt, Pechersky, &

Cervantes, 1991; On & Watkins, 1994). Both

research and educational experience have

demonstrated that students with good study

habits usually show more socialized behaviours,

higher responsibi l ity and peer-group

interaction, and less impulsiveness.

When a child is unable to achieve a goal,

perform poor in exams, is low on academic

achievement, weak in study skills and habits

and is not supported by his/her parents to

achieve something then the feelings of

inferiority arises. Whatever is their source,

when a child fear the consequences of being

093

inferior or subordinate to others (e.g. when

they fear that they will be rejected or vulnerable

to criticism, rather than helped or accepted)

they can become 'driven' to compete to avoid

both self and others making evaluations of self

'as inferior' (Gilbert, 1992, 2003). Inferiority

complex creates a sense of insecurity that can

reach a great extent and can make the sufferer

take a drastic step.

From Adler's perspective, an inferiority

complex is “the presentation of the person to

himself and others that he is not strong enough

to solve a given problem in a socially useful way”

(Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). An inferiority

complex is a pervasive feeling that one's

abilities and characteristics are inferior to those

of other people. Early criticism from parents,

peer and sensitivity to the competitive

dynamics of social life through peer group

competition or media exposure, could sensitise

a child to fears of inferiority (Gilbert, 1992;

Dykman, 199

ObjectivesTo study:

1. The effect of parental education in

achievement motivation, study habits

and inferiority complex in their

children.

2. The academic achievement of children

of high and low educated parents.

3. The study habits of children of high and

low educated parents.

4. The inferiority complex among children

of high and low educated parents.

Hypotheses1. Children of high educated parents

would be higher on achievement

motivation as compared to children of

low educated parents.


2. Study habits of children of low

educated parents would be poor as

compared to high educated parents.

3. Children of high educated parents

would be low on inferiority complex as

compared to children of low educated

parents.

MethodSample: To study achievement motivation,

study habits and inferiority among children of

high and low educated parents, a sample of 100

children (50 children of high educated parents

and 50 children of low educated parents) from

various areas of Patiala were taken. Their age

ranges from 14 to 17 years. All the high

educated parents were above graduation and

low educated parents were senior secondary

pass. On the basis of the education of parents,

children were divided into two groups (50

children of high educated parents and 50

children of low educated parents) and were

considered for the present study. Prior consent

of parents and their wards were taken, only

those participants were taken who were willing

to participate in the study. The subjects were

provided with Academic Achievement

Motivation Test by T.R. Sharma (2011), Study

Habit Inventory by Mukhopadhyay and

Sansanwal (1983) and Social Comparison Scale

by Allan and Gilbert (1995).

Measures used in the study.

Academic Achievement Motivation Test by T.R.

Sharma (2011)

Academic Achievement Motivation Test

comprises of 38 items with two alternatives.

The test provides a direct numerical score

indicating how much an individual is motivated

in the field of academic achievement. The score

range from 0 to 38, indicating high, average and

094

low academic motivation. This test can be

administered to a group of not more than 40

children at a time. One score is awarded for

each correct answer. Reliability: the reliability of

the test is based on three methods, split half

N=100, reliability is 0.697, rational equivalence

N=100, r = 0.75 and test retest reliability boys 11

N=298, r = 0.795, girls N=301, r = 0.807. Validity:

content, criterion and construct validity on the

bases of pooled judgements of 40 judges. The

analysis of variance and Scheffe method results

differ siginificantly.

Study Habit Inventory by Mukhopadhyay and

Sansanwal (1983)

Study Habit Inventory consists of 52 items and 5

point likert scale from always to never. This

inventory has been constituted of nine different

kinds of study habits or behaviours. These are

co mp reh en s io n , co n cent rat io n , ta s k

orientation, sets, interaction, drilling, supports,

recording and language. Some items are

positive and some items in the inventory are

negative. Positive items have reversed scoring

(4 to 0) and negative items have straight scoring

(0 to 4). Reliability: the reliability of the

inventory was worked out by using split half

method. The reliability coefficient is 0.90.

Validity: internal consistency is evident, all the

coefficients are significant at 0.01 level and they

range between a minimum of 0.49 to a

maximum of 0.8%.

Social Comparison Scale by Allan and Gilbert

(1995)

Social Comparison Scale measures the self-

perceptions of social rank and relative social

standing. This scale uses a semantic differential

methodology and consists of 11 bipolar

constructs. Participants are required to make a

global comparison of themselves in relation to

other people and to rate themselves along a 10


point scale. The 11 items cover judgements concerned with rank, attractiveness and how well the

person thinks they 'fit in' with others in society. Low scores indicate feelings of inferiority and

general low rank self-perceptions. The scale has been found to have good reliability, with Cronbach

alphas of 0.88 and 0.96 with clinical population and 0.91 and 0.90 with student population.

Procedure: Data collection was divided into 2 sessions. In the first session, Academic Achievement

Motivation test and Social Comparison Scale were given. After the gap of 15 minutes, in the second

session, Study Habit Inventory was given to the subjects. The subjects were also assured that their

responses would be kept confidential so that they can reply honestly.

Statistical Analysis: t-test

Results:Table no.1 - Showing the means, S.D's and t-ratio of high and low educated parents for academic

achievement motivation

095

academic

achievement

motivation

means s.d.’s df t-ratio

high

educated

parents

low

educated

parents

high

educated

parents

low

educated

parents

32.06 27.02 3.11 2.92 98 8.34**

** Significant at 0.01 level of significance.

Table no.2 - Showing the means, S.D's and t-ratio of high and low educated parents forstudy habit

study habit


high

educated

parents

low

educated

parents

high

educated

parents

low

educated

parents

163.4 91.98 11.05 7.17 98 38.34**



Discussion: Based on the data analysis (t-test)

it's concluded that children from high educated

parents were high on achievement motivation

and study habits and low on inferiority as

compared to children from low educated

parents whose children were low on

achievement motivation and study habits and

high on inferiority. The analysis of Table no.1

revealed that children of high educated parents

(M=32.06) were high on achievement

motivation and children of low educated

parents (M=27.02) were low on achievement

motivation (t=8.34, p<.01). The reason can be

linked to parental education, parents involve

themselves with their children in studies and

guide them achieve their goal. If the parents are

educated, they can inculcate good values to

their children. This will further lead towards

establishing good study habits, more

confidence and sense of achievement. Baker

and Stevenson (1986) found well educated

mothers have higher knowledge of their

children's schooling, more contact with the

school, aware of their children's achievement

and lead them to pursue higher education. Reay

(2004) suggested most middle class mothers

096

have a good educational background and it is

invested in their children's educational success

in the form of self-confidence and participation.

Sewell and Hauser (1980) and Tudge, et al

(2006) found that a high level of education also

allows the children to have more opportunity to

develop motivation and educational aspirations

to involve in various educational activities.

Similarly in line with this thought, Poston and

Falbo's (1990) findings supports the idea that

educated parents tend to communicate and

interact with their children to enhance the

children to a positive learning and educational

achievement. Achievement motivation has

been shown to be higher in middle class than in

the working class (Atkinson and Feather, 1966).

The development of high level achievement

motivation is attributed to early independence

training and achievement training giving by

parents (Atkinson, Feather and Majoribanks,

1979). According to Majoribanks (1979), in

independence training parents insist on the

child's self-reliance and autonomy in decision

making situations. While, in achievement

training they insist on high achievement

through imposing high standards of excellence

inferiority


high

educated

parents

low

educated

parents

high

educated

parents

low

educated

parents

Total 96.34 63.74 6.18 5.99 98 26.81**

Table no.3 - Showing the means, S.D's and t-ratio of high and low educated parents for

inferiority



in tasks, setting high goals for the child and

expecting the child to show competence in

doing tasks well. Thus, achievement motivation

is among other factors dependent on child

parent interactions.

In a study by Gottfried, Fleming, and

Gottfried (1998), home environment was found

to have a statistically positive and significant

effect on academic intrinsic motivation.

Children whose homes had greater emphasis on

learning opportunities and activities were more

academically intrinsically motivated. These

findings imply that, a more favourable home

environment motivates a child to excel in

school. The high level of education which most

often goes with high occupational status means

that the parents will be able to provide the

necessary learning facilities and to assist the

child with schoolwork. This parental

involvement which could be lacking in parents

whose education and occupation are low may

have a motivating effect on the child.

A parent with a small family will not

only find it easy to provide for the physical

needs of the child, but will also be in a position

to give him attention, encouragement,

stimulation and support with his schoolwork.

This could have a motivating effect on a child

from the small family in comparison with a child

from a large family where the parents are

always busy trying to find ways of meeting the

basic needs of the family.

The analysis of Table no.2 reveals that

children of high educated parents (M=163.4)

were high on study habits and children of low

educated parents (M=91.98) were low on study

habits (t=38.34, p<.01). Students' study habits

seem to show differences in how they learn and

how serious they are about their learning

097

(Young, 1998). Onwuegbuzie et al (2001)

conducted a series of studies to find out the

relationship between academic success and

study habit and reported positive relationship

between the two variables. Given a similar

scholastic aptitude, students with better

strategies and better study habits tend to show

higher academic achievement. Even students

with low scholastic aptitudes, but with good

study habits, may obtain better results than

those with higher aptitudes (Weigel & Wei-gel,

1967; Wikoff & Kafka, 1981; Matt, Pechersky, &

Cervantes, 1991; On & Watkins, 1994).

Lockheed et al., (1989) studies that the more

the standard of parent's education, the higher is

the education aspirations held by the parents

towards the academic achievement of their

children. Students with poor study habits do not

perform well academically, have low self-

concept, and consequently see little benefit to

academically perform at their true ability

(Trawick, 1992). According to Elliot and

Wendling (1996), 75% of students who are

academic underachievers have poor study

habits and examination techniques. Haynes

(1993) reports that improving study habits can

enhance academic achievement of the students

who have poor study habits. It has been argued

that study skills should be taught at the high

school level because many high school students

are deficient in reading, thinking, and study

skills (Tonjes and Zintz, 1981).

The analysis of Table no.3 reveals that

children of high educated parents (M=96.34)

were low on inferiority and children of low

educated parents (M=63.74) were high on

inferiority (t=26.81, p<.01). According to Adler

(1926) feelings of inferiority are as much more

than a sense of inadequacy. These feelings


provide the motivating force behind all growth

and development. Early criticism by parents and

peer group can lower the self belief of a child

and can thus sensitize a child towards the fear of

inferiority (Gilbert, 1992; Dykman, 1998). When

children fear the consequences of being inferior

or subordinate to others (e.g. when they fear

that they will be rejected or vulnerable to

criticism, rather than helped or accepted) they

can become 'driven' to compete to avoid both

self and others making evaluations of self 'as

inferior' (Gilbert, 1992, 2003) thus they perform

poorer in every field. Self– other relationship

can be construed as competitive rather than

care-focused or cooperative, and an individual

can be highly oriented to social comparison and

shame sensitivities. This striving can be a source

of stress and individuals may find it hard to feel

content, socially accepted and safe in their

social networks (Gilbert, 1989). Most students

have low self concept and they are so passive

and negative, that affects their academic

achievements and their study habits in schools.

Academic success or failure can generate the

feelings of competence or incompetence in

students. These feelings can affect students'

performances by their willingness to continue

to learn or give up. It is believed that students

who have high achievement expectations

attribute success to internal and external

causes (Haynes, 1993). The results revealed that

students who have proper study habits and

attitudes are academically successful (Agnew et

al., 1993; Arslantas, 2001; Carter, 1999; Elliot et

al., 1990; Gordon, 1997; Jones et al., 1993;

Kleijn et al., 1994; Lammers et al., 2001; Lawler-

Prince et al., 1993; Schultz, 1989; Slate et al.,

1990; Sunbul et al., 1998; Ulug, 1981).

098

Thus well educated parents can

support their child to achieve goals in the best

way they can, they help in influencing their

chi ld 's behaviour, attent iveness and

performance. Thus the findings of the study

proves the hypotheses, that a well educated

parent can make a child cognitively strong and

in this way a child can communicate, interact

and can make their position in the society with

the help of skills which are provided by their

parents. A well educated parent with good

parenting style can make their child a brilliant

one.

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O c t o b e r 1 4 , 2 0 0 6 f r o m :

http://clearinghouse.missouriwestern

. edu/manuscripts/13.asp

*Assistant Professor in Psychology Department, Punjabi University, Patiala.** Research Scholar in Psychology Department, Punjabi University, Patiala.


Introduction :The aim of the present research work

was to study the effect of Sahaj Marg Raja Yoga

meditation system on the mental health of its

practitioners in comparison to the group of

individuals not practicing such meditation

system. Raj Yoga Meditation is primarily

concerned with the mind. The mind is

traditionally conceived as the "king" of the

psycho-physical structure. Present Raj Yoga

Meditation is the evolved, modified and

simplified form of the ancient Raj Yoga

Meditation of Saint Patanjali (150 BC) to suit the

lifestyles of modern human beings. He stated

that Raj Yoga limits the oscillations of the mind

in which mind can create false ideations. This

process leads to a spontaneous state of quiet

mind, in which there is no mental object of

focus. This technique of meditation goes by the

name because it integrates one's physical,

mental and spiritual aspects without employing

any pressure or force. Hence, it is called the

103

Abstract

The Effect of 'Sahaj Marg Raja Yoga Meditation' Practice

on Mental Health

*Samriddhi Singh **Manika Mohan Saxena

The present research work was aimed to study the impact of Sahaj Marg Raja Yoga

Meditation on mental health of the practitioners & the non-practitioners. A group of 100

practitioners were chosen for the study. 50 practitioners of Sahaj Marg and 50 non-practitioners

were chosen for the study. It included males and females participants, who were studying in

graduation and belonged to upper middle socio-economic status. The age ranged between 18 to 25

years. They were administered the questionnaire to measure mental health. The t-test was

employed to differentiate between the practitioners & the non-practitioners. The obtained results

were in support of the framed hypothesized that the practice of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga Meditation

would have positive effects on the mental health of the practitioners. The results indicated that with

the practice of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga meditation, the practitioners manifested better mental health

than the non-practitioners and this difference was significant.

'yoga of mind'. This is a process which

progressively dilutes and dissolves all sorts of

prejudices, ego and pride, so that people can

live full and natural lives. Raj Yoga Meditation

teaches a person to create a sound balance

between the material and spiritual existences,

to lead a meaningful life. The process states that

if any of the two existence is given more value

than the other, it will create a state of imbalance

which will result in the psychological and

physiological deteriorated condition of the

individual. Hence, it is stressed that meditation

brings a balance between these two sides of

existence, resulting in a balanced and fully

functioning psychophysical health. As evident

from the study by Murthy (1988), who found

better functioning of neuro-physiological

aspects of the participants following Raj Yoga

System in comparison to the participants not

following and Orme (1988) found that

meditation technique significantly decreased

emotional numbness, alcohol consumption,


family problems, insomnia, unemployment

related stress, and overall post-traumatic stress

disorder. Smith (1978) found that the

meditation dropouts were more disturbed and

less self-critical than the person who continued

meditating. When both these sides of existence

are in balance, it prompts a psychological

wellbeing, it bears its effects on the

physiological health also, which starts

improving and an ideal health is achieved.

Aftanas and Golocheikine (2001) found that the

practice of Raj Yoga Meditation not only

regulates the brain electrophysiology and mood

but also regulates the anatomical and

biochemical functions for the physical

wellbeing.

Another necessary element of Raj Yoga

practice is cleaning. All the experiences, actions,

reactions, thoughts and emotions leave

impressions. These impressions accumulate

over time, influencing an individual's view of

reality and consequently his behavior. As habit

patterns emerge and solidify, the past

experiences influence the future action.

Through meditation, whatever is focused on,

tends to expand, whereas, cleaning is a process

whereby an individual directs his thought, in

combination with his will, to remove or clean

away these impressions of experience. Once

these impressions are removed, the root causes

of faulty behavior patterns and emotional

problems will gently and naturally fall away. The

cleaning is done for thirty minutes each evening

when the day's work is over. The cleaning is

approached in a general way with confidence

that all impediments to personal human growth

are leaving. A feeling of lightness is felt as the

weight of the day's impressions has been lifted

off. Manocha, Gordon, Black, Malhi & Seidler

(2009) indicated the potentiality of meditation

as an effective mental health promotion and

prevention strategy.

This 'ideal', cleaned, and positive

physiological and psychological health readies

the individual to meet the challenges, stress and

pressures of the demanding modern life.

Hence, resulting in improved job performance

(Frew, 1974), better emotional intelligence

(Dabrowski, Kawczak & Piechowski; 1970 &

Cranson, Alexander & Gackenbach; 1991),

increased self-development (Warner; 1987)

and wholeness leading towards an actualized

state. Alexander, Swanson, Rainforth, Carlisle,

Todd & Oates (1993) also found that with

regular practice of the mediation program,

e m p l o ye e s s h o we d i m p ro ve d wo r k ,

professional and personal satisfaction and

personal relationships.

The main objective of the study was to

explore the effects of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga

Meditation on the mental health of the

practitioners. It was hypothesized that the

practice of 'Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga Meditation'

would influence the mental health of the

practitioners in comparison with the non-

practitioners.

MethodologyParticipants

The present investigation was carried

out on 100 participants, with age ranging

between 20 to 30 years. The minimum

educational qualification was senior secondary

level. All the participants belonged to middle or

upper socio-economic status. The sample was

divided into two groups i.e., the group of

practitioners of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga Meditation

and the group of non-practitioners. On the basis

of the inclusion/exclusion criteria, only those

participants were chosen for the practitioners'

104

*Samriddhi Singh **Manika Mohan Saxena Volume-3 (2)

group who were practicing Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga meditation, at least since one year.

Research design

The study involved a two group design- the practitioners of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga meditation

and the non practitioners.

105

Two GroupDesignN=100

PractitionersN=50

Non PractitionersN=50On Mental Health

Measures

The following measure was administered individually by contacting the participants

personally:-Mental Health Inventory (MHI) was developed by Jagdish and Srivastav (1984) for the

purpose of measuring positive mental health of normal individuals. The inventory has six

dimensions and 56 items. The dimensions were- Positive self-evaluation, self confidence, self

identity, self acceptance, feeling of worth-whileness and realization of one's potential.

ProcedureAll the participants were contacted individually and a good rapport with all the participants

was established. 100 participants were assessed on their mental health. These participants were

divided into two groups- practitioners and non practitioners. The data for the practitioners' group

was collected from the organization, named, Sahaj Marg, wherein, these practitioners followed a

routine of meditation and cleaning under the system of Raj Yoga Meditation. Practitioners who

were regular in their daily practice of meditation, which included morning meditation and evening

cleaning, were chosen for the study, and this was confirmed by their trainer/preceptors. The non

practicing participants were randomly chosen from the ones who were not practicing Raja Yoga

Meditation. Their mental health was assessed. The mean values were drawn and t-test was

employed to find significant difference between the two groups on their mental health.

Results Table No-1: Showing comparison between practitioners and non practitioners on the dimensions

of mental health- positive self-evaluation.

Groups N MEAN S.D. SED df t LEVEL OF

SIGNIFICANCE

Practitioners 50 24.04 4.39 0.65 48 0.98# Insignificant

Non-

Practitioners

50 23.4 3.64


106

Table 1 depicts that the two groups differ from each other insignificantly as shown by their t-test

score of 0.98. This means that the groups do not differ significantly, although, the mean of the

scores of the practitioners' group (24.04) was higher than that of the non practitioners' group

(23.4). Self-evaluation included self confidence, self identity, self acceptance, feeling of worth-

whileness, realization of one's potential.

Table No:2: Showing comparison between practitioners and non practitioners on the dimensions of

mental health- perception of reality.

Groups N MEAN S.D

.

SED df t LEVEL OF

SIGNIFICANCE

Practitioners 50 19.68 0.27 0.6 48 2.7** Significant at

0.01 level Non-

practitioners

50 18.08 0.52

t-test score shows that the practitioners and non practitioners differ significantly from each other.

The mean of the practitioners' group (19.68) is higher than the mean of the non practitioners' group

(18.08). The practitioners have better perception of reality than the non practitioners. Their

perception is free from need distortion, absence of excessive fantasy and a broad outlook to the

world.

Table No-3: Showing comparison between practitioners and non practitioners on 'integration of

mental health'.


SIGNIFICANCE

Practitioners 50 28.49 3.12 0.71 48 2.11* Significant at

0.05 level Non-

practitioners

50 27.01 4.04

As suggested by the means, the practitioners (28.49) have more integrated mental health than the

non practitioners (27.01). The t-test value (2.11) and the mean difference suggests that the two

groups differ substantially from each other and that the practitioners have better balance of psychic

forces, the ability to concentrate on work and interest in several activities, an ability to understand

and share other people's emotions.

Table No:4: Showing comparison between practitioners and non practitioners on the dimensions of

mental health- autonomy.

Groups N MEAN S.D. SED Df t LEVEL OF

SIGNIFICANCE


Non

practitioners

50 14.18 2.62 0.05 level


107

The table no-4 provides with the mean values of 15.16 and 14.18 for practitioners and non

practitioners, respectively and the t-test score of 2.1 suggesting that the practitioners differ from

non practitioners substantially on autonomy. The practitioners have stable set of internal standards

for their actions and are self dependent.

Table No-5: Showing comparison between practitioners and non practitioners on the dimensions of

mental health- group orientation.


SIGNIFICANCE


Non

practitioners

50 22.58 3.01 0.05 level

Table 5 exhibits t-test score of 2.3, which is significant at 0.05 level and mean values is 24.19 and

22.58 for practitioners and non practitioners, respectively. As suggested by the t-test score, both

the groups differ significantly from each other. The practitioners have higher ability to get along

with others, work with others and ability to find recreation than the non practitioners.

Table No-6: showing comparison between practitioners and non practitioners on 'environmental

competency'.


SIGNIFICANCE

Practitioners 50 23.78 3.68 0.7 48 1.06# Insignificant

Non

practitioners

50 24.84 4.37

The mean score of practitioners i.e. 24.78 is higher than the mean score of non practitioners i.e.

23.84 but this difference is found insignificant (t-test score=1.06). This means that the two groups

do not differ substantially on environmental competency. Both the groups are equally efficient

according to the situational requirements, have the ability to work, to play, to take responsibilities

and have the capacity for adjustment.

0

10

20

30

MEAN OF THE SCORES

HISTOGRAPH SHOW ING DIFFERENCE BETW EEN THE M EANS FOLLOW ERS AND NON FOLLOW ERS ON THE DIM ENSIONS OF M ENTAL HEALTH

FOLLOW ERS

NON FOLLOW ERS

ME

AN

OF

THE

SC

OR

ES


108

Histogram showing graphical representation of

the mean difference between the practitioners

and non practitioners on the dimensions on

mental health.

Discussion

The study was an attempt to find out the

effects of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga Meditation on its

regular practitioners in comparison with the

participants of the non practicing group on their

mental health. It is evident through the results

that the Raja Yoga Meditation has considerable

impact on the mental health of its practitioners.

The result confirms the hypothesis that the

practice of Sahaj Marg Raj Yoga Meditation

would have positive effects on the mental

health of the practitioners. Among the six

dimensions of mental health as given in the

MHI, on four dimensions, the two groups

(practit ioners and non practit ioners)

significantly differed from each other. Their

mean values depicted that the practitioners

have better perception of reality, greater

integration of mental health, more autonomy

and are more group orientation than the non

practitioners.

The practice of Raja Yoga Meditation

includes daily morning meditation of 45-60

minutes and daily evening cleaning for 30

minutes. The results show that due to the

practice of Raja Yoga Meditation, the

practitioners' perception of reality became

independent from need distortion, absence of

excessive fantasy and presented a broader

outlook to the world than that of the non

practitioners' perception. Benn (2003) found

that this practice positively affected emotional

development, affectivity, self-esteem, and

emotional competence.

They have better balance of psychic

forces, they are able to concentrate on work in a

better and efficient way, they take interest in

many other activities, they have an ability to

understand and share other's emotions. They

express empathy, care, respect, love and

understanding in their relationships and

towards self as also indicated by results of a

study by Shapiro (1978), which confirms the

proposition that meditation leads to an increase

in responsibility and self-control.

The practitioners gained stable set of

internal standards for their actions and are self

dependent. The practitioners possess the ability

to get along with others to work with others and

the ability to recreate with others. Kotwal

(2007) found positive significance of meditation

and other techniques for effective self-

development and self-management.

The two groups d id not d i f fer

substantially on the dimensions of mental

health- 'posit ive self-evaluation' and

'environmental competency'. Both the groups

are equally efficient when the situation

requires, procure the ability to work, to play, to

take responsibilities and the capacity for

adjustment, have self-confidence, sense of self-

identity, self-acceptance, deeper feelings of

worthiness and wholeness, and have higher

realization of their potential. Although, the t-

test did not show any significant difference

among the two groups on positive self

evaluation (table no-1) and environmental

competency (table no-6) but if their mean

values were to be compared then it can be said

that the mean values of the practitioners were

higher than the mean values of the non


109

practitioners.

This is the most unique system as it has a

major difference from other meditation

techniques that is, it has an added procedure of

evening cleaning through which a practicing

individual can throw out all the negativity,

reduces anxiety and the intensity of painful

experiences by using their will power. This

corrects the flow of psychic energy and brings

balance in an individual. Modern life has many

sources of anxiety, stress, negativity and

pressures which creates an imbalance in the

individual's psyche which later results in

somatic problems and hence, creates a vicious

cycle of misery and pain. Raja Yoga Meditation is

equipped to counter such faulty styles of living

and cognition and at the same time makes the

practitioner more competent to face the world.

Raj Yoga Cleaning is an active process in which

the practitioner uses his will power to get rid of

all the harmful and dangerous psychic

elements. The morning meditation strengthens

will power and motivates the practitioner to

move towards a more 'self-actualized' state. It is

already emphasized by many previous studies

that meditation brings positive vitality,

increases concentration and strengthens inner

composition and when it is combined with the

process of cleaning, can lead to a positive and

improved mental health. Travis, Haaga, Hagelin,

Tanner, Arenander, Nidich, Gaylord-King,

Grosswald, Rainforth, & Schneider (2010) found

that the TM program produced beneficial

effects for health, brain functioning, and

cognitive development.

Meditation alone also enhances many

creative and positive attributes of an individual

as supported by the results of a study conducted

by Dabrowski (1973), who found that

meditation is encouraging for certain positive

developmental functions, while inhibiting

functions that retard development. In addition,

meditation is considered as a help in the process

of transcending one's psychological type, i.e.,

introverts develop extroversion and vice versa.

He claims that meditation promotes the growth

of the personality ideal. Meditation along with

cleaning can prove to be a correctional method

for changing negative and conflictual

personality traits towards a balanced and

integrated personality. This notion is confirmed

by a study by Varadachari (1966), who found

positive correlation between Raj Yoga

meditation system and resolved personality

problems.

In future, researchers can study the effect

of Raj Yoga Meditation and Raj Yoga cleaning on

physiological health and on the individuals

suffering from any kind of neurosis. A future

research can attempt to study the effectiveness

of Raj Yoga Meditation in comparison with the

other methods of Meditation. The difference in

the effects of meditation and cleaning could

also be a topic of future research.


110

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development and research.

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Seidler, R. (2009). Using meditation for

less stress and better wellbeing. Medline.

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*Senior Counsellor, Army Public School, Jaipur.**HOD, Dept. of Psychology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur.


Introduction :A chronic illness can be referred to as

the long-term altered health condition of an

individual which cannot be treated by a surgery

or by a simple, short-term pharmacotherapy. It

may or may not be lifelong or terminal in nature,

although it takes away quite a number of years

of the patient's life. Chronic illness, in some

cases, can be disabling to the individual. Such

il lnesses include Alzheimer's disease,

Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, paralysis

and so on.Individuals suffering from such

disabl ing i l lnesses cannot often l ive independently and need constant help and support from another individual in the form of caregiving. Hence, care giving is assisting or helping an individual who is either ill or disabled and cannot perform his/ her daily personal or other non-personal activities on his/her own.

Care giving has been classified into two types: formal and informal. Formal caregivers include trained staffs and nurses of

112

Abstract

Effects of Stress on Caregivers of Chronically ILL Patients

*Tanushree Saha **Reeta Kumar ***Bipin Kumar

Chronic illnesses like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, paralysis and so on can be

disabling for a patient. Under these conditions the patient becomes dependent on another person

and constantly need help from him/ her, even in the activities of daily living. The services provided by

this person is called 'caregiving', while the person himself/herself is called the 'caregiver'. Caregivers

can be either formal (nurses and trained staffs of hospitals) or informal (family members and

friends). In case of informal caregivers, the responsibilities of maintaining a regular family life and

career in addition to the duties of caregiving naturally leads to great stress. Dealing with this stress

on a regular basis affects both the caregivers' mental as well as physical health, which if not

monitored at the right time can become life-threatening. This study can help create an awareness

amongst the family members of a primary caregiver as well as medical professionals to keep a check

on the health status (both psychological and physical) of the caregiver in order to prevent him/her

from becoming a patient himself/herself.

hospitals, whereas, informal caregivers include spouse, parents, children, brothers, sisters, other relatives or even friends. Informal caregivers are also called family caregivers and provide unpaid services to the disabled patient.

In case of family (or informal) caregivers, the added responsibilities of caregiving, along with the already present pressures of maintaining a family and professional life, are quite likely to produce a lot of stress. This stress in caregivers can be of two types, i.e., primary stress and secondary stress. Primary stress arises from daily personal care services, such as feeding, washing and so on and this results in secondary stress in the form of restricted social life, family conflicts as well as financial hardships and other stress producing consequences. Ultimately, both these primary and secondary stresses are likely to lead to psychological and physiological malfunctioning in caregivers.


Psychological Consequences of Caregiving

Stress

Several studies have reported

psychological problems like feelings of burden,

depression, anxiety, fatigue as well as sleep

disturbances among caregivers.

Burden among Caregivers

In a recent study by Sreeja, Gupta, Lal,

and Singh (2009), a comparison between

caregivers of chronic mental i l lness

(schizophrenia) and chronic physical illness

(epilepsy), showed that there was significant

level of burden due to caregiving on both the

groups. In a study by Elmahdi et al. (2011) on

caregivers of patients either suffering from a

psychiatric illness or a chronic physical illness, it

was reported that level of subjective burden

was higher among wives than mothers.

Personal tasks like feeding and washing the

patient are perceived as more difficult and

burdensome than non-personal tasks like doing

the groceries (Horowitz, 1985). Given,

Stommel, Collins, King, and Given (1990) stated

that the more confining the caregiving tasks

are, the more they create burden. Race

(Horowitz & Reinhard, 1995), perceived social

support (Edwards & Scheet, 2002) and

depressive symptoms (Caap-Ahlgren & Dehlin,

2002) in caregivers are also important variables

for predicting burden in caregivers.

Depression among Caregivers

Higher rates of depressive symptoms

are consistently reported in family caregivers of

ill patients in comparison to their same age

control sample (Aneshensel, Pearlin, Mullan,

Zarit, & Whitlatch; 1995, Dura, Stukenburg, &

Kiecolt-Glaser, 1990; Tennstedt, Cafferata, &

Sullivan; 1992). In recent studies, 32% to 50% of

caregivers were found to have depressive

symptoms of a level suggesting clinical

113

depression (Burtler, Turner, Kaye, Ruffin, &

Downey; 2005, Carter, 2002; Covinsky et al.,

2003). Depression is found in caregivers of

almost all chronically ill patients. It is found

among caregivers of people suffering from

HIV/AIDS (Folkman, Chesney, Cooke, Boccellari,

& Collette, 1994; Land & Hudson, 2002;

LeBlanc, London, & Aneashensel; 1997),

Alzheimer's disease (Lawton, Miriam, Mortan,

Allen, & Michael, 1991; Semple, 1992) and also

of those who are hospitalized for a long time

(Rosenthal, 1993). In a study on caregivers of

spinal cord injury patients (Weitzenkamp,

Gerhart, Charlifue, Whiteneck, & Savic, 1997), it

was seen that the spouses reported more

symptoms of depression than the patients

themselves as well as the non-caregivers. There

are a number of factors that lead to the

development of depressive symptomatology in

family caregivers. Rivera (2009) has given a list

of factors which include age, race, sleep

disturbances, social support and so on. It was

found that younger caregivers have higher

depression scores (Given et al., 2004; Kurtz,

Kurtz, Given, & Given, 2005; Williams, 2005). In

studies related to the gender of the caregivers,

it has been found that female caregivers report

higher levels of depression as compared to their

male counterparts (Cho, Dodd, Lee, Padilla, &

Slaughter, 2006; Covinsky et al., 2003; Haley,

LaMonde, Han, Burton, & Schonwetter, 2003;

Thompson et al., 2004). In a study conducted on

female caregivers of patients suffering from

either a psychiatric illness or a chronic physical

illness, it was found that 34% were suffering

from major depression (Elmahdi et al., 2011).

Studies on race of caregivers have reported that

Caucasians have significantly more depressive

symptoms than African- Americans and

Hispanics (Gallagher-Thompson et al., 2006;

*Tanushree Saha **Reeta Kumar ***Bipin Kumar Volume-3 (2)

Williams, 2005). In a study on cancer caregivers

by Carter (2002), the family caregivers showed

depression and chronic sleep loss. The family

caregivers have reported that the chronic sleep

loss made them feel irritable towards the

patients. This irritability in turn led to angerwith

the patients' increasing care demands, which

further resulted in feelings of guilt. This

guiltiness later made the caregivers feel

depressed. Depression has been reported to be

the cause of coronary heart disease and

mortality in both the genders of caregivers

( F e r ke t i c h , S c h w a r t z b a u m , F r i d , &

Moeschberger, 2000; Ford et al., 1998; Kouzis,

Eaton, & Leaf, 1995).

Anxiety among Caregivers

Anxiety is also found to occur

significantly in caregivers of chronically ill

patients. Deshmukh, Patwardhan, Bakshi,

Paranis, and Kelkar (2011) reported significant

levels of anxiety in caregivers of cancer patients.

In a study by Grov, Dahl, Moum, and Fossa

(2005), the anxiety level in caregivers of both

genders was found to be significantly higher

than age and gender adjusted controls. Similar

results were also found in caregivers of

dementia patients (Cooper, Balamurali, &

Livingstone, 2007). Elmahdi et al. (2011)

reported a 22.3% prevalence of generalized

anxiety disorder in female caregivers of patients

suffering from either a psychiatric illness or a

chronic physical illness. Like depression even

anxiety in caregivers depends on several

factors. Higher anxiety scores have been

reported by female caregivers (Gaston-

Johansson, Lachica, Fall-Dickson, and Kennedy,

2004; Iconomou, Viha, Kalofonos, and

Kardamakis, 2001; Langer, Abrams, and Syrjala,

2003; Matthews, 2003). Singlehood, lower

income, higher levels of sleep disturbances,

114

increased fatigue and caregiver strain are other

factors related to higher anxiety in caregivers

(Flaskerud, Carter & Lee, 2000; Gaston-

Johansson, Lachica, Fall-Dickson, & Kennedy,

2004; Iconomou, Viha, Kalofonos, &

Kardamakis, 2001; Rossi Ferrario, Zotti,

Massara, & Nuvolone, 2003). Younger

caregivers are reported to be more anxious

than their older counterparts (Deshmukh et al.,

2011).

Fatigue among Caregivers

Fatigue is yet another outcome of

caregiving. Studies showed higher fatigue

scores in the family caregivers of patients with

cancer, dementia and Parkinson's disease (Sato,

Kanda, Anan, & Watanuki, 2002; Teel & Press,

1999). In family caregivers, fatigue has been

found to be physically induced by the constant

demands of caregiving and psychologically

induced by concerns regarding the diagnosis,

treatment and prognosis of the patient (Jensen

& Given, 1993). Female gender (Cho, Dodd, Lee,

Padilla, & Slaughter, 2006), lower income levels

(Gaston-Johansson, Lachica, Fall-Dickson, &

Kennedy, 2004), number of hours of daily care

(Jensen & Given, 1993) and levels of caregiver

strain (Passik & Kirsh, 2005) are some factors

related to higher fatigue in caregivers.

Sleep Disturbances among Caregivers

Sleep disturbance is yet another

outcome of caregiver stress. In a study on

caregivers of Parkinson's disease patients it was

reported that spouses involved in daily

caregiving had a seven-fold increased risk of

sleeping badly compared to partners not

involved in caregiving (Happe & Berger, 2002).

In a study on caregivers of Parkinson's disease

patients it was reported that 48% female, in

contrast to only 27% male, caregiver spouses

suffered from sleep disturbances (Smith,


Ellgring, & Oertel, 1997). Caregivers of adults

with dementia also reported more sleep

complaints than healthy controls of similar age

(Wilcox & King, 1999). In studies on caregivers

of cancer patients it was reported that more

than 95% of the caregivers were experiencing

moderate to severe overall sleep problems

(Carter, 2002; Carter & Chang, 2000). Teel and

Press (1999) reported higher levels of sleep

disturbances in caregivers of cancer, dementia

and Parkinson's disease patients than non-

caregivers. In other studies on caregivers of

dementia patients, family caregivers showed

higher sleep problems than non-family

caregivers (Sato, Kanda, Anan, & Watanuki,

2002; Smith et al., 1997; Wilson, 1989). It may

be added here that both anxiety and depression

are predictors of sleep disturbances (Quan et

al., 2005; Spira et al., 2005). Female gender

(Smith et al., 1997), lower levels of education,

psychological distress, care recipient

disruptions (Wilcox & King, 1999), lack of social

support, fatigue and other familial issues

(Aslan, Sanisoglu, Akyol, & Yetkin, 2009) lead to

sleep disturbances. Caregivers' sleep

disturbances are associated with higher levels

of fatigue, anxiety, depression, lowered

immune function, elevated stress hormones,

increased risk for cardiovascular diseases and

premature mortality (Martire & Hall, 2002; von

Kanel et al., 2006).

Physiological Consequences of Caregiving

Stress

Apart from psychological problems,

caregiving stress also leads to physiological

malfunctioning.

Hypertension and Heart Desease among

Caregivers

Eventhough caregiving stress has been

reported to cause somatic complaints like heart

115

palpitations, headaches and digestive problems

(Grasel, 2002, Kreutzer et al., 2009; Thompson

et al., 2004), studies also indicate that it can

lead to hypertension and coronary heart

disease (Aronson, 1988). Moritz, Kasl, and

Ostfeld (1992) reported that systolic blood

pressure was higher among men whose wives

were more cognitively impaired. Shaw et al.

(1999) reported that caregivers experienced

67% increase in the risk for borderline

hypertension compared with controls and this

difference remained statistically significant

after controlling for age, gender, education,

socioeconomic status, body mass index and use

of anti-hypertensive medications. Lee, Colditz,

Berkman, and Kawachi (2003) reported that

there is almost two-fold increased risk of

coronary heart disease in family caregivers of ill

spouses when compared with non-caregivers.

In another study it was found that male

caregivers had greater chances of coronary

heart disease than non-caregivers (Vitaliano et

al., 2002).

Altered Insulin Level among Caregivers

Insulin levels are also influenced by

caregiving. Vitaliano, Scanlan, Krenz, Schwatz,

and Marcovina (1996) observed significantly

elevated insulin levels in non-diabetic spousal

caregivers of dementia patients as compared

with gender-matched spouses of non-

demented older adults. Higher rates of diabetes

is also reported in informal caregivers (Haley,

Levin, Brown, Berry, & Hughes, 1987; Pruchno &

Potashnik, 1989).

Disturbed Metabolic Functioning among

Caregivers

With respect to metabolic functioning,

significant differences between caregivers and

non-caregivers were revealed. Older male

caregivers had a significantly higher body mass


index and were more obese than controls and

female caregivers showed a greater increase in

weight than controls over a fifteen to eighteen

months period of time (Vitaliano, Russo,

Scanlan, & Greeno, 1996). These metabolic

changes put caregivers at risk for adverse health

outcomes including elevated lipid levels, high

blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases and

arthritis in weight bearing joints (hips and

knees).

Immune System Deterioration among

Caregivers

Chronic stress related to caregiving also

results in deterioration of the immune system.

In a study conducted by Kiecolt-Glaser, Glaser,

Gravenstein, Malarkey, and Sheridan (1996) on

spousal caregivers of dementia patients, it was

indicated that chronic elevations in stress can

lead to impairments in immunity and in turn

may result in increased vulnerability to

infectious diseases. The study also reported

that response to vaccination against influenza

virus was compromised in caregivers as

compared to same aged non-caregivers.

Caregivers of relatives with Alzheimer's disease

have shown increased wound healing time as

compared to age matched control (Kiecolt-

Glaser, Marucha, Malarkey, Mercado, & Glaser,

1995).

Other Physiological Disturbances among

Caregivers

Informal caregivers are reported to

have higher rates of arthritis, ulcers and

anaemia than non-caregivers (Haley, Levine,

Brown, Berry, & Hughes, 1987; Pruchno &

Potashnik, 1989). Health issues like back

problems and peptic ulcers have been

associated with demands of providing full time

care to a spouse (Cohen, 1982; Snyder & Keefe,

1985). In a descriptive report on caregivers of

116

Parkinson's disease patients, it was stated that

caregivers had higher rates of medical

conditions including arthritis, asthma, diabetes,

cardiac problems and also hypertension

(Guinta, Parrish, & Adams, 2002). Caregiving

stress is also reported to result in faster aging

and mortality. In a study conducted by Epel et al.

(2004), on mothers of chronically ill children, it

was found that chronic stress accelerates the

effects of aging by actually shortening cell life

which in turn leads to weakened muscles, skin

wrinkles and even organ failure. Caregivers of

Alzheimer's patients experiencing emotional or

physical strain were found to have 63% greater

mortality than caregivers without strain or non-

caregivers (Schulz & Beach, 1999).

ConclusionThe ill effects of caregiving stress has

gradually come to the forefront. It is observed

that the caregiver's stress leads to feelings of

burden, which in turn leads to depression,

anxiety, sleep disturbances and fatigue, and

ultimately affects the physical well-being of the

caregiver to the extent that if neglected it can

also claim the caregiver's life. It is therefore very

essential for the family and friends of a primary

caregiver to be vigilant towards the caregiver's

mental and physical health. Any slight change

should not be ignored and reported to the

physician as early as possible. Medical and

psychiatric professionals should also be aware

of the ill consequences of caregiving stress and

identify those caregivers who are “at a risk” of

developing psychological and physical health

problems and hence provide early and proper

interventions to minimize the risk of any long

lasting damage. The significance of the problem

needs to be realized firstly, in context to the

reducing sizes of families which makes the


availability of caregivers, especially the informal

caregivers, less feasible. Secondly, and more

importantly it needs to be remembered that

informal caregivers provide an all important

quotient of love, affection and emotional care

which is paramount for the patient's physical

and psychological well-being.

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122

*Research Scholar, **Professor, ***Research Scientist,Department of Psychology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India.


Introduction :The concept of self-efficacy lies at the

centre of psychologist Albert Bandura's social

cognitive theory. Bandura's theory emphasizes

the role of observational learning, social

experience, and reciprocal determinism in the

development of personality. According to

Bandura, a person's attitudes, abilities, and

cognitive skills comprise what is known as the

self-system. This system plays a major role in

how we perceive situations and how we behave

in response to different situations. Self-efficacy

plays an essential part of this self-system.

According to Albert Bandura, self-

efficacy is "the belief in one's capabilities to

organize and execute the courses of action

required to manage prospective situations." In

other words, self-efficacy is a person's belief in

his or her ability to succeed in a particular

situation. Bandura described these beliefs as

determinants of how people think, behave, and

feel (1994). It has also been defined as the belief

123

Abstract

Self-efficacy in Militancy Affected Youth of Kashmir Valley

*Ahmad Kaiser Dar **AhmadNavshadWani

Self-efficacy is a competence belief about one's “judgments of their capabilities to organize

and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” (Bandura, 1986,

p. 391). There are multiple sources of self-efficacy beliefs, but mastery experiences—how one

interprets, evaluates, and judges their competence—is the most powerful source (Bandura,

1997).Hence, the aim of the present investigation was to study self-efficacy in militancy affected

youth of Kashmir valley. Self-efficacy was studied in two groups- militancy affected group and

militancy non-affected group. Sample comprised 100 participants, 50 each in two groups. Self-

efficacy was measured through General Self-efficacy Scale developed by Ralf Schwarzer and

Matthias Jerusalem. t test showed that the control group scored significantly higher than the

experimental group. When compared in terms of gender no significant difference was found in

experimental group where as in control group significant difference was found as females outshined

males.

Key words: self-efficacy, militancy, youth

that one is capable of performing in a certain

manner to attain certain goals (Ormrod 2006). It

has been described in other ways as the sense of

belief that one's actions have an effect on the

environment (Steinberg, 1998) as a person's

judgement of his or her capabilities based on

mastery criteria; a sense of person's

competence within a specific framework,

focusing on the person's assessment of their

abilities to perform specific tasks in relation to

goals and standards rather than in comparison

with other's capabilities. Aditionally, it builds on

personal past experience of mastery. The idea

of self-efficacy is one of the centre points in

positive psychology; this branch of psychology

focuses on factors that create a meaning for

individuals. It is believed that our personalized

ideas of self-efficacy affect our social

i n t e r a c t i o n s i n a l m o s t e v e r y w a y.

Understanding how to foster the development

of self-efficacy is a vitally important goal of

positive psychology because it can lead to living


a more productive and happy life.

Since Bandura published his seminal

1977 paper, "Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying

Theory of Behavioral Change," the subject has

become one of the most studied topics in

psychology. Why has self-efficacy become such

an important topic among psychologists and

educators? As Bandura and other researchers

have demonstrated, self-efficacy can have an

impact on everything from psychological states

to behaviour to motivation.

Virtually all people can identify goals

they want to accomplish, things they would like

to change, and things they would like to

achieve. However, most people also realize that

putting these plans into action is not quite so

simple. Bandura and others have found that an

individual's self-efficacy plays a major role in

how goals, tasks, and challenges are

approached.

Since the present study was taken up in

Kashmir, it is, therefore imperative to present a

brief overview of the circumstances prevailing

there in Kashmir. Insurgency in Kashmir has

existed in various forms. Kashmir has been the

target of a campaign of militancy by all sides in

the conflict. Thousands of lives have been lost

since 1989 due to the intensified insurgency.

A widespread popular insurgency

started in Kashmir with the disputed 1987

elections with some elements from the State's

assembly forming militant wings which acted as

a catalyst for the emergence of armed

insurgency in the region.

Kashmir has been witnessing the state

of chronic socio-political conflict for about two

decades now. The conflict has left in its

aftermath many thousands of people dead,

maimed, and disabled, many missing or

confined, thousands of children orphaned and

124

women widowed. In addition, there has been a

colossal damage to the property and cultural

fabric. During the same time, natural disasters

too have frequently traumatized already

suffering people.Keeping these factors, to

mention a few, into consideration, it would not

be an exaggeration to state that militancy/

insurgency has direct as well as indirect

implications on the self-efficacy of people living

there in Kashmir.

Hence the present investigation was

taken up to figure out self-efficacy in

insurgency/militancy affected youth of Kashmir

valley while keeping into consideration the

prevailing circumstances in Kashmir since 1989.

MethodParticipants

The sample comprised 100 participants

falling in two groups: militancy affected

(experimental group) and militancy non-

affected (control group). Each group consisted

of 50 participants. The experimental group was

purposively selected from different militancy

affected households of Kashmir while the

control group was drawn out of the general

population of valley.

Measures

General Self-Efficacy Scale:The General

Self-efficacy Scale aims at a broad and stable

sense of personal competence to deal

efficiently with a variety of stressful situations.

The German version of this scale was originally

developed by Matthias Jerusalem and Ralf

Schwarzer in 1981, first as a 20-item version and

later as a reduced 10-item version (Jerusalem

&Schwarzer, 1986, 1992; Schwarzer&

Jerusalem, 1989). It has been used in numerous

research projects, where it typically yielded

internal consistencies between alpha .75 and

.90.

Volume-3 (2)*Ahmad Kaiser Dar **AhmadNavshadWani

The scale is not only parsimonious and reliable, it has also proven valid in terms of

convergent and discriminant validity. For example, it correlates positively with self-esteem and

optimism and negatively with anxiety, depression and physical symptoms.

ResultsThe results obtained and their interpretations have been presented in Table number 1 to 3.

A perusal of table 1 reveals that mean scores of militancy affected (experimental group) and

militancy non-affected (control group) were 59.72 and 73.19 with SD 10.23 and 15.37 respectively.

The t-ratio between the two means was found to be 5.16 which was significant at 0.05 level of

confidence.

A look at table 2 reveals that mean scores of militancy affected males and females were

46.87 and 50.13 with SD 15.93 and 17.42 respectively. The t-value between the means of the two

groups was found to be 0.68 which was insignificant at 0.05 level of confidence.

Table 3 depicts that the mean scores of militancy non-affected males and females which

were 39.87 and 65 with SD 12.72 and 15.93 respectively. The t-ratio between the two means was

found to be 6.76 which was significant at 0.05 level of confidence.

125

Table 1:Comparison of mean scores of militancy affected and militancy non-affected group

Table 2: Comparison of mean scores of militancy affected males and females

Table 3: Comparison of mean scores of militancy non-affected males and females

Groups

MAG

MNAG

N

50

50

Mean

59.72

73.19

SD

10.23

15.37

T

5.16

P

0.05

Groups

MAM

MAF

N

25

25

Mean

46.87

50.13

SD

15.93

17.42

T

0.68

P

NS

Groups

MNAM

MNAF

N

25

25

Mean

39.87

65

SD

12.72

15.93

T

6.76

P

0.05


Note:

MAG (militancy affected group)

MNAG (militancy non-affected group)

MAM (militancy affected males)

MAF (militancy affected females)

MNAM (militancy non-affected males)

MNAF (militancy non-affected females)

Discussion

The concept of "self-efficacy",

introduced and investigated by Bandura (1977,

1986, 1995), is described as a self-perception

that is formed in the context of behavior in

specific areas (Bandura, 1977, 1986). This

perception develops through a gradual learning

process whereby the individual receives

information from various sources regarding

his/her abilities in a specific area of functioning.

This accumulation of feedback

indicating success or failure in the given area

naturally affects the perception of one's ability,

creating a high level of self-efficacy in the case

of positive messages and successes, and an

opposite effect in the case of messages of

failure (Bandura, 1977). The self-perception

formed as a result of these experiences

influences aspects such as stability and

persistence in certain behaviors, patterns of

thinking, and emotional response, decisions

concerning course of action, and occupational

choices. People also develop specific self-

efficacy beliefs with regard to their ability to

lead based on experiences of success in

influencing people (e.g., Murphy, 2002).

The present study aimed at finding out

differences between militancy affected youth

and militancy non-affected youth with respect

to their self-efficacy. The findings revealed that

126

the two groups- militancy affected and

militancy non-affected group did exhibit

statistically significant difference in relation to

their self-efficacy. As the t-ratio (t = 5.16, p<.05)

between the means of the two groups was

found significant. When militancy affected

group was compared in terms of gender, no

significant difference was found. Since the t-

ration (t=0.68, p>.05) which was insignificant at

0.05 level of confidence. Nevertheless,

statistically significant difference was found

when militancy non-affected males and females

were compared on self-efficacy. As the t-ratio

(t= 6.76, p<.05) between the means of the two

groups was found significant. The results of the

present study showed that the mean scores of

militancy affected and militancy non-affected

group on self-efficacy were found to be 59.72

and 73.19 respectively. Therefore, militancy

non-affected group scored higher than

militancy affected group on self-efficacy. The

mean scores of the militancy affected males and

females were found to be 46.87 and 50.13

respectively. Though the militancy affected

females scored slightly higher than their male

counterparts but this difference was not found

statistically significant. The mean scores of

militancy non-affected males and females were

found to be 39.87 and 64 respectively.

Therefore, militancy non-affected females

scored higher than their male counterparts on

self-efficacy.

The findings of the present study have

some direct and indirect support from the

studies and surveys conducted by various

reputed organisations and institutes. A survey

report on Jammu and Kashmir by a


Holland-based humanitarian group Medecins

Sans Frontieres (MSF) maintains that a third of

its respondents suffered from psychological

distress. Nearly one in 10 people reported

having lost one or more members of their

immediate family due to violence in the period

from 1989-2005. The survey reported that

almost half (48.1%) of the respondents said that

they felt only occasionally or never safe.It also

indicated that violence or the threat of physical

violence seems to have had a significant effect

on the mental health and self-efficacy of

people.

According to MSF, interviewees

reported witnessing (73.3%) and directly

experiencing themselves (44.1%) physical and

psychological mistreatment, such as

humiliation and threats thus causing extensive

damage to their psychological health.

Psychologists maintain that people

living at a place ravaged by conflict are often

faced with a number of psychological problems.

They say that the physical environment in which

people live and survive has a direct bearing on

their mental health, psychological wellbeing

and self-efficacy. “Stress caused by feelings of

insecurity and dependency can deplete physical

and psychological buoyancy leading to varied

mental problems, this has happened in most of

the cases in Jammu and Kashmir”, said Dr

AdarshBhargav.

In this connection, a recent exhaustive

review by Hobfoll et al. (2007) distils the

findings of

empirical research to endorse five

elements of immediate and mid-term mass

trauma intervention. These elements are the

127

promotion of safety, calming, collective and

self-efficacy,connectedness and hope.

Interventions guided by these five elements can

be applied at individual, group and community

levels. Significantly, these include activities that

are broadly economic-developmental.

To conclude the possibility of low self-

efficacy involving violence, activism and other

antisocial activities could not be ruled out

completely owing to multiple restraints.

Keeping these limitations into account more

efforts are required to be made to delve deep

into the problems of persons with low levels of

self-efficacy and to come up with certain

remedial measures, rehabilitation and,

guidance and counselling.

References

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a

unifying theory of behavioural change.

Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of

thought and action: A social cognitive

theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice

Hall.

Bandura, A. (1992) Exercise of personal agency

through the self-efficacy mechanisms.

In R. Schwarzer (Ed.), Self-efficacy:

Thought control of action. Washington,

DC: Hemisphere.

Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy.In V. S.

Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of

human behaviour, 4. New York:

Academic Press, pp. 71-81.

Bandura, A. (1995). Self-Efficacy in Changing

Societies. Cambridge University Press.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of

control. New York: W. H.Freeman.


Hobfoll, S. et al. (2007). Five essential elements

of immediate and mid-term mass

trauma

intervention: Empirical evidence. Psychiatry,

70(4), 283-315.

Jerusalem, M., &Schwarzer, R. (1992). Self-

efficacy as a resource factor in stress

appraisal processes. In R. Schwarzer

(Ed.), Self-efficacy: Thought control of

action (195-213). Washington, DC:

Hemisphere.

Murphy, S.E. (2002). Leader self-regulation: The

role of self-efficacy and multiple

intelligences. In R.E. Riggio, S.E.

Murphy & F.J. Pirozzolo (Eds.), Multiple

Intelligences and Leadership (pp. 163-

186). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Ormrod,H. E. (2006). Educational Psychology: t hD e v e l o p i n g L e a r n e r s ( 5

ed.),”glossary”. N.J., Merrill: Upper

Saddle River (companion website)

Steinberg, L. (1998).Adolescence. New York:

McGraw-Hill College companies. Cited

in Matsushima, R., &Shiomi, K.,

(2003).Social self -eff icacy and

i n t e r p e r s o n a l s t r e s s i n

adolescence.Social Behavior and

Personality.

128

*Research Scholar at Department of Psychology JamiaMilliaIslamia, New Delhi-110025

**Assistant Professor at Govt. College for Women M. A. Road, Srinagar-19000


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