indian art (r)

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INDIAN ART

INTRODUCTION

Study of history of art has developed in association with archaeological studies;however, it is now recognized as a specialized discipline. In the West, mainly in

Europe, historical art as a discipline has grown considerably with numerous

methodological inputs, whereas in India it is still in the process of development in its

investigating mechanisms. As the study of art history has grown out of extensive

documentations and excavations, one finds description of art objects as the

prominent method of study. There are a few significant studies in the early twentieth

century, where the concerns are addressed beyond mere description. Subsequently

several generations of outstanding western and Indian scholars of Indian art history

have studied the subject in great depth and the findings are a revelation of howglorious has been the Indian civilizational achievement through its art creations in

the medium of architectural monuments, sculptures and paintings. We can claim a

distinct Indian approach to the art of building edifices, sculpture making and the

language of painting when compared with European art or the Far Eastern art.

Therefore, Indian historical art studies have emerged as a prestigious academic

discipline in the university level education.

ART - ANCIENT &MEDIEVALTIMES

Arts of the Indus Valley

The arts of the Indus Valley Civilization emerged during the

second half of the third millennium BCE in the Indian sub -

continent. The forms of art found from various sites of the

civilisation include sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewellery,

terracotta figures, etc. The artists of that time surely had fine

artistic sensibilities and a vivid imagination. Their delineation

of human and animal figures was highly realistic in nature.

The two major sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation,

along the Indus River ---the cities of Harappa in the north

and Mohenjo-Daro in the south --- showcase one of the

earliest examples of civic planning with houses, markets, storage facilities, offices,

public baths, etc., arranged in a grid-like pattern. There was also a highly developed

drainage system. While Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are situated today in Pakistan,

the important sites excavated in India are Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat,

Rakhigarhi in Haryana, Ropar in the Punjab, Kalibangan and Balathal in Rajasthan,

etc.

Bust of a bearded priest



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The Indus Valley people made

terracotta images also but compared to the

stone and bronze statues, the terracotta

representation of human form are crude in

Harappa and Mahenjo-Daro. They aremore realistic in Dholavira and Kalibangan.

The most important among the Indus

figures are those representing the mother

goddess.

Arts of the Mauryan Period

Sixth century BCE marks the beginning of new religious and social movements in the

Gangetic valley of northern India in the form of Buddhism and Jainism. Magadha

emerged as a powerful kingdom and consolidated its control over the other regions.By the fourth century BCE the Mauryas established their power and by the third

century BCE, a large part of India was under Mauryan control. Ashoka emerged as

the most powerful king of the Mauryan dynasty who patronised the shraman

tradition in the third century BCE.

Construction of stupas and viharas as part of the monastic establishment

became part of the Buddhist tradition. In this period, apart from stupas and viharas ,

stone pillars, rock-cut caves and monumental figure sculptures were carved at

several places. The Mauryan stone pillars were erected all over the Empire with

inscriptions engraved on them. The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital

figures like bull, lion, elephant, etc. The Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath,

popularly known as the Lion Capital, is the finest example of Mauryan sculptural

tradition.

The Lion Capital of Sarnath

The Lion Capital at Sarnath, near Varanasi, is generally referred

to as Sarnath Lion Capital, built in commemoration of the first

sermon or the Dhammachakrapravartana by the Buddha at

Sarnath. The capital originally consisted of five parts. The shaft

(which is broken in many parts now), a lotus bell base, a drum on

the bell base with four animal proceeding clockwise, the figures

of four majestic adorned lions, and the crowning element – the

Dharamchakra , a large wheel mounted on the heads of the lions.

The capital without the crowning wheel and the lotus base has

been adopted as the National Emblem of India.

The dharmachakra represented with 24 spokes is depicted in India’s

National Flag as Ashoka Chakra. The wheel which now lies broken



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is displayed in the archaeological museum at Sarnath and so is the Capital with four

lions firmly seated back to back on a circular abacus.

Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara art

The first century CE onwards, Gandhara (now inPakistan), Mathura in northern India and Vengi in

Andhra Pradesh emerged as important centres of art

production. Buddha was depicted in human form in

Mathura and Gandhara. The sculptural tradition in

Gandhara had the confluence of Bactria, Parthia and

the local Gandhara tradition. The local sculptural

tradition at Mathura became so strong that it spread to

other parts of northern India. The best example in this

regard is the stupa sculptures found at Sanghol inPunjab. The Buddha image in Mathura are modelled

on the lines of earlier Yaksha images whereas in

Gandhara it has Hellenistic features. Images of

Vaishnava (mainly Vishnu and his various forms) and

Shiva (mainly the lingas and mukhalingas) are also found in Mathura but Buddhist

images are found in larger numbers.

Early Temples

Temples were often decorated with the images of Gods. Myths mentioned in the

Puranas became part of the narrative representation of the Brahmanical religion.

Each temple had a principal image of a God. The shrines of the temples were of three

kinds- (i) Sandhara type (without pradikshinapatha) (ii) Nirandhara type (with

pradikshinapath), and (iii) Sarvatobhadra (which can be accessed from all sides).

Some of the important temple sites of this period are Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh and

Eran, Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh. These

temples are simple structures consisting of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear.

Among the important sites outside the Gangetic Valley is Devnimori in Gujarat.



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Cave Tradition in Western India

Ajanta Caves of Aurangabad, Maharashtra.

In western India, many Buddhist caves dating back to the second century BCE

onwards have been excavated. Mainly three architectural types were executed – (i)

apsidal vault- roof chaitya halls (found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja); (ii) apsidal vault-

roof pillarless hall (found at Thana- Nadsur); and (iii) flat-roofed quadrangular hall

with a circular chamber at the back (found at Kondivite). The front of the chaitya hall

is dominated by the motif of a semi-circular chaitya arch with an open front which

has a wooden facade and, in some cases, there is no dominating chaitya arch window

such as found at Kondivite. In all the chaitya caves a stupa at the back is common.

The most famous Buddhist cave site is Ajanta, located in Aurangabad districtof Maharashtra. Ajanta has twenty-nine caves. It has four Chaitya caves dated to the

earlier phase, i.e., the second and the first century BCE (Cave Nos. 10 and 9) and the

later phase, i.e., the fifth century CE (Cave Nos. 19 and 26). It has large Chaitya-

viharasand is decorated with sculptures and paintings. Many paintings have

survived in Cave Nos. 1,2,16 and 17. The paintings have lots of typological

variations. Outward projections are used in the Ajanta paintings of the fifth century

CE. Lines are clearly defined and the rhythmic body colour gets merged with the

outer line creating the effect of volume. The figures are heavy like the sculptures of

western India.The caves of the early phase also have paintings especially in Cave Nos. 9 and

10. Paintings in cave No.10 are an afterthought as is evident from the plastering over

the early inscriptions inside the cave. On the other hand, the paintings in Cave No. 9

were preplanned and belong to the first century BCE. The figures are broad with

heavy proportion and arranged in the picture space in a linear way. Lines are sharp,

colours are limited. Figures of these caves are painted with considerable naturalism

and there is no over stylization. Events are grouped together according to

geographical location. Tiered, horizontally-arranged figures appear as a convenient

choice of the artisans. The themes of the paintings are the vents from the life of the



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Buddha, the Jatakas and the Avadanas. Some paintings such

as SimhalaAvadana , MahajanakaJataka, and

VidhurpunditaJataka cover the entire wall of the cave.

Shrine images at Ajanta are grand in size. Some of the

Vihara caves are unfinished such as Cave Nos. 5, 14, 23, 24,28, 29.

Another important cave site located in Aurangabad

District is Ellora. It is located a hundred kilometres from

Ajanta and has thirty-two Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jain

caves. By the late seventh or the early eighth century, the

ambitious projects at Ellora became even grander.

By about 750 CE, the early western Chalukya

control of the Deccan was taken by the Rashtrakutas.

Their greatest achievement in architecture is the Kailashnath temple at Ellora,aculmination of at least a millennium long tradition in rock cutarchitcture in India. It

is a complete Dravidastyle building with a Nandi shrine -- since the temple is

dedicated to Shiva. A gopuram like gateway, surrounding cloisters, subsidiary

shrines, staircases and an imposing tower or vimana rising to thiry meters. One

portion of the monolithic hill was carved entirely to build the Kailashnath temple.

The sculpture of the Rashtrakuta phase at Ellora is dynamic, the figures often larger

than life, infused with unparalleled grandeur and the most overwhelming energy.

The Elephanta Caves located near Mumbai, were originally a Buddhist site

which was later dominated by the Shaivite faith. It is contemporary and its

sculptures show slenderness in the body, with stark light and dark effects. The other

noteworthy cave site is Bagh located near Indore in Madhya Pradesh.

Later Mural Traditions

After Ajanta, very few sites with paintings have survived but they provide valuable

evidences to reconstruct the tradition of paintings. It may also be noted that the

sculptures were plastered and painted. The tradition of cave excavations continued

further at many places where sculpting and painting were done simultaneously.

One such site is Badami in Karnataka. Badami was the capital of the western

Chalukyan dynasty which ruled the region from 543 to 598 CE. The Chalukya king,

Mangalesha patronised the excavation of the Badami caves. The inscription in Cave

No.4 mentioned the date 578-579 CE describes the beauty of the cave and includes

the dedication of the image of Vishnu. Therefore, the cave is popularly known as the

Vishnu Cave.

Painting of Vajrapani from

Ajanta Cave No. 1



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Badami cave temple of Karnataka

The tradition of the painting extended further down south in Tamil Nadu in

the preceding century with regional variations during the regimes of Pallava,

Pandya and Chola dynasties. The Pallava kings who succeeded the Chalukya Kings

in parts of South India, were also patrons of arts. Mahendravarma I who ruled in the

seventh century was responsible for building temple at Panamalai, Mandagapattu

and Kanchipuram. Paintings in the Kanchipuram temple were patronised by the

Pallava King, Rajsimha.

When the Pandyas rose to power, they too patronised art. The

Tirumalaipuram caves and Jaina caves at Sittanvasal are some of the surviving

examples. A few fragmented layers of paintings can be seen in Tirumalaipuram. In

Sittanavasal, the paintings are visible on the ceilings of shrines, in verandas and on

the brackets.

Temple Architecture and Sculpture

The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following: (i) a cave-like sanctum

( garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’), which, in the early tem

ples, was a small cubicle with a single entrance and grew into a larger chamber in

time. The garbhagriha is made to house the main

icon which is itself the focus of many rituals; (ii)the entrance to the temple which may be a

portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates

space for a large number of worshippers and is

known as a mandapa; (iii) from the fifth century

CE onwards, freestanding temples tend to have

a mountain-like spire, which can take the shape

of a curving shikhar in North India and a

pyramidal tower, called a vimana in South India;

(iv) the vahan , i.e., the mount or vehicle of the



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temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar of dhvaj is placed axially before the

sanctum. Two broad orders of temples in the country are known- Nagara in the north

and Dravida in the south.

The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is

known as Nagara. In North India it is common for an entire temple to be built on astone with steps leading up to it. While the earliest temples had just one tower,

Shikhara , later temples had several.

Numerous temples of smaller dimensions have been constructed over aperiod

of time. In contrast, the temples of Khajuraho made in the tenth century,i.e.,about

four hundred years after the temple at Deogarh, shows how dramatically the shape,

style and size of the nagaratemple architecture had developed. The Lakshmana

temple dedicated to Vishnu is the grandest temple of Khajuraho, built in 954.

Khajuraho’s temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures; the erotic

expression is given equal in human experience as spiritual persuit, and it is seen as apart of larger cosmic whole. The epitome of temple architecture in North India is the

Kandariya Mahadeo temple at Khajuraho.

The temples in north western parts of India including Gujarat and Rajasthan,

are stylistically extendable. The most exuberant and famed is the menipulatable soft

white marble which is also seen in some of the tenth to twelfth century Jain temples

at Ranakpur. The Sun temple at Modhera dates back to early eleventh century and

was built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki Dynasty in 1026. There is a massive

rectangular stepped tank called the Surya kund in front it. The influence of wood

carving tradition of Gujarat is evident in the lavish carving and sculpture work.

Eastern India temples include those found in the North East, Bengal and

Odisha. Each iof these three areas produced distinct types of temples. Kamakhya

temple situated in Guwahati, Assam, a Shakti peeth , is dedicated to Goddess

Kamakhya and was built in the seventeenth century. In Bengal the ninth century

SiddeshvaraMahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwandistrict, shows a tall curving

Sikhara crowned by a large amalaka and is an example of the early Pala style. It is

similar to the temples of Odisha. Many of the temples from ninth to the twelfth

century were located at Telkupi in Purulia district.

The main architectural features of the Odisha temples are classified in three

orders, i.e., rekhapida, pidhadeul and khakra. Most of the main temple sites are located

in ancient Kalinga -- modern Puri, Bhubaneswar and Konark. In Konark , the Sun

temple is set on a high base, its walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental

carving. These include twelve pairs of enormous wheels sculpted with spokes and

hubs, representing the chariot wheels of the Sun god.

A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal,

Himachal and Kashmir. The sculptures at Chambain Himachal also show an

amalgamation of local tradition with a post-Gupta style. The images of

Mahishasuramardini and Narasimhaat the Laksana-Devi Mandir are evidence of the

same. Both the images shows the metal sculpture traditions of Kashmir.



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In south India, Kanchpuram,Thanjavur or Thanjore, Madurai and

Kumbakonam are the famous temple towns of Tamil Nadu. The shore temple at

Mahabalipuram was built during the reign of Narasimhavarman II. The magnificent

Shiva temple of Thanjavur, called the Rajarajeswara or Brihadiswara temple, was

completed around 1009.

Indo- Islamic Architecture

In the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towards Spain and India. Islam

came to India, particularly, with Muslim merchants, traders, holy men and

conquerors over a passage of six hundred years.

Although by the eighth century CE, Muslims had

begun to construct in Sind, Gujarat, etc.

Keeping in mind religious and secularnecessities, architecture in form of mosques, tombs,

dargahs, minars, hammanms , formally laid out gardens,

madrasas, sarais or caravansarais, Kos minars came up

over a period of time.

Two most striking minars of medieval times are

the QutubMinar in Delhi and the Chand Minar at

Daulatabad Fort. The QutubMinar also came to be

associated with the revered saint of Delhi,

KhwajaQutubuddinBakhtiyar Kaki. The QutubMinar,

built in the thirteenth century, is a 234-feet-high

tapering tower divided into five storeys. Chand

Minar, built in the fifteenth century is a 210-feet-high tapering tower divided into

four storeys.

Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty was a popular

feature of medieval India. Some well known examples of such tombs are those of

GhyasuddinTughlaq, Humayun, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-khanan, Akbar and

Itmaduddaula.

Taj Mahal was built in Agra by Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his deceased

wife Mumtaz Mahal. Taj Mahal was the apogee of the evolutionary architectural

process in medieval India. From 1632 onwards it took nearly twenty years and 20000

specialised workers to complete this monument.

QutubMinar, Delhi



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The Rajasthani and Pahari Schools of Painting

A folio from the DholaMaru love-legend of Rajasthan, Mewar , dated 1592 A.D., National

Museum, New Delhi

The term Rajput was coined by the early twentieth

century art-historian and scholar AnandCoomaraswamy, when not many miniature

paintings were discovered. It was generally meant

to designate that section of non-Mughal painting

which originated and prevailed in the courts of

Rajput rulers in the plains of Rajasthan and the

wide area lying between the Punjab plains and the

western Himalayas. These are now refered to as the

Rajasthani and Pahari Schools respectively.



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Pahari miniature painting, distinct in spirit and idiom, flourished in the

foothills of the western Himalaya from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century.

The Pahari style was prevalent in numerous places such as Basohli, Kulu, Chamba,

Mankot, Nurpur, Guler, Kangra etc.

The term Rajasthani is applied to schools of paintings which flourished between the sixteenth and the early nineteenth centuries in the various states of

Rajasthan. Mewar, Malwa, Bundi, Kotah, Bikaner, Kishangarh and Jaipur were

flourishing centres of art and craft. The Rajasthani paintings reflect a lot of interest in

diversity. Although some of the states were separated by small distances, the theme

and technique of the paintings varied considerably. Some schools put an accent on

fine execution, others on strong and brilliant colours and some like Kishangarh on

extreme mannerism.

Gujarati and Malwa Paintings Art in Gujarat is famous for its variety. From ancient

forms of art, traditional fabric based paintings, and

decorative folk art, to modern art forms such as

photography, Gujarat’s art has a lot to offer to

connoisseurs as well as ordinary art lovers. The Kalamkari

art found in Gujarat has religious underpinnings, and is

called Matani Pachedi. The paintings are created on a

cream colored fabric base. The subjects of these paintings

are usually religious, pertaining to gods and goddesses.

The paintings form the backdrop of Goddess Durga

statues in many temples. They are brought in by devotees

as an offering to the Goddess if their wish is granted.

During religious festivals, these paintings are much sought after in the rural and

many urban areas of the state. Keeping pace with the changing times, the hand-

painted textiles have given way to partially block-printed fabric, where the borders

are created with printing blocks and the rest of the painting is made by hand.

Pithora is among the most well known of Gujarat's folk art forms. Created by

communities such as the Rathwas, these paintings usually serve two purposes:

celebration of good times, and a call to the local deity Pithora Baba to rescue the

people from drought or disease. The paintings are created as part of a ritual, with a

Lakahara group creating the painting and the Badva performing rituals alongside as

the head priest. Today, the elegant motifs and frescoes of Pethora style of art can also

be found on terracotta pots and decorative items.

Mālwa painting: The 17th century school of Rājasthanī miniature painting was centred

largely in Mālwa and Bundelkhand (in modern Madhya Pradesh state). The style is

sometimes referred to as Central Indian painting on the basis of its geographical

distribution. The school was conservative and little development is seen from the

earliest examples, such as the Rasikapriyā (a poem analyzing the love sentiment)

Radha and Krishna

http://www.britannica.com/art/miniature-painting





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series dated 1636 and the AmaruŚatakam (a Sanskrit poem of the late 17th century),

now in the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya of Mumbai. Little is

known of the nature of the school in the 18th century. Mālwa paintings show a

fondness for rigorously flat compositions, black and chocolate-brown backgrounds,

figures shown against a solid colour patch, and architecture painted in lively colour.The school’s most appealing features are a primitive charm and a simple childlike

vision.

The Mughal School of Miniature Painting

Miniature painting had exposure to the

conventional Persian school of painting,

which to a great extent remained their

innate artistic idiom.

With the growing European contactwith Mughal courts, Mughal artists were

exposed to the idiom which was a visual

representation of the art developed under

the Greek and Romans and which was

revived during the thirteenth to early

sixteenth century in Europe. This was a

rebirth or renaissance, of the classical

elements of art, generally referred as European Renaissance art. Devices such as

artificial perspective, modelling, and sfumato (the technique of applying colours in

grades creating an almost imperceptible tonal shift from light to dark) were adapted

in the Mughal studio.

Shah Jahan has been shown visiting the shrine of Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti at

Ajmer (1656), in a painting attributed to a ‘Kashmiri Painter’, which is a fine example

of eclectic artistic assimilation by the Mughals. A painting which depicts Emperor

Akbar sitting with an easy air about him, attended by two of his grandsons -- one of

them Prince Khurram – was a favorite of Akbar. The Jahangiri period of Mughal

miniatures mirrors this love for nature and hunting and marked the pinnacle of

miniature paintings, after which there was a

steady fall in painting tradition.

The Deccani School of Painting

The history of Deccani painting can largely be

constructed from the late sixteenth century until

Woman and Attendants with a Bird

Golconda, Deccan School, late 18th c.



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the 1680s - the time when Mughals conquered Deccan. The Deccan can be seen in the

art of the nineteenth century under the Asafiya dynasty.

The Deccani style of painting was for long placed under the banner of Indo-

Persian art. In the plateau region of southern India, beyond the Vindhya range of

mountains, during the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries under various sultansof Deccan, a school of painting which was immediately distinct and strong was

nurtured and expanded. The kingdoms of Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmednagar

developed highly sophisticated and distinct school of court painting. Its unique

sensuality and intense colours have strong affinity to regional aesthetics. The school

preferred dense composition and an aura of romance which expressed itself in an

eloquently natural visual idiom.

The Bengal School

The growing influence of the Bengal School of Art, its growing affinity with thenationalists and the rise of the swadeshi ideology created

a strong visual movement which propagated a

philosophy that also looked for the ‘authentic’. The year

1896 was crucial in the Indian history of visual

representation. E. B. Havell (1861-1934), a British

educationalist and Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951)

saw great need to Indianise education of art in the

country. Thus they began in the Government Art

School, Calcutta (now Kolkata). A new objective

curriculum was formulated to include and encourage

the techniques and themes in Indian art traditions. Here,

the art students incorporated and closely studied the

great Indian artists and their works. As the art historian

Partha Mitter writes, “The first generation of the students of Abanindranath engaged in recovering in the lost language of

Indian art”. A distinct visual style was formulated which

was addressed as ‘Oriental art’, and one of its

ideological position was the intellectual celebration of Pan-Asian ideals.

Nandlal Bose, student of Abanindranath Tagore, joined Shantiniketan the

university founded by poet and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore. Here, Nandlal

found intellectual and artistic milieu in which he disseminated the philosophy of

Abanindranath.

Two artists of this time who were important to an art that was to become

more modernist and avant-garde in post-independent India were Gaganendranath

Tagore and Rabindranath Tagore who kept themselves outside the Bengal

movement but practiced an art that was informed by the modernist movement in

Europe and receptive of its avant-garde manifesto.

"Ganesh-janani" by

Abanindranath Tagore.



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Raja Ravi Varma

One of the significant names in Indian art history, belonging to the 18 th century is

Raja Ravi Varma (1848-1906). Raja Ravi Varma adopted academic realism but

painted themes from ancient Hindu mythologies

and Indian aristocracy and historical narratives. Hehad duly studied the Ramayana, Mahabharata and

other anthologies. It would strike him time and

again that the paintings would be unbound subject

for books. Why not make use of European drawing

styles for these subjects! And he began using

Indian themes for his paintings. He chose the

theme of Kalidasa's 'AbhigyanShakuntalam' to

depict Shakuntala writing a love letter to

Dushyant, lost in herself. This was his first paintingsent for a competition and was awarded a gold

medal by the Governor General Sir Moniyar

Williams who adapted 'Shakuntalam' in English.

He liked this painting so much that he got the

picture printed in his book, which achieved

international acclaim.

Amrita Sher-gil

Amrita Sher-gil is another artist who could influence the Indian

intelligentsia in the 1930s. She had studied art in France and

was influenced by the French post-impressionist artist

Gauguin. After deciding to make India her base she worked to

develop an art that had Indian themes and images. Amrita

Sher-gil assimilated miniature and mural traditions of Indian

art and also Indian colour preferences. She died young, leaving

behind a remarkable body of work, which is important for its

art historical consciousness and sensitivity to the changes

taking place and the new need of modern themes in Indian contemporary art.

Jatayu struck down by Ravana

from Ramayana by Ravi Varma

indian art (r)

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