Contents

Introduction

Rock-Cut Architecture in India

SITE PROFILES

AJANTA

Architecture Overview

Chaityas

Chaitya Stupas

Viharas

Paintings

Reliefs

Ajanta Map

Featured Caves

Cave 1 *

Cave 2 *

Cave 4

Cave 9

Cave 10 *

Cave 16 *

Cave 17 *

Cave 19 *

Cave 26 *

ELEPHANTA

Architecture

Reliefs Overview

Reliefs Style

Featured Reliefs

Ravana Shakes Mount Kailasa (Relief 1)

Shiva and Parvati Gambling (Relief 2)

Androgyne (Relief 3)

Sadashiva (Relief 4) *

Ganges Descends to Earth (Relief 5) *

Marriage of Shiva and Parvati (Relief 6) *

Shiva Slays Andhaka (Relief 7) *

Nataraja (Relief 8) *

Lord of Yogis (Relief 9)

ELLORA

Ellora Map

Buddhist Caves

Cave 5 - Maharwada

Cave 10 - Vishvakarma *

Cave 12 - Tin Tal

Hindu Caves

Cave 15 - Dashavatara *

Cave 16 - Kailasa *

Cave 21 - Rameshvara *

Cave 29 - Dhumar Lena

Jain Caves

Cave 32 - Indra Sabha *

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About Approach Guides

The Caves of India:Ajanta, Ellora and Elephanta

Version 1.0

by David Raezer and Jennifer Raezer

© 2012 by Approach Guides(text, images, & illustrations, except those to which specific attribution is given)

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, without permission inwriting from the publisher. Further, this book is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This book may not be resold or given away toother people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each recipient.

Approach Guides and the Approach Guides logo are the property of Approach Guides LLC. Other marks are the property of theirrespective owners.

Although every effort was made to ensure that the information was as accurate as possible, we accept no responsibility for any loss,damage, injury, or inconvenience sustained by anyone using this guidebook.

Approach GuidesNew York, NY

www.approachguides.com

ISBN: 978-1-936614-33-2

Introduction

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Built by Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain monks as mountain retreats, India’s magnificent rock-cutsanctuaries, monasteries, and temples offer travelers an unrivaled cultural experience, transportingthem back to the formative stage of art and architecture for India’s indigenous religions.This Approach Guide serves as an ideal companion for travelers seeking a deeper understanding ofthis fantastic landscape, profiling India’s three premier rock-cut religious sites: Ajanta (Buddhist),Elephanta (Hindu), and Ellora (a mixture of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain).For each location, we first offer an overview, introducing travelers to the trademark features of itspaintings, reliefs, and architecture. We devote special attention to the stylistic features that distinguishone site from the next.We then offer detailed profiles of the most impressive and representative caves at Ajanta, Elephanta,and Ellora, walking step-by-step through their distinctive artistic and architectural highlights. Theoverall goal of these featured cave profiles is to provide travelers with what is most important, aframework for understanding each cave and what makes it special.And along the way, this guide provides our personal tips at each location for getting the most fromyour experience.This Approach Guide contains:

Detailed profiles of 18 featured caves, hand-picked as the best examples of art andarchitecture in Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora.

Over 130 high-resolution images — photos, floorplans, and illustrations — with colorhighlights that make visual identification of key features easier.

High-level maps of each site to ease navigation and plan your itinerary.

Contact us anytimeOur readers are our greatest inspiration. Email us at founders@approachguides.com to let us knowabout your experience with Approach Guides — many of our recent updates have been inspired bycustomers like you. We personally respond to every email.We hope that this cultural travel guidebook offers you fresh insights into India’s rock-cut art andarchitecture and sets you on a path to making your own discoveries.Have a great trip!

David and Jennifer RaezerFounders, Approach Guides

Rock-Cut Architecture in India

The Premier Sites for Indian Rock-Cut ArchitectureThis Approach Guide explores the three premier sites for rock-cut architecture in India: Ajanta,Elephanta, and Ellora. In doing so, it provides insight into the development of the Buddhist and Hindurock-cut architectural traditions (see Fig. 1), from their origins at Ajanta in the 2nd century BCEthrough to their end at Ellora in the 9th century.

Fig. 1. Timeline of excavation activity for India’s rock-cut architecture.

Types of Stone ArchitectureThere are two types of stone architecture:

Rock cut. The focus of this guidebook, rock-cut architecture is made by carving intonatural rock. Usually hewn into the sides of mountain ridges, rock-cut structures are madeby excavating rock until the desired forms are achieved.

Stone built. Stone-built architecture, on the other hand, involves assembling cut stonepieces to form a whole.

Buddhism as Driving Force

Buddhism gets the ball rollingThe first stone architecture in India was rock cut and executed by Buddhist monks; prior to thesestructures, all architecture had been made of wood. The most impressive examples were rock-cut

religious sanctuaries, excavated directly out of the basalt mountains lining the western edge of theDeccan Plateau, the elevated, v-shaped landmass that comprises most of the Indian peninsula. Thecaves at Ajanta — as well as those at nearby Bedsa, Bhaja, Karla, Kondane, Nashik, and Pitalkhora— were part of this initial wave of excavations.

Inspiration for India’s rock-cut architectureEarly Buddhist architecture was likely indirectly inspired by that of the Egyptians. TheEgyptians were probably the first civilization in the world to construct stone architecture;they began constructing stone-built pyramids in the 27th century BCE (Djoser’s StepPyramid in Saqqara) and excavating rock-cut tombs in the 16th century BCE (Valley of theKings in Luxor).

At the same time, similar stone-built pyramids, called ziggurats, were being built not toofar away in Mesopotamia (modern day Iran and Iraq); the earliest probably date from thelate part of Sumeria’s Early Dynastic period (2900-2350 BCE). The ziggurat pyramiddesign, however, was never transformed from stepped to smooth edged, as was the case inEgypt.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian forms and building practices were borrowed by thePersians, who embraced rock-cut architecture. In fact, the royal tombs of Darius (522BCE to 486 BCE) and the rest of the Old Persian (Achaemenid) Empire were rock cut;they are located just outside of the ancient city of Persepolis in modern-day Iran.

Most likely drawing on Persian precedent, India’s earliest stone architects commenced buildingrock-cut architecture in the 3rd-2nd centuries BCE. These architects adapted Persian forms —infusing them with local design preferences derived from their existing wood-based architecture andintroducing entirely new features to suit their unique religious practices — to create rock-cut caveswith an entirely new aesthetic.

Why were the Buddhists the first to build in stone?It appears that the Buddhists just happened to have the support of rulers and rich merchants during thecritical period during which Persian rock-cut architectural practices began to trickle into thesubcontinent.Keep in mind, although the Buddhist faith was founded in India in the 6th century BCE, it did not gainwidespread adoption until it received imperial sponsorship by the powerful Mauryan Emperor,Ashoka, who converted to Buddhism and ruled most of the India subcontinent from 269-232 BCE.The faith garnered subsequent momentum as a rising merchant class were attracted to Buddhism giventhe absence of Hinduism’s rigid caste restrictions that would have otherwise restrained their rise insocial stature.

The appeal of remote locations

Although they were typically located along ancient trade routes, these rock-cut religious structureswere excavated by communities of monks in remote mountain locations for a number of practicalreasons:

Shelter. As these monks were mendicants that relied upon walking around theircommunities in search of food donations, they were susceptible to the elements,particularly during the summer monsoon (called Chaturmasa) that produces heavy rainsfrom June to September. During this time, they looked for more permanent, protectiveshelter in a location in which they could achieve self-subsistence.

Quiet for meditation and study. Remote locations provided sufficient quiet for meditationand study.

Ascetic agenda. The remote nature of these sites allowed monks to more effectively detachfrom the material aspects of everyday life and focus on spiritual development.

Power and independence. The monks sought to create an independent power base —away from the established power structures of the city core — where religious doctrinewas paramount.

Long lasting monuments. Stone served as an ideal medium for creating permanentreligious monuments. Further, the laborious and time consuming work associated withcarving directly into stone functioned as a meditation.

Collapse of Buddhism in IndiaBy the start of the 7th century, Buddhism had begun its prolonged decline in India, the result of foreigninvasions that negatively impacted the faith’s leadership and Hinduism’s success in eroding its baseof devotees. Although Buddhism enjoyed a strong revival under the Mahayana-oriented Pala Empire(between the 8th and the 12th centuries), this was confined to a small area of India: the Bihar andBengal regions. For the most part, by the early 8th century, the construction of large-scaleBuddhist monuments had ceased, as the center of the faith had relocated to China, Japan, Tibet, andSoutheast Asia. And by the 12th century, the faith had been eradicated from the Indian subcontinent.Viewed from this perspective, the rock-cut caves of Ajanta and Ellora represent the firstblossoming of Buddhist architecture in India, as well as its grandest achievements. Buddhistarchitecture was to continue, but not in India.

A new stage: Buddhism in the Far EastBuddhism spread to the rest of Asia by way of Silk Road trade routes, beginning in the 1st centuryBCE, accelerating under the Indian Kushan Empire in the 1st-3rd centuries, and continuing withmomentum through the 8th century.This prolonged period of exchange sowed the seeds for Buddhist architecture to bloom again inChina and Southeast Asia. Magnificent Buddhist structures outside of India — Angkor in Cambodia;Borobudur in Indonesia; Bagan in Myanmar; Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, and Bangkok in Thailand; and

throughout China — would be where the rock-cut tradition successfully transitioned to massive stone-built architecture.

The Rise and Fall of Hindu Rock-Cut ArchitectureWhile there is an overlap of nearly two hundred years when both Hindu and Buddhist structures werebuilt in India — from roughly 500 to 700 (see Fig. 1) — Hinduism emerged triumphant overBuddhism and took over all subsequent Indian architecture.Interestingly, the Hindu architectural tradition began with stone-built, rather than rock-cut, temples;these stone-built temples, however, were clearly influenced by the rock-hewn Buddhist monastery(vihara) and sanctuary (chaitya) cave forms. The first experimentation with this transformation fromrock-hewn to stone-built structures occurred in Aihole (in the state of Karnataka) and Mahabalipuram(in the state of Tamil Nadu), beginning in the early 6th century.That said, Hindus did experiment with rock-cut architecture for a brief period subsequent to theconstruction of their first stone-built temples. Elephanta (in the mid- to late- 6th century) and Ellora(mid-6th century to the ninth century) are the fruits of this experimentation. As it turns out, Ellora wasthe last site of rock-cut Hindu architecture in India.

SITE PROFILES

AJANTA

Author Tip: Ajanta is unique among India’s cave sites because it includes not only elements ofsignificant architectural interest, but also well-preserved 5th century wall paintings of acaliber that is unrivaled in the history of Indian art.

LocationThe caves at Ajanta — located 100 kilometers northeast of Aurangabad and 455 kilometers northeastof Mumbai — sit in a southeast-facing, horseshoe-shaped valley cut by the Waghora River; they arespread over a 0.6 kilometer curve in the valley. The site is closed on Mondays.Once on location, a bus takes visitors from the ticket counter to the entrance, located on the east sideof the site.Depending upon your fitness level and desire for a little exercise, it is also worth considering a 30-minute trek to the “viewpoint”, which offers an unrivaled view of the entire complex. To get there,look for the signs as you approach the eastern entrance to the caves; it can also be accessed frominside the site by following the steps in front of Caves 16 and 17 down to a footbridge.

Profile of the SiteAjanta consists of 29 Buddhist caves (some unfinished), the grandest achievement of the firstwave of rock-cut architecture in India. The caves are clearly numbered from one to 29, moving eastto west; for a map of the site, see the section entitled “Ajanta Map”.The caves at Ajanta have served as the reference point for Indian architectural and artistic endeavorsthroughout the centuries. Further, the styles initiated at Ajanta went on to influence cultures outside ofIndia, as Buddhism migrated out of India via the Silk Road to Central Asia, China, and SoutheastAsia.

Two Distinct Excavation PhasesCave excavation occurred in two distinct phases:

Early Phase cavesAjanta’s oldest caves date from the 2nd-1st centuries BCE under the Satavahana Empire: Caves 9and 10 are chaitya halls; Caves 8, 12, 13, and 15A are viharas. All of these caves are associatedwith the Theravada school of Buddhism.The location for these early excavations offered monks close proximity to an ancient trade route thatconnected the Satavahana capital in Pratishtana (modern Paithan, just south of Aurangabad), with

trade ports on India’s western coast and cities in India’s north; Ellora was also located on this sameroute.

Late Phase cavesExcavations did not resume until five centuries later under the Vakataka Empire’s King Harisena,likely from 460-478; with Harisena’s death, and the subsequent collapse of the Vakataka Empire’scontrol of the region, construction at the site abruptly stopped at the end of the 5th century. Thesecaves are associated with the Mahayana school of Buddhism.All of the remaining caves date from this period: chaityas (Caves 19 and 26) and viharas (Caves 1-7, 11, 14-18, 20-25, and 27-29) are both in evidence.

SponsorshipKeep in mind that ruling dynasties during the Early and Late Phases — the Satavahana (230 BCE -220 CE) and Vakataka (250-500 CE), respectively — were Hindu in religious orientation, notBuddhist. Accordingly, Ajanta’s caves were not financed by imperial sponsorship, but rather by aselect group of wealthy individuals. Hindu kings likely supported (although did not finance) theconstruction of these temples as a means of gaining control over a largely Buddhist local population.

Abandonment and RediscoveryBy the 6th-7th centuries, the site was abandoned, likely as a result of political instability followingthe fall of the Vakataka Empire and the rise of Hindu dynasties less favorably predisposed to theBuddhist faith. The caves were not rediscovered until 1819, when a British Army Officer, JohnSmith, spotted them while on a hunting expedition in the area.

Architecture Overview

Where It All Got StartedAjanta’s Buddhist caves were excavated as part of the first wave of rock-cut architecture in India.Their designs inspired the earliest stone-built architecture in India, that of the Hindu Chalukya andPallava Empires in the 6th century. From this perspective, these caves served as the progenitor of allstone-built temple architecture — both the Northern and Southern Hindu temple styles — in India. Formore information on these Hindu temple styles, see the Approach Guide entitled “Hindu Temples ofSouth India”.

Excavation ProcessAs at Elephanta and Ellora, the cliffside out of which Ajanta’s caves are cut is part of the WesternGhats mountain range that forms the western border of the Deccan Plateau. The stone is volcanic ingeological profile, consisting of solid basalt; it is ideal for carving, as it is soft during the initialexcavation and hardens over time.For each cave, excavation proceeded from front to back, and from top to bottom; due to thisprocess, no scaffolding was required.Keep in mind, as with all of the rock-cut caves profiled in this guidebook, none of the architecturalelements that are load bearing in conventional stone-built architecture — columns, beams, arches —perform any structural function. Freed of structural constraints, rock-cut caves naturally have a greateraffinity with sculpture than do stone-built structures.

Cave TypesThere are two basic types of caves at Ajanta:

Chaitya (sanctuary) caves. Chaityas served as primary areas of worship; Buddha imagesand stupas assume central positions. The typical chaitya configuration consists of acolumned hall with a stupa in the center and sufficient room for circumambulation.

Vihara (monastery) caves. Viharas served as areas for study, sleep, and prayer. Thetypical configuration consists a central (usually square) hall, with a prayer area at thecenter, cells (for sleeping) around the periphery, and a Buddha shrine on the far sideopposite the entrance.

Each of these cave types will be profiled in detail in the sections that follow.

Chaityas

Chaityas — or sanctuaries — served as the primary areas of worship at Ajanta. With stupas as theircenterpieces, these intimate structures, even now, are infused with a profound, powerful energy.

Facade

Fig. 2. Facade, typical chaitya (Cave 26), Ajanta. Highlights added.

The arched windowThe facade of a typical chaitya is graced with a large 3/4 circle arched window (green highlights inFig. 2); it is alternatively said to resemble a horseshoe or the leaf of the Bodhi tree, the tree underwhich the Buddha achieved enlightenment.Despite its resemblances, the shape of this window appears to be derived from a local wooddwelling, an ordinary residence repurposed as an oversized divine residence. In this way, the archserved to mark the chaitya as what it was, a sanctuary hall where devotees would come to interact

with the deity in his mountain home.In addition to its symbolic role, it served two functional ones:

During excavation of the cave, the large window was usually the first feature to be cut intothe rock; it subsequently served as a large aperture through which rock was removedduring the excavation process.

Once finished, the window provided continuous light — given Ajanta’s southern exposure— for the stupa shrine in the interior.

The chaitya is a consistent feature throughout Ajanta’s Early and Late Phases. Further, it was reusedin all subsequent Hindu and Buddhist architecture in India. In subsequent manifestations, however, itappears as a much smaller window (see Ellora’s 7th century Cave 10) or, more often, as decoration.As a decorative element, the chaitya arch was reduced in size and executed as a relief carved intofacades and columns; under the arch was placed an image of a deity, once again reinforcing thisform’s association with a divine residence.

DecorationWhile Early Phase facades are typically simple, with minimal decorative features, this all changes inthe Late Phase. In Late Phase facades, all available surface area is covered with reliefs. The reliefsfeature Buddhas and bodhisattvas (red highlights in Fig. 2); further, there are narrative scenesdepicting events in the life of the historical Buddha, usually tightly framed and organized intohorizontal registers (yellow highlights in Fig. 2).

Fig. 3. Floorplan, typical chaitya (Cave 26), Ajanta.

Layout and AppearanceA chaitya has the following characteristic features:

Entrance gallery. An open pillared gallery (yellow highlights in Fig. 3) typically affordsaccess into the interior.

Internal stupa shrine. The stupa (red highlights in Fig. 3) is the centerpiece of thechaitya’s interior. Keep in mind, the stupa is traditionally an outdoor monument. However,since the space around the stupa would have been inappropriate to congregate duringunfavorable climatic conditions (the exact time when the caves were be used), there was aneed to recreate the stupa as an indoor, enclosed monument.

Encircling columns. A double row of columns divides the main hall into a nave (used asprayer space) in the center and two aisles (used as circumambulation space) on the sides.

Apsidal-ended hall. The main hall has an apsidal end (green highlights in Fig. 3) thatfacilitates circumambulation around the stupa.

Vaulted ceiling. The ceiling is articulated by closely spaced ribs. In Ajanta’s EarlyPhase, these ribs were made of wood and inserted on the inside of the sanctuary toreplicate earlier all-wood structures; unfortunately, these wooden elements havedisappeared since the chaityas’ original excavations, leaving only flat-surfaced stoneceilings. In the Late Phase, however, architects substituted stone ribs for wooden ones;they are still extant. The ceilings of two chaityas — Early Phase (with no ribs) and LatePhase (with stone ribs) — are shown in the next section, in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, respectively.

Chaitya Stupas

The stupas enclosed in the chaityas were the most important structures at Ajanta. The first and mostfundamental of Buddhist monuments, the stupa serves as a marker for a sacred space. While theearliest stupas in India were used as shrines for the historical Buddha’s relics, later stupas typicallyhoused other sacred objects.This section outlines the defining features of Ajanta’s stupas. In order to provide the propercontext, however, we begin by considering the earlier stupas of India, which exerted greatinfluence on those of Ajanta.

Fig. 4. Great Stupa, Sanchi, India.

The Prototype: The Sanchi StupaThe Great Stupa at Sanchi, in Central India, is one of the original stupas; it served as a prototype forall others that followed. This world-famous stupa (see Fig. 4) was first constructed (in brick) by theMauryan Emperor, Ashoka (ruled 269-232 BCE), and later expanded to twice its original size (in

stone).

Fig. 5. Elevation and floorplan, Great Stupa, Sanchi, India. Highlights added.

In the most basic sense, the stupa form is derived from the key elements of a sacred burial site.The following three elements have been borrowed from life and serve as the fundamental parts of allstupas worldwide:

A hemispherical mound (anda). The anda’s domed shape (green highlights in Fig. 5)recalls a mound of dirt associated with a burial site and consists of stone facing over arubble core. The relic chamber, buried deep in its interior, is called the tabena. Overtime, this hemispherical mound has taken on an even grander symbolic association: thecenter of the universe, Mount Meru, the mountain home of the gods.

A square railing (harmika). The harmika (red highlights in Fig. 5) is derived from asquare fence that surrounded the mound of dirt and marked it as a sacred burial site.

A central pillar supporting a triple-umbrella form (chattra). The chattra, in turn, wasderived from an umbrella-like covering placed over the mound to protect it from theelements (purple highlights in Fig. 5); it naturally sits at the top of the stupa. Just as the

anda’s symbolic value expanded over time, the central pillar has come to symbolize thepivot of the universe, the axis mundi, emanating from Mount Meru at the absolute center.And the three circular, umbrella-like disks represent the three Jewels, or Triantha, ofBuddhism, which are the keys to a true understanding of Buddhist Laws and enlightenment:(a) Buddha; (b) dharma (Buddhist teachings or religious law); and (c) sangha (monasticcommunity).

Around these three core building blocks were added the following secondary structures:Enclosure wall with decorated gateways (toranas) at the cardinal directions. In Fig. 5,the wall is marked in light blue highlights and the toranas in yellow.

A circular platform (medhi) that supports the anda and raises it off the ground. In Fig.5, the medhi is marked in black highlights.

Fig. 6. Early Phase chaitya stupa (Cave 10), Ajanta.

Ajanta’s Early Phase Chaitya StupasAjanta’s Early Phase (2nd-1st century BCE) architects likely had the Sanchi prototype (or something

that closely resembled it) in mind as they were building their own stupas. Stupas in Ajanta’s EarlyPhase chaityas exhibit the following characteristics:

The stupa is minimally elevated, as the supporting terraced platform (yellow highlights inFig. 6) is relatively low, consistent with the Sanchi prototype.

The anda (green highlights in Fig. 6), rather than being a 1/2 sphere like the earlier Sanchistupa, is closer to being a 3/4 sphere. This feature remains consistent through both Ajantaphases and is a trademark of the Ajanta stupa style.

The harmika (red highlights in Fig. 6) has a distinctively shaped top, resembling aninverted, stacked pyramid. As with the anda’s form, this feature is consistent throughoutboth phases and is another defining quality of the Ajanta stupa style.

There is no Buddha image. The Early Phase chaityas were sponsored by TheravadaBuddhists; at this time, this school did not sanction the representation of the Buddha inphysical form; the Buddha only appeared in symbolic form.

Fig. 7. Late Phase chaitya stupa (Cave 19), Ajanta.

Ajanta’s Late Phase Chaitya Stupas

Ajanta’s Late Phase Chaitya StupasWhile remaining true to their traditional elements, stupas in Late Phase (late 5th century) chaityaschange, exhibiting the following features:

The stupa has been elevated on a higher platform (yellow highlights in Fig. 7); as aresult, the stupa demonstrates greater upward momentum.

The anda (green highlights in Fig. 7) has changed shape a bit from earlier models; it seemsa bit compressed, resembling a 3/4 egg, rather than a 3/4 sphere. Further, it is smaller thanearlier versions. NB: Although the egg shape is difficult to discern in Fig. 7 (Cave 19), itis quite clear at Cave 26.

The harmika (red highlights in Fig. 7) remains consistent with Early Phase versions.A Buddha image now stands or sits boldly in front of the stupa (see Fig. 7). With theemergence of the Mahayana school (formed in the 2nd century CE), prominent Buddhafigures make an appearance and begin to rival stupas for prominence in the arrangement.

It may seem that another change has been made: the top of the Late Phase stupa is crowned by acentral pillar with a triple-umbrella chattra (blue highlights in Fig. 7). However, this does notrepresent a change. Early Phase stupas originally had chattras; unfortunately, however, they have beendestroyed in both of Ajanta’s Early Phase chaityas (Caves 9 and 10).

Ellora’s Cave 10: The Final StageEllora’s one Buddhist chaitya — Cave 10, excavated in the late 7th century — marks the final stage inthe development of the chaitya stupa. While it remains generally true to Ajanta’s Late Phase style, ithas an even more prominent Buddha image. Cave 10 is explored in more detail in the dedicatedEllora section.

Viharas

Ajanta’s viharas — or monasteries — served as areas for the resident monks to study, sleep, andpray. The walls around their main halls hold Ajanta’s world-renowned 5th century paintings.

Fig. 8. Floorplan, typical vihara (Cave 2), Ajanta.

LayoutViharas at Ajanta have the following characteristic features:

A columned verandah (yellow highlights in Fig. 8). The verandah offers access into thecave’s interior.

A central, usually square, main hall (green highlights in Fig. 8). The halls holds a seriesof columns that divide its interior into two areas: the center of the hall (inside thecolumns) served as a prayer and study area, offering direct sight lines into the Buddhashrine; the area around its periphery (outside the columns) functioned as an ambulatory.

Cells flanking the main hall (blue highlights in Fig. 8). The cells were used by the residentmonks for sleeping and private study.

A shrine holding a seated image of the Buddha (red highlights in Fig. 8) sits off the farside of the main hall, opposite the entrance. Often an antechamber (pink highlights in Fig.8) affords access into the primary shrine.

Secondary shrines (light blue highlights in Fig. 8) — with reliefs of important deities —often flanked the primary Buddha shrine.

Interior DecorationUnlike chaityas, viharas generally lack exterior facade decoration. However, their interiors arehighly decorated with paintings and reliefs. This decoration — reviewed in detail in subsequentsections — typically served a didactic agenda, depicting scenes from the life of the historical Buddhaand the Jatakas.

Paintings

Ajanta’s wall paintings — most dating from the Late Phase (5th century) — are still in a high state ofpreservation; they are treasures of Indian art.

Medium and TechniqueAjanta’s frescoes are made with tempera paint, consisting of mineral- and plant-derived colors. Theearliest paintings at Ajanta are made with locally derived white, red, yellow, green, and black; lapislazuli was introduced in later paintings from a non-local source. Rather than using egg as a binder (asin Western technique), artists at Ajanta used gum or glue.These paints are applied to a dry wall of plaster that has been covered with slaked lime; thistechnique, known as secco fresco, contrasts with buon fresco technique in which paint is applied towet plaster; as secco fresco paintings are not absorbed into the plaster, they are inherently moresusceptible to water damage and general wear and tear.

Style of Painted FiguresPainted figures at Ajanta typically exhibit the following characteristic features, many of which wereshaped by the style pioneered by the contemporary Gupta Empire (320-550 CE), under whoseauspices India experienced a golden age of artistic expression:

Prominent lines. Thick painted lines — usually in red or black — outline the shape of thefigures; they are executed in gentle, flowing curves. This relaxed stroke infuses paintedfigures with an air of calmness, serenity, and contented beauty.

Masterly chiaroscuro technique. The forms inside the thick lines are expertly shaded,imparting significant tonal contrast; this affords painted figures a high level of three-dimensionality, plasticity, and naturalism.

White for emphasis. Ajanta frescoes generally have a restrained color palette, dominatedby earthen colors (browns, yellows, reds). The color white — especially visible in thesedark caves — was used to highlight key aspects of the composition. Most often, it wasused to set off facial highlights, particularly on the nose and eyes, and for certain pieces ofjewelry.

Inner calm. Figures convey an inner calm, infused with gentleness and compassion; theyfurther seem a bit disconnected from the mundane world, otherwordly.

Eyes convey emotion. Figures are painted with elongated, narrowed eyes withexpressive, undulating eyebrows; they were designed to play a primary role in conveyingemotion.

High level of movement. Painted figures are dynamic, their movement seemingly infusedwith a musical quality.

S-curve body shape. Consistent with such dynamism, figures typically stand with a s-

shaped body posture, called tribhanga, also known as three bends (see Fig. 9): the headtilts; the torso reverses this direction; and then the lower extremities reverse it again,mirroring the same angle as the head. In many respects, tribhanga resembles a moreaccentuated contrapposto; and it is possible that the tribhanga posture was inspired by theart of the Bactrian Kingdom, an ancient Greek civilization that was located in modern-dayAfghanistan and prospered in the 3rd-2nd centuries BCE.

Sheer clothing. Figures are dressed in sheer clothing that emphasizes the shape of theunderlying body.

Ornate bodily decoration. Bodily decoration — such as crowns, necklaces, and bracelets— is executed in high detail.

Fig. 9. Column fresco with clear Hellenistic references, Cave 10, Ajanta.

Style of Narrative CompositionOverall, the narratives in Ajanta’s frescoes employ the following compositional features:

Continuous narrative. Wide expanses of wall were used to illustrate scenes from the

Buddhist tradition. However, they can be a bit confusing to follow, as scenes are notplaced into discrete frames and do not necessarily move from left to right inchronological order. The narrative advances by reusing clearly identifiable maincharacters; when these figures reappear, it signals the depiction of another related event.While this is manageable when these reused figures appear in separate areas of the samewall, it gets particularly tricky when they are grouped close together: what might appearas multiple figures in a single scene is often a single figure at different points in time.

All-over decoration. As they also do with reliefs, artists in the Late Phase aimed for all-over aesthetic, in which every inch of available wall surface was covered withdecoration.

Varying size of figures to denote importance. The most important figures are enlarged(superhuman size) and located centrally in compositions; all movement gravitates towardthese enlarged figures.

Accurate three-dimensional space. Although artists did not use single point perspective,their architectural arrangements generally convey three-dimensional space effectively.

The First Images of the BuddhaAjanta offers some of the earliest painted images of the Buddha in physical form; before Ajanta’sLate Phase (5th century) representations, the Buddha’s presence had been conveyed exclusivelythrough the use of symbols: a footprint (symbolic of the Buddha’s former presence in a givenlocation); an empty throne (also symbolic of a former presence and a continued reign); a wheel(symbolic of Buddhist teachings that leads to enlightenment); or a Bodhi tree (symbolic of the treeunder which the historical Buddha gained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, India).

Subject MatterMost Late Phase paintings at Ajanta depict two basic Buddha-focused narratives, the Jatakas and theevents in the life of the historical Buddha. Both are explored below.

Jataka talesThe Jatakas — birth stories — represent the primary subject matter for the painted scenes at Ajanta.They recount the Buddha’s former lives when he underwent experiences that enabled him toeventually achieve enlightenment. In so doing, they illustrates principle virtues to which alldevotees should aspire; in this respect, these depictions very much serve a didactic function,instructing devotees on how best to live.The Jatakas were preserved via oral transmission from the period of the Buddha’s life (6th centuryBCE) until they were eventually written down in the 1st-4th centuries CE; the foundational Theravadatext was preserved in the Pali language. Although the tradition started here, we see Jataka paintingsthroughout Southeast Asia and China.

Events in the life of the historical Buddha SakyamuniThe caves also enclose painted scenes from the life of the historical Buddha; in this life, his last onearth, the Buddha achieved enlightenment and ended his cycle of rebirths (samsara).The most notable events in the historical Buddha’s life — often referred to as the Eight Great Events— are the following: Birth; Great Departure (when he forsakes his royal family for the ascetic life);Victory over Mara (when he overcomes the forces of evil and achieves enlightenment); Protected byNaga (when a serpent shields the meditating post-Enlightenment Buddha from a flood); Preaching inDeer Park in Sarnath, India (his first sermon, in which he teaches others the path to enlightenment);Performing Miracles at Sravasti, India (when he overcomes nonbelievers); Descent from TavatismaHeaven (when he returns to earth after teaching his deceased mother the path to enlightenment); andDeath (at which point he enters nirvana).These events are similarly depicted at Buddhist sites throughout the Far East.

Reliefs

While Ajanta is best known for its paintings, it also has an impressive legacy of bas-reliefs. And justas with paintings, Ajanta’s reliefs offer the earliest images of the Buddha in physical (nonsymbolic) form. Buddha reliefs similarly begin in the Late Phase (5th century) under the MahayanaBuddhists.This section begins by profiling the defining characteristics of the Ajanta relief style, with a focus onBuddha images. It concludes with descriptions of the Buddha’s primary mudras (hand gestures).

Buddha Images: Defining Characteristics

Gupta InfluencesAjanta’s Buddha reliefs are again consistent with the Gupta Empire (320-550 CE) style and representthe apex of Indian artistic expression. They have the following defining characteristics:

Intense spirituality to image. In seeking to convey the impression of the divine, artistsemployed exaggerated and non-naturalistic figuration. The Buddha’s body appears to beexpanded or bloated by what has been termed “sacred breath” (prana), creating a lessnatural form characterized by rounded limbs, with no muscle definition (see Fig. 10). Thisdefining element, pervasive in Ajanta (as well as Elephanta and Ellora), became a uniquefeature of Indian art throughout the ages. It is also worth pointing out that this is most likelyan indigenous (rather than Greek inspired) sculptural feature, in that it mirrors the earlieryakshi sculptural works that pre-date Greek influence (beginning in the 3rd century BCE);these yakshi can still be seen at the famous stupa in Sanchi.

Clothing. The Buddha’s monastic robe appears to consist of a very thin material and isonly visible only as ridges at his wrist and neck. Accordingly, the shape of the Buddha’sbody under the robe determines the figure’s form. See Fig. 10.

Fig. 10. Standing Buddha, Cave 19, Ajanta.

Face and hair. At Ajanta, the Buddha’s face is roundish and extremely delicate. The linesof the broadly arched eyebrows form a sharp joint at the bridge of the nose, rather thancontinue in a smooth line to its tip (as with some Thai depictions, particularly those ofSukhothai). His hair is arranged in small, tightly grouped, counter-clockwise rotatinglocks. Finally, the Buddha’s ears are particularly long.

Ushnisha. A large ushnisha (a bun-shaped cranial protuberance), symbolic of theBuddha’s transcendent mindset, rises from the back of his head; it is pointed at the top,perhaps resembling a closed lotus bud.

Recognized positions. There are four recognized positions for the Buddha: seated(typically with legs crossed, heals pointed upward; sometimes on a throne, with both feeton the ground), standing (with straight legs), reclining (representative of his dying andpassing into nirvana), and walking (not depicted at Ajanta).

The Buddha’s Mudras

The Buddha’s MudrasBuddha images always display ritual hand gestures (mudras). Although there are a large number ofsacred mudras, we have chosen to profile the three that you will most frequently encounter at Ajantaand Ellora.

Fig. 11. Dharmachakra mudra, Cave 4, Ajanta.

Dharmachakra mudraConsistent with Ajanta and Ellora’s function as teaching institutions for monks, Buddha depictionsoverwhelmingly favor the dharmachakra, or teaching, mudra. This mudra recalls the Buddha’ssermon at Deer Park in Sarnath, India, when he first preached the dharma, the teachings that leadbelievers along the path to enlightenment.How to recognize it: Used chiefly by seated Buddhas, the right hand is held at the level of the chest,palm facing outward, while the index finger and the thumb join at the tips to form a circle; thesejoined fingers touch the joined index finger and thumb of the left hand, whose palm faces inward. SeeFig. 11.In many representations of this mudra, the base of the Buddha’s seat will be decorated with two deer,

each facing inward toward a wheel; the deer recall those in Sarnath’s Deer Park and the wheelsymbolizes the Buddha’s teachings. See Fig. 11.

Fig. 12. Varada mudra, Cave 4, Ajanta.

Varada mudraUsed by standing Buddhas, the varada mudra is symbolic of granting wishes and compassion; it isthe second most popular mudra in Ajanta and Ellora.How to recognize it: The left or right hand is outward, with fingers pointed downward, the palmtoward the viewer; the arm is bent. See Fig. 12.

Fig. 13. Bhumisparsa mudra, Cave 12, Ellora.

Bhumisparsa mudraThe bhumisparsa mudra, rather rare in Ajanta and Ellora, is symbolic of the Buddha’s enlightenment.Before the historical Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India, he wastempted by the evil forces of a demon, Mara. The Buddha reached forward and touched the groundwith his right hand (the bhumisparsa mudra), thereby calling upon the Earth Mother (Dharani orThorani) to acknowledge his right to enlightenment. The Earth Mother acknowledged this right bywringing her hair and decimating Mara’s forces with a flood, freeing the Buddha to achieveenlightenment.How to recognize it: It is used only by seated Buddhas. The left hand rests palm upward in the lap;the right hand, hanging over the knee, palm inward, touches (or reaches toward) the ground below.See Fig. 13.

Ajanta Map

Featured Caves

This is a complete list of the nine Ajanta caves profiled in this guidebook. It represents our picks forthe premier caves in Ajanta. Next to each, we indicate its period (Early Phase or Late Phase), its type(chaitya or vihara), and what makes it special.

Author Tip: To make things easier and allow you to focus on the real highlights, particularly ifyou have limited time, we have marked those caves that we believe are must-sees with asterisks(*) .

Highlights of Featured CavesCave 1 *. A Late Phase vihara, Cave 1 has the most dynamic, best-preserved paintings inAjanta.

Cave 2 *. A Late Phase vihara, it has good reliefs (in the secondary shrines) and highquality paintings throughout.

Cave 4. A Late Phase vihara, the largest in Ajanta, Cave 4 has impressive reliefs.Cave 9. Excavated in the Early Phase, Cave 9 is the simplest chaitya in Ajanta. Along withCave 10, it sets in motion quintessential Buddhist forms that would go on to influence allfuture architecture — Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain alike — in India.

Cave 10 *. An Early Phase chaitya, likely the first excavated cave in Ajanta, Cave 10offers a trademark Theravada stupa, detailed reliefs, and deteriorated Early Phasepaintings.

Cave 16 *. A Late Phase vihara, Cave 16 has its original entrance stairway (unique inAjanta) and a few high quality paintings.

Cave 17 *. A Late Phase vihara, Cave 17 has a great collection of paintings; those thatremain on the exterior pillared gallery are particularly interesting, as they can be inspectedin the full light of day.

Cave 19 *. A Late Phase chaitya, Cave 19 has a highly decorated facade, in contrast to theplain facades of Early Phase chaityas; this is consistent with the move from Theravada toMahayana Buddhism. Inside, there is a fully intact stupa (the only one remaining with itstriple umbrella chattra).

Cave 26 *. A Late Phase chaitya, Cave 26 is the most stunningly decorated chaitya atAjanta; with an ornate facade and detailed all-over reliefs on the interior, it represents theculmination of the chaitya style begun nearly 700 years before.

Cave 1 *

Author Tip: The tour of Ajanta starts out with a bang at this cave, which gets our vote forhaving Ajanta’s highest quality, best-preserved, and well-lighted paintings. Spend as much timein this cave as possible; this is Ajanta at its finest.

BackgroundCave 1, a vihara, was built in the middle of the 5th century, just after Cave 2; it corresponds to theLate Phase of excavation and is Mahayana Buddhist in religious orientation. This cave is special inthat it was sponsored by the great Vakataka King Harisena, under whom the Late Phase ofexcavations at Ajanta was undertaken.

Fig. 14. Facade, view from inside the courtyard, Cave 1, Ajanta. Highlights added.

Facade

Cave 1’s facade has the most impressive decoration of any vihara at Ajanta.On the delicately fluted central columns, miniature dwarves stand with arms raised(yellow highlights in Fig. 14) on the four corners of the compressed cushion capitals, as ifsupporting the massive brackets above.

A frieze (green highlights in Fig. 14) running along the top of the open pillared gallerydepicts scenes from the life of the historical Buddha.

Above the entrance to the left porch is a partially damaged frieze of the Three Signs: asick man, an old man, and a corpse. As a young prince, the Buddha saw each of these onhis first journey outside the walls of his palace; these signs convinced him that all life issuffering, a realization that led him to become a monk and embark upon finding a solutionthis predicament.

The eaves — projecting out ever-so-slightly from the face of the facade — are decoratedwith miniature chaitya arches, with faces of deities at their centers (light blue highlightsin Fig. 14), marking this cave as a residence of the gods.

Fig. 15. Floorplan, Cave 1, Ajanta. Highlights added.

LayoutJust beyond a small courtyard (light blue highlights in Fig. 15) and an open pillaredgallery (dark blue highlights in Fig. 15), three doorways lead into the central hall (greenhighlights in Fig. 15).

Inside, twenty square columns surround the square hall, with small cells — originally forthe monks to sleep and study — lining the periphery on the north, east, and west sides;each has a miniature shrine in its rear (yellow highlights in Fig. 15). The open areainside the columns was used as a prayer area.

The columns — with compressed cushion capitals — support elaborate brackets withscenes from the life of the historical Buddha; these scenes are flanked by flying apsaras(see Fig. 16).

Through an antechamber (pink highlights in Fig. 15) on the side opposite the entrance, ashrine room holds a seated Buddha image (red highlights in Fig. 15) displayingdharmachakra (teaching) mudra.

Fig. 16. Columns with compressed cushion capitals and elaborate brackets, Cave 1, Ajanta.

PaintingsCave 1 and 2 were likely the two last caves painted at Ajanta. While the paintings in Caves 2 and 17are also world class, we believe this cave houses the most impressive 5th century paintings inthe entire complex. Further, they are better preserved and illuminated, making them even better forviewing.The paintings line the walls around the central hall. The most important paintings are reviewed in theorder that they are encountered, beginning at the entrance and continuing in clockwise rotation aroundthe periphery of the central hall. To help focus your viewing, we mark our favorite frescoes withasterisks (*).

The overarching theme of Cave 1’s paintings centers on enlightened kingship; perhaps this isattributable to the identity of the sponsor, King Harisena.

Front wallThe Sibi Jataka covers the inside of the front (entrance) wall, to the left upon entering. The SibiJataka tells the story of King Sibi, a prior incarnation of the Buddha, who protects a pigeon fleeing ahawk. Sibi, recognizing the hawk’s right to kill the pigeon, agrees to give the hawk an equal weight ofhis own flesh on the condition that it spare the pigeon’s life. The pigeon, when placed on a scale,continues to increase in weight until it approaches that of the king himself. Nevertheless, King Sibikeeps his word and prepares to die for the pigeon, revealing his divine quality of fairness. Look forthe crowned King Sibi standing next to the scale used to weigh the pigeon (see center of Fig. 17).

Fig. 17. King Sibi next to the scale, Sibi Jataka, Cave 1, Ajanta.

Left wall

While scenes from the Conversion of Nanda and the Sankhapala (Serpent King) Jataka are alsodepicted, the most important scenes on the left wall are those devoted to the Mahajanaka Jataka *;they take up the entire left wall and the left side of the back wall. Espousing the principle virtue offortitude, the Jataka tells the tale of King Mahajanaka, who decides to foresake his material life andhis treasured relationship with his wife for asceticism. It examines, in particular, the painful nature ofsuch a break with the world; painted scenes depict him learning from an ascetic, announcing hisdecision, taking a ritual bath (see left side of Fig. 18), and making his departure (on horseback) fromhis beloved kingdom (see right side of Fig. 18).The Mahajanaka Jataka scenes not only have intense emotional expression, but also convincinglyreveal complex architectural arrangements.

Fig. 18. Ritual bath (left) and departure (right), Mahajanaka Jataka, Cave 1, Ajanta.

Rear wall

Fig. 19. Bodhisattva Padmapani, Cave 1, Ajanta.

The rear wall holds our two favorites images at Ajanta, as they convey a deep emotional messageand are expertly rendered:

** Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, also known as Padmapani. Padmapani — the Bearer ofthe Lotus — embodies the Buddha’s boundless compassion. Minimally decorated andgently swaying, he simultaneously conveys outward movement and inward serenity. Thisimage flanks the left side of the Buddha shrine entrance on the far side of the monastery,opposite the entrance. See Fig. 19.

** Bodhisattva Vajrapani. Vajrapani — the Bearer of the Thunderbolt — embodies theBuddha’s unrivaled power. This painting is a masterpiece, executed in a far moredecorative style than that of Padmapani. The detail and naturalness of the crown andnecklaces are exceptional. This image flanks the right side of the Buddha shrine entranceon the far side of the monastery, opposite the entrance. See Fig. 20.

Fig. 20. Bodhisattva Vajrapani, Cave 1, Ajanta.

So, on the shrine’s entrance, the Buddha’s most important qualities are on display, power (Vajrapani)and compassion (Padmapani). The viewer should not miss the subtext, however: these qualities,presumably, are also shared by the ideal king, Harisena.The Campeya Jataka also occupies the rear wall; it is positioned on the far right side. In thesescenes, King Campeya — a serpent king — is captured by a snake charmer and forced to perform forKing Uggasena of Varanasi. The King reveals his compassionate side and releases the serpent afterCampeya’s wife arrives, with her young child, and begs for his release; Campeya then reveals hishuman incarnation and proceeds to teach (shown with dharmachakra mudra) the King. These scenesare known for their bright textiles, with ornate patterning and bold folds.

Antechamber to the Buddha shrineInside the Buddha shrine, there are two events from the life of the historical Buddha. Unfortunately,these paintings are typically not visible, as access is restricted to the central hall.

The victory over Mara. On left side, there is depiction of the Buddha’s victory over the

evil forces of the demon Mara; having defeated Mara, the Buddha was free to achieveenlightenment.

Thousand Buddhas. On the right side, the post-enlightenment Buddha performed a miracleat the town of Sravasti, multiplying himself a thousand times, in order to persuadenonbelievers.

Right wallThe frescoes of the right (east) wall are in a low state of preservation, rendering the narrative largelyundecipherable.

CeilingThe ceiling holds square medallions (with elaborate floral decoration), framed by endless geometrickey patterns.

Cave 2 *

Author Tip: Cave 2 is another treasure trove of 5th century paintings; it also has high qualityreliefs in its subsidiary shrines.

BackgroundCave 2, a vihara, was built in the second half of the 5th century, started around 460 and completed inthe late 470s; it corresponds to the Late Phase of excavation and is Mahayana Buddhist in religiousorientation.

Fig. 21. Floorplan, Cave 2, Ajanta. Highlights added.

LayoutJust beyond an open pillared gallery (yellow highlights in Fig. 21), three doorways leadinto the central hall (green highlights in Fig. 21).

Inside, twelve heavily decorated square columns surround the square hall, with small cells— originally for sleeping and private study — lining the periphery on the east and westsides (blue highlights in Fig. 21). The open area inside the columns was used as a prayerarea.

As in Cave 1, the columns have compressed cushion capitals; the central panels on theelaborate brackets, containing scenes from the life of the historical Buddha, are flanked byflying apsaras.

Accessed through an antechamber (pink highlights in Fig. 21), a shrine room with a seatedBuddha (red highlights in Fig. 21) in dharmachakra mudra sits on the side opposite theentrance; it is flanked by two subsidiary shrines (light blue highlights in Fig. 21) that holdrelief sculptures.

Relief SculpturesThe two subsidiary shrines on the rear wall flanking the central Buddha shrine enclose impressivereliefs. Unfortunately, only oblique views into the interiors of these shrines are possible, as access isrestricted to the central hall.

Left shrine. A naga king is flanked by two large, highly ornamented yaksha guardians.Right shrine. Hariti — a former child-eating demon, who upon conversion, became aprotector of children — sits next to her consort Panchika, the god of wealth. Hariti,appropriately, sits with a child on her knee.

The primary shrine holds a seated Buddha (see Fig. 22) displaying the dharmachakra (teaching)mudra.

Fig. 22. Primary shrine holding a dharmachakra Buddha, Cave 2, Ajanta.

PaintingsThis is one of the best caves at Ajanta for paintings. However, many of them are covered with ashellac that was added by restorers; unfortunately, the shellac has yellowed, significantly darkeningmany images.The most important paintings are reviewed in the order that they are encountered, beginning at theentrance and continuing in clockwise rotation around the periphery of the central hall. We havemarked our favorite frescoes with asterisks (*).

Left wallOn the left wall (upper portion), the Buddha is depicted on a throne in Tushita heaven(see Fig. 23), days before his incarnation as the historical Buddha. Surrounded byattendants, the crowned Buddha displays the dharmachakra (teaching) mudra. He sits in a

western position, with both feet on the ground; this position speaks to strong Westerninfluence, likely carried from areas of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Kashmir, where Greekinfluence was greatest.

Fig. 23. Buddha in Tushita Heaven, Cave 2, Ajanta.

The narrative continues on the same wall with a series of scenes related to the historicalBuddha’s birth * in Lumbini, Nepal. Although these scenes are damaged and a bit washedout, two scenes are clear: (1) the Buddha’s mother (Queen Maya) leans against a column,with her head down, fearing the prophesy that her future son will abandon the kingdom andbecome an ascetic (circled in green in Fig. 24); and (2) Queen Maya holds the infantBuddha with one arm and lifts a branch from a sal tree above her head with the other(circled in red in Fig. 24). Note how these scenes are subtly divided by architecturalspace, rather than by discrete frames.

Fig. 24. Birth of Buddha, left wall, Cave 2, Ajanta. Highlights added.

Thousand Buddhas. This scene (see Fig. 25) refers to an event in the historical Buddha’slife when he multiplied himself at Sravasti to convince nonbelievers. The ThousandBuddhas depiction is unique in that it serves a largely decorative function, rather than thetypical didactic one; while there is clearly an associated narrative, it is secondary to theprofusion of Buddha images. This preference for decorative over didactic function is arecurring theme in the art of the Mahayana school.

Fig. 25. Thousand Buddhas, left wall, Cave 2, Ajanta.

Rear wall, antechamber, and shrinesThe rear wall holds a series of elegant and expressive seated Buddhas in differentpostures.

Unfortunately, the remaining paintings in the antechamber and shrines are either not visible or difficultto view, as access is restricted to the central hall:

In the subsidiary shrines to the left and right of the central Buddha shrine. Especiallybeautiful female devotees carry gifts for the Buddha.

In the antechamber. Both walls of this small chamber hold a Thousand Buddhas image.These frescoes are visible from an oblique angle.

In the Buddha shrine. There are images of the Buddha and Maitreya (Buddha of theFuture) in various mudras.

Right wall

Scenes from the Vidhurapandita Jataka dominate the right wall. In this Jataka, a minister in the courtof the king of Indraprasatha — Vidhurapandita, an incarnation of the Buddha — is the object of greatjealousy, so much so that a naga king (Varuna) convinces his daughter (Irandati) to persuade apowerful yaksha general (Purnaka) to kill him. The yaksha captures the minister, but is unable to killhim; however, the minister dutifully instructs the yaksha on how to successfully perform the task. Theyaksha, impressed with such a display of self-sacrifice, spares the minister; as is typical, the Jatakaends with the minister lecturing the naga king on Buddhist teachings.The world of the jealous naga king is depicted in dark colors at the very top of the wall; the world ofthe king of Indraprasatha is portrayed in lighter colors below. The most powerful image is of Irandati— depicted on a swing — as she prepares to win Purnaka’s heart and persuade him to kill theminister (circled in red in Fig. 26).

Fig. 26. Vidhurapandita Jataka, right wall, Cave 2, Ajanta. Highlights added.

CeilingThe ceiling is particularly impressive. Like Cave 1, it holds square medallions (with geese andelaborate floral decoration) that are framed by endless geometric key patterns. However, there is an

added three-dimensional effect, due to more developed shading.Gliding and flying celestial deities * (see Fig. 27) — reminiscent of Renaissance angels — surroundthe medallions; the best are in the main hall (in front of the entrance to the primary shrine) and in theprimary Buddha shrine.

Fig. 27. Flying celestial deities, ceiling, Cave 2, Ajanta.

Cave 4

Author Tip: No paintings here, but ... the interiors of the cells surrounding the central hall ofthis massive, unfinished monastery are illuminated, affording good insight into whataccommodations were like for the resident monks. Also, Cave 4’s reliefs are top flight andevocative, both the standing Buddhas in the antechamber and the seated Buddha in the shrine.

BackgroundCave 4, a vihara, was built in the second half of the 5th century; it corresponds to the Late Phase ofexcavation and is Mahayana Buddhist in religious orientation. It is the largest cave in Ajanta; it isunfinished.

Fig. 28. Floorplan, Cave 4, Ajanta. Highlights added.

Layout

Just beyond an open pillared gallery (yellow highlights in Fig. 28), three doorways leadinto the central hall (green highlights in Fig. 28).

Inside, twenty-eight octagonal columns surround an open square room, with small cells —originally used by monks for sleeping and private study — lining the periphery (bluehighlights in Fig. 28); a small number of these cells have not been fully excavated. Theopen prayer area inside the columns (see Fig. 29) is massive; apparently, the ceiling overthis space experienced a collapse at some point in its history.

Accessed through an antechamber (pink highlights in Fig. 28), a shrine room with a seatedBuddha (red highlights in Fig. 28) sits on the side opposite the entrance.

Fig. 29. Prayer area, Cave 4, Ajanta.

Relief SculpturesAlthough otherwise starkly decorated, Cave 4’s interior contains some standout relief sculptures.

Fig. 30. Standing Buddhas, Cave 4, Ajanta.

In the antechamberThe antechamber has high quality reliefs of standing Buddhas (see Fig. 30), all of whom display thevarada (bestowing blessings) mudra with their right arms. At the feet of one standing Buddha arepraying devotees (see Fig. 31).

Fig. 31. Devotees at Buddha’s feet, Cave 4, Ajanta.

In the shrineThe primary Buddha image (see Fig. 32), flanked by bodhisattva attendants, is in good condition; webelieve it rivals Cave 16’s Buddha for the best in Ajanta. Seated, he displays the typicaldharmachakra (teaching) mudra; at his sides stand two large, high quality reliefs of his disciples,Mogallan and Ananda.The base of the platform (also see Fig. 32) on which the Buddha sits holds the clearest depiction ofthe narrative associated with the dharmachakra mudra:

The two deer serve as reminders of the location in which the Buddha gave his first post-enlightenment sermon: Deer Park in Sarnath, India (just north of Varanasi).

The deer face inward toward a wheel, which symbolizes the teachings of the Buddha.Followers gather around to hear the sermon.

Fig. 32. Dharmachakra Buddha with attendants and decorative base, Cave 4, Ajanta.

Cave 9

Author Tip: Get ready to step even further back in time to one of Ajanta’s oldest excavations.One of only two Early Phase chaityas at Ajanta, Cave 9 has the simplest layout and the sparestdecoration; however, in simplicity there is spiritual power. The basic architectural anddecorative forms employed here will go on to influence all subsequent Buddhist and Hindustructures.

BackgroundCave 9, a chaitya, was likely built in the 1st or 2nd century BCE; it is one of the oldest caves atAjanta. It corresponds to the Early Phase of excavation and is Theravada Buddhist in religiousorientation. Keep in mind, Cave 9 was refurbished in the Late Phase, so it also holds some 5thcentury decoration.

Fig. 33. Facade, Cave 9, Ajanta. Highlights added.

FacadeThe facade has a massive 3/4 circle chaitya arch window (red highlights in Fig. 33); above andbelow it, there are smaller decorative blind relief chaitya arches (yellow highlights in Fig. 33).Early Phase Theravada Buddhist chaityas — unlike their Late Phase Mahayana Buddhist counterparts(such as Caves 19 and 26, profiled in later sections) — have minimal exterior decoration; further, itnever includes images of the Buddha in physical form, opting instead for symbolic representations.Accordingly, the two large Buddhas (green highlights in Fig. 33) standing on the facade’sperpendicularly projecting sidewalls in varada (bestowing blessings) mudra do not date from thecave’s original Theravada construction and are necessarily Late Phase Mahayana additions.

Fig. 34. Floorplan, Cave 9, Ajanta. Highlights added.

LayoutThis chaitya has the simplest layout of any at Ajanta.

The cave is entered through a single central entrance.

Two rows of unadorned octagonal columns divide the interior space into a central naveflanked by two side aisles.

A simple stupa (red highlights in Fig. 34) — discussed below — sits opposite theentrance.

Unlike all other chaityas at Ajanta, Cave 9 does not have an apsidal end; rather, it issquared off. See green highlights in Fig. 34.

The vaulted ceiling’s original wooden ribs (most likely teak) — inserted on the inside ofthe sanctuary to replicate earlier all-wood structures — are now lost, leaving only a flat-surfaced stone ceiling.

Early Phase StupaCave 9’s stupa is also the simplest at Ajanta. It has a low platform (yellow highlights in Fig. 35) and3/4 sphere-shaped anda (green highlights in Fig. 35); while the harmika’s inverted pyramid top(red highlights in Fig. 35) is in place, the chattra is lost.

Fig. 35. Floorplan, Cave 9, Ajanta. Highlights added.

PaintingsAlong with Cave 10, this sanctuary hall houses the oldest painted images at Ajanta, dating from itsoriginal excavation. However, there are not many and they were largely painted over in the LatePhase (5th century); the overpainting of the originals is clear in some areas. That said, originalpaintings are still visible in the following locations:

On the left side of the entrance, the original underpainting of a naga is still visible.On the left side of the main hall, there is an original painted procession of devotees (seeFig. 36), as if in circumambulation around the stupa.

In the central nave, above the left colonnade, there is a thin relief strip.The cave’s more vibrant paintings date from the 5th century.

Fig. 36. Fresco, Cave 9, Ajanta.

Cave 10 *

Author Tip: Likely the oldest cave in Ajanta, Cave 10 similarly conveys a profound spiritualenergy. Its simple yet powerful forms provide another raw look into India’s earliest rock-cutarchitecture. Although the original paintings are somewhat disappointing, the 5th centuryBuddhas on the columns are well preserved and delicately rendered.

BackgroundCave 10, an Early Phase chaitya, was likely built in the 2nd century BCE; it is probably Ajanta’soldest excavation and is Theravada Buddhist in religious orientation. As with Cave 9, it wasrefurbished in the Late Phase, so it holds some 5th century decoration.This was the first cave rediscovered by British Army Officer John Smith in 1819.

Fig. 37. Facade, Cave 10, Ajanta.

FacadeFramed by a massive 3/4 circle chaitya arch window, Cave 10’s facade (see Fig. 37) — originallymade of wood — is no longer extant; the modern facade under the arch consists of basic woodframing.

Fig. 38. Floorplan, Cave 10, Ajanta. Highlights added.

LayoutThe apsidal-ended chaitya (the apse-shaped portion of the chaitya is marked with greenhighlights in Fig. 38) makes its first appearance in Ajanta here, serving to facilitateclockwise circumambulation around the internal stupa (red highlights in Fig. 38).

The main hall has two rows of tightly aligned octagonal columns that divide the spaceinto a narrow central nave (for prayer) and two side aisles (for circumambulation).

The nave’s curved vault ceiling has lost its original wooden ribs, although their locationsare still marked with water stains (see Fig. 39); stone ribs line the ceilings of the aisles.

Early Phase StupaThe simply adorned stupa fits the Early Stage model:

A 3/4 sphere-shaped anda (green highlights in Fig. 39) sits atop a double-tiered (versussingle-tiered in Cave 9), yet still low lying, platform (yellow highlights in Fig. 39).

The square harmika’s inverted pyramid top (red highlights in Fig. 39) remains intact,while the triple umbrella chattra has been destroyed.

There is no Buddha image fronting the stupa, as was typical in Early Phase Theravadaversions.

Fig. 39. Stupa, Cave 10, Ajanta. Highlights added.

PaintingsAlong with Cave 9, Cave 10 houses the oldest painted images at Ajanta; however, they arelargely disappointing and in a very poor state of preservation. Only a few survive, due in largepart to a 5th century overpainting. Original paintings are still visible in the following locations:

On the uppermost parts of the right colonnade (above the more vibrant paintings ofBuddhas), there are very faint floral and geometric designs.

On the left wall (behind a protective pane of plastic), a series of figures — seemingly theking and his retinue — approach a garlanded Bodhi tree, a Theravada symbol for theBuddha. Remember, in these Early Phase caves, there were no figurative representationsof the Buddha.

On the right wall, Jataka paintings have been defaced and are now impossible to read.They include the Sama and Chaddanta Jatakas.

The more vibrant paintings in the cave date from the late 5th century repainting. Of these, therepetitive Buddha images encircling the octagonal columns (see Fig. 40) are a highlight.

Fig. 40. 5th century Buddha fresco, Cave 10, Ajanta.

Cave 16 *

Author Tip: While understated, Cave 16 has a number of distinctive features — an elephant-guarded entrance stairway; high quality paintings; unique ceiling reliefs; and an exceptionalBuddha image — that make it one of our favorites.

BackgroundCave 16, one of the largest viharas at Ajanta, was built in the late 5th century (462-478),corresponding to the Late Phase of excavation. It was sponsored by a minister in the court of KingHarisena, Varahadeva.

Fig. 41. Elephant entrance to stairway, Cave 16, Ajanta.

Entrance Stairway

The cave’s exterior has a distinctive feature: a stairway — the start of which is marked by elephantreliefs (see Fig. 41) — rises from the river to the level of the entrance. While such an arrangementwas likely pervasive at Ajanta, this is only cave at which it remains intact.A quick word on the elephant: the elephant became so closely associated with Buddhism (it isubiquitous in Ajanta’s decoration) that Hinduism would later use a lion (linked with Hinduism)standing over an elephant to symbolize its success in eradicating Buddhism from the subcontinent.You will encounter this lion-over-elephant decoration frequently at Ellora’s Hindu caves, mostnotably at Cave 16 (Kailasa).

Fig. 42. Floorplan, Cave 16, Ajanta. Highlights added.

LayoutJust beyond an open pillared gallery (yellow highlights in Fig. 42), three doorways leadinto the main hall (green highlights in Fig. 42).

Inside, twenty octagonal columns surround an square room, with small cells lining theperiphery (blue highlights in Fig. 42). As is typical, the open area inside the columns was

used as a prayer area.A shrine room with a seated Buddha (red highlights in Fig. 42) sits on the side oppositethe entrance; there is no antechamber.

Relief Sculptures

On the ceilingThere are attractive figurative reliefs positioned on the ceiling of the front gallery (between themain hall and the entrance wall). They depict celestial deities, musicians, and attendants, all of whichappear in flight (see Fig. 43).

Fig. 43. Decoration, Cave 16, Ajanta.

In the shrine

The Buddha image (see Fig. 44) — displaying the standard dharmachakra (teaching) mudra andseated on a lion throne with both feet planted firmly on the ground — is one of the best executed atAjanta; its carving reveals an exceptionally high level of detail. He is flanked by mythical guardiancreatures below and his two trusted disciples, Mogallan and Ananda, above.

Fig. 44. Primary Buddha image, Cave 16, Ajanta.

PaintingAlthough many of this monastery’s paintings have been destroyed, those that remain on the wallsof the main hall are of high quality and rank as highlights of the entire collection. The most importantpaintings are reviewed in the order that they are encountered, beginning at the entrance and continuingin clockwise rotation around the periphery of the central hall. We have marked our favoritefrescoes with asterisks (*).

Left side of the front wall (closest to entrance)

The front wall contains scenes from the Maha Ummagga Jataka, a story of gifted child (Mahasodha)— an incarnation of the Buddha and symbol of perfect wisdom — who solves riddles, foils plans byrival kings, outwits evil-doers, and teaches Buddhist doctrine.

Left wallThe most impactful frescoes, located on the left wall, recount the story of Nanda’s conversion bythe Buddha. Of these scenes, look for the following:

Nanda’s hair cutting. Nanda’s head is bowed, having just had his head shaved, symbolicof his break from the secular world.

* Mourning the decision. He and his beautiful wife, Princess Janapadakalyani, aredepicted separately, mourning the loss of their marriage. Look for the large figure of thedistraught, semi-reclined (fainting? dying?) Princess (see Fig. 45), swarmed by attendants,as she struggles with the reality of the situation. This scene employs especially adeptshading — look at Princess Janapadakalyani’s legs for an example — to give an enhancedimpression of depth and three-dimensionality.

Fig. 45. Princess Janapadakalyani (Nanda’s Conversion), left wall, Cave 16, Ajanta.

Right wallThe right wall has scenes from the life of the Buddha and Maitreya (the Future Buddha);unfortunately, they are in a low state of preservation.

Cave 17 *

Author Tip: Cave 17’s paintings, rivalling those of Caves 1 and 2, are some of the best atAjanta. Although it is darker on the interior of this cave, making it more difficult to see, thepaintings are impressive and serve as great examples of the continuous narrative frescotechnique. Also, don’t forget to view the paintings on the cave’s exterior, inside the pillaredgallery, where their exquisite details are revealed in the light of day.

BackgroundCave 17, a vihara, dates from the late 5th century, probably slightly after Cave 16. Accordingly, itcorresponds to the Late Phase of excavation and is Mahayana Buddhist in religious orientation.

Paintings on the Exterior of the CaveUnlike other caves, Cave 17 has impressive paintings on its exterior walls, in the open pillaredgallery before you enter. They are worth a prolonged look, as the natural light reveals all of thedetails.

Wheel of life (far left side of the gallery, at the entrance to the side shrine). The galleryholds a much deteriorated depiction of the Wheel of Life, the only such depiction atAjanta: hell is rendered in the lower portion of the wheel; life on earth in the middle; andthe world of the divine at the top. Although no longer visible, the center of the wheel waslikely adorned with animals symbolic of the qualities of human nature that, whenunchecked, keep the wheel forever turning: turtledove (symbol of passion), snake (hate),and pig (delusion).

* Vessantara Jataka (gallery entrance wall, left of entrance door). Prince Vessantara —an incarnation of the Buddha and symbol of generosity — is popularly believed to be theBuddha’s life prior to his last reincarnation as the historical Buddha. In this tale,Vessantara gives away all of his possessions as he seeks to help those in need: he beginsby giving away his magical elephant (which was responsible for bringing rain andabundance to his kingdom), which so upsets the local population that he is forced toabdicate the throne and move to the forest; along the way, he gives away his horse andchariot; he finishes it off by giving away those things that are dearest to him, his wife andchildren. Having made this ultimate sacrifice in order to help others, the gods reuniteVessantara with his family and his kingdom. In Fig. 46, Vessantara and Princess Madri aredepicted in the royal court at the start of the tale (right side); and the Princess, with anumbrella over her head, begins her move to the forest (left side). Note the attempt to depicta shadow, on the two heads peering through a window in the background, by using a darkcolor palette.

Fig. 46. Vessantara Jataka, exterior gallery, Cave 17, Ajanta.

** Apsara (gallery entrance wall, right of entrance door). You have to look closely for thisbeautiful image, one of our favorites at Ajanta — a heavily jeweled female deity witha distinctive turban (see Fig. 47) — as most of the fresco is destroyed.

Fig. 47. Apsara, exterior gallery, Cave 17, Ajanta.

* Buddha’s calming of Nalgiri, the elephant (gallery entrance wall, farther right ofentrance door). In this scene from the life of the historical Buddha, the Buddha calms araging, intoxicated elephant; the elephant kneels at his feet, struck by the Buddha’s lovingkindness. In Fig. 48, the elephant is shown running through the streets of the town ofRajagraha. As this fresco employs continuous narrative, the single elephant appears astwo elephants, each representing Nalgiri at separate points in time: running through thestreets (left) and kneeling at the Buddha’s feet (right). On the far right stands the Buddha(dressed in white), with his right hand out, palm downward, touching the elephant’s head.

Fig. 48. Buddha’s calming of Nalgiri, exterior gallery, Cave 17, Ajanta.

LayoutJust beyond a small open pillared gallery (yellow highlights in Fig. 49) and through asingle entrance door lies the central hall (green highlights in Fig. 49).

The open square hall, surrounded by twenty octagonal columns, has small cells lining itsperiphery (blue highlights in Fig. 49).

Accessed through an antechamber (pink highlights in Fig. 49), a shrine room with aseated Buddha (red highlights in Fig. 49) — displaying the dharmachakra (teaching)mudra — sits opposite the entrance.

Fig. 49. Floorplan, Cave 17, Ajanta. Highlights added.

Interior PaintingsWhile Cave 17’s interior also has good paintings, the viewing experience is negatively impacted bythe lower light conditions.The most important paintings are reviewed in the order that they are encountered, beginning at theentrance and continuing in clockwise rotation around the periphery of the central hall. We markfavorites with asterisks (*).

Left side of the front wall (closest to entrance)* Chaddanta Jataka. This Jataka is located to the left side, immediately upon entering thecave; most important, it is well lighted. The fresco tells the story of an elephant king —an incarnation of the Buddha, named Chaddanta — who sacrifices his six tusks to a hunterin order to appease his wronged wife. The wife, upon hearing of the elephant king’s great

sacrifice, mourned for him and promptly died. Front and center in the depiction (see Fig.50) are three figures positioned at the feet of a white elephant. Once again, this is acontinuous narrative, and accordingly, they actually represent the single hunter at threeseparate points in time: kneeling, with head to the ground, at the feet of the elephant (farright); receiving the tusks from the elephant (center); and carrying the tusks back to theelephant’s wronged wife (far left).

Fig. 50. Shaddanta Jataka, Cave 17, Ajanta.

Left wallHamsa Jataka. In this Jataka, Queen Khema of Benares dreamed of a golden goose(hamsa) — an incarnation of the Buddha — that lectured her on Buddhist law; the kingsought to capture such a goose in order to appease his wife. The golden goose was snared,but the leader of the geese refused to flee and abandon a member of his flock. Both geesewere therefore brought to the king; moved by the leader’s loyalty, he freed them both afterlistening to the golden goose’s teachings.

Vessantara Jataka. There are more scenes from this popular Jataka here, continuing those

begun outside in the pillared gallery. While the images outside focus on the King’sdeparture from the city, these scenes center on his triumphant return. In fact, he is depictedsitting upon his throne again, restored in his kingdom, high up on the left side of the rearwall.

AntechamberThe antechamber holds two magnificent images.

Buddha preaching in Tushita Heaven and on earth after his descent (antechamber, leftside).

* Buddha begging alms from his wife and son (antechamber, left side, as enter shrine).This scene from the life of the Buddha is an incredibly powerful image and one of ourfavorites for its emotional power. It shows the Buddha begging for food at his formerhome, standing in front of his wife (Yasodhara) and son (Rahula). The Buddha is depictedin massive relative proportions, reflecting his spiritual magnitude. In this scene, inresponse to his son’s request for his royal inheritance (as the son of a prince), the Buddhareplies that he has nothing to offer but his begging bowl. Even if viewing is restricted tothe central hall, this image is still visible if you pick your spot correctly.

Rear wallMatriposhaka Jataka (rear wall, right side). In these scenes, a white elephant — anincarnation of the Buddha and symbol of filial duty — was captured by the king ofBenares. However, the elephant refused to eat, as he had to return to care for his blindmother. Impressed by the elephant’s sense of duty to his mother, the king released himback into the wild. The elephants in these scenes are painted with masterly skill: thelines are thinner than typical and the precise shading maximizes their three-dimensional appearance.

Right wallOne of the larger frescoes at Ajanta, the Sinhala Avadana is a massive, multi-scene depiction. Thescenes tell the story of Sinhala, the hero, who is shipwrecked on an island inhabited by femaleogresses, beautiful and alluring by day, but cannibalistic by night. Sinhala is rescued by a whitehorse, an incarnation of the Buddha. However, a fiendish ogress secretly follows Vinhala to hishomeland and so charms the local king that she is asked to join his harem; soon after, the ogress killsthe king and summons all of the ogresses from the remote island. However, Sinhala recognizes theogresses and rallies the people to defeat them in a great battle. In the painted scenes, it is easy to seethe transformation of the women from beguiling temptresses to man-eating ogresses; the white horseand harem scenes are also clearly identifiable; finally, the brave Sinhala rides a white elephant as hedefeats the ogresses in battle.

These scenes are especially dense, filled with much movement and an inordinate number of figures.While the details of the narrative are difficult to discern, this fresco represents Ajanta storytellingat its most vibrant.

ColumnsOn the columns at the intersection of the right and front aisles is another depiction of a turbanedapsara. See Fig. 51.

Fig. 51. Apsara, Cave 17, Ajanta.

CeilingCave 17’s ceiling is a marvel. Unlike Caves 1 and 2, it does not hold lines of square medallions andgeometric designs. Instead, it has single, large circular medallion at its center, resembling a carpetor roof of a tent. The central medallion is surrounded by gliding and flying celestial deities, againreminiscent of Renaissance angels. There are also mythical figures, including half human-half birddeities (kinnaras).

Cave 19 *

Author Tip: It’s amazing what the passage of 600-700 years and the rise of new school ofBuddhism will do! Here we get our first look at a Late Phase chaitya. For the first time we see:abundant reliefs on the facade; a carved cornice in the nave; and a Buddha standing before theinternal stupa.

BackgroundCave 19, a chaitya, was built in the late 5th century. Accordingly, it corresponds to the Late Phaseof excavation and is Mahayana Buddhist in religious orientation.

Fig. 52. Facade, Cave 19, Ajanta.

Facade

Cave 19’s facade (see Fig. 52) is known for having some of the highest quality relief decoration atAjanta; it covers all available surface area and is the quintessential example of the Late Phasedecorative style. Compare this highly decorative facade (and that of Cave 26) with the plain facadesof the Early Phase chaityas, Caves 9 and 10.

As is typical, the center of the facade holds a 3/4 circle chaitya window.The premier reliefs are of the two corpulent, long-haired guardians (see Fig. 53) thatflank the window, swaying in tribhanga and holding garlands. Above them are twohorizontal registers of tightly framed seated dharmachakra Buddhas.

The projecting eaves are lined with miniature chaitya arches (visible on the eaves aboveand below the guardian in Fig. 53), under which are deities; they mark the structure as aresidence of the gods.

The other standout reliefs are of the standing Buddhas astride the entrance (see Fig. 52);each leans toward the entrance, with head tilted downward and right hand displaying thevarada (wish granting) mudra.

On the left wall is a carved naga couple; on the right is the ascetic Buddha begging almsfrom his wife and son.

Fig. 53. Guardian, facade, Cave 19, Ajanta.

LayoutCave 19’s layout adheres to the standard Ajanta model:

A large courtyard (yellow highlights in Fig. 54) affords access to an apsidal-ended mainhall, with two rows of octagonal columns that divide the space into a narrow centralprayer area and two aisles for circumambulation.

A stupa (red highlights in Fig. 54) — now with a Buddha image at its front, as was typicalin Late Phase chaityas — sits opposite the entrance, on the western end.

The nave’s curved vault ceiling (see Fig. 55) has stone ribs that imitate earlier woodenbeams.

Fig. 54. Floorplan, Cave 19, Ajanta. Highlights added.

Late Phase Stupa

Although the chaitya’s internal arrangement is generally consistent with Early Phase models, itsinternal stupa has changed meaningfully.

The stupa’s anda (green highlights in Fig. 55) is now much more elevated — perched on ahigher platform (yellow highlights in Fig. 55) — than in Early Phase versions.

The anda supports both the typical square harmika with inverted pyramid (red highlightsin Fig. 55) and a well-preserved triple umbrella chattra (blue highlights in Fig. 55); thisis the only extant chattra at Ajanta.

Most important, unlike its Early Phase antecedents, a large Buddha now stands in front,underneath an arch that springs from the mouths of two inward-facing makaras (light bluehighlights in Fig. 55); makaras are mythical water creatures that symbolize the life-givingpowers of water. Note that the Buddha’s head is positioned in the exact location where thehistorical Buddha’s remains were likely placed in earlier stupas. The new emphasis on theBuddha figure — vis-à-vis the stupa — symbolizes a major shift in ritual that reaches itsmost developed expression at Cave 26; this shift is explored in greater detail in discussionof Cave 26.

Fig. 55. Stupa, Cave 19, Ajanta. Highlights added.

ReliefsHigh quality reliefs abound in the nave:

The columns’ compressed cushion capitals are topped with large brackets (see Fig. 56),the faces of which have seated dharmachakra (teaching) Buddhas at their centers; they areflanked by dynamic riding, dancing, flying, and music playing figures.

The cornice (see Fig. 56) above holds larger reliefs of the Buddha, alternatively sitting (indharmachakra mudra) and standing (in varada mudra).

Fig. 56. Brackets and frieze, Cave 19, Ajanta.

Cave 26 *

Author Tip: Picking up where Cave 19 left off, Cave 26 represents an even more elaboratechaitya, the most ornate at Ajanta. This cave merits a prolonged visit for its high qualityreliefs, both on the facade and the sidewalls of the interior; they are the best in Ajanta.

BackgroundCave 26, a chaitya, was built in the late 5th century (477-480). Accordingly, it corresponds to theLate Phase of excavation and is Mahayana Buddhist in religious orientation.

Fig. 57. Facade, Cave 26, Ajanta.

FacadeJust as at Cave 19, the facade’s decoration covers all available surface area.

Cave 26’s facade is dominated by a large 3/4 circle chaitya arch window (see Fig. 57).

The window is surrounded by a series of densely packed framed reliefs, filling the entireupper portion of the wall; along with Cave 19, this cave represents the high point of theLate Phase’s highly decorative style.

The most prominent among these reliefs are: (a) Two standing bodhisattvas, swaying intribhanga posture and displaying the varada (bestowing gifts) mudra, stand in niches toeither side of the window’s base (see Fig. 57). (b) Two standing varada Buddhas on thefar left and right sides face each other across the span of the facade (see Fig. 58).

Fig. 58. Standing Buddha, far left side, facade, Cave 26, Ajanta.

Fig. 59. Floorplan, Cave 26, Ajanta.

LayoutOnce again, in Cave 26, the standard chaitya layout prevails, unaltered.

A small open pillared gallery (yellow highlights in Fig. 59) affords access to an apsidal-ended main hall, with two rows of octagonal columns that divide the space into a narrowcentral nave (for prayer) and two side aisles (for circumambulation).

The nave’s curved vault ceiling also has stone ribs that imitate earlier wooden beams.A stupa (red highlights in Fig. 59) — with a prominent Buddha image at its front, as wastypical in Late Phase chaityas — sits opposite the entrance, on the western end.

Fig. 60. Stupa, Cave 26, Ajanta. Highlights added.

Elaborate Late Phase StupaAs with all of Ajanta’s chaitya stupas, the anda (green highlights in Fig. 60) supports a squareharmika (red highlights in Fig. 60); its triple umbrella chattra is no longer extant. That said, Cave26’s stupa has some distinctive, unique features:

The anda has changed shape a bit from earlier models, resembling a 3/4 egg, rather than a3/4 sphere. Further, it is markedly smaller than earlier versions.

The anda’s supporting platform (yellow highlights in Fig. 60) is more substantial (andmore decorated) than that of any earlier stupa at Ajanta. It affords the stupa a pronouncedvertical momentum.

The Buddha (see Fig. 60) is now seated, rather than standing, and displays thedharmachakra mudra. His seated position is Western in style: both feet are positioned onthe ground, rather than crossed-legged in meditation. Further, he sits under a substantialornate canopy, rather than a simple arch (as in Cave 19).

This is the latest stage of the stupa’s transformation at Ajanta. Altogether, these changes point toan increased emphasis on the Buddha as a figure of worship and a commensurate de-emphasis ofthe stupa in front of which it stands. This attests to the changing nature of ritual under theMahayana school of Buddhism: the worship of an abstract symbol (the stupa) is de-emphasized infavor of a more concrete, identifiable Buddha figure, with whom the devotee can interact on apersonal level. This is a profound change.The direction set in motion here will continue at Ellora’s 7th century Cave 10, the last rock-cutchaitya in India.

ReliefsAlong with Cave 19, this cave marks a move away from painted decoration in favor of reliefs. Allavailable space within the hall — columns, walls, and ceiling — is covered with ornate reliefs,depicting events in the life of the Buddha on the left wall and Buddha images on right.

Frieze and brackets around the central naveCave 26’s nave has the most ornate relief decoration of any cave at Ajanta. While brackets carrythe typical decoration (dharmachakra Buddhas flanked by flying celestials), the frieze has becomesignificantly more elaborate: as opposed to the simple arrangements of earlier friezes, seatedBuddhas here sit in complex architectural structures and are flanked by an expansive retinue (see Fig.61).

Fig. 61. Frieze, Cave 26, Ajanta.

ParanirvanaIn the front of the main hall, on the left side, there is a large (7 meter) carved figure of the reclining ordying Buddha (see Fig. 62), recounting the moment in which he enters nirvana. His calm inner statepervades, indicated by the gentle smile. Beneath him, his disciples, blinded by earthly attachments,mourn his passing; above, celestials, aware of the reality of the situation, rejoice.

Fig. 62. Reclining Buddha, Cave 26, Ajanta.

Victory over MaraThis is the most complex relief composition at Ajanta. In this depiction, located slightly deeperinto the hall on the left side, the Buddha is positioned at the center; he displays the varada (bestowinggifts) mudra and sits under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India, just prior to his reachingenlightenment. Consistent with the continuous narrative artistic practice, there are three eventsdepicted in this single relief:

In the upper half of the panel, the evil demon Mara (sitting astride a large elephant in theupper left corner) and his forces are shown in full attack, attempting to defeat the Buddhabefore he achieves enlightenment. The figure of Mara is circled in yellow in Fig. 63.

His physical fighting forces decimated, Mara enlists his daughters — Rati (lust), Trishna(thirst), and Arati (delight) — to dance at the Buddha’s feet, with hopes of breaking hisconcentration with sexual advances. Mara’s daughters are circled in green in Fig. 63.

In the bottom right hand corner, his efforts having failed, a dejected and defeated Marasits with his daughters, with his hand to his head. Mara and daughters are circled in red in

Fig. 63.

Fig. 63. Victory over Mara, Cave 26, Ajanta. Highlights added.

ELEPHANTA

Author Tip: Elephanta’s rock-hewn Great Cave — a short ferry ride from downtown Mumbai —is one of the premier sites for Hindu art and architecture in all of India. It contains aninnovative floorplan and unrivaled world-class reliefs.

Location and LogisticsElephanta’s Cave 1, also known as the Great Cave of Shiva, is located on Mumbai’s Elephanta Island(Gharapuri), approximately an hour’s ferry ride northeast of Mumbai’s Colaba neighborhood. Buy aticket for the “fast boat” from the launch next to the Gateway of India; the ticket booth is located onthe left side of the plaza as you enter from the road. The site is closed on Mondays.Once on the island, the Great Cave is reached after a brief walk along the jetty and a sharp ascent up100-plus stairs on the island’s Canon hill (see Fig. 64).

Fig. 64. Elephanta Island, Mumbai.

Shiva DedicationUnlike Ajanta, the Great Cave is Hindu in religious orientation. It is dedicated to Shiva, one of thethree primary deities in the Hindu pantheon. Given the cave’s coherent, well-organized reliefdecoration, it was likely built over a short period of time with imperial sponsorship, rather thanrelying on wealthy individuals as at Ajanta.

Date of ExcavationThere is no dedication panel on the Great Cave. Accordingly, while its exact date of construction isunknown for certain, the cave was likely built under the Kalacuri Empire in the mid- to late-6thcentury. This Empire was also responsible for the earliest Hindu caves at Ellora (profiled next inthis guidebook).

Architecture

Excavation ProcessAs at Ajanta and Ellora, the Great Cave is carved directly out of the basalt mountaintop, theexcavation process proceeding from front to back and from top to bottom.

Fig. 65. Floorplan, Great Cave, Elephanta. Highlights added.

Pioneers a New LayoutThe temple’s main hall (red highlights in Fig. 65) — the focus of this profile — is flanked by eastand west wings (yellow highlights in Fig. 65); visitors enter through the north entrance.

Fig. 66. Main hall’s entrances and niches, Great Cave, Elephanta. Highlights added.

While the layout of the main hall was generally inspired by the Buddhist viharas of Ajanta, there isone fundamental modification: instead of adhering to Ajanta’s basic setup — a square or rectangularinterior, with an entrance on one side — Elephanta architects made a dramatic change, employing acrucifom interior plan, with entrances on three sides. The main hall’s three entrances are markedwith green highlights in Fig. 66.This was the first time that this more open arrangement had ever been used, and it began a trendtoward increasingly more open layouts that would follow in Hindu caves at Ellora:

At Ellora’s Cave 29 (Dhumar Lena), the exact same, three-entrance floorplan was used.At Ellora’s Cave 15 (Dashavatara), the next major step forward occurred: a monolithicstone mandapa pavilion was liberated in the open courtyard, no longer embedded in thecliffside and covered from the light of day.

At Ellora’s Cave 16 (Kailasa), the ultimate manifestation of the open style begun atElephanta, the entire top of the mountain was removed, exposing all of the enclosedstructures to the light of day.

This transformation is traced in more detail in the sections devoted to Ellora.

Fig. 67. The two primary axes, Great Cave, Elephanta. Highlights added.

Two Primary AxesThe Great Cave’s new three-entrance layout naturally encouraged the introduction of two primaryaxes (marked with red arrows in Fig. 67) along which devotees were encouraged to move; thiscompares with the single-axis arrangements of earlier Buddhist excavations. Both axes in the GreatCave direct devotees to abstract images of the presiding deity, Shiva.

East-to-west axis: the devotional axisOn the east-to-west axis, visitors enter through the eastern entrance and proceed toward the shrine(green highlights in Fig. 67), at the center of which is a linga. The eastern entrance was likelydesigned to be the cave’s principal one, and the east-west alignment of the ceiling moldings(between the columns) attests to its primacy.We view the east-to-west axis as the devotional axis, as it leads the devotee to a direct interactionwith the Shiva linga — a direct manifestation of the deity — in his shrine. Such personal interactionis the foundation of Hindu temple ritual. Along this axis, devotees move toward light, as the temple’s

west side is open; this serves to backlight and highlight the linga (see Fig. 68), infusing it with andivine radiance.

Fig. 68. View from eastern entrance along east-west axis, Great Cave, Elephanta.

North-to-south axis: the didactic axisOn the north-to-south axis, devotees enter through the northern entrance (which serves as themodern entrance) and proceed southward toward the temple’s most important relief, that ofSadashiva (see yellow highlights in Fig. 67). See more on this image in the next section on “Reliefs”.We view this as the temple’s didactic axis, as visitors would engage with the Sadashiva relief tolearn of Shiva’s complex, opposing natures and contemplate their meanings. In opposition to the east-to-west axis above, it represents a moving into mysterious darkness, as the Sadashiva relief lies in thedarkest spot in the cave, farthest from all entrances; darkness is symbolic of the infinite andunknowable depths of divine consciousness.

Fig. 69. Shrine entrance (northern side), Great Cave, Elephanta.

Shrine

The lingaThe monolithic shrine (see Fig. 69) — a freestanding square cell, with entrances on each side —encloses a black, phallus-shaped linga (the symbol of Shiva) that sits atop a square, vagina-like base,called a yoni (the symbol shakti, that is, feminine creative power). Universal unity in the figure ofShiva is the cosmological message; this recurring theme is explored in greater detail in the discussionof the figurative reliefs that follows in subsequent sections.Keep in mind, the linga is not an embodiment of the deity. It is merely a conduit through whichdevotees engage in a direct and personal interaction with Shiva.

Dvarapala guardians

Each of the shrine’s triple-recessed entrance doors is flanked by two dvarapalas (see Fig. 69); thoseon the south side are in the best condition. Dvarapalas are demon guardians with snarling faces thatgreet the faithful at the entrance to the shrine. Their role is not, as one might first be inclined tobelieve, to scare away evil spirits. Rather, their role is to inspire fear in the faithful. In order enterthe shrine, the believer must face these figures and abandon his fear, which is derived from hisattachment to worldly things and his physical body; in so doing, he has begun the process towardenlightenment.

Architectural DecorationAside from the figurative reliefs and central shrine, the walls and ceiling are plain andundecorated.While the Great Cave’s columns (see Fig. 70) share their general form with those in Late Phaseviharas at Ajanta — i.e., square shaft, partial fluting, and compressed cushion capitals — theydefinitively lean toward a more simple aesthetic: minimal relief touches, larger compressedcushions, and more delicate fluting. Even the brackets that sit above the capitals — the focus ofelaborate reliefs at Ajanta — are less pronounced and devoid of decoration.

Fig. 70. Fluted column with compressed cushion capital, Great Cave, Elephanta.

Historical ContextAs mentioned in this Approach Guide’s overview, two South Indian Hindu Dynasties — theChalukyas and Pallavas — were the first to translate the rock-hewn Buddhist monastery (vihara)and sanctuary (chaitya) cave forms into stone-built architecture. The first stone-built templesresulting from this translation were constructed in Aihole (in Karnataka) and Mahabalipuram (inTamil Nadu) in the early 6th century.Assuming that the Great Cave was built by the Kalacuri Empire, its excavation likely occurred 50-plus years later than these early stone-built Hindu temples. Accordingly, even at this early date,the writing was on the wall: The age of rock-cut temples was nearing its end; the age of stone-builtarchitecture was dawning. As it turns out, Ellora — where construction was just commencing — wasthe last site of Hindu rock-cut architecture in India.

Reliefs Overview

Didactic Agenda and RitualFirst and foremost, the reliefs in the Great Cave were designed to educate devotees on aspects ofthe presiding deity, Shiva. To do so, artists used narratives drawn from Hindu epics (such as theMahabharata) and sacred texts (such as the Puranas). The nine primary reliefs depict the mostimportant and well-known Shiva narratives; you will encounter these same scenes again and again invisits to Hindu temples throughout India, including those of Ellora.At the same time, they had an implicit message: Shiva’s divine aspects are also inherent in thedevotee. Although this sublime reality is temporarily hidden during life on earth by illusion (maya),it can be tapped into through deep, ritualistic devotion to Shiva; Shiva and the devotee become one.Although viewing the reliefs while in circumambulation of the temple was clearly of fundamentalritual importance at this temple, it is unclear as to whether devotees moved in a clockwise (typical atmost Hindu temples) or counterclockwise direction.

Fig. 71. Location of reliefs, Great Cave, Elephanta. Highlights added.

ArrangementThere are nine relief panels inside the cave: two flank each entrance on the north, east, and west sides(light blue, green, and yellow highlights in Fig. 71, respectively); the most important three are on thesouth wall (red highlights in Fig. 71).All nine are profiled individually in subsequent sections. If your time is limited, we have markedwith asterisks (*) those figurative reliefs that are in the highest state of preservation and mostimportant, so that you can more efficiently manage your visit.East entranceAs this was the primary entrance at the time of the temple’s excavation, this pair of reliefs was thefirst encountered. Both panels represent Shiva and Parvati at home in their mountain residence on thetop of Mount Kailasa; this was likely done to remind devotees that they are entering Shiva’s home.Further, as at each of the Great Cave’s entrances, the reliefs are paired to communicate Shiva’sopposing aspects. At the east entrance, the pairing reveals the following duality: calm and strong inthe face of adversity (Relief 1); and volatile and unfair in games of chance (Relief 2).

Relief 1 - Ravana shakes Mount Kailasa.Relief 2 - Shiva and Parvati gambling (playing dice).

South wallThe focus of the north-to-south axis, this is the primary and most important area for reliefs; it containsdepictions of Shiva in his most abstract forms. In these forms, Shiva bares his opposing natures in asingle being (and, therefore, a single narrative panel); accordingly, unlike those at the entrances, thesethree do not require a paired panel to reveal Shiva’s complexity.

Relief 3 - Androgyne (Shiva as half female and half male).Relief 4 * - Sadashiva (Eternal Shiva in his five aspects), also known at Trimurti. Theabsolute highlight of the Great Cave.

Relief 5 * - Ganges descends to earth (Shiva helps the river goddess Ganga fall to theearth, revealing his dual nature as husband and adulterer).

West entranceAs on the east entrance, this pairing depicts yet another aspect of Shiva’s opposing natures: loving,nurturing husband (Relief 6); and angry, destructive warrior (Relief 7).

Relief 6 * - Marriage of Shiva and Parvati.Relief 7 * - Shiva slays Andhaka.

North entranceThis is the other primary (and modern) entrance. This relief pairing again shows another aspect ofShiva’s opposing natures: a high energy actor, endlessly creating and destroying the world (Relief 8);and serene, inwardly directed yogi in quiet meditation (Relief 9).

Relief 8 * - Nataraja.Relief 9 - Lord of yogis.

Symbolism: The Pairs of OppositesIn both the paired panels at the entrances and the individual panels on the south wall, the Great Cavesreliefs continuously reinforce Shiva’s opposing and seemingly irreconcilable aspects. Why was this afocus? The concept of unity-in-opposition is a fundamental tenet of Hinduism. According toHindu thought, the duality — implicit in pairs of opposites (e.g., good versus bad, angry versuspeaceful, male versus female) — that appears to ground our daily existence (embodied here in Shiva)is merely illusion. When believers cast aside this illusion and realize that everything is of oneessence (non-duality), they can join Shiva and achieve enlightenment. The critical part of this processis that the believer realizes his own divinity, that one is all.

Author Tip: Given that the dialogue between the paired reliefs at each entrance is of suchimportance, we encourage you pick a spot from which you can seen both and drawcomparisons.

Reliefs Style

The style of the Great Cave’s reliefs played a major role in getting devotees to think about, engagewith, and even participate in the divine mysteries conveyed in their Shiva-centric narratives.

FigurationAs was also the case at Ajanta, the figuration employed in Elephanta’s reliefs closely resembles thatof the Gupta Empire (320-550 CE); as such, it represents a mature, confident style, unrivaled in theIndian tradition. That said, figures in the Great Cave’s reliefs have the following stylisticcharacteristics:

Bloated body shape. As at Ajanta, in seeking to convey the impression of the divine,artists employed exaggerated and non-naturalistic figuration. More specifically, the bodyappears to be expanded or bloated by what has been termed “sacred breath” (prana),creating a form characterized by rounded limbs, with no muscle definition.

Multiple arms. Assigning multiple arms to figures was another device used to convey theimpression of the otherworldly and divine; the hand of each arm typically holds an itemassociated with a specific deity, thereby facilitating identification.

The faces represents extreme emotions. Consistent with the complex and opposingnatures of the depicted divinities, figures express intense emotions, ranging from totaldetachment to out-of-control rage.

Larger than life size. Once again, as a means of infusing these figures with divinequalities, artists assigned them far greater than life size proportions.

Clothing is sheer and seemingly transparent. This type of clothing reveals the underlyingshape of the body.

Deep Reliefs Demand Beholder ParticipationElephanta’s reliefs, seemingly infused with a powerful divine energy, are in constant movement:figures sway and dance, as if responding to an inner music; compositions have a circular momentum.However, the quality that makes these reliefs a true wonder — a viewing experience like no other —is their physical depth (the technical aspects of which are explored in detail below). The deepnature of the carvings demands that the beholder physically move around in front of each relief,changing position in search of new viewpoints that reveal the intricacies of the composition. And hereis where things get interesting: in viewing the reliefs, the active beholder has joined in their divinemovement; he has become an active participant in the reliefs’ narratives, a series of ever-changing, cyclical events that transcend earthly time. And, finally, as a participant, the beholderunwittingly moves along the path toward enlightenment by recognizing his own divine, infinite nature.

Depth of Composition

Depth of CompositionThe Great Cave’s reliefs can be classified into two styles according to their relative depths ofcarvings.

Single vertical plane reliefsA few of the Great Cave’s reliefs are basically flat, in that the scenes exist in a single vertical plane.Reliefs that conform to this model include: Androgyne (Relief 3) and Descent of the Ganges (Relief5). In these single-plane reliefs, the entire narrative composition can be understood and appreciatedfrom a single head-on view.

Multiple vertical plane reliefsIn these reliefs, scenes assume a more three-dimensional appearance: figures break the single verticalplane adhered to in the earlier style and project outward toward the viewer. These reliefs mark thefirst successful break from the single-plane relief model evident at Ajanta; a new, three-dimensional aesthetic was born.Reliefs that conform to this model, from shallowest to deepest, include: the Marriage of Shiva andParvati (Relief 6), Nataraja (Relief 8), Lord of yogis (Relief 9), Shiva slays Andhaka (Relief 7),Shiva and Parvati gambling (Relief 2), Ravana shakes Mount Kailasa (Relief 1), Sadashiva (Relief4).The use of multiple planes also enabled more complex narratives. While the head-on (primary)view focused on the central narrative, oblique views could be used to introduce secondary supportingnarratives. Exchanges between figures visible from the left side, for example, might not be visiblefrom the center or right side. Perhaps the best example of multiple narratives occurs in the Marriageof Shiva and Parvati (Relief 6).

Author Tip: We encourage visitors to not only observe the reliefs head-on, but also exploreoblique viewpoints from the left and right sides. These off-center views better demonstrate thedepth of the reliefs and will often reveal new figures and, sometimes, incremental narratives.And, by moving around, you are participating in the divine movement the sculptors intended.Enjoy!

Featured Reliefs

Ravana Shakes Mount Kailasa (Relief 1)

Fig. 72. Ravana shakes Mount Kailasa, Great Cave, Elephanta.

StyleThis relief represents a developed form of the multiple vertical plane model laid out the “ReliefsStyle” section, as Ravana (sitting at the base of the relief with his arms raised) projects far forward,out into the viewer’s space.

NarrativeThis scene depicts the demon Ravana (badly damaged) shaking Mount Kailasa, the residence of Shivaand Parvati, from below. Shiva sits above, undisturbed, calming a nervous Parvati (now headless)with his right arm. Although not depicted, Shiva’s response to Ravana’s attack was to crush him withhis big toe, until the demon praised Shiva and begged forgiveness.

As mentioned earlier, Shiva’s admirable demeanor in this relief — calm and rationally acting —contrasts with its volatile expression on the opposing side.

Shiva and Parvati Gambling (Relief 2)

Fig. 73. Shiva and Parvati gambling, Great Cave, Elephanta.

StyleSimilar to Relief 1, this relief conforms to the multiple vertical plane model, as all of the figuresbelow Shiva and Parvati (most notably the bull) project far out into the beholder’s space.

NarrativeOnce again in their mountain home, Shiva (the large figure at left) and Parvati play dice, symbolic ofthe game-like chance that constitutes humanity’s fate; they are surrounded by secondary deities. Shivaalways wins these games of chance, usually through trickery; when Parvati protests, a volatile Shivacreates disastrous cosmic events that must be sustained by humanity until she withdraws and acceptsShiva’s victory.

Androgyne (Relief 3)

Fig. 74. Androgyne, Great Cave, Elephanta.

StyleThis relief is one of only two in the cave that conforms to the single vertical plane model.

NarrativeAs Androgyne, Shiva is represented as half female (right side) and half male (left side).

Female side. The right side depicts Shiva’s female character, clearly indicated by herbulbous breast, curvy hip, and raised mirror (in the rear left arm).

Male side. The left side depicts Shiva’s male character, indicated by the tight bands on hisbiceps and his holding of the Nandi bull’s horn (in the front right arm) and a serpent (in therear right arm).

Shiva assumed this form at the beginning of the world, subsequently splitting into two discrete sexesand engaging in the sexual union necessary to spawn humanity.At a deeper symbolic level, this depiction represents the union of opposites, male and female, inShiva’s single, divine person; accordingly, the devotee is encouraged to abandon his dualistic logicand become one with the single unity, the infinite.

Sadashiva (Relief 4) *

Fig. 75. Sadashiva, Great Cave, Elephanta.

Sadashiva — depicting the five aspects of Shiva — is the most important in the Great Cave andthe most visually striking. It is also known as Trimurti, meaning three-faced.

StyleFrom a stylistic standpoint, this represents the most advanced stage of Elephanta reliefs.Sadashiva — carved so deep in relief and projecting so far from the back of the niche — takes on theappearance of an in-the-round sculpture. As a result, the massive three-headed figure appears to berising from the basalt stone of the mountain itself.

NarrativeSadashiva represents Shiva in his most enigmatic form, the embodiment of all the opposing forcesin the universe. Shiva’s five aspects are: Aghora, Vamadeva, Tatpurusha, Sadyojata, and Ishana. Ofthese, only three are visible here:

Aghora — represented by the male deity, Bhairava — faces east (the left side). It issymbolic of the terrifying aspect of Shiva, in which he serves as the destructive,renovating force of the universe. Aghora holds a serpent and is shown with serpentlocks in his hair and a snarling face.

Vamadeva — represented by the female deity, Uma, the earth goddess — faces west (theright side). It is symbolic of Shiva’s opposite aspect, that of the healing and preservingforce. Vamadeva is depicted with gentle features and holds a lotus flower.

Tatpurusha faces north, directly at the visitor. It represents duality (manifest in Aghora andVamadeva, male and female) resolved into the unity of absolute knowledge, thecontrolling and sustaining force of the universe. Tatpurusha naturally combines bothmale and female facial characteristics; it holds a lemon in its left hand, symbolic offecundity.

The two others are not shown:Sadyojata — represented by Mahadeva — faces south, away from the viewer; its presenceis implied, as a fourth face could not be depicted in this arrangement. It represents thecreative power of the universe.

Finally, Ishana — Sadashiva itself — faces upwards and is Shiva’s supreme aspect,responsible for granting moksha (liberation) from the cycle of rebirths that accompaniesenlightenment. This aspect is never depicted, as it lies beyond human comprehension.

Ganges Descends to Earth (Relief 5) *

Fig. 76. Ganges descends to earth, Great Cave, Elephanta.

StyleAlong with Relief 3, this relief conforms to the single vertical plane model. Of all those profiled,this is probably the flattest, as the narrative is entirely appreciable from a head-on view. However,even in this relatively flat scene, there is a kneeling figure (in the lower left corner), with his back tothe beholder.

NarrativeIn this scene, the female deity associated with the Ganges River, Ganga — the three-headed figurehovering just above Shiva’s head, each head being symbolic of the River’s tributaries — passedthrough the locks of Shiva’s hair, which served to break her fall to earth. The Ganges’ arrival on earthwas originally done to revive a powerful king’s deceased sons; symbolically, however, it likely

served as a proxy for the cyclical nature of existence and the renewing, creative force that necessarilyfollows death.However, this encounter has traditionally been infused with sexual overtones, as Ganga was theindirect mother of Shiva’s son, Skanda, the product of his stolen sperm. Sensing this infidelity,Shiva’s wife, Parvati, stands on the right, displaying an uncomfortable smile and shifting away fromhis extending arm; this movement away from Shiva is clear, particularly when viewed in contrast toher inward leaning position in the relief depicting her marriage to Shiva (Relief 6). Viewed from thisperspective, this scene reveals yet another confounding duality of this enigmatic deity: Shiva as bothfaithful husband and adulterer.

Marriage of Shiva and Parvati (Relief 6) *

Fig. 77. Marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Great Cave, Elephanta.

StyleThis relief conforms to the multiple vertical plane model, as Parvati’s father stands behind her,introducing significantly greater depth. Further, and quite important, this depth creates the impressionof a daughter-father narrative separate from (and prior to) the marital exchange between Shiva andParvati; this secondary narrative is only fully visible to the beholder viewing the relief from the leftside.

NarrativeIn this panel, Shiva is faithful and loving husband. Parvati stands to the left of Shiva, holding his hand;her father, god of the Himalayas, stands behind her. Shiva agreed to marry Parvati after she, havingassumed an ascetic lifestyle to win his love, unknowingly revealed her unwavering commitment. A

broken figure of Brahma (a member of the Hindu trinity) kneels before the couple (on the right side)and performs the ceremony. On the far right side, covered in darkness, is the third member of theHindu trinity, Vishnu.

Shiva Slays Andhaka (Relief 7) *

Fig. 78. Shiva slays Andhaka, Great Cave, Elephanta.

StyleAlong with Nataraja (Relief 8), the move toward a fully three-dimensional figure has clearlyoccurred in this multiple vertical plane relief; the result is a particularly impactful, dynamic scene.Compare these figures with the flatter, single vertical plane reliefs: Reliefs 3 and 5.

NarrativeIn this famous scene, a warrior manifestation of Shiva spears his demon son, Andhaka, who hadattempted abduct Parvati. The opposition with the Shiva-as-family-man panel across the entrancecould not be more striking.Andhaka is depicted as a small figure in the upper right corner of the frame, dangling from Shiva’s

(now broken) trident. The story goes that every drop of Andhaka’s blood that reached the groundwould spawn another warrior; as in all scenes that depict this event, Shiva holds out a cup to catchthe falling blood before it hits the ground, thereby neutralizing Andhaka’s only chance at doing furtherbattle. Clearly defeated, Andhaka acknowledged Shiva’s strength and praised him. With thisrevelation, Shiva released Andhaka and accepted him as his son once again.The symbolism — release through destruction — highlights Hinduism’s core belief in the cyclicalityof life and spiritual release through the destruction of the solitary self (the ego).

Nataraja (Relief 8) *

Fig. 79. Nataraja, Great Cave, Elephanta.

StyleMost similar in depth to Relief 7, Nataraja also conforms to the multiple vertical plane model. Theserial nature of Shiva’s right shoulders reveals great depth and outward momentum. Further, theforearm of Shiva’s right arm — now broken — would surely have added even greater projection outinto the viewer’s space.

NarrativeThe Nataraja, dancing Shiva, is symbolic of Shiva’s role as creator and destroyer, activelyperpetuating the never-ending cycle of life and death. Once again, the chosen pairing, with Shiva aswithdawn yogi on the other side of the entrance, is stark.

Since this depiction is in a low state of preservation, we have included an image of a 10th centuryChola Empire bronze Nataraja (see Fig. 80) for perspective on the defining features of suchrepresentations.

Fig. 80. 10th century Chola Nataraja, Government Museum, Chennai.

Lord of Yogis (Relief 9)

Fig. 81. Lord of yogis, Great Cave, Elephanta.

StyleThis relief conforms to the multiple vertical plane model, as the floating masses of deities —particularly those around Shiva’s head — push outward from the back wall, into the beholder’sspace; oblique views are necessary to fully appreciate the scene.

NarrativeThis relief depicts Shiva as contemplative, inward-directed yogi, the polar opposite of his role asdancer on the other side of the northern entrance. In many respects, Shiva as yogi is his most powerfuland characteristic aspect, as it is from prolonged meditation that he summons the inner powerrequired to perform his roles as creator and destroyer in the cosmic cycle.

ELLORA

LocationThe 34 caves at Ellora — located 30 kilometers northwest of Aurangabad and 350 kilometersnortheast of Mumbai — are spread out over 2.2 kilometers along a north-south running escarpment;for the most part, caves face westward. Most visitors enter the site and begin their touring at Cave 16,Kailasa. The site is closed on Tuesdays.Ellora was located on an ancient trade route that connected the interior part of Maharashtra with tradeports on India’s western coast and cities in India’s north; Ajanta was one of the original sites on thissame route.

Unique Features of the SiteJust as Ajanta is known for its world-class paintings and Elephanta for its exceptional reliefs, Ellorahas two standout features that rank it as one of India’s greatest cultural sites:

Caves from India’s three great indigenous religions. Unlike the prior sites’ singlereligious orientations — Ajanta (Buddhist) and Elephanta (Hindu) — Ellora has rock-cutarchitecture by three indigenous faiths: Buddhism (Caves 1-12), Hinduism (Caves 13-29),and Jainism (Caves 30-34). Since caves from all three faiths line a single rock face, a visitis like taking a comparative art and architecture class: the differences, as well as theconnections, among the three are clear and poignant. In the map of Ellora that follows,Buddhist caves are marked in red, Hindu caves in blue, and Jain caves in green.

The stunning Hindu Kailasa temple (Cave 16). The ultimate expression of the rock-cutbuilding tradition initiated nearly 1000 years before at Ajanta, magnificent Kailasa wasthe last Hindu rock-cut temple excavated in India.

The Last Great Rock-Cut TemplesAs at Ajanta and Elephanta, all of Ellora’s caves are hewn out of solid basalt, the volcanic stone ofthe Western Ghats mountain range that forms the western border of the Deccan Plateau.The last to be excavated of our three profiled sites, Ellora is home to the last great rock-cutBuddhist and Hindu monuments in India. Why did the tradition end here?

Buddhism exited India. As mentioned earlier, beginning in the 7th century, Buddhismbegan its prolonged decline in India. Although construction continued in other parts ofIndia for a brief time, for the most part, Buddhism’s future rock-cut caves and stone-builttemples were concentrated in the religion’s new home farther east in China and SoutheastAsia.

Hinduism transitioned to stone-built temples. For Hinduism, stone-built engineering and

design had advanced to a point where temples could be constructed in more populatedurban centers, rather than on remote hillsides. The age of large-scale stone-builtcongregational temples was beginning.

Ellora Map

Buddhist Caves

OverviewBuddhists excavated 12 caves on the southern end of the site; see the red highlighted area on the map.The Early Phase Buddhist caves — numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 — were likely built in the late 6thcentury under the Vatataka Empire, the same Empire responsible for the Late Phase excavations atAjanta. The remainder of the caves — numbers 4 and 7-12 — date from the Late Phase and wereexcavated from the 7th century until the early 8th century under the Badami-based Early ChalukyaEmpire; they are the last Buddhist caves excavated in western India.For both phases of construction, the faith was Mahayana Buddhism and the sponsors were wealthycitizens.As at Ajanta, there are two basic types of Buddhist caves at Ellora:

Chaitya (sanctuary) caves. Chaityas served as primary areas of worship; Buddha imagesand stupas assume central positions. The typical chaitya configuration consists of acolumned hall with a stupa in the center and sufficient room for circumambulation.

Vihara (monastery) caves. Viharas served as areas for study and sleep. The typicalconfiguration consists a central (usually square) hall, with a prayer area at the center, cells(for sleeping) around the periphery, and a Buddha shrine on the far side opposite theentrance.

For a detailed review of each of these cave types, see Ajanta’s introductory sections.

Featured Buddhist CavesOf Ellora’s twelve Buddhist caves, we offer detailed profiles of three that we believe are the mostrepresentative and impressive. Next to each, we indicate its period, its type (chaitya or vihara), andwhat makes it special.

Author Tip: To make things easier and allow you to focus on the real highlights, particularly ifyou have limited time, we have marked those caves that we believe are must-sees with asterisks(*) .

Cave 5 - Maharwada. This Early Phase vihara adds a number of Ellora-specific featuresto the Ajanta prototype.

Cave 10 - Vishvakarma *. This Late Phase excavation, the only chaitya at Ellora,represents the apex of the style pioneered at Ajanta.

Cave 12 - Tin Tal. The last vihara excavated in western India, the massive Tin Tal marksthe end of a tradition.

Cave 5 - Maharwada

Author Tip: This is a simple monastery, but an evocative one. While generally true to Ajantaprototypes, it has a number of unique Ellora-specific features, the most interesting being thebenches that run down the cave’s center, affording visibility into the resident monks’ dailyritual.

BackgroundCave 5, also known as Maharwada, is Buddhist in religious orientation; this vihara (monastery), partof the Early Phase of Buddhist excavations, dates from the late 6th century under the VatatakaEmpire.

FacadeCave 5’s facade is no longer extant, having likely been destroyed by a landslide.

Fig. 82. Floorplan, Cave 5, Ellora. Highlights added.

LayoutWhile it shares many essential features with the viharas of Late Phase Ajanta, Maharwada introducessome new Ellora-specific elements:

The rectangular shape of the main hall (green highlights in Fig. 82) breaks with Ajanta’ssquare hall prototype.

The columns— with square shafts and compressed cushion capitals (see Fig. 83) — aresimpler than those of Ajanta, lacking their relief decoration; they were likely influencedby those of Hindu temples built slightly earlier at Ellora.

As was typical, the monks’ living quarters consisted of small cells (blue highlights in Fig.82) lining the periphery of the main hall.

Porches (yellow highlights in Fig. 82) — another tweak to the standard Ajanta model —break up the long expanse of the sidewalls.

An entirely new feature: two long raised ridges run through the center of the monastery(pink highlights in Fig. 82; see also Fig. 83); they were likely used by the resident monksas benches on which sacred Buddhist texts were placed for study. From an architecturalstandpoint, they create a strong directional axis from the entrance to the shrine.

There is a Buddha shrine on the far side of the vihara; inside, a large Buddha (redhighlights in Fig. 82) sits on a throne and displays the dharmachakra (teaching) mudra. Inniches flanking the shrine’s entrance (light blue highlights in Fig. 82) stand two reliefsof bodhisattvas.

Fig. 83. Interior, Cave 5, Ellora.

Reliefs Flanking Shrine EntranceThe shrine’s entrance is flanked by two bodhisattva panels:

Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, also known as Padmapani. Padmapani — the Bearer ofthe Lotus — is symbolic of the Buddha’s compassion. He is positioned to the left side ofthe entrance. In Fig. 84, Padmapani signals the vitarka mudra (an abbreviated version ofthe dharmachakra teaching mudra) with his right hand and holds a tall lotus flower in thisleft.

Bodhisattva Vajrapani. Vajrapani — the Bearer of the Thunderbolt — is symbolic of theBuddha’s power. He is positioned to the right side of the entrance.

The pairing of these two bodhisattvas replicates the standard shrine entrance arrangement used atAjanta; for an example, see this Approach Guide’s discussion of Ajanta’s Cave 1 (excavated 5thcentury). However, there is an important change in decorative medium: from painting at Ajanta torelief at Ellora. The tradition of painting the interiors of viharas — à la Ajanta — had ended and

it would not return.

Fig. 84. Padmapani, Cave 5, Ellora.

Cave 10 - Vishvakarma *

Author Tip: The only chaitya in Ellora, this is a must-see cave. Its internal stupa, fronted by amassive seated Buddha, represents the apex of the style, a far cry from the simple stupas of 2ndcentury BCE Ajanta. Here, the Buddha is extremely accessible, beckoning all visitors toapproach and engage with him.

BackgroundCave 10, also known as Vishvakarma, is Buddhist in religious orientation. This chaitya (prayer hall)— the only of its kind in Ellora — was likely built late in the 7th century, part of the Late Phaseexcavations. It was the last Buddhist chaitya excavated in western India.For an introduction to chaitya architecture, see the section entitled “Chaityas” in the Ajanta section.

Fig. 85. Facade, Cave 10, Ellora. Highlights added.

FacadeConsistent with Ajanta’s Late Phase chaityas, Cave 10’s facade has abundant decoration.

The columns on the lower level’s pillared gallery have square shafts. The capitals consistof stylized pots, seemingly overflowing with foliage; they are symbolic of prosperity. Thisis an early manifestation of this capital style; it will become significantly more elaboratein later caves, particularly Caves 12 (Buddhist), 16 (Hindu) and 32 (Jain).

The upper hall has the classic chaitya window, resembling a 3/4 circle (green highlights inFig. 85). While its shape is consistent with Ajanta models, it is much smaller in scale,and therefore plays a smaller role in shaping the overall appearance of the facade.

Each side of the window is flanked by three flying apsaras above a twisting naga(serpent).

There are two friezes, each decorated with a series of tightly framed scenes of amorouscouples in swaying, dynamic poses. The first is on the stone balustrade on the upperlevel’s verandah (yellow highlights in Fig. 85) and the second is on the pediment of theupper floor (red highlights in Fig. 85).

The ceiling over the entrance to the upper level is decorated with stone ribs that imitateearlier wooden beams (light blue highlights in Fig. 85).

Fig. 86. Floorplan, Cave 10, Ellora. Highlights added.

LayoutThis two-level structure represents the ultimate expression of the Buddhist chaitya in India:

A large open courtyard (yellow highlights in Fig. 86) provides access, through a pillaredgallery (light blue highlights in Fig. 86), to the interior of the chaitya.

The apsidal-ended hall holds 28 octagonal columns that divide the space into a narrowcentral nave (for prayer) and two side aisles (for circumambulation).

The internal stupa (red highlights in Fig. 86) sits opposite the entrance; it is fronted by aseated Maitreya Buddha, the Buddha of the Future.

The upper floor, consisting of a verandah and a musicians’ gallery, is accessed through astairway on the left side of the pillared gallery.

Fig. 87. Frieze, Cave 10, Ellora.

Internal DecorationThe nave’s relief decoration is simpler than that of Late Phase Ajanta protoypes. Perhaps this

was done to focus attention on the stupa’s primary Buddha figure (discussed next).The simple octagonal columns surrounding the stupa support undecorated brackets, astep back from the ornate capitals of Ajanta.

A frieze — again simpler than those of Late Phase Ajanta — runs above them (see Fig.87). It consists of seated Buddhas displaying the dharmachakra mudra; they are flanked bypairs of attendants. At the Buddhas’ feet is a thin register of miniature figures, with armsraised, who appear to be supporting the Buddhas’ platform; above, bridging the gap fromthe frieze to the stone ribs of the ceiling, are stout figures, arms clasped to their chests inprayer.

As is typical, the nave’s curved vault ceiling has stone ribs (see Fig. 88) that imitateearlier wooden beams.

Ajanta and Ellora: Stupa Forms ComparedIn the earlier discussion of Ajanta, we reviewed the changing form of the chaitya’s stupa, from itsEarly Phase in the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE (under Theravada Buddhism) to its Late Phase in the 5thcentury CE (under Mahayana Buddhism). Altogether, this transformation yielded an increasedemphasis on the Buddha image and a commensurate de-emphasis of the stupa; these trends areconsistent with the Mahayana school.Cave 10 basically continues the trend where it left off at Ajanta. Accordingly, it shares many featureswith Ajanta’s most developed stupa arrangement, that of Late Phase Cave 26:

The anda (green highlights in Fig. 88) is smaller and 3/4 egg shaped, like Cave 26, ratherthan 3/4 sphere shaped like Early Phase versions. It sits on an elevated platform (yellowhighlights in Fig. 88), affording the overall structure greater upward momentum.

The harmika (red highlights in Fig. 88) remains generally consistent with earlierprototypes.

The Buddha is positioned boldly in front of the stupa. You will remember thatrepresentations of the Buddha were not allowed in the early centuries of the faith underTheravada Buddhism; only with the emergence of the Mahayana sect — this, theprogressive school of Buddhism, was formed in the 2nd century CE — did suchrepresentations begin. Just as at Ajanta’s Cave 26, he is seated and displays thedharmachakra (teaching) mudra.

Fig. 88. Stupa, Cave 10, Ellora. Highlights added.

Despite these similarities, Cave 10 goes a bit further, creating the most developed chaitya stupaarrangement on Indian soil. The most notable change is the markedly increased size of the Buddhafigure. His scale is now massive, in sharp contrast to the more human-sized Buddhas in Ajanta; forcomparison purposes, see Fig. 89 of Ajanta’s Cave 26.Seated in a Western manner (both feet on the floor), he is flanked (for the first time) by attendants andbacked by a large Bodhi tree. Further, he is positioned in an even more forward, approachableposition, as opposed to the enclosed position (under the stupa canopy) at Ajanta.

Fig. 89. Stupa, Cave 26 (late 5th century), Ajanta. Highlights added.

These modifications further attest to the changed nature of ritual under the Mahayana school ofBuddhism: the worship of an abstract symbol (the stupa) is de-emphasized in favor of a moreconcrete, identifiable Buddha figure, with whom the devotee can interact on a personal level.

Cave 12 - Tin Tal

Author Tip: Tin Tal’s enormous scale was unprecedented at the time of its construction. Anappropriate swan song, Tal represents the conclusion of the vihara cave tradition begun earlierin Ajanta. Typically quieter than other caves due to lower numbers of visitors, it is a pleasureto explore its high quality reliefs.

BackgroundCave 12, also known as Tin Tal, is Buddhist in religious orientation; this chaitya (prayer hall), partof the Late Phase of excavations, was built at the very end of the 7th century. Likely the last caveexcavated by Buddhists in western India, it was realized on a massive scale; to put it intoperspective: each of the cave’s three floors is larger than any cave at Ajanta.

Fig. 90. Floorplan, Cave 12, ground floor, Ellora. Highlights added.

LayoutThis enormous, three-level structure — graced with a simple open facade — is accessed through alarge courtyard (yellow highlights in Fig. 90).

All three floors have hypostyle main halls (green highlights in Fig. 90, Fig. 91, and Fig.92); the lower two floors have cells (blue highlights in Fig. 90 and Fig. 91) around theirperipheries.

Buddha shrines (red highlights in Fig. 90, Fig. 91, and Fig. 92) are cut into each floor’seastern wall.

Stairways. A stairway in the southwest corner of the ground floor’s central hall affordsaccess to the first floor; a stairway in the northwest corner provides access from first tosecond.

Fig. 91. Floorplan, Cave 12, first floor, Ellora. Highlights added.

Fig. 92. Floorplan, Cave 12, second floor, Ellora. Highlights added.

Relief DecorationTin Tal’s reliefs are well preserved and high quality.

Ground floorEntrance. The ground floor’s square columns are largely plain, except for the two pairedat the entrance: they have square shafts and ornate capitals, consisting of deep-cut potswith overflowing foliage; this pot design marks a clear step forward from the moresimple versions on the facade of Cave 10.

Shrine. The Buddha shrine has a large teaching Buddha. He is surrounded with eight seatedbodhisattvas.

First floor

Shrine entrance. Flanking the entrance to the shrine are the standard bodhisattva guardians(discussed in more detail in Cave 5’s profile): Padmapani (identifiable by the AmitabhaBuddha in his headdress) and Vajrapani (identifiable by his thunderbolt).

Shrine. The shrine is filled with a Buddha in bhumisparsa (enlightenment) mudra; this israre in Ellora’s caves, as images typical favor the dharmachakra mudra.

Main hall. On the same floor, there is also an impressive relief of a seated bodhisattvaAvalokiteshvara, positioned between Tara (displaying varada mudra) and Bhrikuti (withwater pot).

Fig. 93. Meditating Buddhas, Cave 12, second floor, Ellora.

Second floor *The second floor’s decoration is the cave’s best and this is where we recommend you spend yourtime.

Main hall. On the side walls, there are nine Buddha images, flanked by female attendants:four on the left wall and five on the right wall.

Main hall. On the walls throughout the main hall, there are a number of reliefs depictingminiature stupas and mandalas.

Main hall. To the left and right sides of the antechamber, there are seven meditatingBuddhas (dhyana mudra) and seven teaching Buddhas (dharmachakra mudra),respectively; see Fig. 93.

Antechamber and shrine. In the antechamber, there are twelve goddesses perched on lotusflowers; in the shrine itself, there is a bhumisparsa Buddha image, again flanked byPadmapani and Vajrapani.

Hindu Caves

OverviewEllora’s Hindu caves — numbers 13-29 — occupy the center of the modern complex; see the bluehighlighted area on the map.The Early Phase Hindu caves — numbers 19, 27, 28, and 29 — were likely built by the KalacuriEmpire and date from second half of the 6th century; they are the oldest caves at Ellora.Remember, the Kalacuri Empire was likely the sponsor of the Great Cave at Elephanta and Ellora’searliest caves share a likeness.The remainder of the caves, constituting the Late Phase, were excavated contemporaneously withEllora’s Buddhist caves in the 7th-early 8th centuries; although the Buddhists ceased excavations inthe early 8th century, the Hindus continued through the 9th century. During this period, the region wasunder the control of the Early (Badami) Chalukya (5th-8th centuries) and the Rashtrakuta (8th-10thcenturies) Empires.While the Buddhist caves were sponsored and financed by private individuals, the Hindu caves werefinanced with state funds.

A Hindu Architectural Style is BornThe emergence of a unique Hindu style is very apparent at this site:

Early Phase: Buddhist legacy remains. As might be expected, the earliest Hindu cavesborrowed heavily from the architectural arrangements and forms of earlier Buddhistchaityas and viharas.

Late Phase: a unique Hindu style. However, the later caves — especially Caves 15 and16 — depart meaningfully from Buddhist precedent, ushering in a new, distinctly Hinducave style. Interestingly, this new style was largely shaped by Hindu stone-builtarchitecture; by this time, although cave excavation continued, it had become clear thatstone-built temples were the future.

Hindu ReliefsFor a review of the stylistic features of Ellora’s Hindu reliefs, see the “Reliefs Style” sectionassociated with Elephanta; the same basic characteristics apply.

Featured Hindu CavesOf Ellora’s seventeen Hindu caves, we offer detailed profiles of four that we believe are the mostrepresentative and impressive. Next to each, we indicate its period and what makes it special.

Author Tip: To make things easier and allow you to focus on the real highlights, particularly ifyou have limited time, we have marked those caves that we believe are must-sees with asterisks(*) .

Cave 15 - Dashavatara *. Late Phase Cave 15 is important for understanding thedevelopment of cave building practices, as it continues the transition from closed cave toopen temple begun at Elephanta.

Cave 16 - Kailasa **. Late Phase Kailasa is, far and away, the most impressive “cave” inEllora. It represents the culmination of rock-cut architecture in India.

Cave 21 - Rameshvara *. Bridging the gap between the Early and Late Phases,Rameshvara holds the best reliefs in Ellora.

Cave 29 - Dhumar Lena. An Early Phase cave, Dhumar Lena illustrates the passage ofarchitectural knowledge from one site to another, as its layout and decoration mirrors thatof Elephanta’s Great Cave.

Cave 15 - Dashavatara *

Author Tip: Rock-cut architecture takes a major step forward at Dashavatara, with thecomplete liberation of its courtyard mandapa from the cliffside. After inspecting the courtyard,it is worth checking out the upper floor’s new Hindu-specific arrangement and the dynamicreliefs of Shiva and Vishnu lining the walls.

BackgroundCave 15, also known as Dashavatara, is Hindu in religious orientation; it was likely built in the LatePhase (mid-8th century), immediately before Cave 16. While it most likely begun excavation as aBuddhist vihara, it was soon after redesigned as a Hindu temple.

Fig. 94. Floorplan, ground floor, Cave 15, Ellora. Highlights added.

LayoutCave 15 is a two-floor temple.

The courtyard and ground floorA large open courtyard (yellow highlights in Fig. 94) has a monolithic mandapa pavilionat its center (red highlights in Fig. 94); the first such structure at Ellora, it plays a keyrole in the development of rock-cut architecture (discussed below). It was perhapsintended to serve as a Nandi pavilion, given that the presiding deity at the temple is Shiva.The mandapa has high quality exterior decoration: windows with geometric screens; wallswith relief-filled niches; and a roofline with lions and seated figures. See Fig. 96.

The courtyard provides direct access to a central hall (green highlights in Fig. 94),articulated with fourteen square columns; there are cells (blue highlights in Fig. 94) on thehall’s western wall (a remnant of its earlier Buddhist incarnation?) and no shrine.

Upper floor asserts a new Hindu-specific arrangementWhile Cave 15’s ground floor maintains strong affinities in layout with earlier Buddhist viharas, theupper floor asserts a new Hindu-specific arrangement.

On the upper floor (accessed from a stairway in the northwestern corner), there is a centralhall (green highlights in Fig. 95) containing 42 square columns arranged into six rows.Unlike Buddhist viharas, there is no open prayer area at the center of the columns; in thisuniquely Hindu arrangement, columns fill the space uniformly.

Further, the cells that typically encircle the central halls of Buddhist viharas have beenconverted into shallow niches; the niches contain decorative relief panels depictingVishnu and Shiva (light blue highlights in Fig. 95).

A shrine room with a Shiva linga (red highlights in Fig. 95) is accessed through anantechamber (pink highlights in Fig. 95).

Fig. 95. Floorplan, upper floor, Cave 15, Ellora. Highlights added.

Major Step ForwardCave 15 continues the move to a more open, less cave-like temple, begun with the introduction ofentrances on three sides at Elephanta’s Great Cave in the mid- to late-6th century. The Great Cave’smore open arrangement represented a big first step, as it broke from all prior building tradition; priorcaves had utilized an entrance on one side, following precedent set in Ajanta’s Early Phase.Here, at Cave 15, the next major step forward occurred: a monolithic mandapa pavilion (Fig. 96)was liberated in the open courtyard, no longer embedded in the cliffside and covered from the light ofday.

This trend would reach its logical conclusion at the masterful Cave 16 (Kailasa), where the entire topof the mountain was removed, freeing all of the temple’s structures and exposing them to the light ofday.

Fig. 96. Monolithic mandapa pavilion, upper floor, Cave 15, Ellora.

Relief DecorationThe cave’s upper floor niches contain high quality reliefs of Shiva and Vishnu.

Comparison with Elephanta’s Great CaveA comparison with the reliefs of Elephanta’s Great Cave, the pinnacle of the genre, might help:

While a bit damaged with age, the compositions are infused with good movement andthe figures are well rendered, on par with those from Elephanta.

They are flat, single vertical plane reliefs, however, and therefore lack the multiple-plane depth and resulting narrative complexity of those of Elephanta.

Fig. 97. Reliefs, upper floor, Cave 15, Ellora. Highlights added.

ArrangementReliefs depicting Shiva — positioned on the left and rear wall — draw on much of the samenarrative repertoire as those of the Elephanta benchmark (for more on these narratives, see ourreview of Elephanta); those depicting Vishnu are on the right wall.Clockwise from the front, the reliefs are as follows (light blue numbers in Fig. 97 mark the specificlocation of each relief; highlight reliefs are marked with asterisks):

Left wall: (1) Shiva slays Andhaka; (*2) Nataraja; (3) Shiva and Parvati gambling; (4)marriage of Shiva and Parvati; and (5) Ravana shakes Mount Kailasa.

Rear wall: (6) Shiva emerging from the linga; (7) Shiva helps the Ganges descend to earth;

(8) Shiva inside the linga; and (9) Shiva, riding in a chariot driven by Brahma, destroysthe three cities of the demons.

Right wall: (10) Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, lifts Mount Govardhana; (11) Vishnureclines on the endless serpent, Shesha (the first manifestation is the god Brahma, whoappears above on a lotus that sprouts upward from Vishnu’s navel); (12) Vishnu on hiswinged mount, Garuda, rescues the elephant king; (13) Vishnu as varaha, his boar-headedincarnation; (*14) Vishnu takes three great strides; and (*15) Vishnu as half-man half-lionkilling a demon (see Fig. 98).

Fig. 98. Vishnu as half-man half-lion (Relief 15), upper floor, Cave 15, Ellora.

Cave 16 - Kailasa *

BackgroundHindu Cave 16, also known as Kailasa, is Hindu in religious orientation and dedicated to Shiva; aLate Phase temple, it was excavated from 757-773 during the reigns of Rashtrakuta Empire KingsDantidurga and Krishna I.

Fig. 99. Rear view from cliffside, Kailasa, Ellora.

Temple ProfileKailasa is the largest monolithic temple in India, 100 meters long and 75 meters wide.The main tower reaches a height of 33 meters.

Major change: while rock cut, it is no longer a cave. At Kailasa, for the first (and last)time, the cave’s roof has been removed and the entire structure is exposed to thelight of day. To achieve this effect, Kailasa was excavated from the top down rather than

by the usual practice of carving into the side of a hillside. The use of a top downexcavation method is particularly clear in Fig. 99 and Fig. 111, as the cliffside out ofwhich it is carved is evident. As we indicated earlier, Kailasa owes this brilliant stroke totwo prior structures: (a) Elephanta’s Great Cave, which was excavated with entrances onthree sides; and (b) Ellora’s Cave 15, where a monolithic stone hall was liberated fromthe cliffside.

The apex and final grand achievement in Hindu rock-cut architecture. After Kailasa,Hindus did not embark upon excavation of rock-cut temples again.

Fig. 100. Floorplan, lower floor, Kailasa, Ellora. Highlights added.

LayoutKailasa’s arrangement marks a complete break from rock-cut precedent, instead relying on newstone-built temple arrangements (this linkage is explored later in this section):

The entrance to the temple complex (light blue highlights in Fig. 100 and Fig. 101) is from

the west.Just inside the complex, a freestanding square Nandi pavilion (green highlights in Fig. 100and Fig. 101) -- holding a Nandi bull, Shiva’s transport -- is flanked by two massivemonolithic columns (blue highlights in Fig. 100 and Fig. 101).

An elevated mandapa pavilion -- which serves as the primary area for devotees tocongregate and interact with the deity in the sanctuary -- holds four clusters of fourmassive square columns (yellow highlights in Fig. 101)

The core sanctuary (red highlights in Fig. 101) -- holding a Shiva linga -- sits on theeastern end of the mandapa; it sits directly under an enormous pyramidal tower and issurrounded on the exterior by five secondary shrines (pink highlights in Fig. 101).

Fig. 101. Floorplan, upper floor, Kailasa, Ellora. Highlights added.

Highlight ReliefsAuthor Tip: Before entering the interior of any temple structures, we suggest walking aroundthe temple compound and absorbing Kailasa’s masterful reliefs.

The walls of the temple’s exterior are covered with bas-reliefs. As this is a Shiva temple, theyprimarily recount episodes associated with Shiva and his consort, Parvati; and once again, you will

notice that many of the reliefs depict the same subjects as those at Elephanta’s Great Cave.The most important reliefs -- numbered from 1-11, with locations marked in Fig. 102 and Fig. 106 --are reviewed in the order that they are encountered, beginning at the entrance and continuing inclockwise rotation around the complex. The reliefs on the ground floor are covered first, followed bythose on the upper floor. To help focus your viewing, we mark our favorite frescoes with asterisks(*).

Fig. 102. Reliefs, ground floor, Kailasa, Ellora.

Fig. 103. Gajalakshmi, Nandi pavilion, Kailasa, Ellora.

*1 - Lakshi with elephants (Gajalakshmi). This is the first relief visitors encounter asthey enter the complex. In Gajalakshmi depictions, two rearing elephants pour water overthe head of the goddess, who is seated on a bed of lotus flowers; it symbolizes prosperity,fertility, and abundance. See Fig. 103.

Fig. 104. Dakshinamurthy, platform, Kailasa, Ellora.

*2 - Dakshinamurthy. This represents Shiva as the six-armed god of wisdom; he is seatedon a lion throne. See Fig. 104.

3 - Shiva dances with Elephant King.4 - Horizontal registers of scenes from the Mahabharata epic. The Mahabharatarecounts the story of the struggle for supremacy between two sets of royal cousins: theKauravas and the Pandavas.

Fig. 105. Ravana shakes Mount Kalaisa, platform, Kailasa, Ellora.

**5 - Ravana shakes Mount Kailasa. A relief on the south porch of the temple recounts arecurring narrative, Ravana shaking Shiva and Parvati’s abode on Mount Kailasa. See Fig.105. The 12-armed and 10-headed demon, Ravana -- excavated nearly entirely in theround -- is a tour de force and our favorite relief in the complex. This is Ravana in hismost powerful, menacing form. While the story recounts that Shiva remains calm andresponds by crushing Ravana with his big toe, we almost think that Ravana might besuccessful in this attempt.

6 - Horizontal registers of scenes from the Ramayana epic. The Ramayana recounts thestory of the great warrior-king Rama’s battle to rescue his wife from the evil demonRavana, the king of Sri Lanka.

7 - On the west wall (right side): Durga, Chamunda, and Kali.7 - On the south wall (directly ahead): Ganesha with seven mother goddesses (Matrikas).Remember this depiction, as you will see it again in Cave 21 in its most beautiful form.

7 - On the east wall (left side): Female figures, with perhaps a royal figure in the center.

Fig. 106. Reliefs, upper floor, Kailasa, Ellora.

8 - Ganges descends to earth.9 - Shiva slays Andhaka.10 - Nataraja.*11 - Shiva appearing out of linga.

Fig. 107. Interior, mandapa, Kailasa, Ellora.

Inside the MandapaAuthor Tip: Ok, if you have managed to hold off going inside the temple until now, you finallyget your chance. We now walk you through the interior of Kailasa’s most sacred structures, themandapa and shrine.

The large mandapa (see Fig. 107), Kailasa’s primary congregational area, affords access to theShiva linga in the shrine.

An all-over decorative aestheticKailasa pioneers a new Hindu rock-cut decorative aesthetic in which every available surface iscovered with some form of painting or relief design. This is far cry from the simplicity of the earliestHindu caves, including those of Elephanta and Early Phase Ellora, where decoration was confined toniche reliefs.

Elaborate columnsThe columns throughout (see Fig. 108) are masterpieces: Midrise, each column’s shaft changes fromsquare (decorated with miniature chaitya reliefs, at the peaks of which are kirtimukha faces) to round(with fluting). The capitals consist of wide-mouth pots, overflowing with cutout foliage. From astylistic standpoint, they represent the peak of the Indian rock-cut tradition, significantly moreelaborate than earlier versions (e.g., those of Buddhist caves 10 and 12); it is only outdone in Cave32.

Fig. 108. Column, Kailasa, Ellora.

PaintingsAlthough the mandapa was once covered with frescoes, very few remain, and those that do arelargely faded. That said, there is one standout painting that remains in a high state of preservation: avibrant, dynamic Nataraja (Dancing Shiva). See Fig. 109. It is located on the ceiling, inside thewindow frame on the right side of the mandapa.

Fig. 109. Ceiling painting of Nataraja, mandapa, Kailasa, Ellora.

Kailasa’s paintings represent the first concerted transformation of the style initiated at Ajanta. Thetransformation, one that will play out over the course of 1500 years, consists of the following:

A thinner line (as opposed to a thick line at Ajanta).A greater angularity in this line (as opposed to the gently curving line of Ajanta).More rounded eyes, exposing the full pupil (as opposed to narrow eyes at Ajanta).A brighter color palette (as opposed to the more muted colors of Ajanta).

We see this trend -- perhaps the result of Chinese influences -- continue in large part unabated untilthe arrival of Islamic influences in the 13th-16th centuries.

Influenced by Earlier Chalukya and Pallava TemplesWhile Rashtrakuta Empire architects rejected the stone-built architectural practices of the BadamiChalukya and Pallava Empires (they chose to make rock-cut temples), it is interesting that they choseto borrow their architectural arrangements.

More specifically, Kailasa’s layout was clearly inspired by the Chalukya Empire’s stone-builtVirupaksha Temple (built 745 in Pattadakal). Comparing Kailasa’s plan (see Fig. 101) with that ofVirupaksha (see Fig. 110) reveals fundamental similarities: (a) the primary sanctuary (red highlightsin Fig. 110) is fronted by a mandapa with four groups of quad-columnar clusters (yellow highlights inFig. 110); (b) the mandapa is entered via three porches on the cardinal directions; and (c) the joinedsanctuary-mandapa is paired with a detached Nandi pavilion (green highlights in Fig. 110).

Fig. 110. Floorplan, Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal.

NB: For a detailed review of stone-built temples in South India, check out the Approach Guideentitled “Hindu Temples of South India”.

The View from the CliffsideAuthor Tip: With the tour of the complex complete, we highly recommend a visit to the cliffsidethat overlooks it. To get there: after you exit, simply turn right and find a sloping path thatleads past a few small caves to the cliffside overlook. It offers an unrivaled view of the overallcomplex (and the roof of the mandapa) and some distinctive features.

Fig. 111. Front view from cliffside, Kailasa, Ellora.

The cliffside affords a bird’s eye view of the entire compound (see Fig. 111). Accordingly, it is theideal spot from which to review its overall layout and appreciate the magnitude of the undertakingrequired to excavate this much stone from the cliffside.From here, you will have a clear view of the following key features:

Protective lions. The roof over the mandapa (see Fig. 112) depicts four lions standingguard of a curved form with chaitya arches on all four sides, once again symbolic of thegod’s residence (this shape mirrors that of the central tower’s topping element). Thewhole arrangement -- lions and curved form -- sits atop an enormous open lotus bud, asymbol of purity.

Fig. 112. Roof, mandapa, Kailasa, Ellora.

Lion triumphant over elephant. The roof transition between the mandapa and thesanctuary has a lion standing over a defeated elephant (see Fig. 113); this representation --symbolic of the triumph of Hinduism (symbolized by the lion) over Buddhism(symbolized by the elephant) -- is a recurring symbol at Hindu sites in Ellora. Asdiscussed in the introduction section, beginning in the 7th century, Buddhism began aprolonged decline that would end with its eradication from the Indian subcontinent by the12th century. And by the late 8th century, when Kailasa was excavated, Buddhism hadbeen severely weakened; as Buddhism was originally formed in the 6th century BCE inrebellion to Hinduism, its fall from grace was viewed as a triumph worth celebrating.

Fig. 113. Lion triumphant over elephant, mandapa-sanctuary transition, Kailasa, Ellora.

A massive sanctuary tower. Kailasa fits the profile of a typical Dravidian (that is, SouthIndian) style temple. The most easily recognizable element of this temple style is thepyramid-shaped tower that rises over the primary sanctuary and consists of threehorizontal tiers; it is topped by a massive octagonal dome. For a more detailed descriptionof the typical Dravidian temple style, see the Approach Guide entitled “Hindu Temples ofSouth India”.

The horseshoe-shaped chaitya arch and Kirtimukha. The arch form that graced Buddhistchaitya windows (blue highlights in Fig. 114) was appropriated by the Hindus and isomnipresent as part of exterior and interior temple decoration; it is quite visible on theprojecting eaves of the tower sanctuary and mandapa. As for the Buddhists, it representsthe residence of the gods; accordingly, a god is typically presented under the arch (greenhighlights in Fig. 114, in this case, Ganesha). The demonic face of Kirtimukha (yellowhighlights in Fig. 114) typically sits on top of the arch. Kirtimukha’s presence is symbolicof the need to recognize the monstrous nature of one’s existence (beset with sufferingassociated with attachment to worldly things) prior to reaching enlightenment; to enter the

house of god, the devotee must come to terms with Kirtimukha, abandoning his fear bycasting aside the illusions of the material world.

Fig. 114. Chaitya decorative arch, Kailasa, Ellora. Highlights added.

Cave 21 - Rameshvara *

Author Tip: Be sure to visit Cave 21. One of our favorite, below-the-radar caves at Ellora, ithas some of the most beautiful, naturalistic reliefs in India.

BackgroundCave 21, also known as Rameshvara, is Hindu in religious orientation; bridging the gap betweenthe Early and Late Phases, it was likely built in the late 6th or early 7th century.

Fig. 115. Floorplan, ground floor, Cave 21, Ellora. Highlights added.

LayoutA square Nandi bull pavilion (light blue highlights in Fig. 115; also see Fig. 116) sits at thecenter of an open courtyard (yellow highlights in Fig. 115). As the bull is Shiva’stransport, its position in front of the temple marks this cave as a Shiva dedication.

The open verandah (green highlights in Fig. 115) has secondary shrines on its north andsouth ends (pink highlights in Fig. 115), the location of this temple’s exceptional reliefs.

A square sanctuary (red highlights in Fig. 115) with a Shiva linga inside opens directly offthe verandah; unlike other caves at Ellora, there is an ambulatory around the sanctuary.

Fig. 116. Nandi pavilion, courtyard, Cave 21, Ellora.

Relief DecorationRameshvara has some of the finest Hindu relief carvings in India, highly realistic and fullymodelled.

Fig. 117. River goddess Ganga, entrance, Cave 21, Ellora.

The verandah’s entranceAs is the case with many Hindu temples at Ellora, either side of Cave 21’s entrance is graced withreliefs of river goddesses: Ganga (on a crocodile; see Fig. 117) and Yamuna (on a tortoise). Theyare of particularly high quality and remain in a high state of preservation; naturalistic and wellcomposed, they are the best examples at Ellora.Further, the columns (with simple pot and foliage capitals) inset in the verandah’s parapet are highlyornamented and have female deities on their oversized brackets (see Fig. 118); the exterior side of theparapet holds panels with elephants and dancing couples.

Fig. 118. Brackets, Cave 21, Ellora.

Verandah’s secondary shrine: left sideMarriage of Shiva and Parvati. This is the primary scene in this shrine.Parvati performing penance. This is a rare depiction, associated with the marriage scene.Parvati is shown performing the penance required in order to marry the great god.

Karttikeya. Shiva and Parvati’s son and Ganesha’s older brother, Karttikeya (also knownas Murugan) is depicted standing dutifully.

* Durga slaying a buffalo demon. Durga, the embodiment of inestimable female power, isdepicted slaying a buffalo demon, Mahishasura; in this role, she acts as savior of the godsand humanity. Durga stands with a sword in her right hand and her leg on the demon’sback.

* Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa. In this popular scene, Ravana’s arms give a powerfulimpression of movement. See Fig. 119.

Fig. 119. Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa, Cave 21, Ellora.

Verandah’s secondary shrine: right side** Ganesha with seven mother goddesses (Matrikas). These seven protective goddesses— rendered with exceptional beauty and realism — are the absolute highlight of thetemple; it is perhaps the most impactful relief in Ellora. See Fig. 120.

Shiva and Parvati gambling (playing dice).Kala and Kali. The skeleton figure of Kala and the deadly goddess Kali are symbolic oftime as destroyer of all things.

Nataraja (Dancing Shiva).

Fig. 120. Three mother goddesses, southern shrine, Cave 21, Ellora.

Cave 29 - Dhumar Lena

Author Tip: Cave 29 is interesting from the perspective that its three-sided entrancearrangement and Shiva-centric reliefs reveal a direct connection with the earlier Great Cave atElephanta.

BackgroundCave 29, also known as Dhumar Lena, is Hindu in religious orientation and dedicated to Shiva; oneof the first caves excavated at Ellora, it belongs to the Early Phase and dates from the late 6thcentury.

Fig. 121. Floorplan, Cave 29, Ellora. Highlights added.

Layout

This cross-shaped temple has three entrances — from north, south, and west (green highlights inFig. 121) — that afford access to a large monolithic shrine (red highlights in Fig. 121) with a Shivalinga inside. The walls flanking each entrance are decorated with bas-reliefs (yellow highlights inFig. 121).

Fig. 122. Interior, looking south from north entrance, Cave 29, Ellora.

Comparison With Elephanta’s Great CaveThe cave’s arrangement and decoration bear striking resemblance to the Great Cave atElephanta; clearly shaped by this earlier temple located 350 kilometers away, it shares thefollowing:

A cross-shaped interior with entrances on three sides. Reproduced here, this was theGreat Cave’s chief architectural innovation.

The freestanding columns (see Fig. 122) — with square shafts, partial fluting, andcompressed cushion capitals — mirror those of Elephanta.

Just as at Elephanta, deep bas-reliefs at the entrance detail aspects of the god Shiva; the

walls are otherwise undecorated.Finally, a monolithic shrine sits off center and detached from the rear wall.

However, it differs in the following respects:Architects of the Great Cave used the cross-shaped interior to create two axes along whichdevotees were encouraged to move. However, at Dhumar Lena, there is only a singlewest-to-east axis, from entrance to shrine, respectively; the north-south axis has no objectof movement, as it only leads from one entrance to another.

While Dhumar Lena’s reliefs share many of the same Shiva-based narratives, they differ inarrangement and quality of execution (see detailed discussion below).

Fig. 123. Shiva slays Andhaka, Cave 29, Ellora.

Relief Decoration

ArrangementCave 29’s entrances display the exact same narratives as at Elephanta’s Great Cave:

West (primary) entrance: Shiva slays Andhaka (see Fig. 123); and Ravana shakes MountKailasa.

South entrance: Marriage of Shiva and Parvati; and Shiva and Parvati gambling (playingdice).

North entrance: Shiva as Nataraja; and Lord of yogis.You will notice that the relief pairings on the west and south entrances are different from those usedat Elephanta; and this change disrupts the brilliant effect of paired opposites used to illustrateShiva’s complex character. See the “Reliefs Overview” section under Elephanta for more details.

QualityOverall, Dhumar Lena’s reliefs are not as high quality as those at Elephanta (or Ellora’s Cave21); figures, generally less well proportioned and graceful, are arranged in less complex narratives;further, none exhibits the multiple vertical plane depth of relief apparent at the Great Cave. Forpurposes of comparison, review the relief depicting Shiva slaying Andhaka from this cave (Fig. 123)with the same representation from Elephanta (Fig. 124).

Fig. 124. Shiva slays Andhaka, Great Cave, Elephanta.

Jain Caves

OverviewThe Jains were the final group to excavate at Ellora. The caves — numbers 30-34 — werecompleted largely under the Rashtrakuta King Amoghavarsha (819-881) in the 9th century. They arelocated in the northern portion of the complex; see the green highlighted area on the map.

Background on JainismAs did Buddhism, Jainism began as a rebellious offspring of Hinduism in the 6th century BCE. Thereligion was started by Mahavir Swami (599-527 BCE), who might have been a contemporary of theBuddha, Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BCE). Mahavir was called “Jina” which means “theconqueror of inner enemies”, so it followed that his devotees were called “Jains”. To put this timinginto Western perspective, Buddhism and Jainism arose about the same time as the city of Jerusalemwas sacked by the Babylonians (587 BCE), the Jewish Temple was destroyed, Babylonian captivitybegan, and the Torah began to be written.

ArchitectureJain architecture at Ellora borrows heavily from Hindu precedent, particularly Kailasa (Cave 16).The caves are most impressive for their ornately carved architectural elements, particularly theirstone lotus flower roofs and their massive carved columns.

Fig. 125. Example of Jain sculptural style. Statue of Gomateshwara (978-993 CE), Shravanabelagola, India.

Relief SculpturesJain sculptural depictions center on twenty-four sacred figures, Tirthankars. Tirthankars — that is,“Ford-Makers” or “Crossing-Makers” — are human beings who have achieved enlightenment; likeBuddhist bodhisattvas, they are not gods, but rather embody characteristics of the enlightened soul.Jain sculptural representations of Tirthankars exhibit the following highly distinctive features (seeFig. 125):

An even more exaggerated body shape. Jain figures exaggerate even further the bloatedfiguration characteristic of the Hindu and Buddhist traditions. In addition to havingrounded limbs, with no muscle definition, figures have massively oversized shouldersand elongated arms.

No adornment. Unlike their Hindu and Buddhist counterparts, Jain religious figures aredepicted naked and wear no jewelry. This stems from Jainism’s belief that withdrawalfrom the world (and its conventions) is required to reach enlightenment.

Static standing poses. Jain religious figures are typically depicted standing, with straightlegs and arms. Tirthankars display none of the movement of Hindu divinities; even thesimple mudras of Buddha figures are abandoned.

Featured Jain CaveOf Ellora’s five Jain caves, we offer a detailed profile of the most impressive one, Cave 32 (IndraSabha) *, renowned for its exceptional reliefs.

Cave 32 - Indra Sabha *

Author Tip: While it takes some effort to get to this cave on the northern edge of Ellora, it isworth it. This is our favorite of the Jain caves. The sculptural details throughout aremagnificent, even more impressive than those of the earlier Buddhist and Hindu caves.

BackgroundCave 32, also known as Indra Sabha, is Jain in religious orientation; built in the 9th century, it is themost impressive of Ellora’s Jain caves.

Fig. 126. Monolithic shrine, courtyard, Cave 32, Ellora.

CourtyardCave 32 is fronted by a courtyard with a monolithic shrine at its center (see Fig. 126; location

marked with red highlights in Fig. 127); the liberation of a standalone structure from the cliffsideborrows from Hindu Cave 15. Further, the appearance of the shrine itself — with terraced levelsforming an overall pyramidal shape and topped by an octagonal dome — resembles a miniatureversion of Kailasa’s 33 meter tall sanctuary tower.

Fig. 127. Floorplan, courtyard, Cave 32, Ellora. Highlights added.

The shrine is flanked by a large column, with a compressed cushion capital supporting three yakshaguardians, to its left (light blue highlights in Fig. 127) and a freestanding elephant monolith to itsright (green highlights in Fig. 127). The walls of the courtyard are decorated with friezes of lions andelephants.The shrines around the courtyard have well-executed reliefs of Tirthankars. The most prominentJain saint in Cave 32 is Gomateshwara, son of the first Tirthankar. The story of Gomateshwara isthat he resolved to reject the attachments of this world and meditate in the forest until he achievedenlightenment. He meditated for so long that, by the time he achieved enlightenment, vines had grownup his legs and arms. He actually achieved enlightenment before his father, Adi Nath, so in effect heis the original Jain to have achieved release. Based on this story, he is always depicted with vinesgrowing up his legs and arms, a testament to his unwavering commitment; he stands upon a lotus bud,

a symbol of purity. In Fig 128, naked Gomateshwara has also been given long hair (again attesting tothe long duration of his meditation); a deer kneels at his feet and devotees have begun to gatheraround him.

Fig. 128. Gomateshwara, courtyard shrine, Cave 32, Ellora.

Temple LayoutCave 32 is a two-level temple.

Ground floor. Accessed through a verandah, the main hall on the ground floor has a prayerarea at its center, framed by four columns; there are cells (many incomplete) around theperiphery and a shrine on the rear wall.

Upper floor (see Fig. 129). The upper floor’s main hall is similarly accessed through averandah. Its central prayer area is framed by 12 columns that also create a space forcircumambulation around the hall’s periphery, where there are niche reliefs filled withstanding and sitting Tirthankars (light blue highlights in Fig. 129). The primary shrine iscut into the rear wall, while secondary shrines are on the sidewalls; Tirthankar images in

the shrines are marked with red highlights in Fig. 129.

Fig. 129. Floorplan, upper floor, Cave 32, Ellora. Highlights added.

Upper Floor DecorationAuthor Tip: Cave 32’s most impressive relief decoration is on its upper floor, accessed througha stairway on the right side of the lower floor’s verandah.

Relief sculpturesCave 32’s premier reliefs are located on either side of the upper floor’s verandah (locations markedwith yellow highlights in Fig. 129). The figures in each niche are depicted in the typical Jain sittingposition for non-Tirthankar pantheon members, one leg up and the other resting on the ground; thisposition is known as “royal ease” or alternatively as “half lotus”.

On the left side, Indra — a powerful deity that serves as protector of Jainism and theTirthankars — is depicted atop a seated elephant. See Fig. 130.

Fig. 130. Indra atop elephant, Cave 32, Ellora.

On the right side, Ambika — a protective, mother goddess — sits atop a lion, with a baby(the head of which is destroyed) on her lap, under a mango tree; the mango is typically asymbol of fecundity. See Fig. 131.

Fig. 131. Ambika, Cave 32, Ellora.

Elaborate cutout columnsThe upper hall also has a series of elaborately carved columns (see Fig. 132), masterpieces ofEllora’s sculptural tradition, even more impressive than those of the Hindu temples. Whereas Hindutemples had used pots as capitals, at Cave 32, the shafts themselves are rendered as massive pots,with overflowing, cutout garlands. We have traced the full development of this pot column styleduring our tour of Ellora’s premier caves: from its most basic manifestation (at Cave 10), to morecomplexity and greater detail (at Caves 12 and 16); and finally, here, it has reached its ultimateexpression.

Fig. 132. Elaborate columns, Cave 32, Ellora.

Lotus bud medallionThe ceiling over the main hall’s prayer area holds an enormous lotus bud medallion; still in a highstate of preservation, it is a great example of this trademark Jain decorative feature.

LEGACY CONTINUES: CHINA

Although this guidebook focuses exclusively on India’s rock-cut cave legacy, it is important to pointout that the tradition continued in China.

Buddhism Makes its Way Out of IndiaBuddhism — begun in the 6th century BCE in North India — began a meaningful migration out of itsbirthplace in the 1st century by way of the Silk Road; this Silk Road expansion occurred under theauspices and sponsorship of the North Indian Kushan Empire. It was during this time that Buddhismfirst began to gain momentum in Central Asia, China, and Southeast Asia.

The Han Dynasty Falls, Opening the Door to BuddhismJust as Buddhism was making its initial forays outside of India, a key event occurred in China that setthe stage for widespread acceptance of this new faith: the powerful Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE)fell. For the next 400 years, the Han Dynasty’s former empire was controlled by smaller foreign andindigenous Chinese rulers. There was great instability in China until the next great empire, the Tang(618-906), took power.The fall of the Han bred disregard for the state-supported faith of Confucianism; Buddhism providedan alternative, filling this spiritual void. As a result, Buddhism was the first non-native spiritualbelief system to gain momentum in Chinese lands.

The Northern Wei: First Imperial Champion of BuddhismAfter winning control of the northern portion of the lands that formerly comprised the Han Empire, theNorthern Wei Dynasty (386-535 CE) immediately embraced Buddhism. Under its auspices,excavations began at the three oldest and most impressive Buddhist cave sites in China: Mogao(carved from the 4th-14th centuries), Yungang (carved from 453-525), and Longmen (carved from493 until the 10th century).These three wonderful caves are worth adding to your future Chinese travel itineraries!

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