index of transportation measure quantification efforts ... · advantages of methodology...

Transportation Control Measures: Methodology Matrix

TransportationMeasure Methodology

Advantagesof Methodology

Disadvantagesof Methodology Report Description Advantages of Study

Disadvantagesof Study Factors Analyzed

AlternativeCommutePrograms

Processanalysis oftransportationmeasureplanning andimplementation

Explains lessonslearned during theplanning andimplementation ofan actual trans-portation measure,such as reactionsto expect from thepublic and fundingsources

Provides pros andcons of planningandimplementationmethods

Does not necessarilyhelp quantify VT,VMT, or emissionsreductions from theTCM implementation

Cost can vary greatly

"Transportation ControlMeasures Analyzed forthe WashingtonRegion's 15 PercentRate of Progress Plan." FHWA/MetropolitanWashington Council ofGovernments, February1995.

Provides compre-hensiveevaluation of theselection andquantificationprocessperformed by theMWCOG forassessing variousTCM measures

Addresses the strengthsand weaknesses of thebottom-up, multiplecommittee planningprocess used by theCOG

Provides extensive, cleardetail (and strengths andweaknesses) of both theevaluation tools used andeach specific TCMevaluation method

Estimates VT, VMT, &emission reductions andcost-effectiveness

Requires an extensivestudy of already-performed process

None (factorsanalyzed areapplicable to eachtransportationmeasure analyzedduring the process)

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AlternativeTransporta-tion-FriendlyWorkplace

Travel demand/mode choicemodel

Somewhat appli-cable to multipleregions

Analyst can varyinput parameters

Requires region-specific householdsurvey, land use,socioeconomic, andtravel cost data

Requires complexcomputer model

Potentially high costto use

"Implementing EffectiveTravel DemandManagementMeasures: Inventory ofMeasures andSynthesis ofExperience." COMSISCorporation. USDOT,September 1993. DOT-T-94-02.

Summarizesbroad range ofTDM measures,provides examplecase studyanalyses of each,and usescomputer modelto benchmark theeffectiveness ofeach TDM

Excellent overview of therange of TDMs possible;provides description,nature of effectiveness,application setting,effectiveness potential,and cost

Uses actual case studiesto inform the use of acomputer model forforecasting TDMeffectiveness

Provides a road-map toimplementing TDMs

Use of the modelrequires local inputparameters to forecastlocal effectiveness

Model does notincorporate anemissions calculationmodule

Most analysis is at theemployer-level ratherthan the area-level

Level of serviceprovided byemployer:information,matching services,preferential parking,ride home programs

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AlternativeTransporta-tion-FriendlyWorkplace(cont.)

Travel demand/mode choicemodel (cont.)

"A Survey and Analysisof EmployeeResponses toEmployer-SponsoredTrip ReductionIncentive Programs." Schreffler, Eric N., andMortero, Jose.COMSIS Corp.California AirResources Board,February 1994. Contract No. A983-187.

Describes resultsof new surveydata regardingemployee travelbehavior; usesmode choice andtravel demandmodel to predictimpacts of certainemployer-basedtransportationmeasures

Clearly explains theprocess that was used: survey data acquisition,mode choice computa-tion, and TCM effective-ness model use

Data requirements aremore readily availablethan other models

User-friendly model isavailable for outside use;users guide is alsoavailable

Survey links incentivesdirectly to impacts ontravel behaviorModel includes anawareness sub-modelthat simulates how manypeople know about thepossible transportationmeasures available tothem

Does not accuratelyaddress trip-chainingand VMT reductions(only trips)

Household conditionsare not extensivelyaccounted for

Cost-effectivenesswas not calculated

Employer-levelanalyses only, withfocus upon incentiveTCMs

Guaranteed ridehome

Company vanpools

Preferential parking

Parking fees forridesharers

Carpool subsidies &transportationallowances

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"Selection andEvaluation of TravelDemand ManagementMeasures." Taylor,Christopher J., et al. TRB Paper 971114,January 1997.

Uses TravelDemandEvaluation Modeldeveloped byCOMSIS toevaluate theimpact oftransportationmeasures onmode choice andVT for theSyracuse, NYmetropolitan area

Uses journey-to-workcensus data to developestimates of zone-to-zone travel

Evaluates both area-wideprograms and employer-based programs

Assesses revenuegeneration potential andtransit subsidies

Sufficiently detailedjourney-to-workcensus data may notbe available for allcities: Syracuse hasthis data available dueto a pilot program

Requires assumingsome estimates ofeffectiveness

Does not quantifyemissions reductions

Transit fare levelsand travel time

HOV lane timesavings

Parking costs

Employer transitencouragement level

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"Transportation ControlMeasures for the SanFrancisco Bay Area: Analysis ofEffectiveness andCosts." Harvey, G.,and E. Deakin. ForBay Area Air QualityManagement District,October 1991.

Describes useand results of atravel demandmodel employedto model the VT,VMT, and emis-sion reductions ofvarioustransportationmeasures in theSan FranciscoBay Area

Utilized high-qualityhousehold travel surveydata and advancedmodeling capabilities

Emissions calculationuses standardizedmethods, but takes intoaccount more subtleeffects of emissionsgeneration

Provides succinct, cleardata on results of study,including cost-effectiveness estimates

Does not providedetail on modeloperation

Many; not specified dac

Empiricalanalysis of theimpacts ofpersonalpreference andworkplaceconditions onmode choice

Somewhatapplicable tomultiple regions(but likely to beinfluenced heavilyby local factors ofthe study area)

Can be replicated(at moderate tohigh cost)

Does not requireextensivecomputer model

Uses actualsurvey data

Requires large datacollection process togenerate statisticallysignificant results

Personal preferenceand workplaceconditions difficult toimpact throughpublic policy

"The Influence ofEmployer RidesharingPrograms on EmployeeMode Choice." Ferguson, Erik. Transportation, vol 17,1990.

Analyzesaggregate-leveldata compiled bya large SouthernCalifornia regionalridesharingagency; assessesimpact ofemployercharacteristics onemployee modesplit

Analyzes a large data setcomprising almost 10%of Los Angeles areaworkforce

Utilizing existing agencydatabase is a cost-effective approach

Less accurate thandisaggregated (employeeby employee) data

Includes cost-effectiveness estimations

Some findings mayhave been contra-dicted by more recentstudies (e.g., studyfinds that large corp-orations have bettersuccess with rideshareprograms)

Aging data source: 1985 survey data

Los Angeles areafactors may beuncharacteristic ofother regions, soresults may not beapplicable elsewhere

Employer-derived datawas acquired usingdifferent methods

No estimates ofemissions impacts

Level of employereffort to encourageridesharing

Size of firm

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Empiricalanalysis oftransportationmeasureimplementationprograms


Can be replicated(at moderate cost)



"An Employer Panel forEvaluating theEffectiveness of TripReduction Incentives." Giuliano, Genevieve,and Wachs, Martin. InPanels forTransportation Planningand Applications, ed.T.F. Golob, et al, 1997.

Discusses resultscollected onSouthernCaliforniaemployment sitessubject toSCAQMDRegulation XV,and assesses therelativeeffectiveness oftrip reductionstrategies

Utilizes the largest tripreduction measuredatabase available in theworld

Panel method allows forassessing before-and-after-TCM conditions

Database does notprovide exceptionaldetail; report does notcontain details of thelevel of incentivesupport provided toemployees

Only generalizedeffectiveness resultsare shown

TCMs were not alwaysimplemented at thetime of the survey

Not described dac

Empiricalanalysis oftransportationmeasuredemonstrationprojects

Requires little orno new dataacquisition

Relatively low cost

Shows actualpotential oftransportationmeasures

Case study resultsdo not necessarilyapply to otherregions

"Evaluation of TravelDemand ManagementMeasures to RelieveCongestion." Kuzmyak, J.R., andE.N. Schreffler. Prepared by COMSISCorp. for FHWA. FHWA/SA-90/005;DOT-T-90-14. February 1990.

Performs casestudies of theeffectiveness of11 transportationdemandmanagementprograms

Shows potential forreduction in commute-based trips due toimplementation oftransportation measures

Provides high level ofdetail about the specificprograms implemented

Generally does notevaluate specific TCMindividually; programsof multiple TCMs areevaluated foreffectiveness

Does not quantifyemission reductions

Trip reductions basedupon vehicleoccupancy assumpt-ions for each modechoice (carpool,vanpool, transit)

Not applicable incontext of specifictransportationmeasures

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Employer TDMcost-effectivenessmodel

Estimatesreduction in andcosts of daily tripsand peak periodtrips

Aids employerdetermination ofcost-effectivenessof TDM measuresfor their particularworksite

Results may varywidely from oneemployer to the next

Many inputs may bedifficult foremployers orplanners to quantify

"TransportationDemand ManagementCost-EffectivenessModel for SuburbanEmployers." Dagang,Deborah A. JHK &Associates. InTransportationResearch Record 1404.

Reports on thedevelopment of amodel toindividuallyevaluate the cost-effectiveness of15 differentemployer-basedTDM measures insuburban settings

Focus on suburbanemployers reflectsdifferent travel-relatedcharacteristics ofsuburban and urbanareas

Spreadsheet-basedmodel is user-friendlyand readily accessible foruse at the site-specificlevel; model makessensitivity analysisrelatively simple

Eight transportationenvironments weredefined to representvarious combinations oftransportation servicecharacteristics

For employers withoutaccess to entire range ofdata necessary tooperate model, defaultvalues are included

Most employerssurveyed to developmodel were unable toprovide detailed costinformation on theTDM measures theyhad implemented

Does not calculateemissions directly

Potential for regionalbias, as model wasdeveloped in partbased on a survey ofsuburban SanFrancisco Bay Areaemployers; model alsoused the SCAQMDRegulation XV andPima Association ofGovernments TravelReduction Programemployer plandatabases

Only some TDMsincluded in modelprovide for estimatesof VT reductions

Use of default valuescould diminishesaccuracy of estimatesfor some users

Suburban employer-based TDMmeasures

Daily trips and peakperiod trips

Costs and cost-effectiveness

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Explains lessonslearned during theplanning andimplementation ofan actualtransportationmeasure, such asreactions toexpect from thepublic and fundingsources

Provides pros andcons of planningand implementa-tion methods




Providescomprehensiveevaluation of theselection andquantificationprocessperformed by theMWCOG forassessing varioustransportationmeasures






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Comparisonand analysis ofother studies

Relativelyinexpensive andsimple to conduct,because itrequires noprimary research

Provides anintroduction to therange of resultsproduced bydifferent studies,which could beused if otherdirectly applicableresearch is notavailable

Identifiesadvantages anddisadvantages ofseveralmethodologies

Results are notdirectly applicable toother regions (theydo not incorporatecharacteristics ofother regions)

Unlikely to provideprecise estimates

"An Assessment ofTransportation ControlMeasures,TransportationTechnologies, andPricing/RegulatoryPolicies." Euritt, MarkA., et al. University ofTexas, Austin, Centerfor TransportationResearch/TellusInstitute. CTR SEDC-1, June 1995.

Assesses severalstudies thatanalyze a host oftransportationmeasures,technologyoptions, andpolicies for totaleffectiveness andcosts/benefits

Provides a solid overviewof the range (and effects)of transportation measureoptions, as well astechnology and policyoptions

Focuses upon energyefficiency impacts inaddition to emissions andVMT

Report does notcontain a methodologyfor evaluating newTCM plans, but follow-on report focusesupon these strategies

Estimates may be toorough to apply to otherprograms in otherregions

Impacts: vehicletrips, vehicle milestraveled, andemissions

Costs

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"Assessment of TravelDemand ManagementApproaches atSuburban ActivityCenters." Bhatt, Kiran,and Higgins, Thomas. K.T. Analystics. U.S.DOT, July 1989.

Surveys researchstudies andinterviews TCMprogramcoordinators toprovide anoverview of therange ofeffectiveness ofemployer-basedTCM programs

Provides a large numberof case study examplesof both effective andineffective TCMprograms

Makes recommendationsto employers on how todevelop a TCM program

Provides a good checklistof topics to address whendeveloping a TCMprogram

Report does notcontain a methodologyfor forecasting theeffectiveness of newTCM plans

Only generalizedevaluation of TCMeffectiveness

Relativeeffectiveness ofvarioustransportationmeasure programs

Implementationmechanisms

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Comparisonand analysis ofother studies(cont.)

"ManagingTransportationDemand: MarketsVersus Mandates." Giuliano, Genevieve,and Martin Wachs. Reason Foundation. Policy Insight No. 142,September 1992.

Comparescongestion pricingwith RegulationXV for theSouthernCalifornia area;describes prosand cons of eachmeasure anddiscussesimplications

Provides typology oftransportation measuresand identifieseffectiveness andcommon barriers toimplementation

Simple side-by-sidecomparison of VMTreduction and cost-effectiveness for eachtransportation measure

Makes policy recom-mendations to improveeach transportationmeasure

Provides little detailabout logistics ofimplementing thepolicy recommenda-tions


Direct vs. indirectimplementation

Market-based vs.performance-basedimplementation

Efficiency and equityconsiderations

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"The Equity and CostEffectiveness ofEmployee CommuteOptions Programs." Farkas, Z. Andrew. Morgan StateUniversity. TRB960078, January 1996.

Analyzes theresults of surveysand transportationmeasuremodeling studiesperformed for theBaltimore andPhiladelphiaregions

Shows different methodsof using the same model: Travel DemandEvaluation Modeldeveloped by COMSIS

Provides a discussion ofsocial equityconsiderations based ona survey of the tworegions

Philadelphia modelingassumed averagevehicle ridershiptargets were reachedand results are onlyapplicable relative toeach scenario

Baltimore modeling didnot estimate emissionsreductions

Rideshare promotionlevel

Parking charge level

Transit subsidylevels

Work scheduleflexibility

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Bicycles Travel demand/mode choicemodel














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Bicycles(cont)

Parking supplyand demandmodel

Somewhatapplicable tomultiple regions


Requires computermodel


"Air Quality Offsets forParking." Loudon,William, et al. InTransportationResearch Record 1232,1992.

Develops anduses parkingsupply model fordowntownPortland toestimate COemissions

Uses observed price andtravel time sensitivities

Uses proven models oftravel behavior

Incorporates integratedCO emissions model

Requires parkingdatabase: number ofspaces, location, type,use patterns

Requires traveldatabase: time ofarrival, travel & workmode split

Travel time & cost dac

Statisticalanalysis of theimpacts of landusecharacteristicsand TDMstrategies onmode choice

Identifies land useand urban designcharacteristicsthat are supportiveof walk/bike modechoice.

Standard analysisof variance usingprinciple compo-nents allowsexamination of theeffects of land useand TDMincentivestrategies onmode choiceindividually and incombination.

Results transfer-able to otherurban areas interms of relativeranking ofimportance of theland use and TDMfactors analyzed.

Precise causalityand individualimpacts of factorssuch as transitavailability or urbandensity on modechoice cannot bemeasured due tolimitations of thedatabase

Potential for need toconduct extensivefield research todetermine land usecharacteristics ateach sample worksite.

Cannot be used todetermine land useand urban designcharacteristics'impact on a specificmode choice

"The Effects of LandUse and TravelDemand ManagementStrategies onCommuting Behavior: Final Report." Prepared by CambridgeSystematics, Inc. andDeakin, Harvey,Skabardonis, Inc. forthe U.S. Department ofTransportation,November 1994.

Develops anintegrateddatabase of landusecharacteristicsand traveldemandmanagement(TDM) strategies(for a sample ofemploymentlocations) todetermine thecombined impactsof TDM programs,land use, andurban design onemployee travelbehavior.

Added land use and siteinformation from fieldobservation to the"Regulation XV" datasetof the South Coast AirQuality ManagementDistrict (which includedaggregate employeetravel characteristics andemployer incentiveprograms)

Study conducted inLos Angeles County,and thus may be lessapplicable in moredense urban areaswith factors such ashigher average densityand transit service.

Share of work tripsmade by bicycle as apercentage of the totaltrips in the data set issmall, makingidentification of worksite characteristicsthat encourageutilization of bikesdifficult.

Did not addressresidential trip end ofcommute, middaytravel, or trip chainingas factors whichinfluence mode choice

To simplify acomplicated datacollection process,somewhat arbitraryindicators were usedfor assessment of asite's urban designand land usecharacteristics.

Land use and urbandesign of worksite

TDM incentivestrategies

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Bicycles(cont.)













Not described dac



Relatively low cost









Trip reductions basedupon vehicleoccupancyassumptions for eachmode choice (carpool,vanpool, transit)


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Sample surveyof customertravel patternsand prefer-ences atshoppingcenters

Somewhatapplicable tomultiple regions(but influenced bylocal factors of thestudy area)

Does not requirean extensivecomputer model


Moderate to highcost

"Analysis of IndirectSource Trip Activity:Regional ShoppingCenters." JHK &Associates/ K.T.Analytics/ California AirResources Board.November 1993, ARB-R-94/510.

Surveyedcustomers ofregional shoppingcenters todeterminepotential impactof various travelreductionmeasures

Uses actual survey data(including customerdemographic and statedpreference data)

Developed calculationmethodologies specific toeach trip reductionmeasure, using site-specific data

Compares data betweenshopping centers indifferent land-use types

Assumptions arerequired to translatestated preference datato expected outcome


Distance of travel forconsumers

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Bicycles(cont.)

Cross-sectionalanalysis ofbicycle facilities

Low cost toperform (ifdatabase isavailable)

Requiresconsiderabledatabase

Study results do notnecessarily apply toother regions

"If You Build Them,Commuters Will UseThem: Cross-sectionalAnalysis of Commutersand Bicycle Facilities." Nelson, Arthur C., andDavid Allen. GeorgiaInstitute of Technology. TRB 970132, January1997.

Analyzed adatabase of 18US cities todetermine whichfactors mostinfluenceincreased bicycleuse

Identifies some importantfactors affecting bicycleuse, as well as severalthat do not affect bicycleuse

Does not assess manyfactors that couldinfluence bicycle use

Cannot predicteffectiveness of newfacilities

Does not performbefore-and-afteranalysis of actual in-use facilities

Requires largerdatabase to performmore rigorous analysis

Bikeway miles per100,000 population

Terrain type

Annual rain days

Percent students

Mean high-temperature

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Sketchplanning

Simple tools cangenerate planning-level estimates oftransportationmeasure effective-ness at low cost

Generalized toolscan be somewhatapplicable tomultiple regions


Sketch planningresults are usuallynot the mostaccurate, dependingon the inputparameters

"Evaluating theEffectiveness ofTransportation ControlMeasures for San LuisObispo County,California." Morrow,David D., San LuisObispo Air PollutionControl District, 1992.

Develops anduses a calculationmethodology forestimating the tripreduction and airquality benefits ofbicycle facilityimprovements inSan Luis OpispoCounty

Methodologies aredeveloped specifically forthe bicycle facilityimprovement program

Explains calculationprocess in detail

Requires extensive,region-specific infor-mation to accuratelyestimate benefits andeffectiveness of theprogram

Assumes a level ofprogram participation(as required by themeasure)






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Bicycles(cont.)

Sketchplanning (cont.)

"Simple Methodologiesfor Quantifying VT andVMT Reductions fromTransportation Controland Growth Manage-ment Measures forDeveloping Local TripReduction Ordinances." Evans, V. and D.Morrow. SonomaTechnology, Inc. Air &Waste ManagementAssoc. 1993.

Describesdevelopment ofsimple method-ologies forquantifyingreductions invehicle trips (VT)and vehicle milestraveled (VMT)from TCMs, foruse in a planning-level context;developedoriginally for theSouth Coast AirBasin

Methods to quantify VTand VMT reductions fromTCMs were based uponrelatively simple methodsfor estimating emissionsand individual TCMeffectiveness developedprior to this report for theSouth Coast AQMD

Performance-basedapproach was developedrather than usemandated transportationperformance standards

Actual experience dataused as much aspossible: estimated tripreduction levels fromeach TCM was collectedfrom other studies, andplanning-level analysisuses site-specific datainputs, thus offeringincreased precision inemissions estimates

Ranges in VT reductionsestimates address theinteractive impacts of theapplication of multipletransportation measures

Equivalency factor usedto convert VMT to VT canaccount for region-specific average triplengths

Expected reductions inVT and VMT fromTCMs were estimatedbased upon a generalsurvey, so for aparticular locationdifferent assumptionsmay be needed

Applicability to otherregions outsideCalifornia limited byreport's use oftransportation dataand emissions factorsin the analysis whichwere quantified usingBURDEN and EMFACruns for 1994Does not incorporateany consideration ofcost-effectiveness

Employee partici-pation (percentageand frequency)

Trip length

Bike parking facilities

Existence/extent ofbike path system

Existence of showerfacilities

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Bicycles(cont.)


"Evaluating Travel andAir Quality Cost-Effectiveness ofTransportation DemandManagement Projects." Schreffler, Eric N.,Therese Costa, andCarl B. Moyer. InTransportationResearch Record 1520,1996.

Describes simplemethodologiesused to evaluateprojects fundedby the AB 2766vehicleregistration feeprogram inSouthernCalifornia

Methodology can beused to evaluate priorprojects or proposedfuture projects

Uses available EMFACemission rates tocalculate ROG, PM10,NOx, and CO

Study developsstandardized worksheetto evaluate projects

Study points outdrawbacks of self-reported project results

Methodology relies onparticipation dataprovided by projectproponents, whichmay not always beunbiased

EMFAC7E factors areCalifornia-specific

Trips reduced

Trip length

Prior travel mode

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Provides pros andcons of planningand implementa-tion methods




Providescomprehensiveevaluation of theselection andquantificationprocessperformed by theMWCOG forassessing variousTCM measures






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Bicycles(cont.)







"An Assessment ofTransportation ControlMeasures, Transport-ation Technologies,and Pricing/RegulatoryPolicies." Euritt, MarkA., et al. University ofTexas, Austin, Centerfor TransportationResearch/TellusInstitute. CTR SEDC-1, June 1995.







Costs

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Relative effective-ness of varioustransportationmeasure programs


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Clean FuelFleets







Develops anduses parkingsupply model fordowntownPortland, Oregonto estimate COemissions





Requires traveldatabase: time ofarrival, trave & workmode split

Vehicle emissionsrates

Number ofalternative fueledvehicles

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Clean FuelFleets (cont.)









Provides a solid overviewof the range (and effects)of TCM options, as wellas technology and policyoptions





Costs

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CompressedWork Week/Flex Time















4/40, 3/36, and 9/80work weeks

Participation levels

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CompressedWork Week/Flex Time(cont.)


"Transportation ControlMeasure AnalysisProcedures." Austin,Barbara S., et al. Systems ApplicationsInternational/CaliforniaAir Resources Board.Nov 1991. SYSAPP-91/141.

Describes adevelopedtransportationdemand modeland explicitlydiscusses thecalculationmethodologyused for severaltransportationmeasures

Model quantifies keysecondary effects ofTCMs (e.g. newcarpooling programs mayattract transit ridersrather than SOV riders)

Presents all the primaryequations and variablesused to calculate theeffects of TCMs

Contains a step-by-stepprocess for evaluatingpackages of TCMs

Explains multi-attributeanalyses as applied tomultiple TCM packages

Use of the modelrequires local inputparameters to forecastlocal effectiveness;default values may notbe sufficient;participation level datais required; basecases need to matchreal conditions

Model does not coverall TCMs, but can bemodified to do so

Temporal treatment islimited to on-peak/off-peak, no spatialtreatment

Emissions calculationsare not explicitlydescribed in the samefashion as traveleffects

Participation levels

Potential shift incommute time of day

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"Selection andEvaluation of TravelDemand ManagementMeasures." Taylor,Christopher J., et al. January, 1997. TRB971114.










Parking costs


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Describes useand results of atravel demandmodel employedto model VT,VMT, andemissionreductions ofvarioustransportationmeasures in theSan FranciscoBay Area


Emissions calculationsuse standardizedmethods, but takes intoaccount more subtleeffects of emissionsgeneration
















Time of arrival (indowntown area)

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Statisticalanalysis of theimpacts of landuse character-istics and TDMstrategies onmode choice

Use of PrincipleComponentsAnalysisgeneratedcompositevariables (groupsof land usecharacteristicswith similarimpacts)

Standard analysisof variance usingprinciplecomponentsallowedexamination of theeffects of land useand TDMincentivestrategies onmode choiceindividually and incombination.

Resultstransferable toother urban areasin terms of relativeranking ofimportance of theland use and TDMfactors analyzed.












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Some findings mayhave beencontradicted by morerecent studies (e.g.,study finds that largecorporations havebetter success withrideshare programs)






Size of firm

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Analysis ofexistingprogram(s)using traveldiaries

Analyzes actualCWW/flex timeprograms

Addresses travelbehavior patterns

Can differentiatebetween work andnonwork travel,and betweenweekday andweekend travel

Potential high costassociated withimplementing traveldiaries

Does not addresstotal demand forCWW/flex time

Applicability ofresults to otherregions andconditions isuncertain

"Impacts ofCompressed WorkWeek on Vehicle Tripsand Miles Traveled: Final Report." Schoolof Urban and RegionalPlanning, University ofSouthern California, forthe California AirResources Board,October 1994. Contract No. A132-136.

Evaluates theeffectiveness ofCWW schedules;quantifies VT,VMT.

Controls for individualand householdcharacteristics to isolateindependent effect ofwork schedules on VTand VMT

Differentiated between"4/40" and "9/80" CWWschedules

Sample size (andtherefore cost) can bevaried based on level ofstatistical accuracydesired

Does not directlycalculate emissionsimpacts

Large sample size isneeded to providestatistically robustresults

Travel diaries rely onhonest recordkeepingby study respondents

Type of CWWschedule

Individual andhouseholdcharacteristics

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Not described dac



Relatively low cost

Shows actualpotential oftransportationmeasuress




Shows potential forreduction in commute-based trips due toimplementation of TCMs






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Empiricalanalysis oftransportationmeasuredemonstrationprojects (cont.)

"Transportation-RelatedImpacts of CompressedWork Week: TheDenver Experiment." Atherton, Terry J., et al. In TransportationResearch Record 845,1982.

Provides beforeand aftercomparison oftravel behavior foran experimentalcompressed-workweek program forfederalemployees inDenver

Before-and-afterapproach (with a controlgroup) accuratelyassesses changes intravel

Utilizes actual traveldiaries and surveys totrack travel patterns

Identifies some non-worktravel impacts ofcompressed work weeks

Information was completeand accurate due togovernment workplacefocus

Results not asapplicable to privateorganizations, whichmay not respond aswell to requirements toimplementcompressed workweek plans

9/80 schedule vs.4/40 schedule

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"Effects of VariableWork Hour Programson Ridesharing andOrganizationalEffectiveness: A CaseStudy, VenturaCounty." Freas, AlyssaM. and Stuart M.Anderson. CommuterTransportationServices, Inc. InTransportationResearch Record 1321,1991.

Assesses severalimpacts of a pilotemployer-basedvoluntarycompressed workweek program inVentura County

Case study was carefullydesigned to achieveeasily obtainable, usefulinformation at the end ofthe study

Studied the impact ofCWW on not onlycommutes, but alsoemployee performance,office performance, andsupervisor perspectives

Study was performedwithin a proactivecounty agency, ratherthan a privatecompany, which mayaffect the results

Does not assess VMTor emissionsreductions, onlyassesses ride sharepercent

Flextime, 4/40 weeksand 9/80 weeks

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Sketchplanning

Simple tools cangenerate planning-level estimates oftransportationmeasureeffectiveness atlow cost




"TCM Analyst 1.0 andUser's Guide." Crawford, Jason A., etal. TexasTransportation Institute. For the FederalHighwayAdministration,November 1994.

Describes acomputerizedsketch planningtool, TCM Analyst1.0, includinginput datarequirements,methods of use,and an overviewof the model'sstructure andcalculationprocedures

Provides a useful andrelatively easy instructionmanual for using TCMAnalyst 1.0

Uses MOBILE5a outputdata (emission factors)as inputs to the model,providing more accurateemission benefitcalculations for eachTCM

Program only modelslimited TCMs andcannot model multipleTCM packages

Requires several runswith MOBILE5a toobtain input emissionfactors

Modeling on regional(rather thanmicroscale) basis only

Not stated dac





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"Simple Methodologiesfor Quantifying VT andVMT Reductions fromTransportation Controland GrowthManagement Measuresfor Developing LocalTrip ReductionOrdinances." Evans,V. and D. Morrow. Sonoma Technology,Inc. Air & WasteManagement Assoc. 1993

Describesdevelopment ofsimplemethodologies forquantifyingreductions invehicle trips (VT)and vehicle milestraveled (VMT)from TCMs, foruse in a planning-level context; developedoriginally for theSouth Coast AirBasin




Ranges in VT reductionsestimates address theinteractive impacts of theapplication of multipleTCMs



Applicability to otherregions outsideCalifornia limited byreport's use oftransportation dataand emissions factorsin the analysis whichwere quantified usingBURDEN and EMFACruns for 1994

Does not incorporateany consideration ofcost-effectiveness

Employeeparticipation(percentage andfrequency)

Employer-implementedalternative workweek schedule

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"Critical Analysis ofSketch-Planning Toolsfor Evaluating theEmission Benefits ofTransportation ControlMeasures." Crawford,Jason A., andRaymond A. Krammes. Prepared by TexasTransportation Institutefor FHWA, FHWA/TX-92/1279-5. December1993.

Critical analysisand sensitivityanalysis (usingdata for El Paso,Texas) of SanDiego Associationof Governments(SANDAG) TCMTools method andthe SystemsApplicationsInternational (SAI)method;summarized inTRR 1472

Provides a thoroughreview of the state of thepractice (as of 1993)

Identifies weaknesses inthe SANDAG and SAImethods as well asstrengths

Provides detailed sketch-planning analysis for ElPaso, Texas

Many of the inputs tothe SANDAG and SAImodels are difficult toquantify

The SANDAG and SAImodels do not fullyaccount for indirectimpacts and latenttravel demand

Vehicle trips

VMT

Average vehiclespeed

Emissions (HC, CO,NOx)

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Costs

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CongestionPricing

Integratedtravel demand,mode choice,trafficsimulation, andemissionsmodel

If developed, anintegrated modelto simulatedemand, modechoice, trafficsimulation, andemissions couldavoid some of theshortcomingsinherent inapplying traveland emissionsmodelssequentially

Integrated model hasnot yet beendeveloped and wouldbe costly to develop

"Framework forEvaluatingTransportation ControlMeasures: Mobility, AirQuality, and EnergyTradeoffs." Euritt, MarkA., et al. University ofTexas, Austin, Centerfor TransportationResearch, Jul 94.SWUTC-94-60034-1

Proposes that anintegrated modelshould bedeveloped, butthe performedanalysis usescurrent modelssequentially

Provides a framework forthe development of afuture integratedtransportation andemissions model

Performed analysisnot transferable toother situations

Vehicle operatingcost levels

Vehicle occupancyrates

dac







"Transportation PricingStrategies forCalifornia: AnAssessment ofCongestion, Emissions,Energy and EquityImpacts." California AirResources Board, June1995. Report No. 92-316.

Develops anduses acomprehensivetravel demandmodel to estimatethe impacts ofmultipletransportationmeasures

Uses actual, availableprice elasticities

Establishes base case bycomparing to actualtravel data

Explores interrelationsbetween pricingstrategies

Does not modelspecific travelcorridors (requiresadditional model forthis purpose)

Relies on uncertainforecasts of traveldemand

Price level, periodand location ofapplication

Price elasticity

Interrelationshipsbetween pricingstrategies

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CongestionPricing(cont.)










Travel and trafficimpact

Cost-effectiveness

dac

"The Effectiveness ofTransportation ControlMeasures in ReducingCongestion andImproving Air Quality." Loudon, William R., etal. JHK & Associates. Air & WasteManagementAssociation AnnualMeeting & Exhibition1993. AWMA 93-RP-149.05.

Describes adevelopedtransportationdemand modelthat integratesemissionscalculations;provides examplecalculations fromthe model

Model has a user manualthat leads the analyststep-by-step through theinput of data for regionspecific analyses

Contains extensive cost-effectiveness module

Can be used at eitherregional or a smaller areaor location

Includes exhaust andevaporative emissions

Use of the modelrequires local inputparameters to forecastlocal effectiveness;default values may notbe sufficient

Participation level dac


Describes useand results of atravel demandmodel to modelVT, VMT, andemissionreductions ofvarioustransportationmeasures in theSan FranciscoBay Area


Emissions calculationsuse standardizedmethods, but take intoaccount more subtleeffects of emissionsgeneration








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"Transportation Pricingand Travel Behavior." Harvey, Greig W. InCurbing Gridlock: Peak-Period Fees toRelieve TrafficCongestion. Vol. 2. TransportationResearch BoardSpecial Report 242,1994.

Overview paperon the effects oftransportationsystem pricing onactivity patternsand travelbehavior; someemissions results

Paper presents modelingresults from the SanFrancisco Bay AreaPricing Study using theSTEP model

Quantifies VMT, trips,fuel usage, ROG, CO,NOx, and CO2

Shows quantified traveland emissions modelingresults that correspond tospecific, clearly definedpricing proposals

Use of modeldeveloped for SanFrancisco Bay Areamay limit usefulness ofresults to other regions

Study acknowledgesthat the STEP modeldoes not accuratelyaccount for regionalgrowth or employmentallocation, and treatstime of day in asimplified way

VMT

Vehicle trips

Fuel usage

Emissions (ROG,CO, NOx, CO2)

drl

Travel costmodel

Most accurateway of measuringtrue travel costs apriori

Allowscomparison ofmultiple scenarios

Results do notnecessarily apply toother regions

Requires extensiveinformation gathering

"Impacts of CongestionPricing on Transit andCarpool Demand andSupply." Kain, John. Harvard University,1994. TRB 940444.

Uses economictheory of traveldemand, supply,and pricing, aswell as assumptionsabout the value oftime to estimatetotal travel coststo commuters

Compares impact ofcongestion pricing onvarious income groups

Provides excellentdiscussion of total costsof travel and relationshipbetween congestionpricing and transit use

Requires manyassumptions thatcould significantlyaffect results, includingrelationship betweenprice level and trafficflow speed


Congestion pricelevel

Flow speed

Parking price level

Transit service level

Personal value oftime

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Demandelasticity model

Simple modelbased oneconomicsfundamentals,using readilyavailable data,that capturesprimarydeterminants oftravel behavior

Can vary inputs tomodel based onlevel of complexitydesired

Model may fail toaccount for non-pricedeterminants oftravel behavior, orother congestionpricing programdesign details

"Demand ElasticityUnder Time-VaryingPrices: Case Study ofDay-of-Week VaryingTolls on Golden GateBridge." Gifford,Jonathan L. and ScottW. Talkington. GeorgeMason University,1996.

Provides a surveyoverview ofliterature on roadpricing; developsa demandelasticity model toanalyze traveldemand undertime-varyingpricing using datafrom the GoldenGate Bridge in1979-1984

Presents correlationbetween time-varyingpricing and trafficpatterns; indirectlyillustrates change in VT

Data used are fromactual applied day-of-week varying pricing

Focus on aggregatetravel behaviorprecludes analysisabout the details oftravel preferences

Results have limitedapplication to otherregions, as localvariables such aslimited transitalternatives may haveinfluenced modelresults

Use of single casestudy over period ofone price changelimits resultsapplicability in othersituations

Elasticity estimates donot include costs oftravel other than tolland gas, and includeno assessment ofpossible mode shifts

Does not quantifyemissions

Travel demandcharacteristics

Level of toll

Gasoline price

Price elasticity oftraffic

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Statisticalanalysis ofaverage speedof congestionpricingscenarios

Existingknowledge ofspeed/emissionsrelationships canbe used toestimate theemissions impactof "peak-spreading"resulting fromcongestion pricing

Actual travel dataand congestionpricing scenarioscan be compared

Speed/emissionsrelationships underreal-world conditionsare difficult tocharacterizeaccurately and aresomewhat poorlyunderstood

Modal effects are notdirectly addressed in"average speed"analysis

May only address"peak-spreading"emissions impact,not the trip-reductionand mode shiftimpacts ofcongestion pricing

"Congestion Pricingand Motor VehicleEmissions: An InitialReview." Guensler,Randall and DanielSperling. In CurbingGridlock: Peak-PeriodFees to Relieve TrafficCongestion. Vol. 2. TransportationResearch BoardSpecial Report 242,1994.

Examines the airquality impactslikely to resultfrom congestionpricing; focuseson the effects ofpostulatedchanges inaverage vehicleoperating speedson emission ratesby looking at fourcongestion pricingscenarios

Utilizes data fromexisting study onchanges in travelbehavior as input toanalysis

Statistical analysis isfairly simple and could bereplicated for any datasets from travel demandand emission rate models

Incorporates uncertaintyassociated with the useof speed correctionfactors

"Bootstrap" statisticalapproach toextrapolate dataresulted in highlysample-dependentnumbers, thus testsamples may not havebeen representative ofthe fleet

Impact of flowsmoothing not wellrepresented in anaverage speedmodeling regime thatis based on a limitednumber and variety oftest cycles

Changes in averagevehicle speed yieldsignificantly differentpercentage changes inemission rates forolder and newervehicles, thus fleetcomposition must beconsidered incongestion pricingscenarios

Study did not includesensitivity analysis ofthe models--howsensitive models areto errors in estimationof the independentvariable (averagespeed)

Average speedchanges andassociated emissionrate changes

Congestion pricingscenarios: targetedfreeway pricing,partial freewaypricing,comprehensivefreeway pricing,comprehensivepricing

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Use ofeconomictheory toestimatecongestionprice levels

Based upon soundeconomic theory

Relatively easyand inexpensiveto perform


Real life conditionsmay not be easilyaccounted for bytheory

"Freeway CongestionPricing: Another Look." Levinson, Herbert. TransportationResearch Board Paper940977, January 1994.

Identifies theappropriate levelof congestioncharges basedupon the marginalcost of driving

Analysis based uponeconomic theory andHighway CapacityManual speed-flow data

Does not addresspolitical acceptabilityor tolling optionsavailable forcongestion pricing

Prices resulting fromthe study may need tobe adjusted downwardto minimize theadverse impacts ontraveling

Does not quantifyemissions

Variation in speed-flow relationships

dac

Evaluativematrix

Matrix ofevaluative criteriawhich details andcomparescongestion pricingoptions could beapplied to otherregions

Relatively flexiblein level ofcomplexity andnumber ofevaluation criteriaor pricingscenarios inputinto matrix

Theoretical analysisbased on models,not actualcongestion pricingproject data

Relatively extensivelocation-specificstudy conductedfrom which matrixnumbers weredeveloped

"Evaluation ofCongestion PricingAlternatives in the TwinCities." Lari, Adeel Z.and Kenneth R.Buckeye. MinnesotaDepartment ofTransportation, January1997.

Study evaluatedthe relativerelationships andimpacts of elevencongestion pricingoptions in theTwin Citiesmetropolitan areafor 1995-96 usingstatisticallymodeled data,public outreachdata, and overallfeasibility studies

Compared elevendifferent congestionpricing scenarios for theTwin Cities area againstone another according tosame criteria

Air quality impactsmeasured in percentreductions inhydrocarbons (PM peakperiod only)

Unclear from this briefevaluative report howmatrix numbers werequantified

Matrix developedspecifically from acongestion pricingstudy for the TwinCities metropolitanarea, and thus resultsand recommendationsmay only be applicableto Minneapolis/St.Paul area

Congestion relief

Mode shift potential

Local street impacts

Air qualityimprovements

Social andgeographical equity

Land use/economicimpacts

Public acceptability

Technical feasibility

Revenue and costs

Operationaleffectiveness

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"Bay Bridge CongestionPricing Project: Lessons Learned toDate." Frick, Karen, etal. MetropolitanTransportationCommission, 1996. TransportationResearch Board paper961317.

Reviews andassesses theprocess by whichthe Bay AreaCongestionPricing TaskForce examinedthe viability ofvariable tolls onthe San FranciscoBay Bridge

Develops detailed,valuable lessons learnedduring theimplementation of thisspecific congestionpricing TCM

Makes recommendationson how to develop acongestion pricing TCMthat gains the approval ofthe public and publicofficials

Does not evaluate theend resulteffectiveness: VT,VMT, emissionsreduced

Public reaction to themeasure undervarying toll levelsand alternativecommute options

Allocation of tollmonies and equityissues

dac








dac





9/30/98 Page 33















Costs

dac

"Demand ElasticityUnder Time-VaryingPrices: Case Study ofDay-of-Week VaryingTolls on Golden GateBridge." Gifford,Jonathan L. and ScottW. Talkington. GeorgeMason University,1996.

Provides a surveyoverview ofliterature on roadpricing; developsa demandelasticity model toanalyze traveldemand undertime-varyingpricing using datafrom the GoldenGate Bridge in1979-1984

Survey includes boththeoretical and appliedwork

Focus on aggregatetravel behaviorprecludes analysisabout the details oftravel preferences

Results limited inindirect applicability tocongestion pricing onbridges

Travel demandcharacteristics

Level of toll

Gasoline price

Price elasticity oftraffic

dkp

"ManagingTransportationDemand: MarketsVersus Mandates." Giuliano, Genevieve,and Martin Wachs. Reason Foundation,September 1992. Policy Insight No. 142.


Provides typology ofTCMs and identifieseffectiveness andcommon barriers toimplementation

Simple side-by-sidecomparison of VMTreduction and cost-effectiveness for eachTCM

Makes policyrecommendations toimprove each TCM

Provides little detailabout logistics ofimplementing thepolicyrecommendations





dac





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Paper reviews empiricalresults and anecdotalfrom severaltransportation pricingprojects and studies

Review of existing resultsfocuses on aggregatedemand elasticity

Wide variability ofresults reviewed limitstheir usefulness

Aggregate demandelasticity

drl

Database/Information



Relatively low cost







Generally does notevaluate specifictransportationmeasure individually;programs of multipletransportationmeasures areevaluated foreffectiveness




dac





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Database/Information(cont.)

Samplesurveys ofridematchingdatabaseprogramsuccess

Uses statisticallyrepresentativesample populationto make estimatesof overall impactof ridematchingservices onridesharing

Sample size (andtherefore cost)can be variedbased on level ofstatisticalaccuracy desired

Surveys can bedone periodicallyto determinechanges inrideshareplacement ratesover time, andimpacts of specialpromotions suchas "Try Transit"weeks

Surveys can entailsignificant costs

"Revolving door"characteristic ofridesharing programscan be difficult toaddress withaccuracy

Relationshipbetween ridesharingparticipation, VMT,and emissionsrequires additionalanalysis

If surveys areperformed differentlyin different regions,direct comparisonsof results may not bevalid

"Rideshare PlacementMeasurement: AProposed StandardMethodology." King,Michael, and BarbaraAlderson. CaliforniaState University atChico, June 1995.

Developsmethodology forquantifyingrideshareplacement levelsfor ridematchingservices;discusses pilottesting ofmethodology(note: thismethodology iscurrently used byRIDES for BayArea Commutersin the SanFrancisco BayArea).

Survey methodology isgeneric and can beapplied to any region

Methodologydistinguishes betweenthree types of rideshareplacements (trial,maintenance, andongoing) to reflect theirdifferent impact on traveland emissions

Only quantifiesrideshare placement;does not directlyquantify VMT andemissions impact

Rideshare placementrate (trial,maintenance, andongoing)

Survey responserate

Statistical samplingerror

drl

EmissionsFees











Does not contain ahighway-networkmodel to include level-of-service changes

Forecasts rely onestimations ofchanges in householdtravel data

Fee level as afunction of mileage,make, model &model year

Price elasticity


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EmissionsFees (cont.)









VMT

Vehicle trips

Fuel usage


drl

EmployeeCommuteSubsidies















Subsidy level

Average vehicleridership

dac





9/30/98 Page 37

EmployeeCommuteSubsidies(cont.)




Clearly explains theprocess that was used: survey data acquisition,mode choicecomputation, and TCMeffectiveness model use



Survey links incentivesdirectly to impacts ontravel behavior

Model includes anawareness sub-modelthat simulates how manypeople know about thepossible TCMs availableto them





Guaranteed ridehome

Company vanpools




dac

"Selection andEvaluation of TravelDemand ManagementMeasures." Taylor,Christopher J., et al. TRB 971114, January1997.










Parking costs


dac





9/30/98 Page 38






Emissions calculationsuses standardizedmethods, but takes intoaccount more subtleeffects of emissionsgeneration








9/30/98 Page 39









"The Effects of LandUse and TravelDemand ManagementStrategies onCommuting Behavior:Final Report." Prepared by CambridgeSystematics, Inc. andDeakin, Harvey,Skabardonis, Inc. forthe U.S. Department ofTransportation,November 1994.


Quantified interactiveeffect of financialincentives and one ormore land use sitecharacteristics.







dkp





9/30/98 Page 40





















Size of firm

dac













Price level dac





9/30/98 Page 41














Not described dac

"Employee TripReduction WithoutGovernment Mandates: Cost and EffectivenessEstimates FromChicago." Pagano,Anthony and JoAnnVerdin. University ofIllinois at Chicago. TransportationResearch Board Paper971281, 1997.

Evaluated thecost andeffectiveness ofemployee tripreductionprograms throughthe use of anindependentevaluation ofdemonstrationprojectsimplemented inthe Chicago area

Estimates planning,maintenance, andvoluntary implementation,and incentive costs fortrip reduction programs

Intensive data collection,especially for costestimates, includingbefore and after surveysand interviews ofprogram administratorsparticipating in thedemonstration projects

Addresses statisticalrelationships oforganization type to costsand outcomes, of coststo strategies andincentives, of outcomesto strategies andincentives, and of cost tooutcomes

Addresses differences inoutcome byorganizational type(factory vs. office)

Made generalizedassumption of staffcosts needed toimplement tripreduction programs

Intensive datacollection requiresdemonstration projectand surveys, orapplication of Chicagoarea data

Results have limitedapplication to otherregions, as localChicago variablessuch as availability oftransit alternativesmay have influencedmodel results

Trip reductionprogramimplementationprocess utilized

Obstacles andsuccess factors

Program costs andeffectiveness

dkp





9/30/98 Page 42




Relatively low cost











dac

Sketchplanning





"Evaluating theEffectiveness ofTransportation ControlMeasures for San LuisObispo County,California." Morrow,David D., San LuisObispo Air PollutionControl District, 1992.

Develops anduses a calculationmethodology forestimating the tripreduction and airquality benefits ofemployer tripreductionrequirements inSan Luis ObispoCounty

Methodologies aredeveloped specifically forthe employer tripreduction program

Explains calculationprocess in detail

Requires extensive,region-specificinformation toaccurately estimatebenefits andeffectiveness of theprogram

Assumes a level ofprogram participation(as required by themeasure)






9/30/98 Page 43





















dkp





9/30/98 Page 44





Does not necessarilyhelp quantify VT,VMT, or emissionsreductions from thetransportationmeasureimplementation





Provides extensive, cleardetail (and strengths andweaknesses) of both theevaluation tools used andeach specifictransportation measureevaluation method

Estimates VT, VMT, andemission reductions andcost-effectiveness



dac














Costs

dac





9/30/98 Page 45












dac





Makes policyrecommendations toimprove eachtransportation measure






dac











dac





9/30/98 Page 46

Episodic/seasonalcontrols

Sample surveyanalysis ofexistingprogram(s)

Uses samplepopulation tomake estimates ofoverall impact ofepisodic/ seaonalcontrols


Surveys can bedone periodicallyto determinechanges inprogrameffectiveness overtime


Daily travel patternsare influenced by somany things thatisolating the impactof episodic programscan be difficult toaddress withaccuracy throughstatistical sampling


"Sacramento RegionalSpare the Air 1996: AReport on Two PublicOpinion Surveys." Lamare, Jude, TheCleaner AirPartnership. 1997.

Summarizesfindings regardingpublicparticipation inSacramento'sSpare the Airprogram, basedon telephoneinterviews

Generates estimates ofawareness of programand participation inprogram (in terms of tripsreduced)

By identifying reasons forprogram participation,and how participantsshifted trips, study resultscan be used to improveepisodic program design

Telephone surveyresponses may bebiased for severalreasons

Uses only brieftelephone interviews

Survey repondentsmay not be statisticallyrepresentative ofregional population

Only uses survey datafrom one smogepisode in a givenyear, with no controlgroup

Unable to assess withconfidence therelationship betweenprogramcharacteristics andprogram effectiveness

Awareness ofepisodic program

Participation inepisodic program

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9/30/98 Page 47

Feebate Comparisonand analysis ofother studies













Costs

dac

Fuel TaxIncreases













Tax level

Price elasticity


dac





9/30/98 Page 48

Fuel TaxIncreases(cont.)









Tax level dac








VMT

Vehicle trips

Fuel usage


drl





9/30/98 Page 49

Fuel TaxIncreases(cont.)














Costs

dac







drl

General Travel demand/mode choicemodel




Requirescomplicatedcomputer model


"Travel Markets: AnApproach to TCMEffectivenessEvaluation." Torluemke, Donald A. Ekistic MobilityConsultants, 1992.

Describes a TDMevaluationmethodology andmodel (GRACIE)that utilizes"travel market"characteristicsrather than origin-destination datato classify trips

Travel marketsegmentation providesuseful groupings withsimilar consumerattributes that can beaffected homogeneouslyby TDMs

Travel markets are moreeasily understood

Travel market data islacking; requiresconverting origin-destination data totravel market data

Does not show resultsof using the model

Travel marketcharacteristics

dac





9/30/98 Page 50

General(cont.)

Modalemissionsmodel

A modalemissions model,which estimatesemissions as afunction of vehicleoperating modesrather thanaverage vehiclespeeds, wouldgreatly improvethe evaluation oftransportationmeasures thataffect the modaloperation ofvehicles

An emissions model,unless integratedwith a travel model,does not calculatetravel activityimpacts oftransportationmeasures

Modal emissionsmodels are still in thedevelopment stage

"Overview of theGeorgia Tech GIS-Based ModalEmissions Model." Guensler, Randall, etal. Georgia TechResearch Partnership. April 1997.

DescribesGeorgia Tech'sdevelopment of amotor vehicleemissions modelwithin ageographicinformationsystem (GIS)framework

Model is GIS-based, andis compatible with theanalytical frameworkscurrently employed bymost state DOTs andmetropolitan planningorganizations

All model components,assumptions, andalgorithms can bevalidated against real-world data

Paper discusses how themodel would providebetter evaluations ofcertain transportationmeasures such as gross-emitter strategies

Model is still underdevelopment

Fleet composition

Vehicle activity

Emission rates

drl

High-OccupancyVehicleFacilities

Integratedtravel demand,mode choice,trafficsimulation, andemissionsmodel

If developed, anintegrated modelto simulatedemand, modechoice, trafficsimulation, andemissions couldavoid some of theshortcomingsinherent inapplying traveland emissionsmodelssequentially

Integrated model hasnot yet beendeveloped and wouldbe costly to develop

"Framework forEvaluatingTransportation ControlMeasures: Mobility, AirQuality, and EnergyTradeoffs." Euritt, MarkA., et al. University ofTexas, Austin, Centerfor TransportationResearch, Jul 94,SWUTC-94-60034-1

Proposes that anintegrated modelshould bedeveloped, butthe performedanalysis usescurrent modelssequentially

Provides a framework forthe development of afuture integratedtransportation andemissions model

Performed analysisnot transferable toother situations

Vehicle operatingcost levels

Vehicle occupancyrates

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9/30/98 Page 51

High-OccupancyVehicleFacilities(cont.)

Integratedplanning/simulationmodel

Combines thestrengths ofregionaltransportationplanning modelsand trafficsimulation models



Requires verydetailed input data



"IntelligentTransportation SystemsImpact AssessmentFramework: FinalReport." VolpeNational TransportationSystems Center,September 30, 1995

Describesdevelopment andapplication of ananalytical tool topredict ITSimpacts, with afocus onAdvanced TrafficManagementSystems

Model integratestransportation planningand traffic simulation inan iterative fashion, andincludes emissions andfuel consumptionmodules

Report describes use ofmodel to analyze thepotential use of ITS in theI-880 corridor in AlamedaCounty, California,modeling ramp metering,traffic signal coordination,integrated trafficmanagement, incidentmanagement, and HOVlanes

Emissions module usesaccepted EMFAC andMOBILE factors

Relatively high costand complexity

Locally specific inputdata makes the I-880results of limited use inother areas

OperationalMeasures ofEffectiveness: VMT,traffic volume,average vehiclespeed, vehicle hoursof delay, fuelconsumption

Emission Measuresof Effectiveness: CO, HC, NOx

Safety Measures ofEffectiveness: personal injurylevels, propertydamage, totalaccidents

drl















Vehicle occupancy:2, 3, or 4 or morepeople required forHOV lane use



dac





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"The Effects of NewHigh-OccupancyVehicle Lanes onTravel and Emissions." Johnston, Robert A.,and Raju Ceerla. InTransportationResearch A, vol. 30 no.1, pp. 35-50, 1996.

Reviews pastmodeling effortsand traveldemandsimulations ofHOV lanes,includinginteractionsbetween HOVlanes, pricingmeasures, transitexpansion, andtransit-orienteddevelopment.

Incorporates feedbackprocedure to account forpotential induced traveldemand resulting fromnew HOV lanes

Compares HOV laneswith other transportationstrategies, includingpricing, transitimprovements, andtransit-orienteddevelopment

Uses availableEMFAC7E emissionrates to calculate TOG,NOx, and CO

Results are gearedtoward specificSacramento policyproposals, and are notdirectly transferable toother areas


Travelcharacteristics: VMT, total v ehiclehours, vehicle hoursof delay, transit trips,HOV trips

Emissions: TOG,CO, NOx

drl











Parking costs


dac

Vehiclequeuing model

Calculatesaggregate vehicledelay (not justindividual vehicletravel time)

Applicable to anyhighway


Relatively low costto use


Theoretical ratherthan empirical

Requires manysimplifyingassumptions

"An Analysis of theEffectiveness of HighOccupancy VehicleLanes." Dahlgren, J.W. Institute ofTransportation Studies,UC Berkeley, 1994. UCB-ITS-DS-94-2.

Develops anduses extensivefreeway queuingmodel thatsimulates theaddition of HOVor generalpurpose lanes

Uses range of travelmode (HOV or LOV)sensitivities

Addresses impact onroute choice, travel time,induced trips & growth

Incorporates integratedemissions model

Requires limited data

Assumes bottleneckcreates delay (notmaximum flowcapacity)

Percentage of HOVdrivers

Initial vehicle delay

Number of lanes

Travel timeelasticities

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9/30/98 Page 53


Freewaythroughputmodel

May be applicableto actual corridors,given accurateknowledge of keyassumptions

Low to moderatecost

Assumptions arerequired that mayheavily impact theresults

"Negative Impacts ofHOV Facilities onTransit." Vuchic,Vukan R., et al.University ofPennsylvania/University of Delaware. January1995. TRB 950543.

Surveyed thequantity andquality of bus andHOV lanes inseveral cities;modeleddifferences inimpacts betweenbus-only andHOV lanes

Provides quantitative andqualitative arguments forbus-only lanes

Results are consistentwith actual demonstrationproject findings, andshow potential to reduceVMT

Amount andcomposition of latentdemand for freewayuse is assumed

Shifts in passengersfrom SOV to HOVlanes are assumed

Does not modelemissions

Addition of bus-onlyor HOV lane

Conversion of bus-only or HOV lane

dac

Emissiondispersionmodel (used forfreeways)

Readily availablemodels

Applicable to anyhighway





"Air Quality Impacts ofHOV Facilities." Chatterjee, Aun. et al. University ofTennessee, January1996. TRB 960425.

Uses anemissionsdispersion modelto estimate COand NOxconcentrationsalong a freewaywith HOV lanes

Establishes and upperand lower bound onemission concentrationimpacts due to HOVlanes

Includes impacts of latentdemand

Highly theoreticalstudy with idealizedconditions; does notuse actual data

Assumes mode choicesplits

Bus-only lanes vs.multiple passengerlanes

dac






"Evaluating the SeattleI-5 North HOV Lane 2+OccupancyRequirementDemonstration." Turnbull, Katherine F.et al. TexasTransportation Institute. January 1993.

Summarizes theimpact (on theHOV lane andgeneral purposelanes) of ademonstrationproject whichlowered theminimum vehicleoccupancyrequirement onthe I-5 North HOVlanes in Seattlefrom 3 or morepersons pervehicle to 2 ormore persons pervehicle

Provides overview ofgeneral trends andimpacts of a reduction inHOV lane requirements

Information evaluated instudy was obtainedthrough special surveysand from ongoingmonitoring efforts byWashington State'sDepartment ofTransportation

Factors under study intravel corridor mayhave been influencedand confounded byadditional variables

Changes in travelcharacteristics as aresult of demonstrationproject may not haveemerged immediatelyafter implementation,and thus may notshow up in evaluation

Analysis limited byavailability of data,especially for theperiod immediatelypreceding the start ofthe demonstration

Impact of changingHOV lane vehicleoccupancyrequirements

Traffic levels andtraffic conditionsduring morning andafternoon peak hoursand peak periods

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Case studyanalysis

Analyzing casestudies isrelatively easy andinexpensive

Different casestudies can becompared todetermine factorsinfluencing theeffectiveness ofan HOV strategy

Case-study analysisfrequently does notprovide rigorousquantitative results

Effectiveness ofcase studies may bedue to local factorsspecific to that case

"High-OccupancyVehicle Project CaseStudies: HistoricalTrends and ProjectExperiences." Turnbull,Katherine. TexasTransportation Institute. Prepared for FederalTransit Administration,August 1992.

Presents theexamination ofhistorical trendsand currentexperiences withHOV projects onfreeways or inseparate rights-of-way in selectedcase studiesnationwide; looksspecifically at airquality andemissions effectsin a Houston casestudy

Selected case studiesevaluated represent amix of old and newprojects, HOV designtreatments, andgeographic coverage

Provides a summary ofthe experience to datewith a variety of HOVprojects in NorthAmerica.

Utilizes existing datafrom case studies, suchas mode choice surveysof HOV facility users todraw general conclusions

Identifies measures ofeffectiveness for use inevaluating each of thefactors analyzed, andprovides examples ofhow the case studiesrelate to the differentmeasures

Conclusions andcomparisons drawnfrom relatively littledata in some cases

Effectiveness of HOVfacilities not calculatedin terms of emissionsbut are generally givenin before-and-afterperson and vehiclevolume comparisonsand percentagesrelative to generaltraffic lanes

Compares casestudies of ongoingprojects of differingages, and in differentlocations (each withunique factors such asweather, transitissues, and publicopinions); thus,conclusions drawncould include errors inconsistency orcomparability of data

Does not provideemissions estimates

Person movementcapacity and per-lane efficiency of thefreeway facility

Bus serviceoperating efficiencies

Travel time savingsand trip timereliability

Air quality andenergy impacts

Impacts on theoperation of thefreeway general-purpose lanes

Safety

Public support

Cost-effectiveness

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Case studyanalysis (cont.)

"Assessment of High-Occupancy VehicleFacilities in NorthAmerica: ExecutiveReport." Turnbull,Katherine. TexasTransportation Institute. Prepared for FederalTransit Administration,August 1992.

Included in aseries of reportsprepared as partof a three-yearassessment

Selected case studiesevaluated represent amix of old and newprojects, HOV designtreatments, andgeographic coverage

Provides a summary ofthe experience to datewith a variety of HOVprojects in NorthAmerica.

Utilizes existing datafrom case studies, suchas mode choice surveysof HOV facility users todraw general conclusions

Identifies measures ofeffectiveness for use inevaluating each of thefactors analyzed, andprovides examples ofhow the case studiesrelate to the differentmeasures


Effectiveness of HOVfacilities not calculatedin terms of emissionsbut are generally givenin before-and-afterperson and vehiclevolume comparisonsand percentagesrelative to generaltraffic lanes



Person movementcapacity and per-lane efficiency of thefreeway facility

Bus serviceoperating efficiencies

Travel time savingsand trip timereliability

Air quality andenergy impacts

Impacts on theoperation of thefreeway general-purpose lanes

Safety

Public support

Cost-effectiveness

dkp

Sketchplanning












Not stated dac





9/30/98 Page 56














dac



Provides a reviewof the resultsproduced bydifferent HOVfacilities in NorthAmerica, whichcould be used ifother directlyapplicableresearch is notavailable


Results are notdirectly applicable toother regions (localinputs may play asignificant role indetermining thetravel and emissionsimpacts of HOVfacilities)









Costs

dac

"The Effects of NewHigh-OccupancyVehicle Lanes onTravel and Emissions." Johnston, Robert A.,and Raju Ceerla. InTransportationResearch A, vol. 30 no.1, pp. 35-50, 1996.

Reviews pastmodeling effortsand traveldemandsimulations ofHOV lanes

Provides an overviewand critique of previousHOV impact assessmentefforts, withrecommendations forimprovements

Summarizes modelingissues related to theFederal and CaliforniaClean Air Acts

Various travelcharacteristics,depending on thespecific studyreviewed

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"Assessment of High-Occupancy VehicleFacilities in NorthAmerica: ExecutiveReport." Turnbull,Katherine. TexasTransportation Institute. Prepared for FederalTransit Administration,August 1992.

Summarizes anassessment ofHOV laneprojects onfreeways orseparate rights-of-way in NorthAmerica; includessuggestedprocedures forevaluating HOVprojects(summarizes fourother reportsprepared as partof the samethree-yearassessment)

Identifies clear objectivesfor developing HOVfacilities andcorresponding measuresof effectiveness, as wellas general thresholdguidelines (ranges) anddata needs

Details suggestedapproach for evaluatingoperating HOV projects

Focuses on overallimpacts of HOV facilitieson person and vehiclemovement, costeffectiveness,implementation risks andflexibility, and use

Extensive data collectiondone which provides alarge data set detailingthe status of HOVfacilities in North America(including HOV utilizationby passengers andvehicles)




Design treatments,operating scenarios,enforcementtechniques,utilization levels, andgeneral experienceswith HOV facilities

Institutionalarrangementsassociated with thedevelopment andoperation, historicaltrends in use, andimpacts of thefacilities

dkp

"HOV Lanes and RampMetering: Can TheyWork Together for AirQuality?" Shoemaker,Bill R. and Edward C.Sullivan. TransportationResearch Board Paper940444. January 1994.

Comments on theanalysis processused to assessthe air qualityimpacts of HOVland and rampmetering projects,and examines thedegree to whichthese measuresare effective andcompatible wherejointly applied toimprove freewayoperations

Illustrates the process ofanalysis and decision-making, as well as thekey role of analyticalmodeling, required in theSan Francisco Bay Areato gain approval for HOVlane and ramp meteringprojects at the regionallevel

Examines theinterrelationships, andpotentially perverseeffects, between HOVlanes and ramp metering

Identifies need forestimatingdisaggregate mode-specific emissionfactors, includingvehicle fleetcharacteristics, andidentifies difficulties indoing so

Interrelationshipsbetween HOV lanesand ramp metering

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"The Effect of HOVLanes in ReducingEmissions." Bieberitz,John A. ITE 1993Compendium ofTechnical Papers.

Describes andassessesanalyses ofseveral HOVdemonstrationprojects to informestimates of aHOV lane use inthe Milwaukeearea

Compares data fromdemonstration projects inseveral cities

Estimates include trafficgrowth rates

Does not provide cost-effectiveness of HOVlanes

Assumes HOV lanesare constructed on allsegments of thefreeways in theMilwaukee area

Traffic growth rates dac

IntelligentTransporta-tion Systems


















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IntelligentTransporta-tion Systems(cont.)














"Travel, Emissions, andConsumer Benefits ofAdvanced TransitTechnologies in theSacramento Region." Johnston, Robert andRodier, Caroline. University of California,Davis. California PATHResearch Report, July1996.

UsescomprehensiveSacramentoRegional TravelDemand Model(SACMET 95) toestimate thepossible futureimpact of ITS ontravel mode,emissions, andconsumer welfare

Appendices providethorough explanation ofmodeling equations,assumptions andvariables

Explores interrelationsbetween income leveland consumer welfare

Model is not integratedwith a land use model;effects of majorchanges intransportation networkare not taken inaccount


More research isnecessary to generateuseful results

Vehicle miles andtotal hours traveled

Hours of delay andfree flow

Transportation modesplit: singleoccupant sharedride, transit, walk,bike

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Vehiclequeuing model

Calculates vehicledelay and vehiclespeeds, to whichemission factorscan be applied

Applicable to anyroadway orroadway type



Queuing model istheoretical in naturerather than empirical

It is difficult to checkresults of theoreticalITS studies againstempirical results dueto the relatively lowcurrent level of ITSdeployment



"Methodology forEvaluating ATISImpacts on Air Quality." Al-Deek, H. et al. Journal ofTransportationEngineering, vol. 121,no. 4, Jul/Aug 1995, pp.376-384.

Presents ananalytical methodfor evaluating theemissions impactof rerouting trafficguided with ATIS(using adeteriministicqueuing model),and applies themethod to asimple network. Evaluates CO,VOC, and NOximpact.

Uses MOBILE5aemission factors toestimate CO, VOC, andNOx impacts

Estimates impacts ofATIS at different levels ofmarket penetration and indifferent years

Can be applied to simpleor complex roadnetworks

Does not account fortransient emissionsassociated withacceleration

ATIS marketpenetration level

Road networkcharacteristics

Traffic incidentcharacteristics

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Relatively low cost



"EnvironmentalConsiderations forPlanning AdvancedTraffic ManagementSystems." Kraft,Walter H., and WilliamA. Redl, in ResourcePapers for the 1994ITE InternationalConference, 1994.

Reviewsenvironmentalfactors related toITS strategies,and presents acase study ofNew Jersey DOTI-80 MetropolitanArea GuidanceInformation andControl (MAGIC)project

Combines generaldiscussion with casestudy results from anactual ITS project

Evaluates changes inVMT and emissions (CO,HC, and NOx) at thecorridor level

Includes cost/benefitanalysis results

Tracks changes in VMTand emissions impactsover time

Emissions calculationmethodology andresults not presentedin great detail

Land use andphysical features

Emissions (CO, HC,NOx)

Benefit/cost ratio

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"ITS Benefits: Continuing Successesand Operational TestResults." Prepared byMitretek Systems forFederal HighwayAdministration. Draft,September 19, 1997.

Highlights existingand predicted ITSbenefits identifiedfrom a variety ofITSimplementationprograms,focusing on U.S.DOT-funded FieldOperational Testsand otherprogramsresulting fromrecent federalinitiatives

Reports benefits from avariety of projectscovering a variety of ITStechnologies

Includes ITS benefitsrelated to safety, time,throughput, cost,customer satisfaction,energy, and environment

Describes quantifiedemissions impacts forprojects in Seattle,Boston, Oklahoma, NewJersey, Los Angeles, andAbeline (Texas)

Includes exampleemissions results forAdvanced TravelerInformation Systems,electronic toll collection,and traffic signal systems

Reports results butdoes not showanalysis methods orcalculations

Not all reported resultshave been validatedfor completeness andreliability

Varies depending onproject summarized,but can include: VMT, vehicle trips,vehicle speeds, fuelusage, emissions(HC, CO, Nox)

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Sketchplanning





The relatively lowcurrent level of ITSdeployment makesvalidation of sketchplanning resultsdifficult


"Potential Emission andAir Quality Impacts ofIntelligent Vehicle-Highway Systems." Ostria, Sergio, andMichael F. Lawrence. In TransportationResearch Record 1444,1994.

Discusses short-term and long-term impacts ofITS technologybundles on trips,mode split, andemissions at aregional andcorridor level

Provides a broad initialassessment of theexpected direction ofimpact (positive,negative, insignificant,uncertain) of ITS bundleson travel behavior andemissions (HC, CO,NOx)

Utilizes solid a priorireasoning to predictimpacts

Discussion istheoretical rather thanempirical

Does not estimate themagnitude of travel oremissions impacts

Evaluates ITStechnology bundlesrather than individualITS technologies orITS-related policyoptions

Traffic flow

Vehicle trips

Trip distance

Mode shifts


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"Potential Contributionsof intelligentVehicle/HighwaySystems (IVHS) toReducingTransportation'sGreenhouse GasProduction." Shladover, Steven E. PATH, Institute ofTransportation Studies,U.C. Berkeley. August1991.

Identifies role ofITS in affectingtravel demandand supply andcategorizessubtypes of ITS

Good categorization ofvarious subtypes of ITS

Identifies clearly how ITSinfluences short-termtravel patterns andreduces traffic incidents

Provides littlequantification of VMTand delay reductions,no emissionsreductions

Inconclusive evidencefor effect ongreenhouse gases,since long-term effectsof ITS are unknown

Several subtypes ofITS

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"Assessing theEmission Impacts ofIVHS in an UncertainFuture." Washington,Simon P., RandallGuensler, and DanielSperling. University ofCaliforniaTransportation Center. Working Paper UCTCNo. 298, 1993.

Summarizes thelikely impacts ofthree ITStechnologybundles(Advanced TrafficmanagementSystems,AdvancedTraverlerInformationSystems, andAdvanced VehicleControl Systems)under differentsets of currentand futureassumptions

Provides background forevaluating a range ofemissions impacts of ITS

Assesses potentialchanges in ITSemissions impacts due tofuture changes in vehiclefleet composition anddriver behavior

Highlights potentialsynergies among ITStechnologies and policyoptions

Does not addressspecific policies orprograms that wouldimpact vehicle fleetcomposition and driverbehavior

Assesses theexpected direction, butnot the magnitude, ofITS emissions impacts

Does not draw upondata from specificexisting ITS projects

Travel impacts

Emissions impacts

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"Emissions Impacts ofIntelligent VehicleHighway Systems." Washington, Simon,Randall Guensler, andDaniel Sperling. U.C.Davis Institute ofTransportation Studies,UCD-RP-13-93. 1993.

A preliminaryassessment ofemissionsimpacts of ITStechnologybundles

Provides framework forevaluating emissionsimpacts of ITS

Discusses potential ITSimpacts of VMT, trip-endemissions, engine idling,diurnal and refuelingemissions, and modalemissions activity

Identifies role of ITS inreducing emissionsimpacts associated withnon-recurrent trafficcongestion

Addresses potential roleof ITS technologies inimplementing demandmanagement strategiessuch as congestionpricing and preferentialtreatment of sharedmodes

Assesses theexpected direction, butnot the magnitude, ofITS emissions impacts

Does not draw upondata from specificexisting ITS projects

VMT

Vehicle trips

Modal emissionsactivity

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Costs

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"An Assessment ofIVHS-APTSTechnology Impacts onEnergy Consumptionand Vehicle Emissionsof Transit Bus Fleets." Jolibois, Sylvan C. Jr.,and Adib Kanafani. California PATHResearch Report. August 1994.

Examines thepotential impactsof AdvancedPublicTransportationSystems (APTS)technologies interms of vehicleemissions, airquality, and fuelconsumptionthrough aresearch review,and makessubsequent policyrecommendations

Provides a qualitativeassessment of IntelligentVehicle-HighwaySystems technologies onair quality and energyconsumption in bothshort and long term

Presents review ofcertain APTS programareas, specifically transitoperations of motorizedbus fleets

Provides ratios of transitbus emissions to autoemissions (perpassenger and pervehicle) for HC, CO,NOx, and PM

Report does notcontain a methodologyfor quantification ofemissions fromspecific transportationmeasures

Emissions ratios maybe based on overlyoptimistic ridershipestimates

Impacts of AdvancedPublic TransportationSystems (APTS)technologies onvehicle emissionsand fuelconsumption

Smart Traveler,Smart Vehicle, andSmart Intermodalsystems

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Intermodal Empiricalanalysis oftransportationmeasuredemonstrationprojects


Relatively low cost











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Local LandUse/UrbanDesign


State-of-the-artmethod ofanalyzingindividual travelbehavior

Model's structureand parametersoffer considerableinsight into whatfactors influencetravel modeselection, andtherefore can beused to evaluatedifferent scenariosand details inprogram design

Travel demandmodels can beused to evaluatecombinations oftransportationmeasures as wellas individualmeasures

Can be used toisolate the impactof land usechanges on atransportationnetwork,minimizing otherfactors such asothertransportationmeasures




Does not directlyprovide emissionsestimates

Precision of analysiswill depend onaccuracy of bothgrowth projectionsand estimates of"holding capacity" oftargeted householdand employmentgrowth transferzones








Commute trip lengthreduction throughnew zoning controls

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"Testing the Impact ofAlternative Land UseScenarios Using aTravel DemandForecasting Model." Steiss, Todd Alan. Baltimore MetropolitanCouncil, TransportationPlanning Division. TransportationResearch Board Paper960898.

Used traveldemandforecasting modelsoftware toanalyze fourdifferent land usealternatives in theBaltimoremetropolitan area

Travel forecasting modelused was MINUTP, atypical and familiar modelto planning agencies inthe Baltimore region(thus no learning curve),and techniques forevaluating model outputhad already beenestablished

Study compared baselinetransit networkprojections and 1)Baltimore's long-rangeplan without TCMs, 2)Plan with TCMs, 3) landuse alternativesseparately and incomposite

Emissions can becalculated for each landuse alternative

More sophisticatedland use model notutilized due to timeconstraints

Emissions actuallycalculated forcomposite of land usealternatives only

VMT, VT, and transitridership

Land usealternatives: "InsideBeltway," "FixedTransit,""Community"development and acomposite scenario

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Local LandUse/UrbanDesign(cont.)

Conventionaltransportationplanningnetwork model

Can be used toisolate the effecton travel patternsof different streetlayouts forneotraditional andconventionalneighborhoods

Hypotheticalmodeling exercise;does not use actualperformance datafrom existingneotraditional andconventionaldevelopments

Models do notaccount for manyaspects of local landuse strategies, suchas mixed land uses,street characteristicslike street and lanewidth andlandscaping, anddifferences indevelopmentdensities andparking availability

Modeling analysis ofa local streetnetwork does notaccount forinteraction betweenneighborhood andregional travel

"ComparativeAssessment of TravelCharacteristics forNeotraditionalDesigns." McNally,Michael and SherryRyan. Institute ofTransportation Studies. In TransportationResearch Record 1400.

Evaluates theperformancedifferences of twohypotheticalstreet networksdesigned toreplicate aneotraditional anda conventionalsuburbancommunity;determines thatneotraditionalstreet networkscan improvetransportationsystemperformance

Uses generalized,hypotheticaltransportation networkdesigns in order togenerate broadconclusions rather thanlocalized network-specificconclusions

Examines effectneotraditional design hason reducing vehiclekilometers and vehiclehours traveled

Generates resultsconsistent with earlierfindings by others

To isolate the impact ofthe street layout, all otheraspects of the modeledcommunities are heldconstant

The study does notcalculate emissionsdirectly; transportationimpacts are measuredin terms of vehiclekilometers traveled,average trip lengths,and congestion onlinks and atintersections

Model does not takeinto account narrowerrights-of-way anddenser grid thatusually typifyneotraditionaldevelopments;assumed equal trade-off

Because hypotheticalsubarea is only 0.5square miles, manyassumptions need tobe made aboutexternal trips

Trip generation rates,other travelparameters, andfriction factors whichwere adopted from theCity of Irvine couldhave introduced someerror, as they weredeveloped for a studyarea larger than thatused in this exercise

Transportationsystems ofhypotheticalneotraditional andconventionalsubdivisions

Vehicle kilometerstraveled

Mean trip length bytrip type

Intersection capacityutilization (ICU)

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Statisticalanalysis offactorsaffecting travelbehavior

Utilizes actualdata from traveldiaries, surveys,and/or local andhouseholdcharacteristics

Relatively simpleapproach (doesnot requirecomputermodeling)

Some results mayhave applicabilityto other regions

Complexity ofrelationship betweentravel behavior andurban form canmake it difficult toachieve statisticallysignificant results

Causality can bedifficult to establish

Uncertainapplicability tomultiple regions (butcan be duplicated atmoderate cost, ifnecessary)

"A Micro-Analysis ofLand Use and Travel inFive Neighborhoods inthe San Francisco BayArea." Kitamura,Ryuichi, et al. Instituteof TransportationStudies, UC Davis. November, 1994.

Analyzes surveysof five Bay Areaneighborhoods; assesses impactof land usecharacteristicsand attitudes ontravel behavior

Utilizes actual surveydata from five differentneighborhoods forcomparison

Distinguishes betweenimpact of land usecharacteristics, attitudes,and income

Explores multiplevariables (householdsize, profession,environmental attitude,time pressure, etc.)

More research isnecessary to reachconclusions that areuseful to land useplanners

Diaries and surveysrequire time-intensive,methodical approach

Land usecharacteristics(access to transit,sidewalk/bikewayavailability, etc.)

Personal attitudesrelated toenvironment,mobility, etc.

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"Using ResidentialPatterns and Transit toDecrease AutoDependence andCosts." Holtzclaw,John. For NaturalResources DefenseCouncil, June 1994.

Evaluates theeffects ofneighborhoodcharacteristics(density, transitaccessibility,neighborhoodshopping, andpedestrianaccessibility) onhousehold vehicleownership andVMT, based ondata from 27neighborhoods inCalifornia.

Explores some keyrelationships betweenoften-overlookedneighborhoodcharacteristics and travelbehavior

Uses innovativetechniques to account fortransit accessibility,neighborhood shopping,and pedestrainaccessibility

Uses data from a widevariety of Californianeighborhoods, fromcentral city to suburbanfringe

Evaluates VMT perhousehold, but doesnot estimate emissionsimpacts directly

Study does notaccount for severalpotentially importantneighborhoodcharacteristics,including parkingavailability andproximity to the urbancenter

Results may not beapplicable outside ofCalifornia

Annual VMT perhousehold

Household vehicleownership

Neighborhoodcharacteristics(density, transitaccessibility,neighborhoodshopping, andpedestrianaccessibility)

Household income

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Statisticalanalysis offactorsaffecting travelbehavior (cont.)

"Effect of UrbanDevelopment Patternson TransportationEnergy Use." Cheslow,Melvyn D., and J. KevinNeels. InTransportationResearch Record 764,1980.

Addresses theinfluence of travelpatterns onenergy use, andanalyzes therelationshipsbetween thesetravelcharacteristicsand measures ofurban form

Analyzes actual trip datafrom a pooled sample ofinterview surveys in eightstandard metropolitanstatistical areas (SMSAs)nationwide

Focuses on variation infuel use betweendifferent neighborhoodsand metropolitan areas

Does not defineexactly how urbanstructure may affecttravel characteristics

Study sample includedfew metropolitanareas, and wastherefore unable topinpoint the urban-scale characteristicsthat distinguished thedifferent metropolitanregions

Study does not includemixed land-usescenarios, or walkingtrips in travelcharacteristicsanalyzed

Does not addresseconomic and socialcosts and feasibility ofimplementing changesin urban developmentpatterns

Land usecharacteristics

Household travelpatterns

Transportationenergy use

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"The Odds on TODs: Examining the Potentialof Transit-OrientedDevelopment in theSan Francisco BayArea." Luscher, Dan. Harvard University,April 1995.

Quantifies VMTimpact ofhypotheticaltransit-orienteddevelopmentsbased onregressionanalysis;estimates costsand benefits oftransit-orienteddevelopment;shorter versionappears inBerkeley PlanningJournal, vol. 9,1995.

Identifies keyrelationships betweenneighborhoodcharacteristics and totaltravel

Uses hypothetical transit-oriented developmentsthat are similar to actualdevelopments being built

Estimates a range oftravel impacts per transit-oriented development aswell as for the SanFrancisco Bay region asa whole

Does not estimateemissions impactsdirectly

Results assume verywidespreadimplementation oftransit-orienteddevelopment



Household income

Neighborhoodcharacteristics(density, transitaccessibility,distance from centralbusiness district)

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Statisticalanalysis offactorsaffecting travelbehavior (cont.)

"Travel Behavior as aFunction of Accessi-bility, Land Use Mixing,and Land Use Balance: Evidence from the SanFrancisco Bay Area." Kockelman, Kara M. University of California,Berkeley. TRB970048.

Correlates landuse and travelbehaviordatabases for theSan FranciscoBay Area todetermine theimpact of landuse mix, balance,and accessibilityon travel patterns

Utilizes 1990 census andhectare-level land-usedescription data fromactual surveys foraccurate characterizat-ions of local populationsand land use zones

Develops descriptivedefinitions forcharacterizing land usedata (accessibility, mix,and balance) to moreaccurately determine theinfluence of land use ontravel behavior

Results may not beheavily influenced bylocal conditions

Similar data may notbe available in thesame format in otherareas

Results showelasticities of VMT,auto ownership, andpersonal vehiclechoice with respect toland use accessibility,mix, and balance, butdo not calculate VMTor emission reductionsfrom thesecharacteristics

Land use access-ibility, mix, andbalance

Income per house-hold member

Auto ownership

Household size

Job and populationdensity

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"An Assessment of theLand Use -Transportation Systemand Travel Behavior." McNally, Michael G.,and Anup Kulkarni. U.C. Irvine. TRB971120, January 1997.

Correlates landuse,socioeconomic,and travelbehaviordatabases forOrange Countyneighborhoods todetermine theimpact of landuse on travelpatterns

Uses comprehensive listof indices to evaluateneighborhoodcharacteristics (e.g.,population density,number of 3-wayintersections, etc.) andcluster them into 3distinct themes

Studied socioeconomicdemographics inconjunction with land usepatterns to determinewhich is more influentialon trip patterns

Cannot investigatecorrelation betweenhousehold income andchoice ofneighborhood theme

Quantifies only triprate and mode share

Neighborhoodnetworkcharacteristics

Socioeconomicdemographics

Land use types

Accessibility

dac

"Transit-OrientedDevelopment in theSun Belt." Messenger,Todd, and Reid Ewing. In TransportationResearch Record 1552,1996.

Determined theminimum housingand workplacedensity requiredto support a giventransit servicelevel in the DadeCounty, Floridaarea

Provides detailedequations used tocalculate results

Allows for interactiveeffects between variables

Utilizes traffic analysiszone data from theCensus

Accuracy may be veryregion-specific

Does not quantifytravel or emissionreductions

Residence and work-place density

Automobileownership

Rail availability

Parking charge

Roadway network

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"The Effects of LandUse and TravelDemand ManagementStrategies onCommuting Behavior:Final Report." Prepared by CambridgeSystematics, Inc. andDeakin, Harvey,Skabardonis, Inc. forthe U.S. Department ofTransportation,November 1994.








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Relatively low cost


Identifies barriersto implementingtransportationmeasures


"Land Use Regulationsto PromoteRidesharing: AnEvaluation of theSeattle Approach." McCutcheon, Melody,and Jeffrey Hamm. TransportationQuarterly, vol. 37 no. 4,1983.

Evaluates theeffectiveness ofdeveloper-basedland useregulations topromoteridesharing inSeattle's centralbusiness district

Identifies barriers toenforcing parkingmanagement practices atbusinesses; suggestsimprovements

Does not quantify trip,VMT, or emissionsreductions

Study was performedbefore significant dataexisted on theeffectiveness of thewhole program

Availability of nearbyparking

Developercooperation withrequirements

dac

Sketchplanning





"Transportation-RelatedLand Use Strategies toMinimize Motor VehicleEmissions: An IndirectSource ResearchStudy." Dagang,Deborah A. JHK &Associates, Inc. ForCalifornia AirResources Board. June1995.

Based upon areview of relevantliterature, casestudies, and atravel surveystudy, this reportrecommendscommunity-levelperformancegoals, andpresentsappropriatetransportation-related land usestrategies andimplementationmechanisms

Performance goals areexpressed as annual VTper household, annualVMT per household,modal shares, andestimated relatedvehicular emissions

Addresses differences incommunity type, as threeranges of performancegoals for urban andsuburban areas and tworanges of performancegoals for exurban/ruralareas are specified

Recommendedcommunity-widepackages oftransportation-relatedland use strategiesaddress difficulty ofquantifying reductions inVT and emissions fromindividual strategiesapplied separately or ona site-specific basis

Applicability ofperformance goals andstrategyrecommendations toregions outsideCalifornia limited bystudy's use of primarilyCaliforniancommunities casestudies and data

Performance goals,strategies, andimplementationmechanisms do notinclude considerationof cost-effectiveness

Performance goaldevelopment can notuse availableBURDEN activity data,as it is not specificenough to allowaccurate segmentationby type of communitywithin a metropolitanarea

Transportation-related land usestrategies

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Describesdevelopment ofsimplemethodologies forquantifyingreductions invehicle trips (VT)and vehicle milestraveled (VMT)from TCMs, foruse in a planning-level context;specificallyanalyzespedestrianimprovements










Trip length

Existence/extent ofpedestrian pathsystem


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Costs

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"Transportation-RelatedLand Use Strategies toMinimize Motor VehicleEmissions: An IndirectSource ResearchStudy." Dagang,Deborah A. JHK &Associates, Inc. ForCalifornia AirResources Board. June1995.

Based upon areview of relevantliterature, casestudies, and atravel surveystudy, this reportrecommendscommunity-levelperformancegoals, andpresentsappropriatetransportation-related land usestrategies andimplementationmechanisms

Includes an extensiveliterature review matrixand annotatedbibliography summarizingquantifiable effectivenessdata of transportation-related land usestrategies in local,national, andinternational cases

Preliminary estimates ofindividual transportation-related land use strategyeffectiveness aredeveloped from theliterature review

Utilized as a resource anexisting detailedexamination of traveldata and transportationand land usecharacteristics inCalifornia (by JohnHoltzclaw for the NaturalResources DefenseCouncil, 1994)

Travel and land use datafrom selected Portland,Oregon, and Canadiancities were examined toprovide a basis ofcomparison for thecharacteristics found inthe Californian casestudies

Much of literature ontransportation-relatedland use strategiesdoes not containanalyses of modeledor empirical data, thussomewhat limitingscope of data included

Literature survey doesnot contain emissionsestimates, butsubsequent sketchplanning focuses onemissions related toVT and VMTperformance goals

Transportation-related land usestrategies

Land use andtransportationcharacteristics'impact on creationand support of publictransit systems andpedestrian-accessiblecommunities

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MarketIncentives

















Parking costs


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Sample surveyof customertravel patternsandpreferences atshoppingcenters





"Analysis of IndirectSource Trip Activity: Regional ShoppingCenters." Prepared byJHK & Associates andK.T. Analytics for theCalifornia AirResources Board. ARB-R-94/510,November 1993.







Transitsubsidy/validation

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MarketIncentives(cont.)













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Provides typology oftransportation measuresand identifies effective-ness and common bar-riers to implementation








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Provides a discussion ofsocial equity considera-tions based on a surveyof the two regions

Philadelphia modelingassumed averagevehicle ridership tar-gets were reached andresults are only applic-able relative to eachscenario






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ParkingPricing/ParkingManagement














Price level, periodand location ofapplication

Price elasticity


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Fee level dac








Fee level duringcommute trip parkingtimes

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ParkingPricing/ParkingManagement(cont.)












Level of peopleaffected by parkingmeasures

Availability ofspillover parking

Interaction withrideshare & transitprograms

Price level

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Clearly explains theprocess that was used:survey data acquisition,mode choicecomputation, and TCMeffectiveness model use









Guaranteed ridehome

Company vanpools




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"Estimating the Traveland Parking DemandEffects of Employer-Paid Parking." Willson,Richard. UCTC No. 39,University of CaliforniaTransportation Center,Berkeley, 1992.

Uses amultinomial logitmodel to estimatethe influence ofemployer-paidparking on themode oftransportationused to theworkplace

Explains the mainvariables and equationsused to computeprobabilities

Includes impact ofcomplementarytransportation measuressuch as rideshareincentives and flextime

Data set notdeveloped for thisparticular modelingeffort and missing keyvariables such asvehicle availability perhousehold

Model mostly useful inmetropolitan areawhere parking marketis more developed

Transportation mode(solo, carpool, ortransit)

Cars per 100employees

Elasticity of demandfor each mode

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Parking costs


dac















VMT

Vehicle trips

Fuel usage


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Price level dac













Not described dac

"Reducing Drive-AloneRates at SmallEmployer Sites: Costsand Benefits of LocalTrip ReductionOrdinances: PasadenaTowers Case Study." Stewart, Jacqueline. InTransportationResearch Record 1433,1994.

Evaluates thecost effectivenessof a building-based tripreduction planimplemented incompliance to alocal ordinance inPasadena,California

Attitudinal surveyincludes the influences ofbuilding tenant companysize as well as scheduleand lifestyle ofemployees

Uses small data setstherefore results varywidely with thebehavior of a fewindividuals

Does not establish astandard to evaluateaverage vehicleridership resultsobtained

Results may not betransferable to otheremployer sites orregions

Does not quantifyemission impacts

Program cost anddistribution of cost

Benefits todeveloper, tenantsand city


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Relatively low cost












dac








dac

Transportationsurvey analysis




Requires large datacollection process

"Cashing OutEmployer-Paid Parking: A Precedent forCongestion Pricing?" Shoup, Donald.University of California,Los Angeles, 1994. Contained inTransportationResearch Board SR242.

Usestransportationsurvey data toassess vehicletrip, VMT, andfuel use changesif cash paymentswere madeavailable toemployees in lieuof subsidizedparking

Uses actualtransportation behaviordata for the Los Angelesregion in addition toavailable supplementarydata

Requires only simplecalculations

Provides rebuttals toarguments against cashpayments

Requires care wheninferring applicability ofresults to other regions

Value of parkingsubsidy

Level of cashpayments in lieu ofparking subsidy

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Transportationsurvey analysis(cont.)








Parking fee level

Amount of othernearby parking

Proximity of potentialhigh-occupancypreferred parking

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Sketchplanning

Simple tools cangenerate planning-level estimates oftransportationmeasure effective-ness at low cost











Not stated dac








Vehicle trips

VMT



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dac














Costs

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dac

"Parking Subsidies andTravel Choices: Assessing theEvidence." Willson,Richard W. and DonaldC. Shoup. InTransportation, vol. 17,1990.

Reviews empiricalcase studies ofthe relationshipbetweenemployer-paidparking and solocommuting

Draws out analogousresults from a variety ofexisting case studies toshow range of impacts ofemployer-paid parkingand solo driving

Case studies cover avariety of locations(downtown andsuburban), employertypes (public and private)and employee categories(professional and clerical)

Case study results arereinforced by surveyfindings cited in the paper

Provides an estimatedrange for the elasticity ofdemand for solo drivingwith respect to parkingprice

Because most casestudies are from LosAngeles, results maynot be representativeof other areas

Range of results isvery wide, so theresults cannot directlybe used to accuratelyestimate the impactsof another program

Does not quantify VMTor emissions impacts

Existence ofemployer-paidparking

Travel mode (solodriver, non-solodriver)

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RegionalLand Use/GrowthManagement

Conventionaltransportationplanningnetwork model

Can be used toisolate the effecton travel patternsof different landuse patterns

Hypotheticalmodeling exercise;does not use actualperformance datafrom existingneighborhoods

Models do notaccount for manyaspects of land usestrategies, such asmixed land uses,street characteristicslike street and lanewidth andlandscaping, anddifferences indevelopmentdensities andparking availability

Modeling analysis ofa local streetnetwork does notaccount forinteraction betweenneighborhood andregional travel

"The Impacts ofVarious Land UseStrategies on SuburbanMobility." MiddlesexSomerset MercerRegional Council(MSM). For theFederal TransitAdministration. December 1992.

Examines theinteractionbetweensuburban landuse trends andregional trafficconditionsutilizing threedifferent modelsof high density,mixed-usecenters; testedthe model'stransportationeffects on Trentonand NewBrunswicksuburban region

Used TransCADtransportation modelingpackage, whichincorporates land useelements in a GIS formatwith a traditional four-step transportationplanning model

Regional transportationmodel used to evaluateeffects of the 3 mixed-use centers (transit,short-drive, and walking)includes modeling of tripgeneration, distribution,mode split, and routeassignment

Regionwide tripmakingformulas concentratedon suburban practicesand do not provide agood reflection ofurban tripmakingconditions

Study does notcalculate emissionsdirectly; transportationimpacts are measuredin Vehicle Trips andVehicle Miles Traveled

Model assumes thatall new developmentlocates in cities or inhigher-density, mixed-use centers

Transportationeffects of suburban,higher density,mixed use centers,measured in: vehicle trips, level ofvehicle milestraveled, level ofdelay experienced,and average speed

dkp

Statisticalanalysis offactorsaffecting travelbehavior

Utilizes actualdata from traveldiaries, surveys,and/or local andhouseholdcharacteristics

Relatively simpleapproach (doesnot requirecomputermodeling)

Some results mayhave applicabilityto other regions

Complexity ofrelationship betweentravel behavior andurban form canmake it difficult toachieve statisticallysignificant results

Causality can bedifficult to establish

Uncertainapplicability tomultiple regions (butcan be duplicated atmoderate cost, ifnecessary)

"Using ResidentialPatterns and Transit toDecrease AutoDependence andCosts." Holtzclaw,John. For NaturalResources DefenseCouncil, June 1994.

Evaluates theeffects ofneighborhoodcharacteristics(density, transitaccessibility,neighborhoodshopping, andpedestrianaccessibility) onhousehold vehicleownership andVMT, based ondata from 27neighborhoods inCalifornia.

Explores some keyrelationships betweenoften-overlookedneighborhoodcharacteristics and travelbehavior

Uses innovativetechniques to account fortransit accessibility,neighborhood shopping,and pedestrainaccessibility

Uses data from a widevariety of Californianeighborhoods, fromcentral city to suburbanfringe

Evaluates VMT perhousehold, but doesnot estimate emissionsimpacts directly

Study does notaccount for severalpotentially importantneighborhoodcharacteristics,including parkingavailability andproximity to the urbancenter



Household vehicleownership

Neighborhoodcharacteristics(density, transitaccessibility,neighborhoodshopping, andpedestrianaccessibility)

Household income

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Rideshare Travel demand/mode choicemodel
















dac








Employee incentives dac





9/30/98 Page 90

Rideshare(cont.)












Effect of park andride lots

Formation of newversus existingcarpools

dac





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Rideshare(cont.)




Clearly explains theprocess that was used:survey data acquisition,mode choicecomputation, and TCMeffectiveness model use









Guaranteed ridehome

Company vanpools




dac











Parking costs


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Rideshare(cont.)
















"Improving theEffectiveness ofRidesharing Programs." Stevens, William F. TransportationQuarterly, October1990. Vol. 44 No. 4.

Describes themethodology andresults of asurvey todetermine whichpersonalpreference andworkplace factorsaffect rideshareparticipation

Uses actual data from asurvey of current andpast rideshareparticipants as well as arandom sample ofpotential participants

Survey instrumentdeveloped through focusgroups and interviews forbetter results


Rideshare logisticsand personalflexibility

Monetary: parking,fuel

Interpersonal issues("having someone totalk to")

Altruism

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9/30/98 Page 93

Rideshare(cont.)

Empiricalanalysis of theimpacts ofpersonalpreference andworkplaceconditions onmode choice(cont.)













Size of firm

dac





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Rideshare(cont.)

Empiricalanalysis of theimpacts ofpersonalpreference andworkplaceconditions onmode choice(cont.)

"The Effectiveness ofRidesharingIncentives." Brownstone, David,and Thomas F. Golob,in Regional Scienceand Urban Economics,vol. 22, 1992.

Evaluates thetravel impacts ofcertain incentivesdesigned topromoteridesharing(carpooling andvanpooling) onwork trips, usingdata from a studyof full-timeworkers'commutingbehavior in theLos Angeles area

Analysis is based on arich data set

Evaluates potentialimpact on ridesharing ofemployer-providedpreferential parking andHOV lanes

Provides insight intowhich householdcharacteristics andemployer characteristicsinfluence ridesharing

Does not directlyquantify VMT oremissions impacts

Conclusions may notapply to areas otherthan SouthernCalifornia

Mode choice (alwaysrideshare,sometimesrideshare, alwaysdrive alone)

Individualcharacteristics(income, age,gender)

Commutecharacteristics(distance, HOV laneavailable)

Employer incentives(flexible schedule,preferential parking,cost subsidy,guaranteed ridehome)

Employer size

drl













Not described dac





9/30/98 Page 95

Rideshare(cont.)

Empiricalanalysis oftransportationmeasureimplementationprograms(cont.)

"The Los AngelesCounty Route 14Vanpool and BuspoolDemonstration Project: An Analysis of itsEffectiveness inReducing LongDistance CommuterTrips." Blanchard,Donna et al. TransportationResearch Board. July1993.

Addresses theeffectiveness of ademonstrationvanpool andbuspool project,an incentive-based programestablished torelieve congestionand improve airquality along theLos AngelesCounty Route 14corridor

Calculates the totalnumber of vehicle tripsand vehicle milestraveled reduced, byorigin and destination, ofprogram participants

Phase II follow-up projectto include computerizedtracking program anddata collection


Requires costlyadministration,tracking and datacollection efforts;participant programexit information oftenincomplete

Report does notcontain details ofparticipants' priormode choice orcommute length

Vanpool and buspoolincentives: riderrebate, child carebonus, andemergency(guaranteed) rideshome

Programparticipation

Cost-effectiveness

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Relatively low cost












dac








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9/30/98 Page 96

Rideshare(cont.)


"Transportation-RelatedImpacts of CompressedWork Week: TheDenver Experiment." Atherton, Terry J., et al. In TransportationResearch Record 845,1982.

Provides beforeand aftercomparison oftravel behavior foran experimentalcompressed-workweek program forfederalemployees inDenver

Before-and-afterapproach (with a controlgroup) accuratelyassesses changes intravel

Utilizes actual traveldiaries and surveys totrack travel patterns

Identifies some non-worktravel impacts ofcompressed work weeks

Information was completeand accurate due togovernment workplacefocus

Private organizationsmay not respond aswell to requirements toimplementcompressed workweek plans

9/80 schedule vs.4/40 schedule

dac

Statisticalanalysis ofemployerridesharinginitiatives

Utilizes largedatabase ofexisting employersthat implementtransportationmeasures

Relatively low-cost(provided datadoes not need tobe collected)

May not assesscauses of statisticalsignificance found

Results notnecessarilyapplicable to otherregions

"Evaluation ofEmployer-SponsoredRidesharing Programsin Southern California." Ferguson, Erik T.,Georgia Institute ofTechnology. InTransportationResearch Record 1280,1990.

Analyzesdatabase ofsurveys ofemployer-sponsoredridesharingprograms inSouthernCalifornia todeterminerelevant factorson effectiveness

Utilizes large existingdatabase for the region,increasing validity ofresults

Assesses cost-effectiveness at varyingprogram sizes

Assesses interactionbetween alternative workschedules andridesharing

Attempts to explainreasons behind statisticalsignificance of certainfactors

Sample database maybe biased (they wereall clients of acentralized ridesharingagency)

Primarily analyzesemployer-basedmeasures only

Level and type ofdirect ridesharingincentives

Firm size and type

Dollars spent onrideshare programs

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Rideshare(cont.)

Samplesurveys

Uses statisticallyrepresentativesample populationto make estimatesof impact ofridesharingstrategies on theridesharingparticipation andeffectiveness


Surveys can bedone periodicallyto determinechanges inridesharing ratesover time, andimpacts of specialpromotions suchas "Try Transit"weeks


"Revolving door"characteristic ofridesharing programscan be difficult toaddress withaccuracy

Relationshipbetween ridesharingparticipation, VMT,and emissionsrequires additionalanalysis


Survey results canbe subject to variouskinds of responsebias

"Rideshare PlacementMesurement: AProposed StandardMethodology." King,Michael, and BarbaraAlderson. CaliforniaState University atChico, June 1995.

Developsmethodology forquantifyingrideshareplacement levelsfor ridematchingservices;discusses pilottesting ofmethodology(note: thismethodology iscurrently used byRIDES for BayArea Commutersin the SanFrancisco BayArea).


Methodologydistinguishes betweenthree types of rideshareplacements (trial,maintenance, andongoing) to reflect theirdifferent impact on traveland emissions

Only quantifiesrideshare placement;does not directlyquantify VMT andemissions impact

Rideshare placementrate (trial,maintenance, andongoing)

Survey responserate

Statistical samplingerror

drl

"Cost-Effectiveness ofPrivate EmployerRidesharing Programs: An Employer'sAssessment."Wegmann, Frederick J. University ofTennessee. InTransportationResearch Record 1212,1989.

Conducts andanalyzes samplesurveys with theaim ofdocumenting thecost and benefitsavailable toprivate-sectoremployersthrough theoperation ofemployerridesharingprograms


Diverse study sampleincluded respondentsfrom throughout the U.S.,and representedcompanies in centralbusiness districts, withincity limits, and insuburbs, from a diversityof industry types

Only quantifiesrideshare cost-effectiveness toemployers; does notdirectly quantify VMTand emissions impact

Quantitative estimatesof ridesharing benefitsare very difficult tomake; therefore,further follow up with asubset of the samplesurveyed was requiredto convert generalestimates of benefitsinto annual monetaryvalues

Most benefits cited byrespondents were ofan intangible nature;therefore, the database necessary togenerate cost-benefitanalyses does notexist

Employer ridesharingcosts, includingvanpooling andvanpooling subsidycosts; employerparking costs

Ridesharing cost-effectiveness

Ridesharing benefits

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9/30/98 Page 98

Rideshare(cont.)

Sketchplanning












Not stated dac





9/30/98 Page 99

Rideshare(cont.)



Describesdevelopment ofsimplemethodologies forquantifyingreductions invehicle trips (VT)and vehicle milestraveled (VMT)from TCMs, foruse in a planning-level context; developedoriginally for theSouth Coast AirBasin










Employer trip-reduction plan

Distance to work

Distance to andexistence of Park-n-Ride lots

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Rideshare(cont.)










Trips reduced

Trip length

Prior travel mode

drl








Vehicle trips

VMT



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Rideshare(cont.)




















dkp





9/30/98 Page 102

Rideshare(cont.)













dac














Costs

dac





9/30/98 Page 103

Rideshare(cont.)











dac

"Parking Subsidies andTravel Choices: Assessing theEvidence." Willson,Richard W. and DonaldC. Shoup. InTransportation, vol. 17,1990.

Reviews empiricalcase studies ofthe relationshipbetweenemployer-paidparking and solocommuting

Draws out analogousresults from a variety ofexisting case studies toshow range of impacts ofemployer-paid parkingand solo driving

Case studies cover avariety of locations(downtown andsuburban), employertypes (public and private)and employee categories(professional and clerical)

Case study results arereinforced by surveyfindings cited in the paper

Provides an estimatedrange for the elasticity ofdemand for solo drivingwith respect to parkingprice

Because most casestudies are from LosAngeles, results maynot be representativeof other areas

Range of results isvery wide, so theresults cannot directlybe used to accuratelyestimate the impactsof another program

Does not quantify VMTor emissions impacts

Existence ofemployer-paidparking

Travel mode (solodriver, non-solodriver)

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Rideshare(cont.)




Provides typology oftransportation measuresand identifies effective-ness and common bar-riers to implementation


Makes policy recom-mendations to improveeach transportationmeasure






dac




Provides a discussion ofsocial equity considera-tions based on a surveyof the two regions







dac

"The Determinants ofRidesharing: LiteratureReview." Hwang, Keithand GenevieveGiuliano. University ofCaliforniaTransportation Center,May 1990. UCTC 38.

Reviews dozensof studies in ageneraldiscussion ofridesharing

Integrates results andcitations of many papersin a clear description ofeach issue impactingridesharing, includingreasons for effectiveness

Describes effectivenessof programs, as well asemployee and workplacecharacteristics that arefavorable for ridesharing

Describes someinteraction between othertransportation measures(e.g., HOV facilities) andridesharing

Comments about eachstudy may be too briefto provide clearguidance for TCMplanning

Does not provide VMTor emissionsreduction, only modeshare data

Many are brieflytouched upon

dac





9/30/98 Page 105

Scrappage Economicscrappagesupply curvemodel

A rigorousapproach basedon economicfundamentals

Allows analyst toestimatescrappageemissionsreductions forvarious levels of"bounty," which isa key programdesign element


Models of thistype could beextended toevaluate impactsof othertransportationmeasures thatimpact oldervehicles, such asI/M and emissionsfees

Level of precisionmost applicable tosmall-scaleprograms, as modelsof this type usuallywill not capture priceeffects on the used-car market followingwithdrawal of a largefraction of theexisting old vehicles

Models of this typeare theoretical ratherthan empirical, andtherefore may notaccuratelycharacterizeparticipation ratesand other aspects ofreal-world behavior

Remaining life andusage of scrappedvehicles, as well asreplacement vehiclecharacteristics, arefundamentallydifficult to estimatewith precision

"An Economic Analysisof Scrappage." Hahn,Robert W. AmericanEnterprise Institute,July 1993.

Estimates thenumber and valueof old vehicles todetermine costsand benefits ofscrappageprogram

Uses availableEMFAC7E emissionrates

Uses available fleetcomposition figures

Uses available "GoldBook" vehicle valuefigures

Operating costs notincluded in economicassessment


Assumes unknownhuman factors andbehaviors

Fleet composition

Vehicle "Gold Book"value

Replacement vehiclecharacteristics

Variable discountrates

Interaction with I&Mprograms

dac

"Estimating anEmissions SupplyFunction fromAccelerated VehicleRetirement Programs." Alberini, Anna et al. Resources for theFuture, January 1994.

Study developsmethodologywhich predictsparticipationrates, expectedremaining life,and an emissionssupply function atalternative offerprices for severaltypes of pre-1980s vehiclescrap programs

Analysis is based onextensive surveys of oldvehicle owners andvehicle emissions testingdata collected through aparticular scrappageprogram

Study develops empiricalmeasure of the linkbetween vehiclecondition and expectedremaining life, andowner's estimation ofvehicle value todetermine costs andemission reductionpotential of program

Study conducts surveysof participants and non-participants forinformation aboutremaining life and usageof scrapped vehicle

Survey data used isspecific to scrappageprogram in Delaware1992-93, so resultsmay not be applicableto other regions andprograms

Sample of ownerssurveyed did notrepresent a randomsample of thepopulation of pre-1980vehicle owners

Scope of data onemissions of scrappedvehicles is limited asonly a sample ofvehicles valued at lessthan the bountyamount offered weretested

Assumes thatscrapped vehiclereplacement is from"average" fleet interms of emissionslevels

Individual ownerbehavior andvehicle's remaininglife

Minimum willingnessto accept bountyamount; alsodetermined by bluebook value, conditionof car, and past andfuture costs ofoperating the car

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9/30/98 Page 106

Scrappage(cont.)

Vehicle fleetcharacteri-zation andemissionsmodel

Utilizes standardplanning modelused by regulatoryagencies

High flexibility tomanipulate inputdata

Requires detailedunderstanding ofcomputer model'smethodologies andsource code

Results are notreadily applicable toother regions

Difficult and costly toreplicate

"Vehicle Scrappage: An Alternative to MoreStringent New VehicleStandards inCalifornia." Lyons,James, et al. SierraResearch. For TexacoInc. SR95-03-02. March 1995.

Modifies sourcecode forCalifornia-specificEMFAC/BURDENfleetcharacterizationand emissionsmodel to evaluatethe effect ofscrappageprograms onemissions in theSouth Coast AirBasin

Use of EMFAC/BURDENmakes analysis highlyconsistent with CaliforniaAir Resources Board'sfleet and emissionscharacterizations, whichhelps compare emissionsreductions to inventory

Allows considerableflexibility in testingspecific scrappagescenarios

Compares scrappagescenarios to otheremission reductionalternatives (e.g.,reduced standards)

Light-, medium-, andheavy-duty programsassessed

Does not incorporateactual elasticitiesbetween scrappagebounty and number ofvehicles scrapped(elasticities areassumed)

Age threshold forscrapped vehicles

Number of totalvehicles scrapped

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9/30/98 Page 107

Scrappage(cont.)







"Meeting Clean Air ActEmissions Standards: A Cost-EffectivenessAnalysis of CarScrappage." DeCardy,Christopher. HarvardUniversity, April 1994.

Compares 4studies onscrappage cost-effectiveness;proposes newscrappage studythat woulddevelop accurateinputs forcalculating cost-effectiveness

Provides severalestimates of cost-effectiveness from eachstudy

Identifies reasons why 4studies overestimatecost-effectiveness ofscrapping

Performing the proposedstudy would clarifyuncertainties in cost-effectiveness

Estimates may still betoo rough to apply toother programs inother regions

Does not identify allcosts and benefits ofscrappage programs

Does not addresspotential equityimpacts of scrappage

Analyzes only HCemissions

Outside factorsaffecting scrappageprograms (e.g I&Mprograms)

Levels of partipationin scrappageprograms

Sources of data (e.g.for emission rates,MOBILE vs. actualtesting)

Level of bountyoffered

Affect of scrappageprograms on marketforces

dac







Costs

dac

"Uncertain Air QualityImpacts of AutomobileRetirement Programs."Shi-Ling Hsu andDaniel Sperling. InTransportationResearch Record 1444,1995.

Identifies andanalyzes theareas ofuncertainty indeterminingemission impactsof scrappageprograms

Provides acomprehensive list ofparameters needed tocalculate the costeffectiveness of ascrappage program

Identifies the reasonswhy previous estimatesare inaccurate

Does not proposesuggestions to reduceuncertaintyencountered inprevious studies

Impacts of regionaldifferences are notthoroughly discussed

Average annualmileage andremaining life ofretired autos

HC, NOx and COemissions of retiredautos

Annual mileage ofreplacement autosand averageemissions

fk





9/30/98 Page 108

Shuttles/Station Cars













Availability of nearbytransit

Availability of nearbyrail

dac

Sketchplanning













Trips reduced

Trip length

Prior travel mode

drl





9/30/98 Page 109

Shuttles/Station Cars(cont.)













dac

Telecom-muting















Participation levels dac





9/30/98 Page 110

Telecom-muting(cont.)









Participation levels dac











Work and non-worktrip increases by thetelecommuter andother householdmembers

Satellite centers

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9/30/98 Page 111



Analyzes actualtelecommutingprograms

Addresses travelbehavior patterns


Applicability ofresults to otherregions andconditions isuncertain

Is not likely toaddress totaldemand fortelecommuting








Not described dac



Relatively low cost



"Impacts of Center-Based Telecommutingon Travel andEmissions: Analysis ofthe Puget SoundDemonstration Project." Henderson, Dennis K.,and Mohktarian,Patricia L. Institute ofTransportation Studies,University of California,Davis, 1996. Vol. 1.

Analyzes thePuget Soundtelecommutingproject data todetermine trip,VMT, andemissionsreduction

Uses both case-studyand composite-averageapproaches

Implemented travel diarylogs rather than surveys

Travel mode choiceimpacts notextensively studied

Study participants notrepresentative ofgeneral workforce

Household membersnot included in study

Center versusHome-basedtelecommuting

Center-basedtelecommutingversus nottelecommuting

Total VMT versusnumber of cold starts

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"The Travel andEmissions Impacts ofTelecommuting for theState of CaliforniaTelecommuting PilotProject." Koenig, BrettE., et al. TransportationResearch, 1996. Vol 4no. 1. pp. 13-32.

Analyzes theState of Californiatelecommutingproject data todetermine trip,VMT, andemissionsreduction

Identifies the number ofand effects of non-commute trips duringdays in whichtelecommuting took place

Implemented travel diarylogs to account for alltrips taken by studypartipants

Actual vehicle modelyear and speed data isused instead of fleetaverages

Assesses the impact oflowered average speedscaused by telecommuting

Analyzes exhaust,running, and evaporativelosses

Participants were studiedbefore and aftertelecommuting began

Study participants arenot representative ofgeneral workforce andemission reductionsshould not be appliedto whole population

Does not accuratelymodel emissions fromaccelerations anddecelerations; onlyaverage speed used

Travel mode choiceimpacts notextensively studied

Household aremembers not includedin the study analysis

Does not modelindirect telecommutingimpacts (e.g.residential locationshifts)

Affect oftelecommuting onnon-commute trips

Average speeds, hotand cold starts

Total VMT versusnumber of cold starts

Variation betweenbefore and aftertelecommutinggroups

Time of day for trips

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"The Effectiveness ofTelecommuting as aTransportation ControlMeasure." Sampath,Srikanth, S. Saxene,and P. Mokhtarian. InTransportation Planningand Air Quality: Proceedings of theNational Conference,American Sociaty ofCivil Engineers, 1991.

Examines thepotential oftelecommuting asa strategy formanaging traveldemand bystudying thetravel and airqualityimplications of theState of CaliforniaTelecommutingPilot Project

Evaluates the index ofefficiency (ratio ofemissions reductions todistance reduction) fortelecommuting's successin reducing travel

Computes and comparestravel and emissionsevaluations from beforethe telecommutingproject's implementation,as well as both commuteand stay-at-home daysonce the program hadbegun

Emissions analysisincludes conversion tovehicle-based numbersfrom person-basedtelecommuting data using"vehicle movementprofiles"

Uses acceptedEMFAC7D emissionfactors

Uses existing State ofCaliforniaTelecommuting PilotProject data, thus mayhave limitedreplicability withoutsame type of datafrom othertelecommutingprojects

EMFAC7D emissionfactors are California-specific

Only addresses thedirect air qualityimpacts oftelecommuting (doesnot address indirectimpacts such as netair quality effects ofnon-transportationenergy consumedwhile telecommuting)

Travel Factors andTrip Characteristics(including: distancetraveled by auto,number of hot andcold starts, speed,type of vehicle, andambienttemperature)

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"Methodological Issuesin the Estimation of theTravel, Energy, and AirQuality Impacts ofTelecommuting." Mokhtarian, Patricia L.et al. TransportationResearch A. Vol. 29A,No. 4, 1995.

Examines existingempirical findingswith respect tothe impacts oftelecommuting ontravel, energyuse, and airquality, byaddressing eighttelecommutingpilot projects thatincludedevaluations of thetransportation-related impacts oftelecommuting

Utilizes existing datafrom telecommuting pilotprojects to draw generalconclusions on travel, airquality and energyimpacts in short and longterm

Selected pilot projectsevaluated represented amix of telecommutingproject evaluationmethodologies andvaried geographiccoverage

Presents an ideal methodfor evaluating thetransportation impacts oftelecommuting programs

Study compared pilotprojects in differentlocations (each withunique factors such asweather, transitissues, and trafficcongestion levels);therefore, conclusionsdrawn could includeerrors of comparabilityof data

Pilot projects chosendisproportionatelyrepresent westernU.S.

Only one pilot projectincluded in studyquantified emissions(used CaliforniaEMFAC7E andBURDEN7E emissionsinventory models)

Differences in dataand methodologiesfrom pilot projectsinfluences precision inevaluation of a numberof factors

Travel impacts: commute, totalweekday, andhousehold travel

Energy impacts: transportation,household and netenergy

Air quality impacts

Potential long-termimpacts

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9/30/98 Page 115


Macro-levelanalysis

Providesestimates ofoverall travel andemissions impactsof telecommuting

Applicable tomultiplegeographic areas

Generally unable toevaluate impacts ofsmaller-scaletelecommutingprograms

Cannot be used toevaluate impacts ofspecific programdesign elements ontelecommuting

Macro-level resultsmay have substantialuncertainty

"Energy Efficiency inthe U.S. Economy,Technical Report One: Energy, Emissions, andSocial Consequencesof Telecommuting." U.S. Department ofEnergy, DOE/PO-0026. June 1994.

Evaluates, at thenational level, thedirect and indirecteffects oftelecommuting ontravel, trafficcongestion,energy use, andemissions; alsoexamines socialimpacts.

Incorporates indirectimpacts such as latenttravel demand and urbandecentralization

Evaluates current andprojected future impacts

Uses MOBILE emissionfactors

Includes sensitivityanalysis

Uses existing algorithmssuch as the RoadwayCongestion Indexdeveloped by the TexasTransportation Institute

Study does notdistinguish betweenmarket-driventelecommuting andpotential policy-driventelecommuting (i.e.,telecommutingresulting from aspecific governmentpolicy or program

Study does not showresults for individualurban areas

Telecommutinglevels

Level of roadwaycongestion

Latent travel demand

Location patternsand urban density

Total hours of delay

Average speeds


Monetized costs andbenefits

drl

Sketchplanning












Not stated dac





9/30/98 Page 116




Describesdevelopment ofsimplemethodologies forquantifyingreductions invehicle trips (VT)and vehicle milestraveled (VMT)from TCMs, foruse in a planning-level context;developedoriginally for theSouth Coast AirBasin










Employer-implemented home-basedtelecommutingprogram

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9/30/98 Page 117











Trips reduced

Trip length

Prior travel mode

drl





9/30/98 Page 118





















dkp





9/30/98 Page 119














dac














Costs

dac





9/30/98 Page 120










Relative effective-ness of varioustransportationmeasure programs


dac

TrafficManagement


















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TrafficManagement(cont.)














Signal timingimprovements (levelnot stated)

dac











Addition of a lane dac





9/30/98 Page 122










Freewaythroughputmodel

May be applicableto actual corridors,given accurateknowledge of keyassumptions

Low to moderatecost

Assumptions arerequired that mayheavily impact theresults

"A Case for FreewayMainline Metering." Haboian, Kevin A. Parsons BrinckerhoffQuade & Douglas. InTransportationResearch Record 1494,1995.

Uses INTRASfreeway model tomeasure theimpact of rampmetering andfreeway(mainline)metering toimprove vehicletravel times andreduce trafficdelay

INTRAS model simulatesvehicles as separateunits rather than groups,improving simulation

Provides average vehiclespeeds on the freewayfor several scenarios andmetering configurations

Does not clearlyexplain fundamentalprinciple behindeffectiveness offreeway metering

Does not assessimpact of vehiclesdiverting aroundmetering point

Does not calculateVMT or emissionreductions

Does not discuss waysto counter politicalresistance to freewaymetering

Ramp meteringintervals

Mainline meteractivation thresholds

dac













Average speed ofvehicles

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9/30/98 Page 123




Relatively low cost



"Ramp Metering: Doesit Really Work?" Robinson, James, andMark Doctor. FHWA/ITE 1989Compendium ofTechnical Papers.

Evaluateseffectiveness ofseveral rampmetering projectsacross the nation,identifieslimitations andissues forimplementation

Compares several typesof ramp-metering projectsunder differentcircumstances

Provides effectiveness interms of vehicle speedincreases or travel timedecreases as well asreductions in accidents

Discusses types of ramp-metering systems,metering rates, rampgeometries, anddiversion problems

Some of the projectsimplemented othertransportationmeasures concurrentlywith the ramp-meteringproject, so it is difficultto examine theeffectiveness of thisprogram only

Does not quantify VMTor emissionsreductions

On-ramp queuelength

Wait times

dac

"EnvironmentalConsiderations forPlanning AdvancedTraffic ManagementSystems." Kraft,Walter H., and WilliamA. Redl, in ResourcePapers for the 1994ITE InternationalConference, 1994.

Reviewsenvironmentalfactors related toITS strategies,and presents acase study ofNew Jersey DOTI-80 MetropolitanArea GuidanceInformation andControl (MAGIC)project

Combines generaldiscussion with casestudy results from anactual ITS project

Evaluates changes inVMT and emissions (CO,HC, and NOx) at thecorridor level

Includes cost/benefitanalysis results

Tracks changes in VMTand emissions impactsover time

Emissions calculationmethodology andresults not presentedin great detail

Land use andphysical features

Emissions (CO, HC,NOx)

Benefit/cost ratio

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"ITS Benefits: Continuing Successesand Operational TestResults." Prepared byMitretek Systems forFederal HighwayAdministration. Draft,September 19, 1997.

Highlights existingand predicted ITSbenefits identifiedfrom a variety ofITS programs,including trafficmanagementprojects, focusingon U.S. DOT-funded FieldOperational Testsand otherprogramsresulting fromrecent federalinitiatives

Reports benefits from avariety of projectscovering a variety of ITStechnologies, includingseveral trafficmanagement strategies

Includes ITS and trafficmanagement benefitsrelated to safety, time,throughput, cost,customer satisfaction,energy, and environment

Includes exampleemissions results forelectronic toll collectionand traffic signal systemprojects in Oklahoma,New Jersey, LosAngeles, and Abeline(Texas)

Reports results butdoes not showanalysis methods orcalculations

Not all reported resultshave been validatedfor completeness andreliability

Varies depending onproject summarized,but can include: VMT, vehicle trips,vehicle speeds, fuelusage, emissions(HC, CO, NOx)

drl

Sketchplanning












Not stated dac





9/30/98 Page 125



"Potential Emission andAir Quality Impacts ofIntelligent Vehicle-Highway Systems." Ostria, Sergio, andMichael F. Lawrence. In TransportationResearch Record 1444,1994.

Discusses short-term and long-term impacts ofITS technologybundles, includingtraffic andincidentmanagementsystems, on trips,mode split, andemissions at aregional andcorridor level

Provides a broad initialassessment of theexpected direction ofimpact (positive,negative, insignificant,uncertain) of traffic andincident managementsystems on travelbehavior and emissions(HC, CO, NOx)

Utilizes solid a priorireasoning to predictimpacts

Discussion istheoretical rather thanempirical

Does not estimate themagnitude of travel oremissions impacts

Evaluates traffic andincident managementsystems mostly as anITS technology bundlerather than asindividual ITStechnologies orspecific trafficmanagementstrategies

Traffic flow

Vehicle trips

Trip distance

Mode shifts


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Explains lessonslearned during theimplementation ofan actualtransportationmeasure, such asreactions from thepublic and fundingsources, as wellas projectedversus actualbenefits



"Freeway RampMetering Effects inDenver." Corcoran,Lawrence J. andGordon A. Hickman. ITE 1989 Compendiumof Technical Papers.

Reviews andassesses theimplementation,systemexpansion,projected andactual benefits ofthe freeway rampmeteringdemonstrationproject begun in1981 in theDenvermetropolitan area

Compares projected andactual benefits, inpercentages, ofincreased speed,reduced VHT, reducedemissions, reducedaccidents, and minimizeddiversion

Long term nature of thedemonstration project,and subsequentexpansion of rampmetering, demonstrated aquantified level ofmotorist and mediasupport, as well as ameasure of motoristviolation rates

Does not evaluate theend resulteffectiveness in termsof VT or VMT reduced

Speed increase

Reduced VHT,emissions, andaccidents

Diversionminimization

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Processanalysis oftransportationmeasureplanning andimplementation(cont.)








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Costs

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"HOV Lanes and RampMetering: Can TheyWork Together for AirQuality?" Shoemaker,Bill R. and Edward C.Sullivan. TransportationResearch Board Paper940444. January 1994.

Comments on theanalysis processused to assessthe air qualityimpacts of HOVland and rampmetering projects,and examines thedegree to whichthese measuresare effective andcompatible wherejointly applied toimprove freewayoperations

Illustrates the process ofanalysis and decision-making, as well as thekey role of analyticalmodeling, required in theSan Francisco Bay Areato gain approval for HOVlane and ramp meteringprojects at the regionallevel

Examines theinterrelationships, andpotentially perverseeffects, between HOVlanes and ramp metering

Identifies need forestimatingdisaggregate mode-specific emissionfactors, includingvehicle fleetcharacteristics, andidentifies difficulties indoing so

Interrelationshipsbetween HOV lanesand ramp metering

TripReduction(cont.)
















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Clearly explains theprocess that was used: survey data acquisition,mode choicecomputation, and TCMeffectiveness model use




Model includes anawareness sub-modelthat simulates how manypeople know about thepossible transportationmeasures available tothem





Guaranteed ridehome

Company vanpools




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Size of firm

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Identifies land useand urban designcharacteristicsthat are supportiveof walk/bike modechoice.

Standard analysisof variance usingprinciplecomponentsallowsexamination of theeffects of land useand TDMincentivestrategies onmode choiceindividually and incombination.









Share of work tripsmade by bicycle as apercentage of the totaltrips in the data set issmall, makingidentification of worksite characteristicsthat encourageutilization of bikesdifficult.





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Empiricalanalysis ofemployer-based tripreductionprogram





"SB 836 EvaluationMethodology: Baselineand Methodology toMeasure theEffectiveness ofVoluntary Ridesharingand Other Rule 2202ReplacementMeasures," FinalReport. Schreffler, Ericet al, for RegionalTransportationAgencies' Coalition. July 1997.

Describesmethodology forevaluation ofvoluntaryridesharing in theSouth Coast AirBasin; includesreview of currentemployer tripreduction programevaluationpractices

Methodology is rigorousand uses multiple datasources: a "State of theCommute" survey, anemployer worksiteactivity survey, and anemployee AVR survey

Methodology is designedto compare voluntaryridesharing withmandatory ridesharing,thus isolating the relativeemissions impact ofridesharing rules

Uses existing datasources where possible

Attempts to identifycausality

Methodology is designedto meet EPA requirementfor State ImplementationPlan credit

Extensive datasources are required

Obtaining analogous"before" and "after"data to comparemandatory andvoluntary ridesharingcan be difficult

Data sources andanalysis are specific toSouthern California

Primary measures: vehicle trips, VMT,emissions (CO,VOC, NOx)

Secondarymeasures: averagevehicle ridership,mode split

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Empiricalanalysis ofemployer-based tripreductionprogram (cont.)

"Employee TripReduction WithoutGovernment Mandates: Cost and EffectivenessEstimates FromChicago." Pagano,Anthony and JoAnnVerdin. University ofIllinois at Chicago. TransportationResearch Board Paper971281, 1997.

Evaluated thecost andeffectiveness ofemployee tripreductionprograms throughthe use of anindependentevaluation ofdemonstrationprojectsimplemented inthe Chicago area

Estimates planning,maintenance, andvoluntary implementation,and incentive costs fortrip reduction programs

Intensive data collection,especially for costestimates, includingbefore and after surveysand interviews ofprogram administratorsparticipating in thedemonstration projects

Addresses statisticalrelationships oforganization type to costsand outcomes, of coststo strategies andincentives, of outcomesto strategies andincentives, and of cost tooutcomes

Addresses differences inoutcome byorganizational type(factory vs. office)

Made generalizedassumption of staffcosts needed toimplement tripreduction programs

Intensive datacollection requiresdemonstration projectand surveys, orapplication of Chicagoarea data

Results have limitedapplication to otherregions, as localChicago variablessuch as availability oftransit alternativesmay have influencedmodel results

Trip reductionprogramimplementationprocess utilized

Obstacles andsuccess factors


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"Reducing Drive-AloneRates at SmallEmployer Sites: Costsand Benefits of LocalTrip ReductionOrdinances: PasadenaTowers Case Study." Stewart, Jacqueline. InTransportationResearch Record 1433,1994.

Evaluates thecost effectivenessof a building-based tripreduction planimplemented incompliance to alocal ordinance inPasadena,California

Attitudinal surveyincludes the influences ofbuilding tenant companysize as well as scheduleand lifestyle ofemployees

Uses small data setstherefore results varywidely with thebehavior of a fewindividuals

Does not establish astandard to evaluateaverage vehicleridership resultsobtained

Results may not betransferable to otheremployer sites orregions

Does not quantifyemission impacts

Program cost anddistribution of cost

Benefits todeveloper, tenantsand city


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"Feasibility ofEmployee TripReduction as aRegionalTransportation ControlMeasure." Lupa, MaryR. University of Illinoisat Chicago. InTransportationResearch Record 1459.

Conducts a policyanalysis ofemployee tripreduction, and apreliminary costcomparison ofemployee tripreduction amongtransportationmeasures

Evaluates effectivenessof employee tripreduction measures onimproving air qualityaccording to relief oftraffic congestion, reliefof ROG, maintenance ofpersonal privacy andautonomy, and accordingto market-based VMTpricing possibilities

Calculates themegagrams per yearreduced of the pollutantchosen to measure theeffectiveness of thetransportation measure,as well as the cost of thestrategy

Determines thatemployee trip reductionstrategies cannotsuccessfully beseparated from relatedmode split componentstrategies such as transitexpansion, transit usersubsidy, and parking fees

Does not evaluateemissions other thanROG

Cost effectiveness ofemployee tripreduction

Effectiveness ofemployee tripreduction measureson improving airquality

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Relatively low cost











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Statisticalanalysis ofemployerridesharinginitiatives

Utilizes largedatabase ofexisting employersthat implementtransportationmeasures

Relatively low-cost(provided datadoes not need tobe collected)

May not assesscauses of statisticalsignificance found

Results notnecessarilyapplicable to otherregions

"Evaluation ofEmployer-SponsoredRidesharing Programsin Southern California." Ferguson, Erik T.,Georgia Institute ofTechnology. InTransportationResearch Record 1280,1990.

Analyzesdatabase ofsurveys ofemployer-sponsoredridesharingprograms inSouthernCalifornia todeterminerelevant factorson effectiveness

Utilizes large existingdatabase for the region,increasing validity ofresults

Assesses cost-effectiveness at varyingprogram sizes

Assesses interactionbetween alternative workschedules andridesharing

Attempts to explainreasons behind statisticalsignificance of certainfactors

Sample database maybe biased (they wereall clients of acentralized ridesharingagency)

Primarily analyzesemployer-basedmeasures only

Level and type ofdirect ridesharingincentives

Firm size and type

Dollars spent onrideshare programs

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"Analysis of IndirectSource Trip Activity:Regional ShoppingCenters." JHK &Associates/ K.T.Analytics/California AirResources Board.November 1993, ARB-R-94/510.







Distance of travel forconsumers

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Sample surveyof employer tripreductionprogram cost

Uses statisticallyrepresentativesample populationto make estimatesof overall impactof general tripreductionstrategies such asemployer-basedtrip reduction rules


Surveys can bedone periodicallyto determinechanges inprogrameffectiveness overtime



Survey results canbe subject to variouskinds of responsebias

"South Coast AirQuality ManagementDistrict Regulation XVCost Survey," and"AQMD Survey Follow-Up." Ernst & Young. For South Coast AirQuality ManagementDistrict, 1992.

Estimates cost ofcomplying withSouth Coast AirQualityManagementDistrictRegulation XV tripreduction ruleusing employersurveys; follow-updocumentpresents resultsof on-siteinterviews of 17companies


Regulation XVcompliance paperworkallowed for an exactdefinition of the "targetpopulation"

All affected companiessurveyed, not just arepresentative sample

Methodology combinesbroad survey withfocused on-siteinterviews to gaugevalidity of responses

Only quantifies cost ofridesharing programs;does not directlyquantify trip reductionsor emissionsreductions

Accuracy of employerresponses isquestionable

Study results do notallow characterizationof the linkage betweena given company'sspending on a tripreduction program withthe effectiveness ofthat program

Cost of ridesharingprogram (in $ peremployee)

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Sketchplanning












Vehicle trips

VMT



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"Simple Methodologiesfor Quantifying VT andVMT Reductions fromTransportation Controland GrowthManagement Measuresfor Developing LocalTrip ReductionOrdinances." Evans,V. and D. Morrow. Sonoma Technology,Inc. Air & WasteManagement Assoc.1993.

Describesdevelopment ofsimplemethodologies forquantifyingreductions invehicle trips (VT)and vehicle milestraveled (VMT)from TCMs, foruse in a planning-level context;developedoriginally for theSouth Coast AirBasin




Ranges in VT reductionsestimates address theinteractive impacts of theapplication of multipletransportation measures






Trip length

Bike parking facilities

Existence/extent ofbike path system


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Case studyanalysis

Analyzing casestudies oftransportationprojects isrelatively easy andinexpensive

Different casestudies can becompared todetermine factorsinfluencing theeffectiveness ofan transportationmeasure

Case-study analysisfrequently does notprovide rigorousquantitative results

Effectiveness ofcase studies may bedue to local factorsspecific to that case

"TransportationDemand Management: Case Studies ofMedium-SizedEmployers." Rutherford, G. Scott etal. In TransportationResearch Record 1459.

Presents travelmode split resultsfor 14 medium-sized employersthat practicevarious forms oftransportationdemandmanagement

Chosen companiesrepresent a variety oflocations, business type,and transportationmeasures.

Explains regionalvariation of policy andconstraints fortransportation measures(parking availability,price, publictransportation network)

Data collected do notcontribute to a clearconclusion on themost effectivetransportationmeasure

Does not providediscussion of emissionbenefits

Does not containcost/benefit analysis

Transportation modesplit: singleoccupant vehicle,transit, carpool

Employeetransportationcoordination supporttime

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Policy analysisof transpor-tationmeasures

Addressespolitical feasibilityof transportationmeasureimplementationand generalizedestimate ofsuccess givenlocal travelbehavior andcharacteristics.

Relatively simpleand inexpensiveto conduct, as itrequires noprimary research

Unlikely to provideprecise emissionestimates

"Feasibility ofEmployee TripReduction as aRegionalTransportation ControlMeasure." Lupa, MaryR. University of Illinoisat Chicago. InTransportationResearch Record 1459.

Conducts a policyanalysis ofemployee tripreduction, and apreliminary costcomparison ofemployee tripreduction amongtransportationmeasures

Analyzes shortcomingsto indirect transportationmeasures such asemployee trip reduction

Provides a solid overviewof employee tripreduction as an evolvingTCM and an arena forstrategic planning usingtools such as directpolitical action, classiceconomics, technologicalimplementation, pricing,and regional consensusbuilding

Draws conclusions asto feasibility ofimplementingemployee tripreduction, but gives noprecise estimation ofemissions

Employee tripreduction

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Costs

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"Evaluation ofEmployee TripReduction ProgramsBased on California'sExperience withRegulation XV." Orski,C. Kenneth. Institute ofTransportationEngineers. January1994.

Summarizes theresults of anevaluation ofemployee tripreductionprograms, basedon California'sexperience withRegulation XV

As their techniques andtargets are closelyparallel, empirical datafor Regulation XV wasused to representprojected results of theFederal Clean Air Act, solessons evaluated maybe relevant to othermetropolitan areas

Able to draw generalconclusions of employeetrip reduction programeffectiveness, based onassessment of numerousCalifornia studiesavailable at the time

Report does notcontain a methodologyfor evaluating newTCM plans

California-specificfactors may influenceand limit applicabilityof conclusions to otherregions

South Coast AirQuality ManagementDistrict RegulationXV results to date

Areawide programimpact


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"Employee TripReduction Programs: An Evaluation." Orski,C. Kenneth. InTransportationQuarterly, Vol. 47, No.3, July 1993.

Addressesfeasibility andcost of attainingthe mode shiftgoal in CAA182(d)(1)(B), andthe resultingimpact onregional tripvolume, vehiclemiles traveled,automotiveemissions, and airquality if the goalswere met

As their techniques andtargets are closelyparallel, empirical datafor Regulation XV wasused to representprojected results of theFederal Clean Air Act, solessons evaluated maybe relevant to othermetropolitan areas

Able to draw generalconclusions of employeetrip reduction programeffectiveness, based onassessment of numerousCalifornia studiesavailable at the time

California-specificfactors may influenceand limit applicabilityof conclusions to otherregions

Report does notcontain a methodologyfor evaluating newTCM plans

South Coast AirQuality ManagementDistrict RegulationXV results to date

Long-term programeffects on modalchoice

Areawide programimpact


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VMT Fees Travel demand/mode choicemodel













Fee level

Price elasticity


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