Index

AAbrasive wear, 33, 219Acceleration, 312Accuracy, 238, 312Activation enthalpy, 74, 75Additive layer manufacturing (ALM), 223Adhesion, 220Adhesion at grippers, 16Adhesive wear, 34, 219Adiabatic energy model, 191Aero-bulgetest, 40Aerostatic bearings, 318Affected radius, 238Age hardenable alloy, 61Age hardening, 62–64Aging, 62–64Alloying elements, 58, 62, 63Aluminum, 75, 79, 82, 83, 92Aluminum-scandium alloy, 183Anisotropy, 348Apparent stress, 69, 70Artificial ageing, 185, 186Asynchronous motors, 315Austenite, 57–60Austenite grain size, 58Austenitization temperature, 57, 58Austenitization time, 58Axial feed rate, 108

BBainite, 58Bamboo grain structure, 97Bamboo structure, 42, 53Bauschinger effect, 113Beam characteristic, 193Bearings, 318

Bending, 92, 94, 155, 157Bending angle, 159Bending fatigue specimen, 91Bending force, 157Bergmann, Ralf B., 392Brass (CuZn15), 85Buckling, 115, 116Bulge test, 40Bulk metal forming, 104Burgers vector, 73, 74

CCalibration zone, 108Carbides, 58Carbon, 58, 60Carbon content, 59, 61Categories of size effect, 8Characteristic geometries for extruded

parts, 122Characteristic, 313Characteristic length, 17Charging, 65Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 293Classification of the different variants

of extrusion methods, 122Coarse grains, 129Coatings, 328Coefficient of friction l, 21Coherency strain, 63Coherent precipitates, 63Cold forging, 122Cold isostatic pressing, 185Cold work hardening, 122Combined standard measurement

uncertainty, 405Complete measurement result, 404

F. Vollertsen (ed.), Micro Metal Forming, Lecture Notes in Production Engineering,DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-30916-8, � Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

431

Complex design, 2Component feed, 67, 68Compression, 70, 85Compression test, 69, 70, 81Compression yield strength, 71Configuration of process chain, 419Confocal, 397Confocal microscope, 398, 400Conformal film growth, 291Continuous-cooling transformation(CCT), 58Continuous friction based system, 324Cooling rate, 58, 64Coordinate measurement, 396Copper, 75, 79, 83, 84, 86, 87, 92, 95–99Core grain, 72, 80Core zone, 80Corrosion, 222Corrosion resistance, 222Corrosive wear, 219Crack initiation, 92, 94, 99Crank presses, 314Crankshafts, 313Critical shear stress, 77Crystal orientation factor, 78Crystal plasticity, 359, 366Cumulative disibution function, 90CVD-processes, 294Cyclic load, 93–95Cyclic loading, 93

DDC01, 352DC-motors, 315Decho, Helge, 178Deep drawing, 136Deep drawing diagram, 137Definition, 8, 250Definition for the size, 10Definition micro metal forming, 1Definition, size effects, 8Defocusing effect, 191Deformation degree, 57, 58, 107, 125, 129Deformation mechanism, 72Degree of deformation, 93, 95Density effects, 12Density size effect, 95Description of size effects, 7Designation for size, 10Diamond forming die, 288Diffusion, 56, 58, 62, 63, 66Diffusor, 67Direct-forward extrusion process, 129Direct metal deposition, 223

Dislocation, 72, 93Dislocation annihilation, 57, 72, 96Dislocation density, 73Dislocation hardening, 73Dislocation movement, 72, 74, 80Dislocations at free surfaces, 55Dislocation sources, 72Distribution , 90Double-Cup-Extrusion-Test (DCE), 126Drawing ratio, limiting, 138Drop-down tube furnace, 58, 60, 64–68Drop duration, 64, 66–68Dry friction, 28Dry processing, 324

EEffect strength, 11Efficiency of deformation gF, 126Efficiency, 152Eggshell-effect, 34Elastic deformation, 347Elastic limit, 70Elastic spring back, 157, 159Elasto-plastic computation, 366Electric linear, 315Electro-chemical, 260Electron beam melting, 223Elongation after fracture, 70Elongation at maximum load, 70Endurance limits, 89–95, 99Engineering of a press, 317Equivalent stress amplitude, 94Etching reaction, 263Euler buckling, 109Expulsion via grit blasting, 246Extended hall-petch relationship, 78, 79Extrusion tools for micro forming, 129

FFailure probability, 90Fatigue, 89–92, 94, 99Fatigue crack initiation, 96Fatigue limit, 88–90Fatigue notch factor, 93Fatigue ratio, 92, 93Fatigue specimen, 90, 96Fatigue strength, 97, 99Fatigue test, 90Feeding units, 313FEM-simulation, 353Ferrite, 58Ferrite/pearlite, 57

432 Index

Fine-grained structure, 129Finite element method, 350Flange height, 164Flaring ratio, 164Flexible machining of micro forming

tools, 267Flow stress, 69, 71, 75–78, 80, 82, 115Flow stress atlas, 82Flush, 255Force-linked presses, 312Formability, 38, 118Formability of preforms, 197Forming limit diagram (FLD), 39Forming limit, 163Forming machines, 312Forward model, 368Fracture machining, 249Free-standing sheet, 185Friction, 20Friction factor m, 22Friction function, 26Friction polishing, 287Fringe projection, 396, 397, 400Furnace concepts, 59, 64, 65, 68

GGauging, 390General demands on the materials

for extrusion tools, 131General mechanism of size effects, 10General requirements on extrusion tools, 130Geometrical size effect, 95Geometrically necessary dislocations, 55, 72Geometry, 392, 394, 395, 398, 401Glide dislocation, 73, 74Glow discharge, 178Goch, Gert, 383, 407Gradation of material composition, 211Gradient, 94, 212Grain accommodation factor, 74, 78Grain boundaries, 77, 80Grain boundary hardening, 73, 73Grain boundary movement, 57Grain boundary resistance, 73, 78Grain growth, 56, 57Grains, 79Grain size, 52, 56–58, 72, 73, 78–80, 82,

86–88Grain size effect, 77, 78Grain-size-to-thickness ratios, 96Grain structure, 57Gripping, 332, 342

HHall-petch effect, 18Hall-petch equation, 78, 79Hall-petch relation, 78Hall-petch relationship, 73Hammer, 312Handling, 2, 331, 333–335Hardening, 74Hardening mechanism, 73, 80Hardness, 92, 186Heat affected zone, 239Heat transfer coefficient, 64, 65Heat transfer rate, 64Heat treatment, 56, 57, 62, 64, 66–68Heat treatment time, 64Heinz-Rolf Stock, 178Helmholtz double layer, 259High dimensional and shape

accuracy, 122High-cycle fatigue (HCF), 89, 95High-strength aluminum alloys, 178Holograph, 395–397, 399–402Homogenization, 353Hooke’s law, 69Hybrid Presses, 312, 315Hydraulic bulge test, 41Hydraulic presses, 312

IIdeal work wid, 124Impact analysis, 427Incoherent, 63Incremental forming, 104Individual standard measurement

uncertainties, 405Inert gas, 67Infeed and plunge methods, 322Infeed swaging, 106Influences, 93Influences on the endurance limit, 92In-process, 412, 413In-process controller, 415Integrated direct driven feed, 324Interferometry, 393, 396–400Intermetallic phase, 62Introduction and definition, 237Inverse modelling, 368Isostatic pressing, 187

JJoining, 2

Index 433

KKelly-fine mechanism, 63, 73

LLarge variety of size effects, 11Laser ablation, 250

with long pulses, 250with short pulses, 255with ultrashort pulses, 356

Laser beam waist radius, 238Laser-induced chemical machining, 358Laser induced shock wave, 150Laser intensity, 242Laser melting, 188Laser milling, 237, 238Laser milling by intersecting beams, 248Laser Milling in a Reactive Ambient Gas, 247Laser Milling Via Grit Blasting, 246Laser Milling Via Non-Reactive Gas Jet, 243Laser Milling Via Reactive Gas Jet, 247Laser repetition rate, 242Laser shock bending, 160Laser shock formation, 43Laser subtracted chip, 238Laser wavelength, 242Layer architectures, 302Leiden frost phenomena, 64, 65Lifetime, 89, 90Linear motor press, 315Line density effect, 13Linked parts, 331, 337Liquid phase etching, 263Load frequency, 91Loading, 90, 92, 94Local endurance limit, 94Logarithmic degree of deformation, 71Log normal distribution, 90Low carbon steel (DC01), 84Low-cycle fatigue (LCF), 89Lower dead center, 314Low weight, 2Lübke, Karsten, 383, 407Lubricant pocket model, 28Lubrication pockets, 299

MMachine work, 123Magnetron sputtering, 180Mandrel, 107Manufacturing, 340Marten’s hardness, 111Martensite, 58–61

Martensite finish, 59Martensite start, 59, 61Martensite transformation, 59Martensitic hardening, 57, 64Material accumulation, 189Material gradient, 219Material library, 364, 365Material properties, 86Material removal rates (MRR), 240, 242Maximum local stress, 93Measurement systems, 392, 398Measurement uncertainty, 404Measuring methods, 394Measuring technique, 90Mechanical properties, 58Medium flow stress kfm, 124Metal, 93, 239Method of choice, 240Micro grinding, 278Micro metal forming (MMF), 1Micro milling, 269Micro structure size effect, 95Micro structured surfaces, 275Micro valve housing, 107Microgeometry effects, 18, 19Microscopy, 397Microstructural parameters, 86–88Microstructure of a thermal spray

coating, 215Microstructure size effect, 99Milling precision, 242Models, 77Mond process, 294Motors, 315MUM, 317

NNakajima test, 40Natural aging, 63Near-process, 412, 413Near-process control loops, 415Near-process controller, 413Near-process level, 412, 415Near-process quality control, 415Neutral surface, 108Nomenclature, 10Nominal stress, 93Non-destructive testing, 394Normal grain growth, 53Notch, 91–94Notch root, 93, 94Number of cycles until

fracture, 89

434 Index

OOccurring distortion of extruded micro

parts, 129Oligo structure, 42Optical metrology, 392, 394Optical sensors, 392, 396Orientation distribution function, 361Orientation factor, 78, 79Orientation of a monocrystal, 360Orowan mechanism, 63, 73Osculation ratio, 110Overaging, 63

PParameter identification, 373Particle hardening, 73Pearlite, 58Phase, 63Phase diagram, 62Phase transformation, 57, 58Photogrammetry, 397Physical vapor deposition (PVD), 178, 289Piece part, 331, 338Piercing and blanking, 166Piezo actuator, 313Piezo presses, 312Plasma, 178Plastic behavior, 70, 77Plastic deformation, 69, 70, 72, 3490Plasticity, 72, 77Plastic strain, 70Plunge swaging, 106Pneumatic bulge test, 40Pneumatic presses, 312Point density effect, 12Pole figure, 361Polycrystal, 76–79Polycrystalline, 41, 77Polycrystal with size effects, 42Porosity, 210Post-processing, 213Precipitation hardening, 61–63Precipitation sequence, 63Predictor-corrector method, 351Presses, 311Primary recrystallization, 56–58Principle of flange forming, 162Probing systems, 389Process capability index, 410Process limits, 190Process performance indices, 409Production of cold forged components, 329Productivity, 107

Pulse length or dwell time, 242Punch force, 116Punch velocity, 142Push-pull endurance limit, 93PVD sheet, 86

QQuality assurance, 2Quality control, 411, 413, 415Quenching, 58, 62, 64–66, 68

RRandom variables, 90Real contact area, 32Rebound, 160Recoil pressure, 255Recrystallization, 56, 93Recrystallization annealing, 56, 57Recrystallization temperature, 56–58Reducing zone, 108Reflectometry, 393, 394, 398Rejection force, 108Repeat accuracy, 313Representative volume element

(RVE), 353, 362Reproducibility of process, 195Resolution, 392–394, 396–399Resulting osculation, 327Retained austenite, 59, 59, 61Rolling texture, 99Rotary bending, 89Rotary swaging, 104, 322Roughness parameters, 94

SSachs, 77, 79Sachs and Taylor models, 79Scale parameter, 90, 91Scaling, 7Scaling factor, 10Schmid factors, 99Schulz, Alwin, 204Screw presses, 312Secondary, 56Secondary artifacts, 19Secondary recrystallization, 57, 58Selective laser melting, 223Self-lubricant, 302Semi-coherent precipitates, 63Servo presses, 313Shape balance effects, 16

Index 435

Shape effects, 14Shape parameter, 90, 91Shape size effect, 95Shape sum effects, 16, 72, 79, 80Shawn’s wear law, 37Shear cutting, 166Shear modulus, 73Shearography, 393–396, 400Short cycle times, 122Shuttle piercing, 172Silicon technology, 2Simulation, 351, 352, 364Single crystal, 77–79Single crystalline, 42Single crystalline diamond, 2Single or multi-stage process, 329Size effects, 8, 72, 77, 79, 94, 95, 99Size effects, use of, 11Size100, 77Skin layer, 239Smaller is stronger, 11Smaller is weaker, 11S–N curve, 88–90, 96S–N diagram, 98, 99Solenoid motor, 315Solid solution hardening, 73Solution annealing, 62, 64Source of size effects, 10Sparsity, 379Specific features of MMF, 1Specimen size effect, 77Spray forming, 208Spring back angle, 159Sputtering, 178Stack effect, 67Standard deviation, 404Static strength, 93Statistical size effect, 95Statistically stored dislocations, 72Steel, 78, 84, 85, 87, 92, 93Steel X4CrNi18-10 (1.4301), 85Step motors, 315Stiffness, 318Stiffness tensor, 360Stochastic model, 360Strain, 38, 69–71, 76, 77, 80–82, 84, 85,

94Strain amplitude, 97Strain distribution, 147, 148Strain gradient model, 72Strain gradient plasticity, 72Strain gradients, 72Strain hardening, 72, 76, 80Strain measurement, 81, 82

Strain rate, 73–77, 148, 154Strain rate sensitivity, 76, 77Stain sensor, 347Stress amplitude, 90Stress-compression diagram, 71Stress concentration factor, 93, 94Stress concentration, 91Stress gradient, 94, 95Stress state, 93, 94Stress-strain curves, 82–84Stress-strain diagram, 69Stress-strain distribution, 71Stretch drawing, 146, 151, 153, 154Stroke frequency, 108Stroke rate, 313Structure effects, 17Structure zone model, 182, 185Subsurface explosions, 255Supersaturated solid solution, 62Surface, 96, 150, 151Surface effect, 95Surface evaporation, 250Surface fatigue, 34Surface grain model, 72, 79, 80Surface inspection, 426Surface grains, 52, 72, 79, 80Surface layer, 72Surface roughness, 93, 94Surface topography, 93, 94Surface to volume-ratio, 14Surface zone, 80Synchronized rotation between the tools and

the workpiece , 323Synchronous motor, 315

TTarget, 180Taylor’s polycrystal, 77TEA, 151TEA-CO2-laser, 150Technical strain, 38Technological size effects, 95Tensile strength, 187Tensile tests, 69, 71, 81Tension compression, 161Tertiary recrystallization, 54Testing equipment, 81Testing strategy, 399Texture, 348, 355, 359Thermal free form heading, 188Thermal penetration radius, 239Thermal spraying, 214Thickness to grain size ratio, 78

436 Index

Thin ice-effect, 34Thread forming, 313Tiffany grain structure, 96Tiffany structure, 42, 52, 139Tikhonov regularization, 369Time-temperature austenitization diagram, 58Toggle presses, 314Tolerance zone, 391Tool materials, 204Torque motor, 313Torsion, 94Travel-linked presses, 313Travel-time characteristic, 313Treatment time, 58Tribochemical reaction, 36Tribological size effect, 29Tribological system, 20Twin boundaries, 73Two-scale FEM, 362, 366Types of machine, 322

UUltimate tensile strength, 70Ultrasonic assisted grinding, 282Uninterrupted grain flow, 122Upset ratio, 117, 189Upsetting, 113Upsetting test, 70

VVapor deposition, 178Vapor film, 64Variational formulation, 349

Very high-cycle fatigue (VHCF), 89Vibration, 318Video extensometer, 81, 82Vollertsen, Frank, 1, 7Volume MRR, 251von Bargen, 56von Hehl, 56von Kopylow, Christoph, 392von Mises stress, 349

WWeakest-link, 93Weakest-link concept, 95Wear, 32Wear mechanism maps, 36Wear mechanisms, 32Wear rate map, 37Weibull distribution, 90Weibull effect, 12Wing forming, 111Work-hardening, 78Work-lnked presses, 312

YYield strength models, 72Yield strengths, 69, 70, 72, 73, 76–78, 80Yield stress, 349Young’s modulus, 70, 86, 87

ZZhang, 83, 411

Index 437