Index

Abagan,96 Aborigines, see Gugadja Abortion, 241, 252 Acacia, 20, 21, 23, 26-30, 46, 47, 51 Acacia acradenia, 29, 34, 43 Acacia adsurgens, 24, 36, 37 Acacia alb ida, 30 Acacia ancistocarpa, 38, 42 Acacia aneura, 24, 27, 35 Acacia ciracea, 24 Acacia coriacea, 23, 25, 26, 27, 35-36, 37 Acacia cowleana, 36, 37 Acacia cuthbertsonii, 39, 43 Acacia dictyophleba, 36, 37 Acacia holosericea, 23, 24, 25, 27, 43 Acacia ligulata, 39 Acacia pachycarpa, 35, 37, 38 Acacia prninocarpa, 35-36, 37, 39, 43 Acacia rhodophloia, 36, 37 Acacia stipuligera, 23, 24, 25 Acacia tenuissiuma, 24, 7 Acacia tumida, 24, 25, 27 Aeschynomene indica, 43 Agathis dammara, 292 Agricultural intensification, see Irrigated

rice production; Swidden agriculture Agricultural involution, 235 Agriculture, 88-89, 233-235, see also Cash­

cropping; Gainj; Hausa; Hindus; Irrigated rice production; Kofyar; Seventeenth-century China; Soil loss; Swidden agriculture

Agromanagerial totalitarianism, 235 Alcohol, 199, 279-280, 318, 323 Alder, 107, 108 Alleycropping, 284 Almhado ritual ceremony, 165 Alpine, 367, 371, 372, 373-374, 376, 380,

381, 386, 387

A1yawara, 34, 47 Ameralla drainage, 115, 117, 118, 120, 129 Amphibolurns, 44 Amphigogon caricinus, 41 Animals, see also Meat; specific types

Batak and, 95 Gugadja and, 36-46 Mbuti pygmies and, 70-75

Annonidium mannii, 63 Antelope, 70, 73 Antrocaryon micraster, 79 Ants, 25 Apis mellifera, 75, 76 Arachis hypogaea, 64 Archery, 70, 97 Archis hypogaea, 64 Arctic Social Science Program, 143 Ariaal Rendille, 159-172

egalitarianism and, 163-164 herd diversity and, 159, 162 herd mobility and, 159-160, 162 household organization of, 164-165 measuring drought loss in, 165-166

Arizona, see Little Colorado River Basin Arizona Cooperative Mercantile Institution

(ACMI),369 Artisans, 257 Aspidites melanocephalus, 45 Aspidites ramsayi, 45 Astragalus sinious, see Chinese milk vetch Australia, see Great Sandy Desert Autumn, 24 Aztec Land and Cattle Company, 378

Babinga pygmies, 79 Bagundji, 47 Balanites wilsoniana, 63 Baltasound, 114 Banana beer, 279-280

393

Index

Abagan,96 Aborigines, see Gugadja Abortion, 241, 252 Acacia, 20, 21, 23, 26-30, 46, 47, 51 Acacia acradenia, 29, 34, 43 Acacia adsurgens, 24, 36, 37 Acacia alb ida, 30 Acacia ancistocarpa, 38, 42 Acacia aneura, 24, 27, 35 Acacia ciracea, 24 Acacia coriacea, 23, 25, 26, 27, 35-36, 37 Acacia cowleana, 36, 37 Acacia cuthbertsonii, 39, 43 Acacia dictyophleba, 36, 37 Acacia holosericea, 23, 24, 25, 27, 43 Acacia ligulata, 39 Acacia pachycarpa, 35, 37, 38 Acacia prninocarpa, 35-36, 37, 39, 43 Acacia rhodophloia, 36, 37 Acacia stipuligera, 23, 24, 25 Acacia tenuissiuma, 24, 7 Acacia tumida, 24, 25, 27 Aeschynomene indica, 43 Agathis dammara, 292 Agricultural intensification, see Irrigated

rice production; Swidden agriculture Agricultural involution, 235 Agriculture, 88-89, 233-235, see also Cash­

cropping; Gainj; Hausa; Hindus; Irrigated rice production; Kofyar; Seventeenth-century China; Soil loss; Swidden agriculture

Agromanagerial totalitarianism, 235 Alcohol, 199, 279-280, 318, 323 Alder, 107, 108 Alleycropping, 284 Almhado ritual ceremony, 165 Alpine, 367, 371, 372, 373-374, 376, 380,

381, 386, 387

A1yawara, 34, 47 Ameralla drainage, 115, 117, 118, 120, 129 Amphibolurns, 44 Amphigogon caricinus, 41 Animals, see also Meat; specific types

Batak and, 95 Gugadja and, 36-46 Mbuti pygmies and, 70-75

Annonidium mannii, 63 Antelope, 70, 73 Antrocaryon micraster, 79 Ants, 25 Apis mellifera, 75, 76 Arachis hypogaea, 64 Archery, 70, 97 Archis hypogaea, 64 Arctic Social Science Program, 143 Ariaal Rendille, 159-172

egalitarianism and, 163-164 herd diversity and, 159, 162 herd mobility and, 159-160, 162 household organization of, 164-165 measuring drought loss in, 165-166

Arizona, see Little Colorado River Basin Arizona Cooperative Mercantile Institution

(ACMI),369 Artisans, 257 Aspidites melanocephalus, 45 Aspidites ramsayi, 45 Astragalus sinious, see Chinese milk vetch Australia, see Great Sandy Desert Autumn, 24 Aztec Land and Cattle Company, 378

Babinga pygmies, 79 Bagundji, 47 Balanites wilsoniana, 63 Baltasound, 114 Banana beer, 279-280

393

394

Bananas, 279-280, 281, 284, 292, 301, 304, 340

Bandicoots, 40, 44 Bardsson, 142 Barley

in Melemchi, 203 Mormons and, 381 in Northern Atlantic islands, 105, 112,

113, 114, 123 in seventeenth-century China, 318, 324

Barth, Frederick, 155 Basin-Plateau Sociopolitical Aboriginal

Groups (Steward), 14 Batak, 85-101

attempt at forced relocation of, 88 background on, 88-90 division of labor in, 96-97 encampment duration in, 92-94 encampment size in, 95 length of workday in, 97-99 resource utilization by, 95-96

Bauchi Light Line, 357, 360 Bean cake, 316, 318, 323 Beans, 280, 281, 304 Beer parties, 335, 336, 342 Benue valley, 338-339 Bhotia,196 Biafra,339 Bicycles, 341 Bila,70 Biomass, 5, 6, 323 Birds, 46, 133 Bison, 14 Black Death, 106 Blood, eating of, 22 Blowguns, 97 Blue duikers, 60, 71, 73 Blue tongue, 44, 45 Bog iron, 107-108 Bondi, 138-139, 140, 141 Book of the Icelanders (Thorgillsson), 107 Book of the Settlements (Thorgillsson), 124 Boomerangs, 35-36 Boran, 160, 162, 172 Bow and arrow hunting, see Archery Brachiaria multiiformis, 24 Brahmins, 257 Bridewealth, 163, 166, 171, 341, 357 Brigham City, 367, 369, 381

British, 349-350, 354 British Cotton Growers' Association

(BCGA), 356-361 British Isles, 125 Buddhism, 204n Budsetumadr, 138 Buffalo, 198, 211 Burgen,224 Burgerschaft, 226 Burundi, 5 Bustards, see Eupodotis australis Butter, 195, 203, 205, 206, 208, 214 Butyrospemum paradoxum, 332

Caesalpiniaceous forests, 61, 62, 78, 79 Calamus caesius, 292 Calorie hunger (njala), 73 Calories

Ariaal Rendille intake of, 165-166 in Cyperus rotondus, 32 Gugadja intake of, 22 in Ipomoea, 32 in lean meat, 58 Mbuti pygmy intake of, 58 in reptiles, 45-46 in seeds, 26, 49-50 in Solanum chippendalei, 34 in Vigna lanceolata, 30 in witchetty grubs, 35

Calytrix longiflora, 43

Index

Camels, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169

Canarium schweinfurthii, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69, 76

Canning Basin, 19 Canthium, 46 Capparis lasiantha, 33 Capparis loranthifolia, 33 Caprines, 116, 132 Caribou, 123, 133 Carissa lanceolata, 38, 43 Carr-Sanders, A.M., 252 Cash-cropping, 327-346, see also Kofyar

beer parties and, 335, 336, 342 dependence and, 338-342 wage labor and, 335, 336

Cashews, 292, 293, 301, 304, 306 Cassava, 57, 63, 75, 291, 340 Cassia notabi/is, 21, 30, 31, 32 Cassia venusta, 43

394

Bananas, 279-280, 281, 284, 292, 301, 304, 340

Bandicoots, 40, 44 Bardsson, 142 Barley

in Melemchi, 203 Mormons and, 381 in Northern Atlantic islands, 105, 112,

113, 114, 123 in seventeenth-century China, 318, 324

Barth, Frederick, 155 Basin-Plateau Sociopolitical Aboriginal

Groups (Steward), 14 Batak, 85-101

attempt at forced relocation of, 88 background on, 88-90 division of labor in, 96-97 encampment duration in, 92-94 encampment size in, 95 length of workday in, 97-99 resource utilization by, 95-96

Bauchi Light Line, 357, 360 Bean cake, 316, 318, 323 Beans, 280, 281, 304 Beer parties, 335, 336, 342 Benue valley, 338-339 Bhotia,196 Biafra,339 Bicycles, 341 Bila,70 Biomass, 5, 6, 323 Birds, 46, 133 Bison, 14 Black Death, 106 Blood, eating of, 22 Blowguns, 97 Blue duikers, 60, 71, 73 Blue tongue, 44, 45 Bog iron, 107-108 Bondi, 138-139, 140, 141 Book of the Icelanders (Thorgillsson), 107 Book of the Settlements (Thorgillsson), 124 Boomerangs, 35-36 Boran, 160, 162, 172 Bow and arrow hunting, see Archery Brachiaria multiiformis, 24 Brahmins, 257 Bridewealth, 163, 166, 171, 341, 357 Brigham City, 367, 369, 381

British, 349-350, 354 British Cotton Growers' Association

(BCGA), 356-361 British Isles, 125 Buddhism, 204n Budsetumadr, 138 Buffalo, 198, 211 Burgen,224 Burgerschaft, 226 Burundi, 5 Bustards, see Eupodotis australis Butter, 195, 203, 205, 206, 208, 214 Butyrospemum paradoxum, 332

Caesalpiniaceous forests, 61, 62, 78, 79 Calamus caesius, 292 Calorie hunger (njala), 73 Calories

Ariaal Rendille intake of, 165-166 in Cyperus rotondus, 32 Gugadja intake of, 22 in Ipomoea, 32 in lean meat, 58 Mbuti pygmy intake of, 58 in reptiles, 45-46 in seeds, 26, 49-50 in Solanum chippendalei, 34 in Vigna lanceolata, 30 in witchetty grubs, 35

Calytrix longiflora, 43

Index

Camels, 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169

Canarium schweinfurthii, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69, 76

Canning Basin, 19 Canthium, 46 Capparis lasiantha, 33 Capparis loranthifolia, 33 Caprines, 116, 132 Caribou, 123, 133 Carissa lanceolata, 38, 43 Carr-Sanders, A.M., 252 Cash-cropping, 327-346, see also Kofyar

beer parties and, 335, 336, 342 dependence and, 338-342 wage labor and, 335, 336

Cashews, 292, 293, 301, 304, 306 Cassava, 57, 63, 75, 291, 340 Cassia notabi/is, 21, 30, 31, 32 Cassia venusta, 43

Index

Caste system, 251, 254, 256-257, 258, 260-261, 267

Catepillars, 74, 75 Cats, 19, 36, 40, 44 Cattle, see also Livestock; specific animals

Ariaal Rendille and, 160, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169

birth rates for, 183-184, 191 loaning of, 181, 188-189 Mormons and, 369, 378 mortality rates for, 180, 182-183, 191 movement of, 184-186, 187, 191, 192 in Northern Atlantic islands, 105, 108,

116-117, 124 population collapse and recovery, 181-182 in Zimbabwe savanna, 178, 180, 181-190,

191, 192 Celtis adolphi-friderici, 63, 65, 66, 69 Cephalophus weynsi, 71 Cephalophus leucogaster, 71 Cephalophus monticola, 71 Cephalophus nigrifrons, 71 Cephalophus sylvicultor, 71 Cereals, 105, 106, 113, 339, 356, see also

specific types Charcoal, 78, 108 Cheese, 225, 226 Chenopodium, 46 Chenopodium auricomum, 43 Chenopodium inflatum, 30 Chenopodium rhadinostachyum, 28, 30 Chhetris, 257 Chi,313 Chickens, 95 Children

of Gugadja, 21 of Hindus, 266, 267 in Melemchi, 199, 201-202

China, 235, see also Seventeenth-century China

Chinese milk vetch, 313, 315, 324 Church

Mormon, 365-366, 369 in Northern Atlantic islands, 142

Clay soil zone, 178-179, 182-186, 189, 191 Cleome viscosa, 38 Clerodendrum floribundum, 21, 30, 31, 32 Climate, see also Seasonality; Temperature

of Great Sandy Desert, 19

Climate (cont.) of Little Colorado River Basin, 372 of Northern Atlantic islands, 125-127

Cocoa, 339 Coconuts, 301, 304, 306 Coffee

Batak and, 96 Gainj and, 239-242, 244, 246, 247-249 in Kenya, 275 in Rwanda, 280, 284

Cognitive models, 123-124 Cold time, 20-21, 24, 48, 49 Collection times

for Cyperus rotondus, 32 for reptiles, 45 for Solanum chippendalei, 34 for Vigna lanceolata, 30 for witchetty grubs, 35

395

Commonwealth Period, 105, 114, 121, 141 Communal tenure, 219-229

forests and, 226-227, 229 grazing and, 224, 225-226 individual tenure compared with, 227-229 paths and roads in, 227 waste lands and, 227

Community diversity, 383-387 Composting, 314-315, 316, 325 Concave population structure, 251, 252,

253,264 Conjoint enterprises, 381-382, 388 Conjugal family households, 242 Conjunctures, 351 Contraception, 241 Contraceptive sterilization, 262, 263 Controlled fertility, 251, 252, 253 Convex population structure, 251, 252, 253,

263 Corn, 203, 369, 381, see also Maize Cossidae, 35 Cost accounting, 136-137 Costa Rica, 302-304 Cotton, 349-350, 354, 356-361 Cowpeas, 337, 341, 343 Cows, see also Cow-yak goths

communal tenure and, 223, 225-226 in Northern Atlantic islands, 116, 124

Cow-yak goths, 195-196, 205-216 animal numbers in, 212-213 causes of shift to, 206-210 expertise required for, 213-214

Index

Caste system, 251, 254, 256-257, 258, 260-261, 267

Catepillars, 74, 75 Cats, 19, 36, 40, 44 Cattle, see also Livestock; specific animals

Ariaal Rendille and, 160, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169

birth rates for, 183-184, 191 loaning of, 181, 188-189 Mormons and, 369, 378 mortality rates for, 180, 182-183, 191 movement of, 184-186, 187, 191, 192 in Northern Atlantic islands, 105, 108,

116-117, 124 population collapse and recovery, 181-182 in Zimbabwe savanna, 178, 180, 181-190,

191, 192 Celtis adolphi-friderici, 63, 65, 66, 69 Cephalophus weynsi, 71 Cephalophus leucogaster, 71 Cephalophus monticola, 71 Cephalophus nigrifrons, 71 Cephalophus sylvicultor, 71 Cereals, 105, 106, 113, 339, 356, see also

specific types Charcoal, 78, 108 Cheese, 225, 226 Chenopodium, 46 Chenopodium auricomum, 43 Chenopodium inflatum, 30 Chenopodium rhadinostachyum, 28, 30 Chhetris, 257 Chi,313 Chickens, 95 Children

of Gugadja, 21 of Hindus, 266, 267 in Melemchi, 199, 201-202

China, 235, see also Seventeenth-century China

Chinese milk vetch, 313, 315, 324 Church

Mormon, 365-366, 369 in Northern Atlantic islands, 142

Clay soil zone, 178-179, 182-186, 189, 191 Cleome viscosa, 38 Clerodendrum floribundum, 21, 30, 31, 32 Climate, see also Seasonality; Temperature

of Great Sandy Desert, 19

Climate (cont.) of Little Colorado River Basin, 372 of Northern Atlantic islands, 125-127

Cocoa, 339 Coconuts, 301, 304, 306 Coffee

Batak and, 96 Gainj and, 239-242, 244, 246, 247-249 in Kenya, 275 in Rwanda, 280, 284

Cognitive models, 123-124 Cold time, 20-21, 24, 48, 49 Collection times

for Cyperus rotondus, 32 for reptiles, 45 for Solanum chippendalei, 34 for Vigna lanceolata, 30 for witchetty grubs, 35

395

Commonwealth Period, 105, 114, 121, 141 Communal tenure, 219-229

forests and, 226-227, 229 grazing and, 224, 225-226 individual tenure compared with, 227-229 paths and roads in, 227 waste lands and, 227

Community diversity, 383-387 Composting, 314-315, 316, 325 Concave population structure, 251, 252,

253,264 Conjoint enterprises, 381-382, 388 Conjugal family households, 242 Conjunctures, 351 Contraception, 241 Contraceptive sterilization, 262, 263 Controlled fertility, 251, 252, 253 Convex population structure, 251, 252, 253,

263 Corn, 203, 369, 381, see also Maize Cossidae, 35 Cost accounting, 136-137 Costa Rica, 302-304 Cotton, 349-350, 354, 356-361 Cowpeas, 337, 341, 343 Cows, see also Cow-yak goths

communal tenure and, 223, 225-226 in Northern Atlantic islands, 116, 124

Cow-yak goths, 195-196, 205-216 animal numbers in, 212-213 causes of shift to, 206-210 expertise required for, 213-214

396

Cow-yak goths (cont.) residence pattern alterations and, 214-215 social structure of herding, 213 transhumance patterns of, 211-212

Crash of 1929, 354, 360 Crop cover, 274-275, 276, 281 Crop rotation, 313-314, 324 Crotalaria cunninghamii, 41 Crustaceans, 88 Cultural core, 10 Cultural ecology, 10, 14 C-values, 275-276, 283 Cynometra alexandri, 61, 73, 74 Cyperus, 21, 49 Cyperus rotondus, 29, 30, 31, 32, 49

Damais, 257 Dam failures, 376, 379, 380, 381 Daspalidium rarium, 24 Deforestation, 107-108, see also Forests Denmark, 106 Dependence, 235

cash-cropping and, 338-342 Dependency ratios, 242-243 Dependents, of Gainj, 242-243, 248-249 Development as contraceptive theory, 246 Di, 313, 319 Didymotheca tepperi, 42 Differential impact model, 128-135 Dingos, 19, 40 Dioscorea, 63, 64, 65, 69 Dioscorea baya, 67 Dioscorea minutiflora, 67 Dioscorea preussii, 67 Dioscorea semperjlorens, 67 Dioscorea smilacifolia, 67 Diplodactylus, 45 Division of labor

in Batak, 96-97 in Gugadja, 48 in Kofyar, 335

Divorce, 258-259 Dogs, 97-98, 105, 202 Dragon lizards, 44 Dromaius novaehollandiae, see Emus Drought, 159-172, 175-192, see also Ariaal

Rendille; Zimbabwe savanna in Little Colorado River Basin, 378 in Zaria, 355-356

Dry season in Ituri Forest, 61, 68, 73 in Little Colorado River Basin, 379 in Nigeria, 337, 339 in Palawan Island, 92, 298, 300

Eagar, 367, 371, 373, 374, 376, 387 Early developmental period, 263 Eastern Settlement, 110, 114, 116, 117,

119, 121, 143 Echidnas, 40 Echinochloa colunum, 24 Ecological communities, 382-385 Ecological theory, 385-388 Ecosystems approach, 3-4 Edge zone, 179, 180, 182, 183, 189 Eels, 95, 100 Egalitarianism, 163-164

Index

Egemika kintorei, see Great desert skink Ekbelu (protein hunger), 73 Elaeis guineensis, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68 Elderia, 29, 30 Elderly, 21, 196 Elymus, 105 Emic behavior, 7n Emus, 19,46 Energy, 5-6 Energy bottlenecks, 5, 6 Energy converters, 6 Energy drains, 384 Energy flows

in ecological communities, 383-384, 385 in seventeenth-century China, 319-323

Energy sources, 6 Energy subsidies, 384 Engels, Friedrich, 10, 220 Environmental degradation, see Northern

Atlantic islands Environmental feedback, 122, 124-125 Epulu,58 Eragrostis, 46 Eragrostis eriopoda, 24 Eragrostis tenellula, 24 Eriachne flaccida, 43 Eriachne mucronata, 43 Erythrina vespertilio, 36, 37, 42 Eskimos, 108 Ester, Johann, 227 Ethiopian famine, 162 Etic behavior, 7n

396

Cow-yak goths (cont.) residence pattern alterations and, 214-215 social structure of herding, 213 transhumance patterns of, 211-212

Crash of 1929, 354, 360 Crop cover, 274-275, 276, 281 Crop rotation, 313-314, 324 Crotalaria cunninghamii, 41 Crustaceans, 88 Cultural core, 10 Cultural ecology, 10, 14 C-values, 275-276, 283 Cynometra alexandri, 61, 73, 74 Cyperus, 21, 49 Cyperus rotondus, 29, 30, 31, 32, 49

Damais, 257 Dam failures, 376, 379, 380, 381 Daspalidium rarium, 24 Deforestation, 107-108, see also Forests Denmark, 106 Dependence, 235

cash-cropping and, 338-342 Dependency ratios, 242-243 Dependents, of Gainj, 242-243, 248-249 Development as contraceptive theory, 246 Di, 313, 319 Didymotheca tepperi, 42 Differential impact model, 128-135 Dingos, 19, 40 Dioscorea, 63, 64, 65, 69 Dioscorea baya, 67 Dioscorea minutiflora, 67 Dioscorea preussii, 67 Dioscorea semperjlorens, 67 Dioscorea smilacifolia, 67 Diplodactylus, 45 Division of labor

in Batak, 96-97 in Gugadja, 48 in Kofyar, 335

Divorce, 258-259 Dogs, 97-98, 105, 202 Dragon lizards, 44 Dromaius novaehollandiae, see Emus Drought, 159-172, 175-192, see also Ariaal

Rendille; Zimbabwe savanna in Little Colorado River Basin, 378 in Zaria, 355-356

Dry season in Ituri Forest, 61, 68, 73 in Little Colorado River Basin, 379 in Nigeria, 337, 339 in Palawan Island, 92, 298, 300

Eagar, 367, 371, 373, 374, 376, 387 Early developmental period, 263 Eastern Settlement, 110, 114, 116, 117,

119, 121, 143 Echidnas, 40 Echinochloa colunum, 24 Ecological communities, 382-385 Ecological theory, 385-388 Ecosystems approach, 3-4 Edge zone, 179, 180, 182, 183, 189 Eels, 95, 100 Egalitarianism, 163-164

Index

Egemika kintorei, see Great desert skink Ekbelu (protein hunger), 73 Elaeis guineensis, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68 Elderia, 29, 30 Elderly, 21, 196 Elymus, 105 Emic behavior, 7n Emus, 19,46 Energy, 5-6 Energy bottlenecks, 5, 6 Energy converters, 6 Energy drains, 384 Energy flows

in ecological communities, 383-384, 385 in seventeenth-century China, 319-323

Energy sources, 6 Energy subsidies, 384 Engels, Friedrich, 10, 220 Environmental degradation, see Northern

Atlantic islands Environmental feedback, 122, 124-125 Epulu,58 Eragrostis, 46 Eragrostis eriopoda, 24 Eragrostis tenellula, 24 Eriachne flaccida, 43 Eriachne mucronata, 43 Erythrina vespertilio, 36, 37, 42 Eskimos, 108 Ester, Johann, 227 Ethiopian famine, 162 Etic behavior, 7n

Index

Eucalyptus, 21, 23, 25, 36, 43, 46, 47 Eucalyptus aspera, 36, 37 Eucalyptus brevidolia, 38 Eucalyptus camaldulensis, 39 Eucalyptus microtheca, 35, 36, 37, 39 Eucalyptus odontocarpa, 42 Eucalyptus terminalis, 36, 37 Euphorbia coghlaniis, 38 Euphorbia wheeleri, 42 Eupodotis australis, 19, 29, 46 Euros,40 Eurphorbia coghlani, 42 Ewe, 116 Export crops, 339, 355, 356, 360 Extraxomatic (exosomatic) energy sources, 5

Fallow periods in Northern Atlantic islands, 139 in Rwanda, 278, 282 in swidden agriculture, see under

Swidden agriculture False analogy, 122 Famine, 162, 355, 356, 359 Famine foods, 76 Farm diversity, 300-302 Faroe, 104, 105, 107, 124, 136 Fertility, 237-249, 251-268, see also Gainj;

Hindus concave population structure and, 251,

252, 253, 264 controlled, 251, 252, 253 convex population structure and, 251,

252, 253, 263 development as contraceptive theory

and, 246 early developmental period in, 263 first birth, age at, 241, 243, 244, 259 interbirth intervals and, 241, 259 lactational anovulation and, 241, 244-246 menarche median age and, 244 middle developmental period in, 263 modernization onset in, 263 motivation in, 253, 258 natural, 251, 252, 253 pretransitional period in, 263 sexual intercourse frequency and, 243-244

Fertilizer, see also specific types irrigated rice production and, 299, 309 Kofyar use of, 340, 342 in Northern Atlantic islands, 109-110

Fertilizer (cont.) in Rwanda, 280, 284

Ficus, 46, 49, 51 Ficus platypoda, 33 Fimbristylis oxystachya, 23, 24, 25, 28, 50 Finnsson, Hannes, 142 Fire setting, 108

in Great Sandy Desert, 36, 40 Kofyar and, 340 in seventeenth-century China, 324-325 in swidden agriculture, 301-302

First birth, age at, 241, 243, 244, 259 Fiscus platypoda, 29 Fish, 88, 95 Fish ponds, 313 Floods, 374, 376, 380 Flying squirrels, 88 Fodder

in Melemchi, 199, 211 in Northern Atlantic islands, 115-116,

117-119, 129-132, 136-137 in Zimbabwe savanna, 181, 184, 187

Foot and mouth disease, 190 Foraging, see Hunting and gathering Forests, 8

communal tenure and, 226-227, 229 Ituri, see Ituri Forest in Northern Atlantic islands, 107-108

Fossil fuels, 5, 6 Fowl, 88, 119, see also Poultry Fried, Morton, 10 Fruits, see also specific types

Gugadja and, 29, 33-34 Mbuti pygmies and, 63, 68

Gabon forest, 67 Gabra, 160 Gaines, 257 Gainj, 237-249

dependents in, 242-243, 248-249 first birth, age at, 241, 243, 244 household composition and, 238, 241 household labor and, 238, 241 interbirth intervals in, 241

397

lactational anovulation in, 241, 244-246 marriage in, 243-244 menarche median age in, 244 sexual intercourse frequency in, 243-244 wives and nonwives in, 242, 248

Gardar, 110, 128

Index

Eucalyptus, 21, 23, 25, 36, 43, 46, 47 Eucalyptus aspera, 36, 37 Eucalyptus brevidolia, 38 Eucalyptus camaldulensis, 39 Eucalyptus microtheca, 35, 36, 37, 39 Eucalyptus odontocarpa, 42 Eucalyptus terminalis, 36, 37 Euphorbia coghlaniis, 38 Euphorbia wheeleri, 42 Eupodotis australis, 19, 29, 46 Euros,40 Eurphorbia coghlani, 42 Ewe, 116 Export crops, 339, 355, 356, 360 Extraxomatic (exosomatic) energy sources, 5

Fallow periods in Northern Atlantic islands, 139 in Rwanda, 278, 282 in swidden agriculture, see under

Swidden agriculture False analogy, 122 Famine, 162, 355, 356, 359 Famine foods, 76 Farm diversity, 300-302 Faroe, 104, 105, 107, 124, 136 Fertility, 237-249, 251-268, see also Gainj;

Hindus concave population structure and, 251,

252, 253, 264 controlled, 251, 252, 253 convex population structure and, 251,

252, 253, 263 development as contraceptive theory

and, 246 early developmental period in, 263 first birth, age at, 241, 243, 244, 259 interbirth intervals and, 241, 259 lactational anovulation and, 241, 244-246 menarche median age and, 244 middle developmental period in, 263 modernization onset in, 263 motivation in, 253, 258 natural, 251, 252, 253 pretransitional period in, 263 sexual intercourse frequency and, 243-244

Fertilizer, see also specific types irrigated rice production and, 299, 309 Kofyar use of, 340, 342 in Northern Atlantic islands, 109-110

Fertilizer (cont.) in Rwanda, 280, 284

Ficus, 46, 49, 51 Ficus platypoda, 33 Fimbristylis oxystachya, 23, 24, 25, 28, 50 Finnsson, Hannes, 142 Fire setting, 108

in Great Sandy Desert, 36, 40 Kofyar and, 340 in seventeenth-century China, 324-325 in swidden agriculture, 301-302

First birth, age at, 241, 243, 244, 259 Fiscus platypoda, 29 Fish, 88, 95 Fish ponds, 313 Floods, 374, 376, 380 Flying squirrels, 88 Fodder

in Melemchi, 199, 211 in Northern Atlantic islands, 115-116,

117-119, 129-132, 136-137 in Zimbabwe savanna, 181, 184, 187

Foot and mouth disease, 190 Foraging, see Hunting and gathering Forests, 8

communal tenure and, 226-227, 229 Ituri, see Ituri Forest in Northern Atlantic islands, 107-108

Fossil fuels, 5, 6 Fowl, 88, 119, see also Poultry Fried, Morton, 10 Fruits, see also specific types

Gugadja and, 29, 33-34 Mbuti pygmies and, 63, 68

Gabon forest, 67 Gabra, 160 Gaines, 257 Gainj, 237-249

dependents in, 242-243, 248-249 first birth, age at, 241, 243, 244 household composition and, 238, 241 household labor and, 238, 241 interbirth intervals in, 241

397

lactational anovulation in, 241, 244-246 marriage in, 243-244 menarche median age in, 244 sexual intercourse frequency in, 243-244 wives and nonwives in, 242, 248

Gardar, 110, 128

398

Gathering, 75-77 Geckos,45 Geertz, Clifford, 235 Gemeinschaft, 223 General Strike of 1926, 354, 358, 361 German Hanseatic traders, 106 Ghachok, 256 Gharhis, 257 Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, 61, 62, 63, 64-

65, 66, 68, 69, 75, 77 GISP2 ice core project, 143 Gjaskogar, 117, 118, 119, 120 Gliding squirrels, 95 "Goanna get up time," 21, 47, 48 Goannas, 45-46 Goats

AriaaI Rendille and, 160, 163 in Melemchi, 198,201,207 in Northern Atlantic islands, 105, 107,

108 Godar, 124, 140-142 Gonocarups eremophilus, 41 Good to Eat (Rappaport), 7 Goths, 199, see also Cow-yak goths; zomo

decrease in, 206-207 defined, 198 moving of, 202

Gragas, 116, 124, 138, 139, 140 Grains

Ariaal Rendil\e and, 163, 165 Hausa and, 358, 359 Kofyar and, 330, 341, 342 in Northern Atlantic islands, 105 in seventeenth-century China, 325

Grass seeds, 20, 21, 23, 25, 49, 50, 51 Grave goods, 221n Grazing, see Overgrazing Great desert skink, 44, 45 Great Sandy Desert, 17-51, see also

Gugadja climate of, 19 enviromental setting of, 19 importance of resources in, 48-49 nature of subsistence, 47-48 regional differences in subsistance, 46-47 seasonal round in, 19-22

Green grass time, 20, 31, 48 Greenland, 104, 105, 106, 107, 117, 138, 142

causes of adverse impacts in, 121-123 climatic change in, 125-127

Greenland (cont.) conservation measures in, 110 deforestation in, 107, 108

Index

differential impact model and, 128, 129, 133

environmental impediments to manage­ment in, 125

evidence for environmental degradation in, 121

fodder consumption in, 116, 119 pastures in, 109, 112-113 population in historical, 114 social change in, 128 stocking levels in, 116 tenantry in, 140

Green manure, 313, 314-315, 316, 319, 322,323

Green Revolution, 296, 298n, 328 Grevillea eriostachya, 34 Grevillea stenobotrya, 39 Grevillea wickhamii, 43 Groundnuts, 337, 339, 341 Grubs, 74, 75 Gugadja, 17-51

animals and, 36-46 disposable articles used by, 41 division of labor in, 48 fruits and, 33-34 importance of desert resources to, 48-49 insects and, 35 nectars and gums and, 34 plants and, 22-23, 35-36, 37, 38, 39, 42,

43 roots and, 30-33 seeds and, 17,23-30,47,49-50 tubers and, 29, 30-33 wooden implements used by, 35-36, 37

Gums, 34 Gurrunba, 27 Gurung, 196, 198

Habitats defined, 4 of major gathered food species, 66

Habyarimana, Juvenale, 285 Hakea macrocarpa, 34 Hakea suberea, 34 Halogaris aspera, 38 Hard time, see Hungry time

398

Gathering, 75-77 Geckos,45 Geertz, Clifford, 235 Gemeinschaft, 223 General Strike of 1926, 354, 358, 361 German Hanseatic traders, 106 Ghachok, 256 Gharhis, 257 Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, 61, 62, 63, 64-

65, 66, 68, 69, 75, 77 GISP2 ice core project, 143 Gjaskogar, 117, 118, 119, 120 Gliding squirrels, 95 "Goanna get up time," 21, 47, 48 Goannas, 45-46 Goats

AriaaI Rendille and, 160, 163 in Melemchi, 198,201,207 in Northern Atlantic islands, 105, 107,

108 Godar, 124, 140-142 Gonocarups eremophilus, 41 Good to Eat (Rappaport), 7 Goths, 199, see also Cow-yak goths; zomo

decrease in, 206-207 defined, 198 moving of, 202

Gragas, 116, 124, 138, 139, 140 Grains

Ariaal Rendil\e and, 163, 165 Hausa and, 358, 359 Kofyar and, 330, 341, 342 in Northern Atlantic islands, 105 in seventeenth-century China, 325

Grass seeds, 20, 21, 23, 25, 49, 50, 51 Grave goods, 221n Grazing, see Overgrazing Great desert skink, 44, 45 Great Sandy Desert, 17-51, see also

Gugadja climate of, 19 enviromental setting of, 19 importance of resources in, 48-49 nature of subsistence, 47-48 regional differences in subsistance, 46-47 seasonal round in, 19-22

Green grass time, 20, 31, 48 Greenland, 104, 105, 106, 107, 117, 138, 142

causes of adverse impacts in, 121-123 climatic change in, 125-127

Greenland (cont.) conservation measures in, 110 deforestation in, 107, 108

Index

differential impact model and, 128, 129, 133

environmental impediments to manage­ment in, 125

evidence for environmental degradation in, 121

fodder consumption in, 116, 119 pastures in, 109, 112-113 population in historical, 114 social change in, 128 stocking levels in, 116 tenantry in, 140

Green manure, 313, 314-315, 316, 319, 322,323

Green Revolution, 296, 298n, 328 Grevillea eriostachya, 34 Grevillea stenobotrya, 39 Grevillea wickhamii, 43 Groundnuts, 337, 339, 341 Grubs, 74, 75 Gugadja, 17-51

animals and, 36-46 disposable articles used by, 41 division of labor in, 48 fruits and, 33-34 importance of desert resources to, 48-49 insects and, 35 nectars and gums and, 34 plants and, 22-23, 35-36, 37, 38, 39, 42,

43 roots and, 30-33 seeds and, 17,23-30,47,49-50 tubers and, 29, 30-33 wooden implements used by, 35-36, 37

Gums, 34 Gurrunba, 27 Gurung, 196, 198

Habitats defined, 4 of major gathered food species, 66

Habyarimana, Juvenale, 285 Hakea macrocarpa, 34 Hakea suberea, 34 Halogaris aspera, 38 Hard time, see Hungry time

Index

Hausa, 339n, 344n, 349-361, see also Wage labor

Hekla ashfall, 120 Herbs, 23 Herd diversity, 159, 162, 197 Herd mobility, 154-156

Ariaal Rendille and, 159-160, 162 in Zimbabwe savanna, 184-186, 187, 191,

192 Highland New Guinea, 237-249, see also

Gainj Himalayan communities, see Melemchi Hindus, 251-258

caste system of, 251, 254, 256-257, 258, 260-261, 267

contraceptive sterilization in, 262, 263 divorce in, 258-259 first birth, age at, 259 importance of sons versus daughters in,

258 interbirth intervals and, 259 marriage in, 259, 261, 262-263 remarriage in, 258-259 value of children in, 266, 267 widowhood in, 259, 261

Honey Batak and, 88, 89, 94, 95, 96 Mbuti pygmies and, 60, 74-75, 76-77

Horses, 105, 119 Horticulture, 233 Hot time, 21-22, 24, 25, 31, 48, 49 Household labor, 238, 241 Hufe, 220 Human manure, 313, 314-315, 322 Hungry time (hard time), 17, 22, 25 Hunting

by Batak, 97 by Mbuti pygmies, 40-44, 60, 70-73

Hunting and gathering, 9, 10, 11, 13-16, 154, see also Batak; Gugadja; Mbuti pygmies; Northern Atlantic islands

Hydroelectric power, 5 Hyemoschus aquaticus, 71

Iceland, 104, 105, 106, 107, 138, 142, 143 causes of adverse impacts in, 121-123 climatic change in, 125-127 deforestation in, 107 differential impact model and, 128

399

Iceland (cont.) environmental impediments to manage­

ment in, 125 evidence for environmental degradation

in, 121 fodder consumption in, 115-116, 118, 119 management hierarchy in, 141 pastures in, 112-113 population in historical, 114 social change in, 128 stocking levels in, 117 tenantry in, 139-140

Indava, 186 Individual tenure, 227-229 Indonesia, 235 Infanticide, 252 Infant mortality, 261, 262, 266 Infertile crescent, 241 Inheritance, of zomo herds, 196, 202, 203 Insects, 35, 74-75 Insufficient detail, 122 Interbirth intervals, 241, 259 Intertropical Convergence Zone, 160 Ipomoea, 20, 30, 31, 32-33, 34, 46, 48, 49,

51 Ipomoea chisochaeta, 63 Ipomoea costata, 29, 30, 38 Ipomoea muelleri, 41 Irrigated rice production, 289, 290-291,

293-294, 296-309 adoption of, 296-299 characteristics of users, 302-306 efficiency of, 299-300 reliability and farm diversity in, 300-302

Irrigation, 235, see also Irrigated rice production

communal tenure and, 225, 227 in Little Colorado River Basin, 374-377,

378, 379, 386 in Northern Atlantic islands, 110, 129

Irvingia, 76 Irvingia excelsa, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69 Irvingia grandifolia, 65, 66, 69 Irvingia robur, 63, 65, 66, 69 Ituri Forest, 55-79, see also Mbuti pygmies

environment of, 60-62 seasonality in, 68-70

lulbemardia seretii, 61 1. seretti, 73, 74

Index

Hausa, 339n, 344n, 349-361, see also Wage labor

Hekla ashfall, 120 Herbs, 23 Herd diversity, 159, 162, 197 Herd mobility, 154-156

Ariaal Rendille and, 159-160, 162 in Zimbabwe savanna, 184-186, 187, 191,

192 Highland New Guinea, 237-249, see also

Gainj Himalayan communities, see Melemchi Hindus, 251-258

caste system of, 251, 254, 256-257, 258, 260-261, 267

contraceptive sterilization in, 262, 263 divorce in, 258-259 first birth, age at, 259 importance of sons versus daughters in,

258 interbirth intervals and, 259 marriage in, 259, 261, 262-263 remarriage in, 258-259 value of children in, 266, 267 widowhood in, 259, 261

Honey Batak and, 88, 89, 94, 95, 96 Mbuti pygmies and, 60, 74-75, 76-77

Horses, 105, 119 Horticulture, 233 Hot time, 21-22, 24, 25, 31, 48, 49 Household labor, 238, 241 Hufe, 220 Human manure, 313, 314-315, 322 Hungry time (hard time), 17, 22, 25 Hunting

by Batak, 97 by Mbuti pygmies, 40-44, 60, 70-73

Hunting and gathering, 9, 10, 11, 13-16, 154, see also Batak; Gugadja; Mbuti pygmies; Northern Atlantic islands

Hydroelectric power, 5 Hyemoschus aquaticus, 71

Iceland, 104, 105, 106, 107, 138, 142, 143 causes of adverse impacts in, 121-123 climatic change in, 125-127 deforestation in, 107 differential impact model and, 128

399

Iceland (cont.) environmental impediments to manage­

ment in, 125 evidence for environmental degradation

in, 121 fodder consumption in, 115-116, 118, 119 management hierarchy in, 141 pastures in, 112-113 population in historical, 114 social change in, 128 stocking levels in, 117 tenantry in, 139-140

Indava, 186 Individual tenure, 227-229 Indonesia, 235 Infanticide, 252 Infant mortality, 261, 262, 266 Infertile crescent, 241 Inheritance, of zomo herds, 196, 202, 203 Insects, 35, 74-75 Insufficient detail, 122 Interbirth intervals, 241, 259 Intertropical Convergence Zone, 160 Ipomoea, 20, 30, 31, 32-33, 34, 46, 48, 49,

51 Ipomoea chisochaeta, 63 Ipomoea costata, 29, 30, 38 Ipomoea muelleri, 41 Irrigated rice production, 289, 290-291,

293-294, 296-309 adoption of, 296-299 characteristics of users, 302-306 efficiency of, 299-300 reliability and farm diversity in, 300-302

Irrigation, 235, see also Irrigated rice production

communal tenure and, 225, 227 in Little Colorado River Basin, 374-377,

378, 379, 386 in Northern Atlantic islands, 110, 129

Irvingia, 76 Irvingia excelsa, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69 Irvingia grandifolia, 65, 66, 69 Irvingia robur, 63, 65, 66, 69 Ituri Forest, 55-79, see also Mbuti pygmies

environment of, 60-62 seasonality in, 68-70

lulbemardia seretii, 61 1. seretti, 73, 74

400

Kalahari San, see !Kung San Kalingchowk, 208 Kamis,257 Kangaroos, 19, 21, 40, 44 Kangmang, 256 Kapisigdlit, 113, 114 Karanga, 178 Kathmandu, 199, 254 Kenya, 159-172,275, see also Ariaal

Rendille Kharkes, 202, 213 KiBila,73 Kidney fat index (KFI), 73 King's Mirror (Larsen), 123 KiPakombe, 73 Kofyar, 327-346, see also Cash-cropping

conditions favoring development of, 342-346

government interference with, 345 labor mobilization by, 333-338 spontaneous migration and pioneer settle-

ment by, 329-333 Kommachi, 164 !Kung San, 14, 15, 68, 69 Kuronzera, see Cattle, loaning of

Labor, see also Division of labor household, 238, 241 Kofyar and, 333-338 Mormons and, 381-382 in Zimbabwe savanna, 181, 187

Lactational anovulation, 241, 244-246 Land crabs, 95 Landnam, 107, 108 Land use

in Rwanda, 271-285, see also Soil loss in seventeenth-century China, 313

Langogan River, 92 Langtang, 197 Langtang National Park, 200, 210 Leaching, 316, 325 Lean meat, 55, 58 Lee, Richard B., 14 Leiglendingr, 138 Leopards, 73 Lese, 70 Lewogoso Lukumai, 164-165, 171 Lhosti Khola, 256 Liquor, see Alcohol

Index

Little Climatic Optimum (LCO), 125-127, 128, 129

Little Colorado River, 377, 378, 380 Little Colorado River Basin, 365-388, see

also Mormons description of, 372-373 human impact on, 377-378 sub-regions in, 373-378

Little Ice Age (LlA) , 106, 125-127, 129, 142

Livestock, see also Cattle; specific animals in seventeenth-century China, 314-315,

318-319 in Zimbabwe savanna, 184-190

Lizards, 21, 24, 25 Lobaye Forest, 67, 79 Locust beans, 332, 341 Locusts, 356, 360 Long fallow swidden production, 307 Long hunger, 162

Macregoria racemigera, 42 Macropus robustus, 40 Macrotis lagatis, 40 Maintenance costs, 383-384, 386 Maize, 163, 165-166,281, 292, 300, 304,

see also Corn Mammals, 40-44 Managerial detachment, 122-123, 142 Manihot esculenta, 63, 64 Manila copal, 88, 89, 101, 292 Manioc, 281, 283 Mansus, 220 Manuring

with green manure, 313, 314-315, 316, 319, 322, 323

with human manure, 313, 314-315, 322 in Melemchi, 203 in Northern Atlantic islands, 109-110,

129 in seventeenth-century China, 313,

314-315, 316-317, 319-323, 324 Mar muos, see Beer parties Marriage, 252, 253

in Gainj, 243-244 in Hindus, 259, 261, 262-263

Marsabit District, 159-192, see also Ariaal Rendille

Marsupials, 40 Marx, Karl, 10

400

Kalahari San, see !Kung San Kalingchowk, 208 Kamis,257 Kangaroos, 19, 21, 40, 44 Kangmang, 256 Kapisigdlit, 113, 114 Karanga, 178 Kathmandu, 199, 254 Kenya, 159-172,275, see also Ariaal

Rendille Kharkes, 202, 213 KiBila,73 Kidney fat index (KFI), 73 King's Mirror (Larsen), 123 KiPakombe, 73 Kofyar, 327-346, see also Cash-cropping

conditions favoring development of, 342-346

government interference with, 345 labor mobilization by, 333-338 spontaneous migration and pioneer settle-

ment by, 329-333 Kommachi, 164 !Kung San, 14, 15, 68, 69 Kuronzera, see Cattle, loaning of

Labor, see also Division of labor household, 238, 241 Kofyar and, 333-338 Mormons and, 381-382 in Zimbabwe savanna, 181, 187

Lactational anovulation, 241, 244-246 Land crabs, 95 Landnam, 107, 108 Land use

in Rwanda, 271-285, see also Soil loss in seventeenth-century China, 313

Langogan River, 92 Langtang, 197 Langtang National Park, 200, 210 Leaching, 316, 325 Lean meat, 55, 58 Lee, Richard B., 14 Leiglendingr, 138 Leopards, 73 Lese, 70 Lewogoso Lukumai, 164-165, 171 Lhosti Khola, 256 Liquor, see Alcohol

Index

Little Climatic Optimum (LCO), 125-127, 128, 129

Little Colorado River, 377, 378, 380 Little Colorado River Basin, 365-388, see

also Mormons description of, 372-373 human impact on, 377-378 sub-regions in, 373-378

Little Ice Age (LlA) , 106, 125-127, 129, 142

Livestock, see also Cattle; specific animals in seventeenth-century China, 314-315,

318-319 in Zimbabwe savanna, 184-190

Lizards, 21, 24, 25 Lobaye Forest, 67, 79 Locust beans, 332, 341 Locusts, 356, 360 Long fallow swidden production, 307 Long hunger, 162

Macregoria racemigera, 42 Macropus robustus, 40 Macrotis lagatis, 40 Maintenance costs, 383-384, 386 Maize, 163, 165-166,281, 292, 300, 304,

see also Corn Mammals, 40-44 Managerial detachment, 122-123, 142 Manihot esculenta, 63, 64 Manila copal, 88, 89, 101, 292 Manioc, 281, 283 Mansus, 220 Manuring

with green manure, 313, 314-315, 316, 319, 322, 323

with human manure, 313, 314-315, 322 in Melemchi, 203 in Northern Atlantic islands, 109-110,

129 in seventeenth-century China, 313,

314-315, 316-317, 319-323, 324 Mar muos, see Beer parties Marriage, 252, 253

in Gainj, 243-244 in Hindus, 259, 261, 262-263

Marsabit District, 159-192, see also Ariaal Rendille

Marsupials, 40 Marx, Karl, 10

Index

Matupi Cave, 57, 78 Mazvihwa, 186 Mbau forest, 61-62, 67 Mbau seeds, 75 Mbuti pygmies, 55-79, 85

animals and, 70-75 gathering by, 75-77 plants and, 58, 62-70

Meat, see also Animals Ariaal Rendille and, 165 Gugadja and, 29 lean, 55, 58 Mbuti pygmies and, 55, 58, 60, 73

Megaleia rufa, 40 Melemchi, 195-216, see also zomo

agricultural cycle in, 202-203 alternative sources of income in, 210-211 description of, 198-200

Meliaceae, 79 Meliponini,75 Menarche, median age at, 244 Merchant capital, 354-356 Middle developmental period, 263 Migration

of Gainj, 247 of Kofyar, 329-333

Milk Ariaal Rendille and, 163, 165 communal tenure and, 225 cow-yak goths and, 214 zomo, 195, 201, 203, 204, 205

Millet, 330, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 339, 341, 342, 343

Mirbelia viminalis, 42 Mobility, see Herd mobility Modernization onset, 263 Mokwa Scheme, 343n Mollugo molluginea, 42 Mollusks, 88, 95, 100 Monitors, 44, 45 Monkeys, 97, 295 Monsoon season, 202 Morgan, Lewis Henry, 10 Mormons, 365-388

conjoint enterprises and, 381-382, 388 ecological theory and, 385-388 physical environment and community

development in, 378-379 tithing and, 366, 370, 371, 372, 380-382,

385, 387-388

Mortality cattle, 180, 182-183, 191 infant, 261, 262, 266

Mototi, 186, 189 Mount Baldy, 377 Mukia, 29, 33 Mukugudo Maasai, 160 Mulberry-silkworm system, 313, 317-318,

319, 322, 323 Mulching, 275, 280, 284 Multilineal evolution, 10 Multiple regression, of coffee gardens,

247-249 Murowa, 186, 189 Musa paradisiaca, 64 Mushrooms, 76, 95, 96 Mutambi, 186, 189

Nadipur, 256 Nara festival, 214 Natural fertility, 251, 252, 253 Ndaka,70 Ndebele, 178 Nectars, 34 Neotragus batsei, 71

401

Nepal, 195-216, 251-268, see also Fertility; zomo

Net-hunting, 70-71, 76, 77 Newfoundland, 107 Ngatatjara, 46, 47 Niaquussat, 120 Niche, defined, 4 Nicotania bethamiana, 39 Niger Company, 355 Nigeria, 327-346, 349-361, see also Hausa;

Kofyar Nipaitsoq, 120 Njala (calorie hunger), 73 Nomadism, 13-14, 153, 154-156 Nonwives, of Gainj, 242, 248 North Atlantic Biocultural Organization

(NABO),143 North Atlantic Drift, 125 Northern Atlantic islands, 103-144

background on, 104-106 causes of adverse impacts in, 121-123 climatic change in, 125-127 conservation measures in, 109-110 cost accounting in, 136-137

Index

Matupi Cave, 57, 78 Mazvihwa, 186 Mbau forest, 61-62, 67 Mbau seeds, 75 Mbuti pygmies, 55-79, 85

animals and, 70-75 gathering by, 75-77 plants and, 58, 62-70

Meat, see also Animals Ariaal Rendille and, 165 Gugadja and, 29 lean, 55, 58 Mbuti pygmies and, 55, 58, 60, 73

Megaleia rufa, 40 Melemchi, 195-216, see also zomo

agricultural cycle in, 202-203 alternative sources of income in, 210-211 description of, 198-200

Meliaceae, 79 Meliponini,75 Menarche, median age at, 244 Merchant capital, 354-356 Middle developmental period, 263 Migration

of Gainj, 247 of Kofyar, 329-333

Milk Ariaal Rendille and, 163, 165 communal tenure and, 225 cow-yak goths and, 214 zomo, 195, 201, 203, 204, 205

Millet, 330, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 339, 341, 342, 343

Mirbelia viminalis, 42 Mobility, see Herd mobility Modernization onset, 263 Mokwa Scheme, 343n Mollugo molluginea, 42 Mollusks, 88, 95, 100 Monitors, 44, 45 Monkeys, 97, 295 Monsoon season, 202 Morgan, Lewis Henry, 10 Mormons, 365-388

conjoint enterprises and, 381-382, 388 ecological theory and, 385-388 physical environment and community

development in, 378-379 tithing and, 366, 370, 371, 372, 380-382,

385, 387-388

Mortality cattle, 180, 182-183, 191 infant, 261, 262, 266

Mototi, 186, 189 Mount Baldy, 377 Mukia, 29, 33 Mukugudo Maasai, 160 Mulberry-silkworm system, 313, 317-318,

319, 322, 323 Mulching, 275, 280, 284 Multilineal evolution, 10 Multiple regression, of coffee gardens,

247-249 Murowa, 186, 189 Musa paradisiaca, 64 Mushrooms, 76, 95, 96 Mutambi, 186, 189

Nadipur, 256 Nara festival, 214 Natural fertility, 251, 252, 253 Ndaka,70 Ndebele, 178 Nectars, 34 Neotragus batsei, 71

401

Nepal, 195-216, 251-268, see also Fertility; zomo

Net-hunting, 70-71, 76, 77 Newfoundland, 107 Ngatatjara, 46, 47 Niaquussat, 120 Niche, defined, 4 Nicotania bethamiana, 39 Niger Company, 355 Nigeria, 327-346, 349-361, see also Hausa;

Kofyar Nipaitsoq, 120 Njala (calorie hunger), 73 Nomadism, 13-14, 153, 154-156 Nonwives, of Gainj, 242, 248 North Atlantic Biocultural Organization

(NABO),143 North Atlantic Drift, 125 Northern Atlantic islands, 103-144

background on, 104-106 causes of adverse impacts in, 121-123 climatic change in, 125-127 conservation measures in, 109-110 cost accounting in, 136-137

402

Northern Atlantic islands (cont.) cultural impediments to management in,

127-128 deforestation in, 107-108 environmental impediments to manage­

ment in, 123-127 evidence for environmental degradation

in, 120-121 fodder consumption in, 115-116, 117-

119, 129-132, 136-137 impact management in, 110-111 management hierarchy in, 140-142 pastures of, see Pastures stocking levels in, 116-117, 125, 132-133 tenantry in, 138-140

North Hebrides, 104 Norway, 105, 106, 125, 142 Notaden nichollsi, 45 Nutritional analysis, of bush foods, 28-29

Oats, 105 Obed, 367, 381 Oberaaralp, 224-225 Oil boom, 339 Oil palm fruits, 76 Optimal foraging theory, 15 Orkney, 104, 105, 106 Overcultivation, 278-279 Overgrazing

Ariaal Rendille and, 160 communal tenure and, 224, 225-226 in Little Colorado River Basin, 378 in Northern Atlantic islands, 114

Paddy rice production, 313, 314-316, 319, 322,324

Paiute, 14 Palawan Island, 85-101, 289-309, see also

Batak; Irrigated rice production; Swidden agriculture

description of, 291-292 seasonality in, 91-92

Palawan peacock pheasants, 95 Palawan tree shrew, 95 PALE (paleoclimates of arctic lakes and

estuaries), 143 Palm oil, 339 Palm pith, 95 Panda oleosa, 79 Panicum australiense, 23, 24, 25, 28, 50

Panicum cymbiforme, 23, 24, 28, 50 Parkia ciappertoniana, see Locust beans Paso, 302-304

Index

Pastoralism, 153-156, see also Ariaal Rendille; Communal tenure; Melem­chi; Zimbabwe savanna

Pastures, 119, 128-129, 132, 134-135, see also Kharkes

impacts on, 108-109 political power and, 137-138 vulnerability of, 111-114, 125

Pathis, 202 Paths, communally owned, 227 Paupers, 139 Paysannat, 281 Peanuts, 64, 336, 343 Peas, 284 Penan,8 Pere, 70 Pesticides, 299, 309 Petalostylis cassioides, 43 Philippines, see Palawan Island Pigs

Batak and, 88, 94, 95, 96-97, 100, 101 Kofyar and, 340 Mbuti pygmies and, 73 in Northern Atlantic islands, 105, 119 in Palawan Island, 292, 295 in seventeenth-century China, 318, 319,

322-323, 325 Pigs for the Ancestors (Rappaport), 4 Pintubi, 18 Plantains, 57, 63, 75 Plants, see also specific types

Batak and, 95 in decoration, 42 distribution and abundance of, 64-68 Gugadja and, 22-23, 35-36, 37, 38, 39,

42,43 Mbuti pygmies and, 58, 62-70 with medicinal functions, 38 with miscellaneous values, 43 as tobacco, 39 wild,62-64 for wooden implements, 35-36, 37

Pleistocene period, 14, 57 Podes, 257 Pokhara, 251-268, see also Fertility

description of, 255-259 Pokot, 160

402

Northern Atlantic islands (cont.) cultural impediments to management in,

127-128 deforestation in, 107-108 environmental impediments to manage­

ment in, 123-127 evidence for environmental degradation

in, 120-121 fodder consumption in, 115-116, 117-

119, 129-132, 136-137 impact management in, 110-111 management hierarchy in, 140-142 pastures of, see Pastures stocking levels in, 116-117, 125, 132-133 tenantry in, 138-140

North Hebrides, 104 Norway, 105, 106, 125, 142 Notaden nichollsi, 45 Nutritional analysis, of bush foods, 28-29

Oats, 105 Obed, 367, 381 Oberaaralp, 224-225 Oil boom, 339 Oil palm fruits, 76 Optimal foraging theory, 15 Orkney, 104, 105, 106 Overcultivation, 278-279 Overgrazing

Ariaal Rendille and, 160 communal tenure and, 224, 225-226 in Little Colorado River Basin, 378 in Northern Atlantic islands, 114

Paddy rice production, 313, 314-316, 319, 322,324

Paiute, 14 Palawan Island, 85-101, 289-309, see also

Batak; Irrigated rice production; Swidden agriculture

description of, 291-292 seasonality in, 91-92

Palawan peacock pheasants, 95 Palawan tree shrew, 95 PALE (paleoclimates of arctic lakes and

estuaries), 143 Palm oil, 339 Palm pith, 95 Panda oleosa, 79 Panicum australiense, 23, 24, 25, 28, 50

Panicum cymbiforme, 23, 24, 28, 50 Parkia ciappertoniana, see Locust beans Paso, 302-304

Index

Pastoralism, 153-156, see also Ariaal Rendille; Communal tenure; Melem­chi; Zimbabwe savanna

Pastures, 119, 128-129, 132, 134-135, see also Kharkes

impacts on, 108-109 political power and, 137-138 vulnerability of, 111-114, 125

Pathis, 202 Paths, communally owned, 227 Paupers, 139 Paysannat, 281 Peanuts, 64, 336, 343 Peas, 284 Penan,8 Pere, 70 Pesticides, 299, 309 Petalostylis cassioides, 43 Philippines, see Palawan Island Pigs

Batak and, 88, 94, 95, 96-97, 100, 101 Kofyar and, 340 Mbuti pygmies and, 73 in Northern Atlantic islands, 105, 119 in Palawan Island, 292, 295 in seventeenth-century China, 318, 319,

322-323, 325 Pigs for the Ancestors (Rappaport), 4 Pintubi, 18 Plantains, 57, 63, 75 Plants, see also specific types

Batak and, 95 in decoration, 42 distribution and abundance of, 64-68 Gugadja and, 22-23, 35-36, 37, 38, 39,

42,43 Mbuti pygmies and, 58, 62-70 with medicinal functions, 38 with miscellaneous values, 43 as tobacco, 39 wild,62-64 for wooden implements, 35-36, 37

Pleistocene period, 14, 57 Podes, 257 Pokhara, 251-268, see also Fertility

description of, 255-259 Pokot, 160

Index

Political economy approach, 10 Political power, pasture productivity and,

137-138 Pollen, 107, 109 Polygyny, 163, 164, 334 Pond mud, 316, 318 Population

of Ariaal Rendille, 162 of Gugadja, 22 of Little Colorado River Basin, 370 of Mbuti pygmies, 57 of Northern Atlantic islands, 114-115 of Palawan Island, 292 of Rwanda, 271, 274, 281 of seventeenth-century China, 313 swidden agriculture and, 293-294

Portulaca, 25 Portulaca fllifolia, 24 Portulaca oleracea, 24 Potatoes, 203 Poultry, 318, 319, see also Fowl Precipitation, see Rainfall Pretransitional period, 263 Prolonged Coal Strike, 358 Protein hunger (ekbelu), 73 Pythons, 45, 73

Radishes, 324 Railroads, 353 Rainfall

in Benue valley, 338 in Great Sandy Desert, 19, 22 in Ituri Forest, 60-61 in Kenya, 160-172 in Little Colorado River Basin, 372, 373,

374-375, 380 in Rwanda, 279 in Zaria, 355, 359, 360

Rainy season, 298 Rape cake, 316, 318, 323 Rattan, 88, 95, 292 Reactions out of phase, 123, 142 Red kangaroos, 40 Red River delta, 298 Remarriage, 258-259 Reptiles, 21, 44-46 Residence patterns, cow-yak goths and,

214-215 Rhagodia spinescens, 43 Rhyncharrhena linearis, 41

403

Rice Batak and, 88-89, 90, 92, 96, 101 irrigated production of, see Irrigated rice

production Kofyar and, 334, 336, 339, 341, 343 Mbuti pygmies and, 75 paddy production of, 313, 314-316, 319,

322,324 swidden agriculture and, 292, 293-296,

298,305 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66,

69-70,76 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 68, 69-70 Ridge-tailed monitors, 45 Rio Puerco, 378 Roads, communally owned, 227 Rock holes, 21 Roots, 30-33 Rotary querns, 105 Rwanda, 271-285, see also Soil loss Rwanda Non-farm Strategies Survey, 282

Sacristenna australe, 38 Sahel, 6, 162 St. Johns, 367, 371, 373, 374, 376, 377,

378, 379, 387, 388 St. Joseph, 367, 369, 372, 373, 374, 376,

378, 380, 381, 386, 387 Salt Lake City, 365-366 Samburu, 160 Samsstadir, 117, 118, 119 Sandnes, 108, 110, 117, 118, 119, 128 Sandy soil zone, 178-179, 180, 182-186,

189-190, 191 Santalum acuminatum, 46 Santalum lanceolatum, 33 Sapotaceae, 79 Sarawak,8 Sarkis, 257 Scirpus dissachanthus, 24 Scrub birch, 107 Seals, 123, 133 Seasonality, see also Climate

in Great Sandy Desert, 19-22 in Ituri Forest, 68-70 in Palawan Island, 91-92

Secondary forests, 57, 64 Sedabraevid, 124 Seeds, see also specific types

distribution and availability of, 23-25

Index

Political economy approach, 10 Political power, pasture productivity and,

137-138 Pollen, 107, 109 Polygyny, 163, 164, 334 Pond mud, 316, 318 Population

of Ariaal Rendille, 162 of Gugadja, 22 of Little Colorado River Basin, 370 of Mbuti pygmies, 57 of Northern Atlantic islands, 114-115 of Palawan Island, 292 of Rwanda, 271, 274, 281 of seventeenth-century China, 313 swidden agriculture and, 293-294

Portulaca, 25 Portulaca fllifolia, 24 Portulaca oleracea, 24 Potatoes, 203 Poultry, 318, 319, see also Fowl Precipitation, see Rainfall Pretransitional period, 263 Prolonged Coal Strike, 358 Protein hunger (ekbelu), 73 Pythons, 45, 73

Radishes, 324 Railroads, 353 Rainfall

in Benue valley, 338 in Great Sandy Desert, 19, 22 in Ituri Forest, 60-61 in Kenya, 160-172 in Little Colorado River Basin, 372, 373,

374-375, 380 in Rwanda, 279 in Zaria, 355, 359, 360

Rainy season, 298 Rape cake, 316, 318, 323 Rattan, 88, 95, 292 Reactions out of phase, 123, 142 Red kangaroos, 40 Red River delta, 298 Remarriage, 258-259 Reptiles, 21, 44-46 Residence patterns, cow-yak goths and,

214-215 Rhagodia spinescens, 43 Rhyncharrhena linearis, 41

403

Rice Batak and, 88-89, 90, 92, 96, 101 irrigated production of, see Irrigated rice

production Kofyar and, 334, 336, 339, 341, 343 Mbuti pygmies and, 75 paddy production of, 313, 314-316, 319,

322,324 swidden agriculture and, 292, 293-296,

298,305 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 60, 63, 64, 65, 66,

69-70,76 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 68, 69-70 Ridge-tailed monitors, 45 Rio Puerco, 378 Roads, communally owned, 227 Rock holes, 21 Roots, 30-33 Rotary querns, 105 Rwanda, 271-285, see also Soil loss Rwanda Non-farm Strategies Survey, 282

Sacristenna australe, 38 Sahel, 6, 162 St. Johns, 367, 371, 373, 374, 376, 377,

378, 379, 387, 388 St. Joseph, 367, 369, 372, 373, 374, 376,

378, 380, 381, 386, 387 Salt Lake City, 365-366 Samburu, 160 Samsstadir, 117, 118, 119 Sandnes, 108, 110, 117, 118, 119, 128 Sandy soil zone, 178-179, 180, 182-186,

189-190, 191 Santalum acuminatum, 46 Santalum lanceolatum, 33 Sapotaceae, 79 Sarawak,8 Sarkis, 257 Scirpus dissachanthus, 24 Scrub birch, 107 Seals, 123, 133 Seasonality, see also Climate

in Great Sandy Desert, 19-22 in Ituri Forest, 68-70 in Palawan Island, 91-92

Secondary forests, 57, 64 Sedabraevid, 124 Seeds, see also specific types

distribution and availability of, 23-25

404

Seeds (cant.) Gugadja and, 17, 23-30, 47, 49-50 importance of, 49-50 Mbuti pygmies and, 60 nutritional analysis of, 28-29 preparation of, 25-30 storage of, 17, 25, 47

Service, Elman, 10 Sesame, 330 Seti Gandaki River, 255, 256 Seventeenth-century China, 311-325

crop rotation in, 313-314, 324 energy flows in, 319-323 land use in, 313 livestock in, 314-315, 318-319 mulberry-silkworm system in, 313, 317-

318, 319, 322, 323 paddy rice production in, 313, 314-316,

319, 322, 324 population of, 313 winter crops in, 316-317

Sexual intercourse, frequency of, 243-244 Sheanut, 332 Sheep

Ariaal Rendille and, 160, 163 communal tenure and, 225 in Melemchi, 198, 201, 203, 207, 212 in Northern Atlantic islands, 105, 107,

108, 116, 117, 129, 132, 133 in seventeenth-century China, 318, 319,

322,323 Sheep units, 129, 132, 133 Shendam Resettlement Scheme, 345n Shen's Agricultural Handbook, 312, 313,

317, 319, 323 Sherpa, see Melemchi Shetland, 104, 105, 106, 107, 112, 126-127,

140 Shifting cultivation, 62, 79, 86, 89, 100, 234 Short fallow swidden production, 289-290,

293, 294-296, 299-300, 304, 306-308 Short hunger, 162 Short observational series, 122, 125 Showlow, 367, 371, 373-374, 376, 380, 386,

387 Shrimp, 95 Sida cardiophylla, 41 Sida virgata, 34, 41, 43 Silkworms, see Mulberry-silkworm system Silver Creek, 377, 378

Index

Slavery, 128 Slopes, 273, 274-275, 276, 277, 279, 281-

282,283 Small stock, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169 Smithies, 107-108 Snakes, 45 Snowflake, 367, 371, 373, 374, 376, 377,

378, 379, 381, 387, 388 Soil loss, 271-285

biological approaches to, 273-274 crop cover and, 274-275, 276, 281 C-values and, 275-276, 283 engineering approaches to, 273 farmer perceptions and, 277-279 in Little Colorado River Basin, 378 organization of farming and, 279-283 in seventeenth-century China, 325 slope and, 273, 274-275, 276, 277, 279,

281-282, 283 Solanum, 20, 33-34, 47, 49, 51 Solanum centrale, 31, 34, 49 Solanum chippendalei, 29, 33, 34 Solanum diversiflorum, 33, 34 Solar energy, 323 Somali, 160, 162 Somalia, 162 Someone Else's Problem (S.E.P.), 123, 141,

142 Sonanum centrule, 29 Sorghum

Kofyar and, 330, 333, 337, 339, 340, 341, 343

Mormons and, 381 in Rwanda, 281

Southwestern Africa, 7 Soybeans, 324 Spears, 70 Spinach, 324 Spinifex, 20, 24, 50, 51 Spring, 24-25 Springs, 21 Squirrels, 88, 95 Sri Lanka, 299 Stability, 384-387 Stackhousia intermedia, 41 Stanley, Henry, 55, 59 Starvation camps, 55, 59 Steward, Julian, 10, 14 Stock culling, 132-133 Stocking levels, 116-117, 125, 132-133

404

Seeds (cant.) Gugadja and, 17, 23-30, 47, 49-50 importance of, 49-50 Mbuti pygmies and, 60 nutritional analysis of, 28-29 preparation of, 25-30 storage of, 17, 25, 47

Service, Elman, 10 Sesame, 330 Seti Gandaki River, 255, 256 Seventeenth-century China, 311-325

crop rotation in, 313-314, 324 energy flows in, 319-323 land use in, 313 livestock in, 314-315, 318-319 mulberry-silkworm system in, 313, 317-

318, 319, 322, 323 paddy rice production in, 313, 314-316,

319, 322, 324 population of, 313 winter crops in, 316-317

Sexual intercourse, frequency of, 243-244 Sheanut, 332 Sheep

Ariaal Rendille and, 160, 163 communal tenure and, 225 in Melemchi, 198, 201, 203, 207, 212 in Northern Atlantic islands, 105, 107,

108, 116, 117, 129, 132, 133 in seventeenth-century China, 318, 319,

322,323 Sheep units, 129, 132, 133 Shendam Resettlement Scheme, 345n Shen's Agricultural Handbook, 312, 313,

317, 319, 323 Sherpa, see Melemchi Shetland, 104, 105, 106, 107, 112, 126-127,

140 Shifting cultivation, 62, 79, 86, 89, 100, 234 Short fallow swidden production, 289-290,

293, 294-296, 299-300, 304, 306-308 Short hunger, 162 Short observational series, 122, 125 Showlow, 367, 371, 373-374, 376, 380, 386,

387 Shrimp, 95 Sida cardiophylla, 41 Sida virgata, 34, 41, 43 Silkworms, see Mulberry-silkworm system Silver Creek, 377, 378

Index

Slavery, 128 Slopes, 273, 274-275, 276, 277, 279, 281-

282,283 Small stock, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169 Smithies, 107-108 Snakes, 45 Snowflake, 367, 371, 373, 374, 376, 377,

378, 379, 381, 387, 388 Soil loss, 271-285

biological approaches to, 273-274 crop cover and, 274-275, 276, 281 C-values and, 275-276, 283 engineering approaches to, 273 farmer perceptions and, 277-279 in Little Colorado River Basin, 378 organization of farming and, 279-283 in seventeenth-century China, 325 slope and, 273, 274-275, 276, 277, 279,

281-282, 283 Solanum, 20, 33-34, 47, 49, 51 Solanum centrale, 31, 34, 49 Solanum chippendalei, 29, 33, 34 Solanum diversiflorum, 33, 34 Solar energy, 323 Somali, 160, 162 Somalia, 162 Someone Else's Problem (S.E.P.), 123, 141,

142 Sonanum centrule, 29 Sorghum

Kofyar and, 330, 333, 337, 339, 340, 341, 343

Mormons and, 381 in Rwanda, 281

Southwestern Africa, 7 Soybeans, 324 Spears, 70 Spinach, 324 Spinifex, 20, 24, 50, 51 Spring, 24-25 Springs, 21 Squirrels, 88, 95 Sri Lanka, 299 Stability, 384-387 Stackhousia intermedia, 41 Stanley, Henry, 55, 59 Starvation camps, 55, 59 Steward, Julian, 10, 14 Stock culling, 132-133 Stocking levels, 116-117, 125, 132-133

Index

Stong, 117, 118, 119, 120 Storage

of fruits, 33, 34 of seeds, 17, 25, 47

Streptoglossa bubakii, 38 Streptoglossa macrocephala, 38 Striga, 340 Sturiasson, Snorri, 141 Stylobasium, 47 Stylobasium spathulatum, 28, 42 Subsistence gardening, 245-246 Succulent seeds, 23, 24, 25 Sudan, 6, 162 Summer, 24 Sunset, 367, 369, 381 Sweden, 254 Sweet potatoes, 57, 245, 280 Swidden agriculture, 289-296, 298, 305

Batak and, 90, 92, 93 efficiency of, 299-300 long fallow production of, 307 population pressure and, 293-294 reliability and farm diversity in, 300-302 short fallow production of, 289-290, 293,

294-296, 299-300, 304, 306-308 Swiss Alps, 219-229, see also Communal

tenure

Tachyglossus aculeatus, 40 Tagbanua, 292, 293 Takwi valley, 239 Tamang, 196, 197 Tarke Tau, 198, 202, 203, 211, 212 Taro, 245 Tasaday people, 15 Taxation

Rausa and, 355, 357, 358, 360, 361 Kofyar and, 341

Taylor, 367, 371, 373, 374, 376, 377, 378, 381, 387

Temperature, see also Climate in Great Sandy Desert, 21 in Northern Atlantic islands, 112-113,

114, 125-127 Templetonia incarna, 39 Tenantry, 138-140 Tenurial conflict, 181, 189-190 Termites, 60, 74, 76 Tetracarpidium conophornm, 63, 64, 65, 66,

69,76

Tetraculia, 69 Thailand, 298-299 Thakuris, 257 Thermostat model, 122 Thing system, 124

405

Thjorsardalur, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120 Thorarinsson, Sigurdur, 120-121 Thorgillsson, Ari, 107, 124 Threculia africana, 64 Tian, 313, 319 Tibetans, 197 Tieghemella africana, 63, 65, 66, 69 Tiliqua multifasciata, see Blue tongue Timpuan, 301 Tinospora similacina, 41 Tithing

communal tenure and, 223 Mormons and, 366, 370, 371, 372, 380-

382, 385, 387-388 Tiv, 333, 343 Toads, 45 Tobacco, 304

plants used as, 39 Tonga, 30 Torbel, 219-229, see also Communal tenure Tourism, 200, 211 Toxic foods, 27-30, 76 Trade

Ariaal Rendille and, 163, 165 Batak and, 86, 88, 89, 100 Mbuti pygmies and, 56, 58

Tragedy of the commons, 155, 224n Trampling, 109, 114 Transhumant agropastoralism, 189, 191,

195-216 advantages of, 196 cow-yak goth patterns in, 211-212 herd management in, 201-202

Treculia africana, 63, 65, 66, 76 Tribulopis augustifolia, 38 Triodia basedowii, 24 Triodia longiceps, 43 Triodia pungens, 24, 37 Tropical livestock units (TLUs), 165-166,

167, 169, 170 Truffles, 30 Tubal ligation, 262, 263 Tubers

Gugadja and, 29, 30-33 in Rwanda, 283

Index

Stong, 117, 118, 119, 120 Storage

of fruits, 33, 34 of seeds, 17, 25, 47

Streptoglossa bubakii, 38 Streptoglossa macrocephala, 38 Striga, 340 Sturiasson, Snorri, 141 Stylobasium, 47 Stylobasium spathulatum, 28, 42 Subsistence gardening, 245-246 Succulent seeds, 23, 24, 25 Sudan, 6, 162 Summer, 24 Sunset, 367, 369, 381 Sweden, 254 Sweet potatoes, 57, 245, 280 Swidden agriculture, 289-296, 298, 305

Batak and, 90, 92, 93 efficiency of, 299-300 long fallow production of, 307 population pressure and, 293-294 reliability and farm diversity in, 300-302 short fallow production of, 289-290, 293,

294-296, 299-300, 304, 306-308 Swiss Alps, 219-229, see also Communal

tenure

Tachyglossus aculeatus, 40 Tagbanua, 292, 293 Takwi valley, 239 Tamang, 196, 197 Tarke Tau, 198, 202, 203, 211, 212 Taro, 245 Tasaday people, 15 Taxation

Rausa and, 355, 357, 358, 360, 361 Kofyar and, 341

Taylor, 367, 371, 373, 374, 376, 377, 378, 381, 387

Temperature, see also Climate in Great Sandy Desert, 21 in Northern Atlantic islands, 112-113,

114, 125-127 Templetonia incarna, 39 Tenantry, 138-140 Tenurial conflict, 181, 189-190 Termites, 60, 74, 76 Tetracarpidium conophornm, 63, 64, 65, 66,

69,76

Tetraculia, 69 Thailand, 298-299 Thakuris, 257 Thermostat model, 122 Thing system, 124

405

Thjorsardalur, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120 Thorarinsson, Sigurdur, 120-121 Thorgillsson, Ari, 107, 124 Threculia africana, 64 Tian, 313, 319 Tibetans, 197 Tieghemella africana, 63, 65, 66, 69 Tiliqua multifasciata, see Blue tongue Timpuan, 301 Tinospora similacina, 41 Tithing

communal tenure and, 223 Mormons and, 366, 370, 371, 372, 380-

382, 385, 387-388 Tiv, 333, 343 Toads, 45 Tobacco, 304

plants used as, 39 Tonga, 30 Torbel, 219-229, see also Communal tenure Tourism, 200, 211 Toxic foods, 27-30, 76 Trade

Ariaal Rendille and, 163, 165 Batak and, 86, 88, 89, 100 Mbuti pygmies and, 56, 58

Tragedy of the commons, 155, 224n Trampling, 109, 114 Transhumant agropastoralism, 189, 191,

195-216 advantages of, 196 cow-yak goth patterns in, 211-212 herd management in, 201-202

Treculia africana, 63, 65, 66, 76 Tribulopis augustifolia, 38 Triodia basedowii, 24 Triodia longiceps, 43 Triodia pungens, 24, 37 Tropical livestock units (TLUs), 165-166,

167, 169, 170 Truffles, 30 Tubal ligation, 262, 263 Tubers

Gugadja and, 29, 30-33 in Rwanda, 283

406

Turf cutting, 109, 114 Turkana, 160, 162, 171 Turkana Ecosystem Project, 4, 5 Turtles, 95 Tylor, Edward B., 10

Ulmaceae, 79 Ungulates, 70-71, 73 Ungwa,335 Unilineal position, 10 Unst,112 Upper Paleolithic period, 13

VaNgowa clan, 189 Vannus acanthuns, 29 Vannus gouldii, 29 Varanus acanthurus, 44, 45 Varanus gouldii, 44 Vasectomy, 262, 263 Vatnahverfi District, 121, 143 Vietnam, 298 Vigna, 20, 21, 30-31, 33, 46, 48, 51 Vigna lanceolata, 30 Vik,114 Vinland, 104 Viverrids, 73 Von Theissen polygons, 117, 119

Wage labor, 349-361 Batak and, 86, 88, 89, 100 British Cotton Growers' Association and,

356-361 Kofyar and, 335, 336 in Melemchi, 210 merchant capital and, 354-356 reasons for rise of, 353-354

Walpari,47 Wasp parasites, 35 Waste lands, 227 Water, see also Irrigation

Gugadja and, 22 in Little Colorado River Basin, 374-377,

386 Water buffalo, 304-305, 315 Water chevrotain, 70-71 Waterholes, 22, 47 Wealth

in Ariaal Rendille, 163-172 in Zimbabwe savanna, 181, 188

Weaning, 244-245

Index

Weeding, 294-295, 315 Western Settlement, 108, 113, 114, 115,

117, 120, 126-127 Wet season

in Great Sandy Desert, 20, 25, 47, 48, 49 in Ituri Forest, 61, 68, 73

Whales, 133 Wheat

Kofyar and, 339 in Melemchi, 203 Mormons and, 369, 381 in seventeenth-century China, 316-317,

324 White, Leslie, 5, 10 Widowhood, 259, 261 Wild greens, 88, 95 Wild plants, 62-64 Willow, 107, 108 Winter, 24 Winter crops, 316-317 Witchetty grubs, 35, 49 Wittfogel, Karl, 235 Wives, see also Women

Gainj, 242, 248 Kofyar,334

Wolf, Eric, 220-221 Women, see also Wives

Batak, 96-97 Gugadja, 21, 24, 26, 48 Hindu, 257, 258-259, 267 horticulture and, 233 Kofyar, 335, 336 in Melemchi, 201, 202 in seventeenth-century China, 318, 319

Wood,6 Wooden implements, 35-36, 37 Woodlots, 282-283 Woodruff, 367, 373, 376, 378, 380, 381,

386, 387 World Bank, 6, 284 World War I, 354, 356, 361

Yaks, see Cow-yak goths Yams

Batak and, 88, 95 Kofyar and, 330, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337,

339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 345 Mbuti pygmies and, 57, 67, 76, 79 swidden agriculture and, 291

Yoruk, 164

406

Turf cutting, 109, 114 Turkana, 160, 162, 171 Turkana Ecosystem Project, 4, 5 Turtles, 95 Tylor, Edward B., 10

Ulmaceae, 79 Ungulates, 70-71, 73 Ungwa,335 Unilineal position, 10 Unst,112 Upper Paleolithic period, 13

VaNgowa clan, 189 Vannus acanthuns, 29 Vannus gouldii, 29 Varanus acanthurus, 44, 45 Varanus gouldii, 44 Vasectomy, 262, 263 Vatnahverfi District, 121, 143 Vietnam, 298 Vigna, 20, 21, 30-31, 33, 46, 48, 51 Vigna lanceolata, 30 Vik,114 Vinland, 104 Viverrids, 73 Von Theissen polygons, 117, 119

Wage labor, 349-361 Batak and, 86, 88, 89, 100 British Cotton Growers' Association and,

356-361 Kofyar and, 335, 336 in Melemchi, 210 merchant capital and, 354-356 reasons for rise of, 353-354

Walpari,47 Wasp parasites, 35 Waste lands, 227 Water, see also Irrigation

Gugadja and, 22 in Little Colorado River Basin, 374-377,

386 Water buffalo, 304-305, 315 Water chevrotain, 70-71 Waterholes, 22, 47 Wealth

in Ariaal Rendille, 163-172 in Zimbabwe savanna, 181, 188

Weaning, 244-245

Index

Weeding, 294-295, 315 Western Settlement, 108, 113, 114, 115,

117, 120, 126-127 Wet season

in Great Sandy Desert, 20, 25, 47, 48, 49 in Ituri Forest, 61, 68, 73

Whales, 133 Wheat

Kofyar and, 339 in Melemchi, 203 Mormons and, 369, 381 in seventeenth-century China, 316-317,

324 White, Leslie, 5, 10 Widowhood, 259, 261 Wild greens, 88, 95 Wild plants, 62-64 Willow, 107, 108 Winter, 24 Winter crops, 316-317 Witchetty grubs, 35, 49 Wittfogel, Karl, 235 Wives, see also Women

Gainj, 242, 248 Kofyar,334

Wolf, Eric, 220-221 Women, see also Wives

Batak, 96-97 Gugadja, 21, 24, 26, 48 Hindu, 257, 258-259, 267 horticulture and, 233 Kofyar, 335, 336 in Melemchi, 201, 202 in seventeenth-century China, 318, 319

Wood,6 Wooden implements, 35-36, 37 Woodlots, 282-283 Woodruff, 367, 373, 376, 378, 380, 381,

386, 387 World Bank, 6, 284 World War I, 354, 356, 361

Yaks, see Cow-yak goths Yams

Batak and, 88, 95 Kofyar and, 330, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337,

339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 345 Mbuti pygmies and, 57, 67, 76, 79 swidden agriculture and, 291

Yoruk, 164

Index

Zaire, see Ituri Forest Zambia, 30 Zaria Province, 354-361 Zhang Luxiang, 313, 318 Zhejiang province, see Seventeenth-century

China Zimbabwe savanna, 175-192

cattle loaning arrangements in, 181, 188-189

institutional and legal constraints in, 190 labor availability in, 187

407

Zimbabwe savanna (cont.) spatial and temporal variation in, 177-180 tenurial conflict in, 181, 189-190

Zobos,205 Zomo, 195-216

aged, 195-196, 205 agricultural cycle and, 202-203 economics of herding, 203-205 offspring of, 203-205 traditional patterns of herding, 200-203

Zopkio,212

Index

Zaire, see Ituri Forest Zambia, 30 Zaria Province, 354-361 Zhang Luxiang, 313, 318 Zhejiang province, see Seventeenth-century

China Zimbabwe savanna, 175-192

cattle loaning arrangements in, 181, 188-189

institutional and legal constraints in, 190 labor availability in, 187

407

Zimbabwe savanna (cont.) spatial and temporal variation in, 177-180 tenurial conflict in, 181, 189-190

Zobos,205 Zomo, 195-216

aged, 195-196, 205 agricultural cycle and, 202-203 economics of herding, 203-205 offspring of, 203-205 traditional patterns of herding, 200-203

Zopkio,212