index []index 353 brazil basic science funding, 305, 311 biotech crops expansion, 286 dispute with...

351

Index

ABST. See access to basic science and technology (ABST) agreement

Acacia, 150academic journals, subscriptions, 300, 303access to basic science and technology (ABST)

agreement likelihood of success, 310–12 multilateral proposal, 307access-to-knowledge treaty, 134“access window,” for patented medicines, 129ACTA. See Anti-Counterfeiting Trade

Agreement (ACTA)administrative resources in developing countries reforms, 247–51 scarcity, 248 to enforce IPRs, 226–27advanced market commitments (AMCs), 266,

277Advanced Television Systems Committee

(ATSC), 159Affirmative Declaration on Technology

Transfer (ADTT), 325–26Africa. See also Rwanda; South Africa music collection society problems, 220 sub-Saharan, economies, 71African Group, 117African sleeping sickness, 263Agreement on Trade- Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). See TRIPS Agreement

agriculture and genetic resources, 280–97 historical evolution of research in, 281–84 new technologies, 279 public goods questions, 286–94 biodiversity and genetic commons,

288–90 research and extension services, 286–88 risks in new technologies, 287Algeria, European Union FTAs with TRIPS-

Plus, 131AMCs (advanced market commitments), 266,

277America Invents Act (AIA), 153Andean Community, patent disclosure of

biological resources, 117Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA), 132Andean Trade Promotion and Drug

Eradication Act, 132Android system, protection from infringement

lawsuits, 149anthrax poisoning, 102Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA),

137–42, 316 confidentiality for, 141 definition of damages awarded, 138 objections to, 140, 317–18 poor countries and, 20 purpose, 14anticompetitive practices, 103 licensing, 245

© Peterson Institute for International Economics | www.piie.com

352 PRIVATE RIGHTS AND PUBLIC PROBLEMS

WIPO promotion of measures to deal with, 135

antiretroviral therapies (ARVs), 252 price reductions, 253tantitrust law, regional guidelines, 246Apo-Triavir, 106Apotex, 106, 257appellations of origin, 189 geographical indications and, 190applied science, vs. basic, 308arbitrage, IPR owner prevention, 173Archon X Prize for Genomics, 267Argentina biotech crops expansion, 286 emerging-market economy, 319 environmental technologies, 272 geographical indications, 114–15 opening statements at WIPO 2004, 134 register and database proposal for wine

and spirits geographical indications, 200

Roundup Ready soybeans, 285Ariad Decision of 2010, 302nartists, TRIPS definition of rights of, 98ASCAP, 219Asia-Pacific trading partners, US negotiations,

129Association of Southeast Asian Nations

(ASEAN), draft FTA between EU and, 131

AstraZeneca, 3ATSC (Advanced Television Systems

Committee), 159auction mechanisms, patents for mathematics

of, 5Australia ACTA signing, 137 Commission on Productivity, 178 Coonawarra designation, 191 geographical indications, 114–15 dispute with United States, 109–10 patent imports, 127 patents for new plants and animals, 284 recorded music sales change, 206t register and database proposal for wine


on TRIPS vs. CBD, 116 US free trade agreement with, 122 TRIPS-Plus in, 124–25tAustria, price caps on drugs, 179Aventis, move to US, 184Ayurvedic system in India, 296

backlogs in patent applications, 149 reducing, 154–55banana trade restrictions, Ecuador–European

Communities dispute, 110–11Bangladesh, European Union FTAs with

TRIPS-Plus, 131barriers to trade, standards and, 158basic science vs. applied, 308 vs. commercial information, 297 countries’ ability to finance, 310–11 knowledge commons for, 302Bayer Company, 102, 240Bayh-Dole Act, 148, 298, 300, 301, 309Belgium, price caps on drugs, 179Berne Convention, 98, 103, 109, 118 appendix, 104 on duration of film protection, 119 limiting provision, 238Bhutan, 264Big Champagne, 210bilateral patent prosecution highways (PPH),

155–56bilateral trade agreements, 313 IPRs reached in, 121Bilski, In re, 153Bilski v. Kappos, 148n, 153bio-prospectors, 289biodiversity economic valuation difficulty, 289n and genetic commons, 288–90 reduction in PGRs, 290bioengineering, 283, 323biofuels, 273, 278, 279biological reproduction. See also life forms country refusal of patents, 97biopiracy, 291biotechnology crops and plant varieties, 281 inventions availability for patenting, 115 judicial decisions of patent eligibility, 59 patents, 151BitTorrent, 211, 214Blackberry case, 150nBlackout Day of January 16, 2012, 215blank media, imposing tax on, 215–16BMI, 219Boehringer Ingelheim, 256Bolar exemption (US), 101, 236, 255Bolivia, position on patents for ESTs, 271Bordeaux wines, 194border measures against suspected counterfeit

goods, ACTA on, 138–39


INDEX 353

Brazil basic science funding, 305, 311 biotech crops expansion, 286 dispute with European Communities,

transshipment of generic medicines, 112–13

drug prices regulation, 260 economic characteristics, 35–37, 36–37t emerging-market economy, 319 enterprises, vs. those in China, 87 environmental technologies, 272 Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to US, 32t GP index changes, 27t, 28, 31 growth, 316 intellectual property rights (IPRs), 84–86 IPR strength convergence toward US, 33 middle class growth, 262 music collection society problems, 220 opening statements at WIPO 2004, 134 outward FDI stock growth, 67 Patent Act, 145 patent applications, 146 growth 1995 and 2008, 147t patent disclosure of biological resources,

117 patent rights changes, 30 patent working requirements with US,

107–08 PGRs Treaty and, 291 pharmaceutical competition from, 268 publicly funded research in agriculture,

286 recorded music sales change, 206t register and database proposal for wine


technology transfer indicators, 68t trade agreements and innovation, 47 utility patents, 236Brussels Convention of 1974, 127Budapest Treaty, 131Burberry, 3Bureau Sénégalais du Droit d’Auteur (BSDA),

220business exception, permission to play radio

and television broadcasts, 108–09business-methods patents, 148nBusiness Software Alliance (BSA), 224

California wines, 194Cambia Patent Lens, 156Canada ACTA signing, 137

digital copyright laws, 218 drug prices vs. Australia and US, 178 and European communities, regulatory

review exception, 108 as generic drug exporters and importers,

106, 112 geographical indications, 114–15 online pharmacies, 176–77, 177t patents for new plants and animals, 284 per capita expenditures on drugs, 183 recorded music sales change, 206t register and database proposal for wine


regulatory cooperation with US on pharmaceuticals, 187–88

technical specifications for high-definition television, 159

on TRIPS vs. CBD, 116Canadian Access to Medicine Regime (2007),

256Canadian Institutes of Health Research, 183Caribbean, music collection society problems,

220CBD (United Nations Convention on

Biological Diversity), 115, 292 vs. TRIPS Agreement, 116–17CD recorded music, US shipment decline,

204–07, 206tCentral American and Dominican Republic

Free Trade Area (CAFTA-DR) patents and generic drug marketing, 126 US free trade agreement, 122, 123n TRIPS-Plus in, 126 US free trade agreement with, TRIPS-Plus

in, 124–25tCentral American nations, US agreements

with, 173CGIAR (Consultative Group on International

Agricultural Research), 287–88Channapatna toys, 190cheeses, 189chemical industry, start of, 46Chile geographical indications, 114–15 European Union negotiations, 130 register and database proposal for wine

and spirits, 200 patents and generic drug marketing, 126 US free trade agreement, 122 TRIPS-Plus in, 124–25tChina antitrust law, 244 appropriability risk, 71



basic science funding, 305, 311 biotech crops expansion, 286 compulsory licensing in, 241 copyrights, 238 counterfeiting and piracy in, 20–21,

230–31 dispute with US on IPR enforcement,

111–12 drug prices regulation, 260 economic characteristics, 35–37, 36–37t emerging-market economy, 319 enterprises, vs. those in Brazil, 87 environmental technologies, 272 as generic drug exporters and importers,

112 genetic resources and traditional

knowledge laws, 116 Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to US, 32t GP index changes, 27t, 28, 31 growth, 316 innovation policy, 168 indigenous, 89–90 IPR infringement in, 10, 226 IPR strength convergence toward US, 33 middle class growth, 262 Ministry of Science and Technology

(MOST), 89 outward FDI stock growth, 67 patent applications growth, 58–59 1995 and 2008, 147t patent disclosure of biological resources,

117 patent laws, 235 patent rights changes, 29 PGRs Treaty and, 291 pharmaceutical competition from, 268 pirated DVDs of movies, 3 policy evolution, 86–90 register and database proposal for wine


standards, 167–72 for information and communications

technology, 169–70 for vacating patents, 145 Standards Administration (SAC), 169 State Council, 88 State Intellectual Property Office (SIPO),

146 technological performance, 146 technology flows to, 64 technology transfer indicators, 68t trade agreements and innovation, 47

TRIPS Agreement Paragraph 6 system and, 256

TRIPS-Plus provisions in FTA, 129–30 US multinational firms’ investment in

provinces, 78 utility patents, 236 in WTO, 26China Academy of Telecommunications

Technology, 170ciprofloxacin, 102Cisco, 160civil society groups, 8clawback provision, European Union efforts

for, 201clean energy resources, need for investing, 270climate change. See also environmental

technologies technology transfer and, 270–79 North-South debate concerns, 273–74 potential solutions, 275–79CLR. See compensatory liability regime (CLR)coffee, value extraction in Ethiopian, 197–98Cohen-Boyer patent, for recombinant DNA

techniques, 283collective ownership, of traditional knowledge,

295Colombia copyrights, 238 US Generalized System of Preferences and,

132commercial information, vs. basic knowledge,

297“commercial scale” infringement, 141commitment levels in proposed ABST

agreement, 309compensatory liability regime (CLR), 249–50 in developing countries, 251competition among collection societies, 221 among technologically advanced firms, 1n compulsory licensing to promote, 242 patents impact on, 2 policy, 244–47 in semiconductors, 61competitive advantage, knowledge as source,

304compulsory licensing, 101–03, 239–44, 255,

276 for climate change technology, 271 for domestic market products, 105 economic tradeoffs, 241–44 international problems from, 242 Japan’s justifications for, 241 regional, 244


INDEX 355

regulatory questions, 239–41computer programs. See softwareconfidential test data technology transfer from, 69 TRIPS standards for, 99Consorzio del Prosciutto di Parma, 191Consultative Group on International

Agricultural Research (CGIAR), 287–88consumer goods, 1consumer welfare, geographical indications,

202–04Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),

115, 292 vs. TRIPS Agreement, 116–17Copenhagen Green Climate Fund, 270, 278Copyright Treaty (WIPO), 31, 218, 313copyrights, 143, 144 approach to, 216 in developing countries, 249 for digital goods, 300, 314 ACTA approach, 139 enforcement levies, 230 exclusive owner rights, 118–19, 217 extensions, 5 and fair use, 103–04 global infringement, 232 in Israel, 84 in Jordan-US free trade agreement, 123t limitations and exceptions, 13 limits of traditional form, 19 music industry protection of, 207–08 national, as not international rights, 95 need to adapt, 17 piracy, 137 protection measures, 30–32 for research authors and publishers, 306 researchers signing away by, 5 traditional knowledge and, 296 TRIPS standards for, 98 US and European communities

exceptions, 108–09 US policy, 127corn hybrids, 45, 282Costco, pharmacy prices, 176, 177tcounterfeit goods, 3 ACTA on border measures against

suspected, 138–39 developing countries’ enforcement efforts

impact, 229 efforts to quantify sales, 223 entry with geographic indication, 196 lack of rights enforcement mechanisms

against, 14 low quality, 140

need for protection against, 314 raids against, 100Court of Appeals of the Federal Court (US),

60, 148creative works, effort to catalog, 18creativity difficulty measuring, 38 importance of, 322–23credence attributes, 192criminal infringement, penalties for, 138cross-border movement, of technical and

managerial personnel, 67cross-licensing, 303Cuba Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of

Appellations of Origin, 199 potential geographical indications, 196customs authorities, investigation of

suspected IPR violations, 223

databases on domestic digital download

infringement, 224–25 EU Directive, 299, 300 of patent claims, 18, 156 for traditional knowledge, 297 wine exporters support for voluntary, 200DeKalb Genetics, 102dengue fever, 263Denmark Law on University Patenting, 302 parallel imports, 180, 181design patents, 146ndeveloped countries. See also specific countries R&D impact vs. developing nations, 49, 51 waiver of TRIPS article 31(f), 106developing countries absence of traditional knowledge

protection, 233 administrative capacities, 324 administrative reforms and policy

experimentation, 247–51 basic science funding, 311 bilateral trade agreements, 130 compensatory liability regime (CLR) in,

251 competition policy, 244–47 compulsory licensing and, 240, 243 concerns with ACTA, 138, 141 copyrights, 238 and student access to education, 15 crop development, 282 debate about IPRs, 166–67 drugs



patents and, 258–62 prices, 269 TRIPS impact on access, 104 enforcement efforts impact on

counterfeiting, 229 impact of piracy rates on productivity, 51 incoming global technologies, 66 innovation profiles, 74 international exhaustion, 238–39 ministries involved in trade negotiations,

314 patent applications, 144 patent infringement, 4 PGRs in, 290–91 potential geographical indications, 196 proactive steps in IPR system, 247 R&D impact vs. developed nations, 49, 51 research knowledge access, 303 royalty rates, 164 share of global emissions from, 270 standards in, 235–39 technology in, 12 technology-intensive multinational firms

in, 136 trade secrets, 237–38 TRIPS Agreement, 95–96 impact, 133–34 promise of technology transfer from,

113 unilateral reforms, 26 utility models, 236–37 view of governance structure, 13 working requirements definition, 108Diamond v. Chakraharty (1980), 59, 298Diamond v. Diehr (1981), 59digital downloads, 204–31 database on domestic infringement,

224–25 estimates of lost sales, 225 licensing and registration for, 213, 215–18 music collection societies, 219–22 recorded music sales change, 206t revenue from sales, 211 strategy to control, 210–13Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DCMA;

US), 140, 207, 215digital products communications, and impossibility of

copyright enforcement, 14–15 copyright protection of, 323 illegal music download and file sharing, 3 unauthorized copying in China, 111–12diseases types 1 and 2, research on, 263

types 2 and 3, incentives to develop pharmaceuticals for, 263

Disney, 3, 294, 297 copyrights on Mickey Mouse, 5distribution controlling, 172 expenses for intellectual property goods, 4 of FDI stocks, 78Doha Ministerial Meeting (2001), 255Doha Round of WTO negotiations, 12, 21, 35,

117, 136, 200, 201–02, 316 compulsory licensing on drugs in, 105–06 Declaration on TRIPS Agreement and

Public Health, 105, 116, 128, 254, 255 TRIPS issues in, 113–17 and TRIPS waiver for public health,

104–06domestic economies, technology transfer

impact, 70domestic inventors, positive effects on patents

by, 47domestic marginal cost, vs. sum of

international valuations, 304domestic productivity growth, in developing

countries, foreign sources of technology in, 66

Dow Chemical, 241downloaded music, 204–05. See also digital

downloadsDrug Price Competition and Patent Term

Restoration Act (US), 101, 236drugs. See pharmaceutical productsDrugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative, 264DuPont, 283DVDs, estimates of lost sales from copying,

225dy558.com, 211

early working exception, 101eBay Inc. v. MercExchange LLC, 150n, 153econometric studies India, 43–46 of IPRs and technology transfer, 75–76t technology transfer, 73–80, 75–76teconomic growth, drivers, 1economic openness, measure of, 49economic welfare, 175economics, of parallel trade, 173–75economies, emerging-market, 319–20Ecuador dispute with European Communities,

banana trade restrictions, 110–11 as generic drug exporters and importers,

112


INDEX 357

Efavirenz (EFV), price reductions, 253tefficiency, in global patent system, need for,

156Egypt European Union FTAs with TRIPS-Plus,

131 GP index changes, 28 PGRs Treaty and, 2918VSB modulation technology, 159Electronic Frontier Foundation, 9Elsevier, 3emerging-market economies, 319–20emissions-absorbing bioengineered crops, 279enforcement economics, 222–31 tradeoffs, 226–31 investment in international resources, 230 obligation in Jordan-US free trade

agreement, 123tentrepreneurial startups, in China, 86environmental technologies contentious elements of change, 271–72 fiscal supports, 278–79 global cooperation, 279 global patenting, 272–73 patents, 15 technology transfer, 270–79 essential problems, 273–74 potential solutions, 275–79 TRIPS Agreement applied to, 276–77 voluntary patent pools for, 278environmentally sound technologies (ESTs),

270 factors driving investment, 275enzymes, 273Ethiopia, Trademarking and Licensing

Initiative, 196, 197–98European Commission, Environmental

Technologies Action Plan, 275European Communities and Canada, regulatory review exception,

108 disputes with Brazil, transshipment of generic

medicines, 112–13 with Ecuador, banana trade

restrictions, 110–11 with India, transshipment of generic

medicines, 112–13 push for global protection for

geographical indications, 199 and US copyright exceptions, 108–09 geographical indications registrations,

109–10

European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (EFPIA), 184

European Free Trade Association (EFTA), 120, 129–32

European Parliament, 142 Resolution of July 12, 2007, 131European Patent Office (EPO), 5, 144, 146,

272–73 patent applications growth 1995 and

2008, 147t Scenarios for the Future, 326European Science Foundation, 264European Union ACTA signing, 137 basic science funding, 310–11 bilateral trade agreements, 130 Database Directive, 299, 300 efforts for clawback provision, 201 FTAs with TRIPS-Plus, 131 geographical indications, 13, 114–15, 190,

198–202 industrial applicability test in, 126 and intellectual property standards, 12 legal parallel trade in, 173 national rights collection societies, 221 objections to China policy, 90 parallel imports, 181 within members, 101 in pharmaceuticals, 179 trade preferences tied to IPRs, 132 TRIPS Agreement Paragraph 6 system and,

256event analysis, 53excludable real property, 6exclusive distribution right, end of, 172exclusive licensing, impact on innovation, 302exclusive rights, 3 of copyright owners, 217 to scientific tools, 301 systemic stresses from private use, 143exhaustion doctrine, 100–101 international, 172–73, 238–39 national to regional, in Sweden, 180–81 national vs. international vs. regional, 173experience goods, quality characteristics of,

192Explanatory Report Regarding the National

Indigenous Innovation Products, 89export market, wholesale price, vs. import

market, 175

Facebook, 2fair followers, 6



“fair, reasonable, and nondiscriminatory” (FRAND) terms, 164

for licensing ABST, 307–08fair use, 13 and copyrights, 103–04 Sony and, 208farmers’ privilege, 97farming. See agricultureFDI. See foreign direct investment (FDI)Federal Circuit Court (US), 302nFederal Trade Commission (FTC), compulsory

licensing and, 240fertilizers, 280file sharing. See also digital downloads efforts to measure, 210 relation to decline in CD sales, 205 services, 214film industry digital downloads, 211–12 duration of protection, 119Finland, price caps on drugs, 179“first-to-file” rule, 151, 152, 153“first-to-invent” rule in United States, 151, 152folklore, protection, 116Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),

321 Commission on Genetic Resources for

Food and Agriculture, International Undertaking, 291

foreign direct investment (FDI) distribution of stocks, 78 technology transfer from, 74–80“foreign infringing sites,” SOPA on, 214foreign licensors, difficulties of, 71foreign patents, 41foreign trademark registration, domestic

reforms impact, 41–424G cell phone technology, 160France drug prices, 179 Parliament, “three strikes” directive,

212–13 patent applications and productivity

growth, 73 price caps on drugs, 179 recorded music sales change, 206tFrance Telecom, 160Fraser Institute index of effectiveness of legal

system, 77free riders, 6free trade agreements intellectual property chapters with

enforcement obligations, 222 TRIPS-Plus standards in US, 124–25t

“Friends of Development,” 134fuel cells, 272full liberalization, in proposed ABST

agreement, 309

G-8 Summit, call for expanded IPR enforcement, 222

Gardasil, 264Gates, Bill, 2Gates Foundation, 264, 266GATS (General Agreement on Trade in

Services), 309GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and

Trade), 10, 109GAVI Alliance, 264 collaboration on AMC project, 266GDTR (global digital transmission right),

217–18, 220Gene Revolution, 283, 285General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

(GATT), 10, 109General Agreement on Trade in Services

(GATS), 309General Public License, 63generic drug companies, 101, 236 Canadian exports, 106generic drugs registration of, 126 transshipment of, 112–13genetic commons, and biodiversity, 288–90genetic engineering, judicial decisions of

patent eligibility, 59genetic resources and agriculture, 280–97 disclosure of origin in patent applications,

115–17 laws on, 116 linkage between geographical indications

and protection, 201 US patents on basic research, 302 world markets for developed products, 289genetic-use restriction technologies (GURTs),

285geographical indications, 189–204, 231–32 appellations of origin and, 190 controversy, 198 costs of, 195–96 economics redux of, 202–04 in European Union, 13, 198–202, 314 levy to pay for enforcement, 230 marketing for products with, 196 negotiating stronger protection, 130, 317 risks and costs, 192–93 social and commercial objectives of, 194


INDEX 359

TRIPS Agreement on, 98–99, 114–15, 189 US and Australia–European Communities,

registrations, 109–10 use in US, 193geographical origin of goods, consumers

willingness to pay for certainty, 194Germany parallel imports, 180, 181 patent applications growth 1995 and 2008, 147t and productivity growth, 73 per capita expenditures on drugs, 183 price caps on drugs, 179 publicly funded research in agriculture,

286 recorded music sales change, 206t trade policy and patent strength, 34Gilead Sciences, 265Ginarte, Juan C, 26Ginarte-Park patent rights index, 26–30 changes, 27–28, 27t by income quartile, 1990-2005, 29f impact on patent applications, 52–53 research and development as percent of

GDP and, 43f World Bank innovation index and, 41fGlaxoSmithKline, 256 move to US, 184Glivec, 260, 264Global Alliance for Tuberculosis Drug

Development, 264Global Alliance for Vaccines and

Immunization, 264Global Competitiveness Report (GCR), 31 changes in IPRs relative to US, 32tglobal cooperation, in environmental

technologies, 279global digital licensing, 19global digital transmission right (GDTR),

217–18, 220Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and

Malaria, 279global governance structure, evolution

process, 13–14global information commons, 310global information repository, WIPO as, 18global IPR system, 8, 33–35 ideas to improve, 16–22 patents, 145 impact on price, 10 reform, 11global knowledge economy, 1global market failures, for pharmaceuticals,

262–70

global public goods, and intellectual property rights (IPRs), 15–16

global public policy, 8global technology markets, 71goods. See also public goods nonexcludable, 6Google, 148governance structure enforcement emphasis, 137–42 global, evolution process, 13–14 systemic stresses, 13–14government funding, for applied sciences, 299government policies, to diminish price effects

of patents, 260GP index. See Ginarte-Park patent rights indexgradualism, 246grains, hybrid varieties, 282Greece drug prices, 179 Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of

Appellations of Origin, 199 per capita expenditures on drugs, 183Green Revolution, 282green technologies. See environmental

technologiesgreenhouse gases, 270. See also climate changeGrokster, 208gross domestic product (GDP), research and

development as percent, and GP index, 43f

GURTs (genetic use restriction technologies), 285

Haier, 3, 87Harris survey, 210Harry Fox Agency, 219, 250health status of poor countries’ residents,

251–52high-quality patent, 149high-technology economy, South Korea

transition to, 82–83high-technology firms, increase in patent

registration for strategic reasons, 148HIV/AIDS, 252 vaccine, 265home ownership, analogy to, 6Hong Kong, TRIPS Agreement Paragraph 6

system and, 256Huawei Technology Company, 59, 87, 88, 160Human Genome Sciences v. Eli Lilly (2011), 306nHungary exclusive rights growth, 30 Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to US, 32t



GP index changes, 27thybrid crops, 285

IARCs (International Agricultural Research Centers), 282, 287

Iceland patents in, 41 TRIPS-Plus provisions in FTA, 129–30Idris, Kamil, 35IEEE 802.16 WiMax, 160illegal infringement, challenge to determine, 6imitation, 69 costs of, 72import protectionism, IPR changes and,

32–33, 32timported goods reverse engineering of, 72 wholesale price, vs. export market, 175IMS Health Canada, 177India addressing counterfeiting and piracy

problems, 20–21 Ayurvedic system, 296 basic science funding, 311 basic science resources, 305 biotech crops expansion, 286 compulsory licensing in, 241 copyrights, 238 digital copyright laws, 218 dispute with European Communities,

transshipment of generic medicines, 112–13

drug prices regulation, 260 drug-product patent laws, 257 econometric evidence, 43–46 emerging-market economy, 319 environmental technologies, 272 generic drug industry, 259 Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to US, 32t GP index changes, 27t, 28, 31 growth, 316 IPR strength convergence toward US, 33 laws on genetic resources and traditional

knowledge, 116 limitations on patent scope, 260 middle class growth, 262 music collection society problems, 220 Patent Act, 260–61 and pharmaceuticals, 261–62 patent applications, 146 growth 1995 and 2008, 147t patent disclosure of biological resources,

117

patent laws, 145 changes, 29 opposition, 236 PGRs Treaty and, 291 pharmaceutical products, 56–58, 268 potential geographical indications, 196 quinolones econometric model for,

258–59 register and database proposal for wine


sui generis law, 283–84 technology transfer indicators, 68t TRIPS Agreement Paragraph 6 system and,

256 TRIPS-Plus in European Union

negotiations, 131indigenous knowledge, 295Indonesia copyrights, 238 position on patents for ESTs, 271industrial applicability test in European Union, 126 US definition, 126industrial farming, 280infant mortality rate, in least developed

countries, 252information commons, global, 310“information development index,” 224information frontier, advances, 1information goods marginal costs of supplying, 6 production and distribution changes, 314information markets, asymmetry in, 71information oligopolies, 7innovation, 1 basics, 38–43 China policy, 88, 89–90 country studies, 55–63 China patent explosion, 58–59 Indian pharmaceutical patents, 56–58 Japan patent reforms, 55–56 US pro-patent environment, 59–63 cross-country studies, 48–55, 50t defensive barriers around, 62 difficulty measuring, 38 exclusive licensing impact, 302 historical record, 46–48 importance of, 322–23 measure of, 51 measure of input or output against GP

patent index, 39, 40f in medical imaging software, 150 norm for small and incremental, 248–51


INDEX 361

patent impact in software industry, 62 standards and, 158–59 stimulating, 249 trade secrets to protect, 237innovation arms race, 1ninnovation index, 39innovation policy in China, 168 SSO market-oriented approach, 165input liberalization, 309Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers

(IEEE), 160Intel, 160intellectual content, 3 wealth from private control, 3intellectual property investment costs vs. distribution expenses,

4 master agreement, from IAVI, 265 role in technology transfer, 70–73Intellectual Property Appellate Board, 261intellectual property rights (IPRs), 2 arguments about, 93 in Brazil, 84–86 changes in global system of protection, 25 controversial aspects, 4–9, 142 economic effects of changes, 314–16 economic optimality standard, 94 establishing revenue streams to enhance

infrastructure, 20–21 and global public goods, 15–16 global reform, 11, 17, 33–35 historical evolution of research in

agriculture, 281–84 impact in South, 72 measuring policy shift, 26–33 parallel imports and, 188 pressure to evolve, 313–14 reforms and innovations, 35–63 responsibility for formulating policy, 248 role in development process, 234 role in global economy, 16–17 standards and policies, 94, 163 summary of econometric studies, 75–76t and technology transfer, 64–80 violations, 3International Agricultural Research Centers

(IARCs), 282, 287International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI),

264, 265International Centre for Trade and

Sustainable Development, 272–73international collaboration, in patent offices,

155–56

International Competition Network, 244International Energy Agency (IEA), 270international enforcement resources,

investment in, 230international exhaustion, 173, 238–39international inventors, benefits from national

patent reforms, 47International Maize and Wheat Improvement

Center (Mexico), 287international patent applicants, 53–54international relations, 8International Rice Research Institute

(Philippines), 287International Telecommunications Union,

“information development index,” 224international trade exhaustion doctrine in, 172–73 standards effects, 158 and technological change, 66International Treaty on Plant Genetic

Resources for Food and Agriculture, 291–92

International Undertaking, 291International Union for the Protection of New

Varieties of Plants (UPOV), 283 treaties, 97internet service providers, licensing

agreements, 19internet transmissions, 219. See also digital

downloads and impossibility of enforcing copyrights,

14–15Interpol, 230Iran, Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of

Appellations of Origin, 199Ireland, price caps on drugs, 179Israel Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to US, 32t GP index changes, 27t, 31 IPR strength convergence toward US, 33 patents in, 41 per capita income increases, 30 pharmaceutical competition from, 268 technology policy, 83–84 US free trade agreement, 121–22Italy copyright law (1941), 250 drug prices, 179 per capita expenditures, 183 price caps, 179 vs. US, 178iTunes, 211Ivory Coast, copyrights, 238



Jamaica, music collection society problems, 220

Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee, 194Japan ability to finance basic science, 310–11 ACTA signing, 137 as generic drug exporters and importers,

112 multinational firms on R&D expenditures,

79 patent applications growth 1995 and 2008, 147t and productivity growth, 73 patent laws, 241 patent reforms, 55–56 patents cited by South Korean

applications, 74 PGRs Treaty and, 291 publicly funded research in agriculture,




on TRIPS vs. CBD, 116 utility patents, 236Japanese Patent Office (JPO), 146jobs, impact of pirated goods on, 225“John Doe” lawsuits, 209Jordan European Union FTAs with TRIPS-Plus,

131 exclusive rights growth, 30 Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to US, 32t GP index changes, 27t, 31 patents and generic drug marketing, 126 US agreements with, 173 US free trade agreement, 122, 123t TRIPS-Plus in, 124–25tjournal subscriptions, 300, 303

Kancheepuram silk, 190Kazaa, 208knockoffs, attraction of, 3knowledge encouraging creation, 2 importance of, 322–23 indigenous, 295 international diffusion, 74 as international public good, 297–312 efficient exclusion or costly rents,

301–03

global access treaty approach, 307–10 global dimension, 303–04 pricing, 298–300 protection norms and licensing for

differentiated access, 305–07 privatization, 299knowledge commons, for basic science, 302Knowledge Ecology International, 8–9, 266knowledge economy, global, 1

laboratories, temporary migration to, 69Lamivudine (3TC), price reductions, 253tlaws, existence vs. enforcement, 26least developed countries, position on patents

for ESTs, 271–72Lebanon music collection society problems, 220 TRIPS-Plus provisions in FTA, 129–30,

131legal system, Fraser Institute index of

effectiveness of, 77Lenovo, 87, 88liability rules, 165liberalization, 309licensing, 80 access-oriented models, 307 agreements of Internet service providers,

19 compulsory, 101–03, 239–44 for domestic market products, 105 regulatory questions, 239–41 from copyright holders, 218 from digital collection societies, 220–21 for digital downloads, 213, 215–18 global digital, 19 impact of exclusive on innovation, 302 IPRs and, 79 reasonable and nondiscriminatory

(RAND), 160, 164 regional, 246 SSO, 165 technology, 67Liechtenstein, TRIPS-Plus provisions in FTA,

129–30life expectancies, in least developed countries,

251–52life forms intellectual property protection for, 115 introduction into plants, 283 patentability, 117, 298 judicial decisions, 59 patents, 97nLight Years IP, 197, 198Limewire, 211


INDEX 363

linkage rule, 126Lipitor, patent impact on price, 2Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of

Appellations of Origin, 189, 199litigation, impact on net shareholder value,

150Losartan, 112low-quality patent, 149LTE Advanced, 160

Madrid Protocol, 20, 118, 189malaria, 252managerial personnel, move to rival firm, 69marginal costs, of supplying information

goods, 6market-mediated technology transfer, 66–69market power anticompetitive exercise of, 162 of private firms, 7“market rules” model, 326market segmentation between buyers, 172marketing, for products with geographic

indication, 196Mectizan, 252Médecins Sans Frontières, 129 Access to Medicines Campaign of, 8medical prizes, 266, 267medicine. See also pharmaceutical products public expenditures on basic research, 183Medicines Patent Pool, 265Merck, 252, 264Mexico drug prices vs. US, 178 economic characteristics, 35–37, 36–37t European Union FTAs with TRIPS-Plus, 131 negotiations of geographical

indications, 130 Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to US, 32t GP index changes, 27t, 31 Institute of Intellectual Property (IMPI),

195 International Maize and Wheat

Improvement Center, 287 NAFTA membership, 37 patent rights changes, 30 recorded music sales change, 206t register and database proposal for wine


royalty payments, 67 Senate vote on ACTA, 142


technology transfer indicators, 68tMickey Mouse, copyrights on, 5microorganisms, 273Microsoft, 2 vision of global patents, 145 Windows operating system, 159monopoly IPRs as source of, 65 for patented standards, 166 in software, 3Monsanto, 3, 102, 283, 285moral rights, 296Morocco ACTA signing, 137 European Union FTAs with TRIPS-Plus,

131 patent imports, 127 patents and generic drug marketing, 126 US agreements with, 122, 173 TRIPS-Plus in, 124–25tmost favored nation (MFN), as TRIPS

principle, 96Motorola Mobility, 148movies, pirated DVDs in China, Russia, and

Vietnam, 3MP3 standard, 159MPEG (Moving Pictures Experts Group), 163 video coding, 159Mulan, 294, 297multilateral agreement, proposal for access to

basic science and technology, 308multinational enterprises (MNEs), 25, 66–67 affiliate reactions to patent law reforms,

53 compulsory licenses and, 240 investment in Chinese provinces, 78 mode of entry, IPRs and, 80 responses of US to patent regime changes,

79–80 technology-intensive, 136 technology transfer, 311music collection societies, 219–22music industry crisis in, 213 protection of copyrights, 207–08 US licensing for recording, 250Myspace Music, 211

NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Nagoya Protocol to CBD, 293nanotechnology research, 323



government funding, 299Napa Valley designation, for wines and spirits,

195Napster, 207–08Nash-equilibrium IPR levels, 34national economic interests, analysis for ABST

agreement, 310national emergency, country definition of, 276National Football League, 5National Institute of Standards, 163national purchasing arrangements, for drugs

in developing countries, 269national security, government claim of need

for patented information, 102“neglected diseases” biomedical research targeting, 266 research and, 263Netherlands parallel imports, 180, 181 patent law abolished, 48 price caps on drugs, 179Nevirapine (NVP), price reductions, 253tNew Zealand ACTA signing, 137 drug prices vs. Australia, 178 PGRs Treaty and, 291 register and database proposal for wine


Nokia, 160noncompete clauses, 238nondiscriminatory royalty, 164nonexcludable goods, 6nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 8,

234nonmarket technology transfer, 69–70nonrival goods, vs. rival goods, 6nonviolation complaints, moratorium on, 94nnonvoluntary licenses, 102norm-setting, WIPO proposals, 135North American Free Trade Agreement

(NAFTA) IPR provisions, 30, 122 Mexico membership in, 37North Korea, Lisbon Agreement for the

Protection of Appellations of Origin, 199

Norway patent disclosure of biological resources,

117 TRIPS Agreement Paragraph 6 system and,

256 TRIPS-Plus provisions in FTA, 129–30Novartis, 260, 283

GIPAP initiative, 264 move to US, 184NTP, 150nnucleic acid molecule, UK Court decision on

patent, 306n

Obama administration, on ACTA implementation, 141

onchocerciasis (river blindness), 252online service providers, liability for third-

party infringement, 140open-source approaches to software, 63Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development (OECD), 41, 263 database on domestic infringement,

223–24 diffusion of technological information, 73 estimates of fake products, 3 per capita expenditures on drugs, 183 productivity growth in smaller countries,

74organized crime, counterfeiting and piracy by,

140, 229output liberalization, 309ownership exhaustion of rights, 172 of geographic indication, 191 of traditional knowledge, 295ownership society, 5Oxfam, 198

P2P file sharing, 208parallel imports, 101, 173, 231 competition effects on pricing, 180–81 cost and efficiency issues, 185–86 and drug safety, 182 economics, 173–75 IPR owner prevention, 173 Peru open to, 128 of pharmaceuticals at distributor level, 178 in European Union, 179, 181 restriction, 173 in Sweden, 180–81 to US, 176 questionable value of unilateral decision,

186 R&D incentives reduced from, 186Paranova, 180Paris Convention, 84, 118, 189Park, Walter G., 26, 30, 49, 52Parma Ham, 5, 191“Pasteur’s quadrant,” 299


INDEX 365

patent applications assessment difficulties, 151 backlogs, 149 crisis in, 145–46 in developing countries, 144 disclosure of genetic resources origin,

115–17 growth, 1995 and 2008, 147t growth from universities, 301 impact of GP index on, 52–53 patent office problems from growth, 149 problems from explosion in number, 14 South Korea, 74 technology transfer from, 69, 73 WIPO on solar-energy-related, 272patent assertion entities, 150patent claims, database of, 18, 156Patent Cooperation Treaty, 20, 53, 84, 117,

118, 148, 272“patent family,” 151patent laws impact on R&D expenditures, 53 strength, stimulation of R&D by, 55patent networks, 278patent offices, international collaboration,

155–56patent pools, 15, 165, 303 for environmental technologies, 278patent protection, “U-shape” relationship

between per capita income and, 28patent reforms impact on international trade, 11 in Japan, 55–56 multinational firms’ affiliate reactions to,

53 in United States, 153–54patent rights, country preferences vs. global,

34“patent thickets,” 150n, 273 competing claims within academic, 306“patent trolls,” 150patentability, 126patented medicines, “access window” for, 129patents, 143 building defensive portfolios, 61 Chinese explosion, 58–59 compelling owners to share rights, 102 in developing countries, 235 for drug products, 257 effect of revisions, 63–64 elasticity to R&D, 59 eligibility standards, 249 expanded range of subject matter, 148 government policies to diminish price

effects of, 260 growth in South Korea, 83 impact on competition, 2, 46–48 invention support by, 44–45 in Jordon-US free trade agreement, 123t length of, 48, 314 levy to pay for enforcement, 230 Microsoft’s vision of global, 145 misuse, 167, 246 national, as not international rights, 95 national effect of, 144 for new plants and animals, 284 protection, and R&D importance, 49 registration impact on productivity, 73 research exemption, 303 software eligibility, 62 and technology transfer, 81 term differentiation, 277 traditional knowledge and, 296 transparency and cross-country

cooperation, 231 TRIPS standards for, 96–97, 254–62 type 1 medicine accessibility, 268 universities’ rights to own and license,

298–99 view of, 146Patentscope (WIPO), 157per capita income, “U-shape” relationship

between patent protection and, 28Performances and Phonograms Treaty

(WPPT), 31performers, rights to authorize recording of

performances, 119Peru laws on genetic resources and traditional

knowledge, 116 patents and generic drug marketing, 126 US free trade agreement with, 128 TRIPS-Plus in, 124–25t US Generalized System of Preferences and,

132Peru Trade Promotion Agreement, 126pesticides, 280petty patents, in developing countries, 249Pew survey, on file sharing, 210PGRs (plant genetic resources) in developing countries, 290–91 private property approach to, 288–90PGRs Treaty, 291–92pharmaceutical companies discounts for humanitarian situations, 10 donation programs, 257pharmaceutical products in Brazil, 85



Canada Patent Act on, 108 Canada regulatory cooperation with US,

187–88 costs in US, 175–76 counterfeit goods, 14 European Union protection of test data,

131 global market failures and solutions,

262–70 global patent rights impact on price, 10 global prescription sales, 252 incentives to develop for type 2 and 3

diseases, 263 increasing availability, 252 Indian patents, 56–58, 261–62 in Japan, 56 OECD report on per capita expenditures,

183 parallel imports at distributor level, 178 in European Union, 179 restrictions, 173 patent protection for, 54 patent-term extensions for, 126 “tiered pricing,” 269 transshipment of generic, 112–13 under TRIPS, 254–62 US reimportation considerations, 185–86Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers

Association of America, 184Pharmacia, move to US, 184Philippines environmental technologies, 272 International Rice Research Institute, 287 patent disclosure of biological resources,

117 position on patents for ESTs, 271 TRIPS Agreement Paragraph 6 system and,

256Phillips, 160piracy, 137 lack of rights enforcement mechanisms

against, 14 raids against, 100Pirate Bay, 208, 211place names preventing misleading or unfair use of, 99 US protection, 190plant breeders’ rights (PBRs), 283, 285plant genetic resources (PGRs) biodiversity, 281 in developing countries, 290–91 private property approach to, 288–90Plant Patent Act (1930), 282

Plant Variety Protection Act (1960), 282plant variety rights, 97 in Jordan-US free trade agreement, 123t levy to pay for enforcement, 230pneumococcal disease, 266policy landscape, complexity of, 9–16political economy, and knowledge

privatization, 300poor countries administrative resources to enforce IPRs,

226–27 building R&D capacity for disease

treatment, 267–70 compulsory licensing in, 243 health status of residents, 251–52 impact of global protection, 34 IPR-related competition policy, 245 negative impact of TRIPS, 35 patent reform impact on domestic

innovation, 64 as PGR supplier, 288 proposal for low-cost licensing, 277 research on “neglected diseases,” 254 scientific research and, 304Portugal drug prices, 179 exclusive rights growth, 30 Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to US, 32t GP index changes, 27tpositive externality, 7post-industrial economies, patent

development in, 4power distance, index of perceived, 49price controls negative impact in EU nations, 183–84 research and development expenditures

and, 183–85price discrimination, 172, 174prices copyright support of, 4 for drugs, 2, 178, 179 per capita expenditures, 183 price caps, 179 reductions, 253t impact of product patents, 259 of knowledge as public good, 298–300prior informed consent, regulations for PGRs,

293–94priority, in trade policy agendas, 11private firms, market power of, 7private markets, ability to meet global

demands, 286private ownership


INDEX 367

approach to plant genetic resources, 288–90

in China, 86 of goods to meet public needs, 233 rights, vs. public domain, 298private rights expanded, and private values, 8 power of, 43producer profits, geographical indications

and, 195product cycle, general-equilibrium dynamics

of, 72product development partnerships (PDPs),

264product reputation, geographical indications

and, 190product standards, 158productivity growth in smaller OECD countries, 74 IPRs and growth, 281 patent registration impact on, 73 piracy rates in developing countries and,

51Protect Intellectual Property Act (PIPA), 214public domain vs. private ownership rights, 298 WIPO proposals, 135public expenditures on basic medical research, 183 for research, 282public goods knowledge as international, 297–312 provision of, 143 questions in agriculture, 286–94 biodiversity and genetic commons,

288–90 research and extension services, 286–88 scientific knowledge as, 6–7public health emergency, 102 patent problems and progress, 251–70 TRIPS waiver, and Doha Round, 104–06 WHO global strategy, 106public needs, controversies concerning critical,

233public policy for applying IPRs to agriculture, 281 compulsory licensing for, 240public research grants, open competition for,

188

quality geographical indications and, 191–92 of patents

cooperation to raise, 152–57 declining average, 149–50quality control, 196quinolones, econometric model of Indian

market, 258–59

R&D-to-sales ratio firm-level, 52 of Indian pharmaceutical companies, 57radio and television broadcasts, business

exception permission to play, 108–09railway equipment, 45“Ramsey pricing” across markets, 164real property, excludable, 6reasonable and nondiscriminatory (RAND)

licensing, 160, 164reciprocity, in ABST agreement proposal, 311recombinant DNA techniques, Cohen-Boyer

patent for, 283Recording Industry Association of America

(RIAA) legal actions, 208–09 settlement revenues, 211recording industry, illegal downloading and

file sharing of music, 3reference pricing, 183regional antitrust guidelines, 246regional compulsory licenses, 244regional exhaustion, 173regional purchasing programs, for drugs in

developing countries, 269registration for digital downloads, 213, 215–18 product eligibility for geographic

indication, 203regulations. See also standards enforcement economics, 222–31 illicitness indicators, 223–26 tradeoffs, 226–31 for prior informed consent for PGRs,

293–94regulatory review exception, Canada and

European communities, 108reimportation of goods, country’s decision to

prevent, 101reputation of product, geographical

indications and, 190research and development advocates for global biomedical treaty, 266 basic vs. applied, 308 incentives for, 263 reduction from parallel imports, 186 publications and digital content,

copyright protection for authors and



publishers, 306research and development expenditures aggregate figures, 184 on cross-breeding crops, 282 for early-stage research, 299 firm-level real, 53 growth in Indian pharmaceutical firms,

57t Japanese multinational firm decisions, 79 national over GDP, as measure of inventive

activity, 49 patent elasticity to, 59 patent law impact, 53 price controls and, 183–85 relationship with lagged GP index, 39–44,

42f, 43f source of funds, 304research exception, 101–02research exemption, for environmental

technologies, 276Research in Mission, Inc., 150nresearchers, signing away copyrights by, 5Retrovir, patent impact on price, 2revenue streams, for intellectual property

rights infrastructure, 20–21reverse engineering, 6, 71, 237 of imported goods, 72 seeds, 284RIAA (Recording Industry Association of

America) legal actions, 208–09 settlement revenues, 211rice, high-yielding varieties, 282rights exhaustion, 231rights, global system of, 8Riley, Pat, trademarks registered by, 5rival goods, vs. nonrival, 6royalties basis for reasonable, 164 China efforts to avoid payments, 168royalty stacking, 160, 166Russia counterfeiting and piracy, 230–31 addressing problems, 20–21 pirated DVDs of movies, 3 environmental technologies, 272 middle class growth, 262Rwanda, 106 Apo-Triavir imports, 256

SACEM (Société des Auteurs, Compositeurs, et Editeurs de Musique), 219

safety concerns with reimports, 185sales, estimates of lost from digital downloads,

225

Samsung, 3, 160Sanofi, 264Schwab, Susan, Congress members’ letter to,

128scientific knowledge. See also research and

development as public good, 6–7search goods, quality characteristics of, 192“second-use patents,” 126seed banks, 289seeds genetically modified, 280 IPR protection for development, 284semi-generic expressions, 193semiconductors, competition in, 61SESAC, 219sharing information, 302Shire, 256Siemens, 3, 170Singapore ACTA signing, 137 Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to US, 32t GP index changes, 27t patents and generic drug marketing, 126 per capita income increases, 30 US free trade agreement with, 122 TRIPS-Plus in, 124–25tsocial networking, 2–3Société des Auteurs, Compositeurs, et Editeurs

de Musique (SACEM), 219software author’s rights, 218 and impossibility of enforcing copyrights,

14–15 innovation in medical imaging, 150 license fee, 2 monopolies in, 3 open-source approaches to, 63 patents, 151 piracy, 224, 314 TRIPS on copyright of, 98, 104 US industry, 62–63solar energy, 272solar photovoltaic energy, 278Soloflex Company, 5Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act

(1998), 5, 238nSony, 3 Betamax recorder, 208SOPA (Stop Online Piracy Act; US), 214, 219South Africa biotech crops expansion, 286 copyrights, 238


INDEX 369

digital copyright laws, 218 drug price reductions for HIV/AIDS

patients, 105 emerging-market economy, 319 European Union negotiations of

geographical indications, 130 register and database proposal for wine


South Center, 166South, impact of IPRs, 72South Korea ACTA signing, 137 economic characteristics, 35–37, 36–37t European Union FTAs with TRIPS-Plus,

131 Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to US, 32t GP index changes, 27t patent applications, 74, 146 growth 1995 and 2008, 147t per capita income increases, 30 PGRs Treaty and, 291 register and database proposal for wine


technological performance, 146 technology receipts, 67, 69 technology transfer indicators, 68t transition to high-technology economy,

82–83 TRIPS Agreement Paragraph 6 system and,

256 on TRIPS vs. CBD, 116 upgrades of intellectual property system,

83Spain drug prices, 179 vs. Australia and US, 178 Lisbon Agreement for the Protection of

Appellations of Origin, 199Spanish meat market, 195Specialty Coffee Association of America

(SCAA), 197Spotify.com, 211Sri Lanka, potential geographical indications,

196standard-setting organizations (SSOs), 158,

163 efficiency, 165standards anticompetitive exercise of market power,

162 China’s approach, 167–72 definition of concept, 161

in developing countries, 235–39 North vs. South, 166–67 partial harmonization of, 152 for production and sales, 158Standards Administration of China (SAC), 169Starbucks, 197–98State Street Bank & Trust Company v. Signature

Financial Group, 60status goods, 193steam engine, 45–46stockpiling pharmaceuticals, for sale at patent

expiration, 108Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA; US), 214, 219stresses, systemic, from private use of exclusive

rights, 143Sub-Saharan Africa, economies, 71subpoenas, from RIAA, 208–09Substantive Patent Law Treaty, 154, 321 negotiations, 119, 152sui generis law for database protection, 299 in India, 283–84 system of rights, 297suicide seeds, 285Sun-Dried Sidamo, 197“super-crops,” 281supply and demand model, for generic drugs

in India, 259supply-side factors, in US patenting surge, 61Sweden drug prices vs. Australia and US, 178 Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to US, 32, 32t national exhaustion to regional

exhaustion, 180–81 price caps on drugs, 179Switzerland, 46 drug prices, 179 patent disclosure of biological resources,

117 per capita expenditures on drugs, 183 register and database proposal for wine



TRIPS-Plus provisions in FTA, 129–30synthetic fuels, 279Syria, European Union FTAs with TRIPS-Plus,

131

T-Mobile, 5Taiwan Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to US, 32t



GP index changes, 27t patents, 41 cited by South Korean applications, 74 per capita income increases, 30 technological performance, 146taxes, imposing on blank media, 215–16technical and managerial personnel, cross-

border movement of, 67technical assistance, of WIPO, 135technical standards, 158 patents on, 159technological information, loss through

patent infringement, 10technology China efforts to reduce dependence on

foreign, 169 in developing world, 12 incentives for development, 275 licensing, 67 patent applications, 144–45 “patent thickets,” 151 trade flows in, 314technology transfer, 64–80 affirmative declaration on, 21–22 and climate change, 270–79 North-South debate concerns, 273–74 potential solutions, 275–79 competitive and cumulative progress, 302 compulsory licensing to force, 242 econometric evidence, 73–80, 75–76t factors reducing, 71 importance of, 325–26 indicators, 68t mandate in Doha Round, 113–14 market-mediated, 66–69 multinational firms and, 311 nonmarket, 69–70 policy on standards to force, 171 spillovers, 70 summary of econometric studies, 75–76t and TRIPS Agreement, 81 university-to-university, 301 WIPO proposals, 135temporary migration to universities and

laboratories, 69tequila liquors, 195terminator genes, 285terrorist groups counterfeiting and piracy by, 140, 229test data confidential technology transfer from, 69 TRIPS standards for, 99 European Union protection of, 131

in Jordan-US free trade agreement, 123t protecting against unfair use, 127Teva (Israeli generic drug company), 83textile industry, artificial dyes for, 46Thailand government-use licenses, 260 GP index changes, 28, 31 pharmaceutical competition from, 268 potential geographical indications, 196 “tiered pricing” of drugs, 269Time Division Synchronous Code Division

Multiple Access (TD-SCDMA) standard, 170

Tobin’s Q, 57Toyota, 159trade in goods and services, 66 policy, 34 restrictions, 94 technology transfer from, 74–79Trade Act of 2002, 121trade agreements and innovation, 47 key forces in, 314 preferential, 316Trade Enhancing Access to Medicines

(TEAM), 129trade secrets in developing countries, 237–38 TRIPS standards for, 99Trademarking and Licensing Initiative

(Ethiopia), 196, 197–98trademarks consumer expectations, 2 counterfeiting, 137 geographical indications vs., 191 levy to pay for enforcement, 230 markups sustained by, 3 measures of protection, 30–32 national, as not international rights, 95 potential for registrations database, 157 traditional knowledge and, 296 TRIPS standards for, 98–99traditional knowledge absence of protection, 233 concept of, 294–95 IPRs and, 295–97 laws on, 116 protecting, 294–97Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) agreement,

129transactions costs, 72transmission rights, 19, 218transparency, in global patent system, need

for, 156


INDEX 371

“tree of knowledge” paradigm, 326tribal peoples, practices and customs, 295TRIPS Agreement, 7, 25, 89, 94–117, 152, 313 applying to environmental technologies,

276–77 Article 22, 199 Article 24, 199–200 Article 27.3(b), 115 Article 30, 239 Article 31, 239–40 Article 40.2, 245 benefits from joining, 11 Brazil and, 86 vs. CBD, 116–17 critical reviews, 133–37 critical shortcomings, 318 dispute settlement, 106–13 Ecuador-European Communities,

banana trade restrictions, 110–11 transshipment of generic medicines,

112–13 US and Australian-European

Committees geographical indications registration, 109–10

US-Brazil patent working requirements, 107–08

US-China IPR enforcement, 111–12 exceptions and limitations on patent

rights, 254 extending, 316–18 flexibilities, 95 on geographical indications, 189 impact, 9–10 on IPR standards, 26–35 inclusion in WTO, 10–13 India and, 56, 261 international coordination and, 34 issues in Doha Round, 113–17 linkage between geographical indications

and genetic resources protection, 201 major requirements, 96–100 copyrights, 98 enforcement obligation, 100 patents standards, 96–97 plant variety rights, 97 trade secrets and confidential test data,

99 trademarks and geographical

indications, 98–99 minimum standards of protection in, 8 paragraph 6 and, 255–57 patents and medicines under, 254–62 plant varieties protection, 283 rights owner protection, 233

shortcomings, 120, 314 standards, 144 and technology transfer, 81 trade impact of reforms, 75 vs. World Intellectual Property

Organization (WIPO), 118TRIPS Council, 106TRIPS flexibilities, 100–104TRIPS-Plus standards, 13, 120–32 criticism, 133 main elements, 121–29 in US free trade agreements, 124–25tTRIPS waiver for public health, and Doha

Round of WTO negotiations, 104–06tuberculosis, 252Tunisia European Union FTAs with TRIPS-Plus,

131 TRIPS-Plus provisions in FTA, 129–30Turkey as generic drug exporters and importers,

112 GP index changes, 28 PGRs Treaty and, 291

“U shape” relationship between per capita income and patent protection, 28

Ukraine, environmental technologies, 272UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on

Trade and Development), 133, 227, 321UNEP (United Nations Environment

Programme), 321UNESCO, 321 ABST agreement proposal and, 308UNICEF, collaboration on AMC project, 266UNITAID, 265, 278United Kingdom Court of Appeal, 306n drug prices, 179 vs. Australia and US, 178 parallel imports, 180, 181 patent applications growth 1995 and 2008, 147t and productivity growth, 73 patents historical study, 47 price caps on drugs, 179 recorded music sales change, 206tUnited Nations Conference on Trade and

Development (UNCTAD), 133, 227, 321

United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 115, 292

vs. TRIPS Agreement, 116–17



United Nations Environment Programme, 272–73

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 270

United Nations Millennium Development Goals, 251

United States ABST agreement, and Bayh-Dole Act, 309 ACTA signing, 137 basic science funding, 310–11 Chile free trade agreement, 122 dispute with Australia-European

Communities, geographical indications registrations, 109–10

dispute with China on IPR enforcement, 111–12

Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act, 101

and European communities, copyright exceptions, 108–09

Executive Order 12958, 141 “first-to-invent” rule in, 151 focus on scope of IPRs beyond TRIPS, 119 free trade agreement with Jordan, 123t Generalized System of Preferences, 132 geographical indications, 114–15 Global Competitiveness Report on IPR

changes relative to, 32t GP index changes, 27t and intellectual property standards, 12 International Trade Commission, on

Chinese infringement of IPRs, 90 IPR strength convergence of others, 33 IPRs applied to basic knowledge

outcomes, 303 Israel free trade agreement, 121–22 licensing, for music recording, 250 manufacturer prices of pharmaceuticals,

178 multinational firms’ affiliate reactions to

patent law reforms, 53 national exhaustion, 173 National Institutes of Health, medical

research expenditures, 183 objections to China policy, 90 patent applications, 60–61 growth 1995 and 2008, 147t and productivity growth, 73 Patent Law of 1790, 43 patent reform, 153–54 patent working requirements with Brazil,

107–08 patents for new plants and animals, 284 Peru FTA negotiations, 128

PGRs Treaty and, 291 pharmaceuticals reimportation

considerations, 185–86 place name protection, 190 prescription medicine costs, 175–76 coordinated solution, 187–88 pro-patent environment, 59–63 public-use licenses, 240 publicly funded research in agriculture,



semiconductor manufacturing patent grants, 61–62

structural problems in patent process for basic science, 305


trade policy and patent strength, 34 trade preferences tied to IPRs, 132 TRIPS-Plus in free trade agreements,

124–25t TRIPS-Plus standards, 120–29 on TRIPS vs. CBD, 116 wine exporters support for voluntary

database, 200United States Patent and Trademark Office

(USPTO), 146, 153 patent grant changes, 38universities growth in patent registration, 301 knowledge developed in laboratories, 298 library subscriptions to journals, 303 recording industry legal action against

student, 209–10 temporary migration to, 69UPOV. See International Union for the

Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV)

Uruguay Round, 10, 77, 189 developing economics in, 11 efforts to include geographical

indications, 199US Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 299US International Trade Commission (USITC),

223, 226US Justice Department, Antitrust Division,

compulsory licensing and, 240US Motion Picture Association, 225US National Institutes of Health, 263–64US Trade Representative (USTR), Notorious

Markets List, 213, 222


INDEX 373

user access, balance with private rights, 100USITC. See US International Trade

Commission (USITC)utility models, for developing countries,

236–37, 249utility patents, 146n, 305–06 applications, 146utility standard (US law), 126

venture capital, 62Verizon, 209Viagra, patent impact on price, 2Vietnam digital copyright laws, 218 pirated DVDs of movies, 3 US agreements with, 173 in WTO, 26Virgin Earth Challenge, 267voluntary patent pools, for environmental

technologies, 278

WCDMA, 160wealthier countries, innovative enterprises to

control distribution and pricing, 34wheat, high-yielding varieties, 282wholesale price, import vs. export market, 175“whose game?” scenario, 326wines and spirits discussions on multilateral register, 200 geographical indications, 114, 130–31, 199 Napa Valley designation, 195WIPO. See World Intellectual Property

Organization (WIPO)working requirements, developing countries

definition, 108World Bank ABST agreement proposal and, 308 collaboration on AMC project, 266 innovation index, Ginarte-Park patent

rights index and, 41f knowledge economy index, 39World Economic Forum, 78 Global Competitiveness Report (GCR), 31World Health Organization (WHO), 234 estimates on counterfeiting medicines,

227–28 global strategy on public health, 106World Intellectual Property Organization

(WIPO), 10, 25, 117–20, 234 ABST agreement proposal and, 308 Committee on Development and

Intellectual Property, 134–36 Copyright Treaty, 31, 118, 218, 313

designating as global information repository, 18

Development Agenda, 134–37, 145, 307, 316, 320

energizing, 320–22 global patent treaty efforts, 13 office of economic analysis, 136 Performance and Phonograms Treaty

(WPPT), 118 potential role in global collaboration, 157 on solar-energy-related patent

applications, 272 vs. TRIPS Agreement, 118World Trade Organization (WTO), 7, 94 ABST agreement proposal and, 308 China membership, 58, 87 dispute resolution process, 11 negotiations (see Doha Round of WTO

negotiations) reaching for balance beyond, 318–22 TRIPS inclusion in, 10–13 (See also TRIPS

Agreement)World’s Fair in London (1851), 48World’s Fair in Philadelphia (1876), 48WPPT. See Performances and Phonograms

Treaty (WPPT)

Yorkshire pudding, 5

Zidovudine (AZT), price reductions, 253tZuckerberg, Mark, 2


index []index 353 brazil basic science funding, 305, 311 biotech crops expansion, 286 dispute with...

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