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Incomplete notes on the distribution and uses of Iceland spar crystals

Introduction - developments to 1862

Much remains to be found out about the exporting, trading and subsequent applications of the

Iceland spar which was recovered at the Helgustaðir site in Reyðarfjörður, E-Iceland. This

compilation is therefore quite fragmentary. It is partly based on evidence from advertisements

and from catalogs issued by equipment manufacturers and suppliers which the author has

purchased or are accessible at various Internet websites.

It may be assumed that up to around 1805 much of the crystals recovered were transported to

Copenhagen through the nearby trading post at Stóra-Breiðavík. It is not known whether

collection efforts there were sporadic or organized to some extent. There are also reports of

scientists (such as O. Olavius in the late 1770s) and other travellers digging at the site. French

boats fished in Icelandic waters up to the 1790s, and these or vessels accompanying the

fishing fleet sometimes anchored off Helgustaðir.

After 1805 the Eskifjörður village became the main trading site in the fjord. I have not seen

reports of collections organized by parties from there until 1850. Travellers however kept

visiting the site, one major instance being the recovery of at least several crateloads of crystals

by P. Gaimard´s expedition in 1836. Fishing by the French around Iceland resumed after

1815, often with 50-100 boats. The first commercial effort of collecting crystals for export

was organized by a Seyðisfjörður merchant around 1850.

Fig. 1. Parts of an advertisement for doppelspath, quartz and tourmaline preparations, by

J.W. Albert. It appeared in Trommsdorff's Neues Journal der Pharmacie vol. 16, 1828.

The oldest advertisement for Iceland spar products that the author has seen is from J.W.

Albert in Frankfurt, 1828 (Fig. 1). Demand for Iceland spar must have stepped up from the

mid-1830s onwards, with the increasing use of Nicol prisms in optical experimentation and as

an optional accessory in some microscopes for biologists and amateurs. Opticians in Berlin,

Paris, Edinburgh and London are known to have produced such prisms. Catalogs from the

1840s are advertising them as well as other spar preparations, e.g. from the firms of Lerebours

& Secretan, Buron, Breton frères, Deleuil (Fig. 2) and Pixii in Paris 1839-53. Spar rhombs,

Nicol prisms and simple polarizing instruments are offered by B. Pike in New York in 1848,

Bland & Long in London in 1854, etc.

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Papers describing polarimeter designs from the famous Soleil workshop in Paris appeared in

scientific journals from 1845 onwards. By 1850 improved models were becoming common

e.g. in the sugar industry in France, but decades passed before there was any significant

demand for saccharimeters from British or U.S. sugar interests.

The minerals dealer A. Krantz in Bonn advertises spar rhombs in 1853. An 1855 catalog of

the equally well-known London educational instrument supplier J.J. Griffin includes

microscopes with polarizing attachments, many spar preparations (Fig. 2), and specimens of

½" - 3" diameter. Griffin "just received from Iceland a large supply of this beautiful mineral

of a quality well suited for optical purposes".

Fig. 2. Left: Part of the selection of experimental equipment relating to polarized light in

Catalogue d'Instruments de Physique, de Chimie, d'Optique... issued by J.A. Deleuil in Paris,

1848. This catalog also includes an entry "Rhomboïde de spath d'Islande, très pur, de 5 à 500

fr." Right: Iceland spar preparations in J.J. Griffin's Catalogue of Microscopes, Microscopic

Objects, and Apparatus for the Polarisation of Light, 1855.

An Eskifjörður merchant exported some 50 tons in the late 1850s; it is likely that only a small

proportion of this material was suitable for use in optical instrumentation. In 1862 a ship sank

at Helgustaðir while being loaded with spar for another local merchant.The author has been

able to consult catalogs and advertisements from several suppliers of crystals and polarizing

instrumentation dating from 1857-60. These include E.-J. Menier and Ch. Chevalier in Paris,

Warmbrunn, Quilitz & Co. in Berlin, J. & W. Grunow in New Haven, and J.W. Queen in

Philadelphia, Among microscope makers selling optional polarizing attachments around 1865

were E. Hartnack and A. Nachet in Paris, C. Zeiss in Jena and T. Ross in London.

The first Tulinius period, 1863-72

The Helgustaðir quarry was leased to the Eskifjörður businessman C.D. Tulinius in 1863-72

for an annual fee. He is reported to have recovered about 280 tons of spar, much exceeding

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the demand for it in that period. A stockpile (the size of which does not seem to have been

disclosed) was therefore built up in Eskifjörður. Prices charged by Tulinius for optical-quality

crystals kept rising, and numerous complaints about a "spar-famine" situation may be found

in the scientific literature from about 1882 onwards.

Some of the Iceland spar recovered in this period is known to have been exported to Britain,

including one shipment in 1870 containing the large crystal of the Science Museum in

Kensington. However, the consumption of spar by British optical firms does not seem to have

been great, whereas in France and in Germany vigorous development of polarized-light

devices was taking place in the 1870s. Polarimeters and saccharimeters were produced in

large quantities by firms such as Soleil's successors J. Duboscq and L. Laurent in Paris, and

by Franz Schmidt & Haensch near Berlin (established in 1864). An 1870 catalog from

Duboscq lists a large selection of spar preparations for educational purposes. A few of these

are shown in Fig. 3; also included were simple polariscopes (to observe e.g. sky polarization,

reflections, and photoelastic effects, projectors, and so on. A similar selection is offered by

the Paris firms E. Ducretet in 1870 and É. Lutz in 1872, while some British suppliers at that

time like L. Casella and Negretti & Zambra present a narrower range.

Fig. 3. Two small clippings from Catalogue Systématique des Appareils d'Optique Construits

dans les Ateliers de J. Duboscq, 1870.

Other instruments from the above period employing Nicol prisms include Wild polarimeters

produced mostly in Switzerland from the mid-1860s, specialized crystallographic equipment

such as stauroscopes, and early versions of polarizing photometers. Some workshops provided

specimens of Iceland spar, quartz and other materials that had been cut and polished to precise

specifications for fundamental research. W. Steeg was advertising such preparations already

in 1857; Steeg & Reuter in Berlin were indeed often acknowledged in the physics literature

for their services. The firms of C.A. Niendorf in Bernau and B. Halle in Steglitz (Fig. 4)

which also specialized in crystal optics, were established in 1868 and 1873 respectively.

Polarizing microscopes (with built-in rather than optional Nicol prisms) gained increasing

popularity among petrographers from the 1870s onwards. They were produced by some of the

makers mentioned above as well as by R. Fuess in Berlin (established in 1865, see Fig. 5) and

R.& J. Beck in London. J.W. Queen in Philadelphia sold instruments from these European

firms along with their own brands, but an 1888 paper states that attempts by American makers

at supplying petrographic microscopes had up to then been wholly inadequate.

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Fig. 4. Left: Technicians splitting Iceland spar crystals. Undated photo from an anniversary

booklet "90 Jahre im Dienste der Optik" published by B. Halle Nachf. in 1963. Right: A page

from a Preis-liste by B. Halle c. 1895, offering a very wide range of Iceland spar products.

Events in 1873-1895 and in the second Tulinius period 1895-1910

Some of the previously mentioned producers continued to turn out polarizing instruments in

large numbers during the late 19th century. These included R. Fuess, A.Nachet, Franz

Schmidt & Haensch, Ph. Pellin (successor to J. Duboscq), and A. Jobin (successor to L.

Laurent). As mentioned above, widespread complaints about a "spar famine" may be found in

the literature from the early 1880s onwards. The Government therefore organized quarrying

on a small scale at Helgustaðir in 1882 and 1885. The crystals recovered were shipped to

Franz Schmidt in Berlin and H. Struers in Copenhagen respectively.

Among other producers of petrographic microscopes and polarimeters which had established

themselves in this market by 1900, were Voigt & Hochgesang and R. Winkel in Göttingen, A.

Krüss in Hamburg, J. Peters and H. Heele in Berlin, E. Leitz in Wetzlar, Société Genevoise in

Geneva, C. Reichert in Vienna, and W. Watson in London. A few polarimeters are shown in

Fig. 6. Each instrument generally contained two Nicol prisms and sometimes other

accessories made of Iceland spar. Other instrument types such as photometers (Fig. 8) were

also produced. To these users we must add many suppliers of Iceland spar preparations for

research and education around 1900, e.g. Max Kohl in Chemnitz, E. Leybold's Nachf. in

Cologne, F. Ernecke in Berlin, C. Gerhardt in Bonn, Fils d'E. Deyrolle in Paris, A. Stendicke

in New York, A.B. Porter's Scientific Shop in Chicago, and L.E. Knott Co. in Boston.

Not much Iceland spar seems to have been consumed in Britain, but there are reports of a few

unusually large Nicol prisms being constructed there in the early 1870s. These as well as a 5"

sphere may have been made from crystals in two cargoes of spar referred to in an 1876

lecture. A. Hilger in London advertised triangular spar prisms for spectral analysis (e.g. of

ultraviolet light) in 1880-82. In view of the great wastage involved in the production of Nicol

prisms, the total amount of optical-quality material required by all of the above producers and

suppliers, must have reached hundreds of kilograms annually.

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Tulinius' stock from the 1863-72 mining seems to have lasted to at least 1889. A part of it was

then moved to Copenhagen; buyers were being referred to his son T.E. Tulinius who set up an

independent business in the city in that year.

Fig. 5. Advertisement from R. Fuess, in Zeitschrift für Kristallographie 1911.

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In 1895, the quarry was leased to C.D. and T.E. Tulinius, who operated it until 1910. A

number of their annual reports to the Government are preserved in the National Archives,

indicating that of the order of 100-250 pounds (0.5 kg.) of first-class crystals were sold every

year. In some of these years, they report that no material was recovered from the quarry. New

producers of polarizing equipment from around 1900 include Bausch & Lomb in Rochester,

New York, F. Koritska in Milan, and Cambridge Instrument Co. in England which e.g. made

optical pyrometers and spectrophotometers (Fig. 8). To serve expanding sugar and starch

industries as well as research in organic chemistry and biochemistry, Schmidt & Haensch-

and Laurent- polarimeters were imported by Baird & Tatlock in London, Eimer & Amend in

New York, and Henry Heil in St. Louis. Iceland spar crystals were also needed for museum

displays, dichroscopes, photoelasticity apparatus, magneto- and electro-optical research,

certain ophthalmological instruments, X-ray spectrographs, and various other applications.

Fig. 6. The number of designs of polarimeters (including saccharimeters) available in the

decades around 1900 must have been at least a hundred, from at least a dozen makers.

Among the most significant of these makers were the Franz Schmidt & Haensch (top left) and

the Duboscq-Pellin (top right) workshops. Below: a spectro-polarimeter from A. Hilger (left)

and a J.J. Fric saccharimeter designed by F.Bates of the U.S. Bureau of Standards.

Events in 1910-30

In 1910 the authorities asked for bids on the operation of the Helgustaðir quarry from 1 July

for 10 years. Only two bids were received, from T.E. Tulinius (backed by C. Zeiss?) and a

more advantageous one from two Icelandic entrepreneurs on behalf of a French company.

Tulinius was permitted to keep half of the then existing spar stockpile, and soon disposed of

it. The other half (each about 7 tons) was sold to the French, whose advisor was said to be a

Mr. Jobin. These transactions created intense political debate. The French company

apparently operated the quarry in the late summer of 1910, in 1911, 1912 and part of the 1914

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season. I have only found scarce information on their activities, but they seem to have

removed many tons altogether. Sporadic mining of Iceland spar took place at the Hoffell farm

in Southeast Iceland from 1911 to the late 1930s. Some crystals from there may have been

exported to C. Zeiss or other buyers in Germany. Only quite limited amounts of optical-

quality material were recovered elsewhere (California, Germany, Crimea,...) until 1920.

Fig. 7. One of the 15 pages describing Kalkspath-Präparate in a 1914 catalog by Dr. Steeg &

Reuter. The catalog also includes a variety of polarizing microscopes.

With Parliament’s consent, the Government subsequently decided to operate the Helgustaðir

quarry on its own. A young mining engineer, H.H. Eiríksson, was hired in 1920 to direct

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activities. In 1922 Parliament passed an Act to the effect that the State had a monopoly on

selling all Iceland spar recovered; this legislation was annulled in 1933.

Fig. 8. Various optical devices based on Nicol prisms. Among tasks of white-light

photometers was the measurement of photographic plates with the Martens meter e.g. in

spectroscopy (top left), and surveys of stellar magnitudes with the Zöllner (center) meter. On

the right is a Klein polymeter for detailed studies of double refraction in single crystals.

Below is a Glazebrook spectrophotometer (left), a Michel-Lévy comparator attachment for

petrographic microscopes, and a Wanner pyrometer for measuring high temperatures (right).

A biography of H.H. Eiríksson published in 1970 indicates that some tons of Iceland spar

were recovered in 1920-24. This material was exported gradually during the next few years.

In fiscal records, income from these sales is listed on a few occasions, for instance 5300 kr. in

1929 which was of a similar order of magnitude as the annual wages of a civil engineer. A

prime reason given in the biography for terminating operations at Helgustaðir is that the major

manufacturers of polarized-light equipment had found a cheaper and more practical material

to replace their spar components. Additionally, it is claimed that British Customs authorities

were discontinuing the use of polarimetry for sugar assays. It now seems clear that both these

claims were incorrect; Polaroid sheets which did not become available until c. 1935, only

substituted for Iceland spar in some applications. What actually happened was that shipments

of Iceland spar began arriving on the market from South Africa in the early 1920s.

It is still largely unknown to the author, how the Iceland spar crystals reached those who

processed them in various ways for selling or for incorporating in optical instrumentation.

Some documentation on this probably exists in archives in Iceland, Denmark, Germany, etc.

Leó Kristjánsson - July/Aug. 2014