income distributions, inequality, and poverty in asia, 1992–2010

8/12/2019 Income Distributions, Inequality, and Poverty in Asia, 1992–2010

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/income-distributions-inequality-and-poverty-in-asia-19922010 1/32

AFBM Tjr`med _apkr ^krmks

Menjgk Fmstrmbutmjes, Mekqualmty,aef _jvkrty me Asma, 1==2 „2?1?

Fuaed`agje Nhjtm`apaemnh, Tmllmag K. Drmccmths,F. ^. _rasafa Raj, aef Tasaea @aruearathek

Ej. 638Garnh 2?16

Asmae Fkvkljpgket Bae` Mestmtutk



Vhk Tjr`med _apkr skrmks ms a njetmeuatmje jc thk cjrgkrly eagkf Fmsnussmje _apkr skrmks0thk eugbkrmed jc thk papkrs njetmeukf wmthjut metkrruptmje jr nhaedk. AFBM”s wjr`medpapkrs rkclknt memtmal mfkas je a tjpmn aef ark pjstkf jelmek cjr fmsnussmje. AFBM kenjuradksrkafkrs tj pjst thkmr njggkets je thk game padk cjr kanh wjr`med papkr (dmvke me thknmtatmje bkljw). ^jgk wjr`med papkrs gay fkvkljp metj jthkr cjrgs jc publmnatmje.

ûddkstkf nmtatmje9

Nhjtmàpaemnh, F., T. K. Drmccmths, F. ^. _. Raj, aef T. @aruearathek. Menjgk Fmstrmbutmjes,Mekqualmty, aef _jvkrty me Asma, 1==2 „2?1?. AFBM Tjr`med _apkr 638. Vj`yj9 AsmaeFkvkljpgket Bae` Mestmtutk. Avamlablk9 http9//www.afbm.jrd/wjr`med-

papkr/2?16/?>/16/31=8.menjgk.fmstrmbutmjes.mekqualmty.pjvkrty.asma/

_lkask njetant thk authjrs cjr mecjrgatmje abjut thms papkr.Kgaml9 fuaedàgje.nhjtmàpaemnhOgjeash.kfu, b.drmccmthsOuemgklb.kfu.au, p.rajOknjejgmns.uq.kfu.au, la`gmemÒuemgklb.kfu.au

Fuaedàgje Nhjtmàpaemnh ms _rjckssjr at thk Fkpartgket jc Knjejgktrmns aefBusmekss ^tatmstmns, Gjeash [emvkrsmty, Gklbjurek, Australma. Tmllmag K. Drmccmths ms_rjckssjr at thk Fkpartgket jc Knjejgmns, [emvkrsmty jc Gklbjurek. F. ^. _rasafa Rajms _rjckssjr at thk ^nhjjl jc Knjejgmns, [emvkrsmty jc Qukkeslaef, Brmsbaek, Australma.

Tasaea @aruearathek ms Vutjr Njjrfmeatjr at thk Fkpartgket jc Knjejgmns, [emvkrsmtyjc Gklbjurek.

Authjrs Nhjtmàpaemnh, Drmccmths, aef Raj dratkcully anèjwlkfdk rkskarnh cuefmedsuppjrt crjg thk Australmae Rkskarnh Njuenml thrjudh Fmsnjvkry _rjiknt F_1?=63>2.

Vhk vmkws kxprksskf me thms papkr ark thk vmkws jc thk authjr aef fj ejt eknkssarmlyrkclknt thk vmkws jr pjlmnmks jc AFBM, thk AFB, mts Bjarf jc Fmrkntjrs, jr thk djvkregketsthky rkprksket. AFBM fjks ejt duaraetkk thk annurany jc thk fata menlufkf me thms papkraef annkpts ej rkspjesmbmlmty cjr aey njeskqukenks jc thkmr usk. Vkrgmejljdy uskf gayejt eknkssarmly bk njesmstket wmth AFB jccmnmal tkrgs.

Asmae Fkvkljpgket Bae` Mestmtutk@asugmdask`m Bumlfmed 8C>-2-; @asugmdask`m, Nhmyjfa-ùVj`yj 1??-3??8, Iapae

Vkl9 +81->->;=>-;;??Cax9 +81->->;=>-;;41[RL9 www.afbm.jrdK-gaml9 mecjOafbm.jrd

© 2?16 Asmae Fkvkljpgket Bae` Mestmtutk

mailto:[email protected]






AFBM Tjr`med _apkr 638 Nhjtm`apaemnh, Drmccmths, Raj, @aruearathek

Abstrant

Menjgk fmstrmbutmjes cjr fkvkljpmed njuetrmks me Asma ark gjfklkf usmed bkta-2 fmstrmbutmjes,whmnh ark kstmgatkf by a gkthjf jc gjgkets prjnkfurk applmkf tj drjupkf fata. Kstmgatkfparagktkrs jc thksk fmstrmbutmjes ark uskf tj nalnulatk gkasurks jc mekqualmty, pjvkrty, aefprj-pjjr drjwth me cjur tmgk pkrmjfs jvkr 1==2 „2?1?. Nhaedks me thksk gkasurks ark

kxagmekf cjr 11 njuetrmks, wmth a gaijr cjnus je thk _kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea (_RN),Mefma, aef Mefjeksma, whmnh ark skparatkf metj rural aef urbae rkdmjes. Tk cmef that thk _RNhas drjwe rapmfly wmth menrkasmed mekqualmty annjgpaeymed thms drjwth. Mefma has bkkerklatmvkly stadeaet. Mefjeksma has drjwe rapmfly actkr succkrmed ae memtmal skt ban` crjg thk Asmae cmeaenmal nrmsms me 1==4.

IKL Nlassmcmnatmje9 N1>, N13, F>1



AFBM Tjr`med _apkr 638 Nhjtm`apaemnh, Drmccmths, Raj, @aruearathek

Njetkets

1. Metrjfuntmje ................................................................................................................ >

2. Gkthjfjljdy cjr Kstmgatmed Menjgk Fmstrmbutmjes aef Nalnulatmed _jvkrty ................ ;

2.1 Gkasurks jc _rj-_jjr Drjwth........................................................................ 3

>. Fata aef Njuetry Njvkradk ...................................................................................... =

6. Kgpmrmnal Rksults ..................................................................................................... 1?

6.1 Dljbal Menjgk Fmstrmbutmjes9 Lkvkls aef Vrkefs .......................................... 1? 6.2 _jvkrty me Fkvkljpmed Njuetrmks me Asma ...................................................... 11 6.> Mekqualmty aef _jvkrty me thk _kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea ............................. 16 6.6 Mekqualmty aef _jvkrty me Mefma ..................................................................... 18

6.; Mekqualmty aef _jvkrty me Mefjeksma ............................................................. 2>

;. Njenlusmjes ............................................................................................................. 24

Rkckrkenks ......................................................................................................................... 2=



AFBM Tjr`med _apkr 638 Nhjtm`apaemnh, Drmccmths, Raj, aef @aruearathek

>

1. MEVRJF[NVMJE

As thk gjst pjpuljus rkdmje me thk wjrlf, Asma ms hjgk tj 6,282 gmllmje pkjplk. Vhk_kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea (_RN), Mefma, aef Mefjeksma ark thk thrkk lardkst njuetrmksme Asma wmth pjpulatmjes jc 1,>;4 gmllmje, 1,2;4 gmllmje, aef 268 gmllmje, rkspkntmvkly,annjuetmed cjr gjrk thae 3?% jc thk pjpulatmje me thk rkdmje. Vhk Asmae rkdmje ms alsjthk knjejgmn pjwkr hjusk jc thk wjrlf wmth sjgk jc mts castkst drjwmed knjejgmks.Vhk _RN has bkke thk castkst drjwmed knjejgy jvkr thk last twj fknafks0 jvkr thkpkrmjf 1=8= „2?1> mt pjstkf ae aeeual avkradk drjwth ratk jc =.8% pkr aeeug. Mefmahas alsj bkke drjwmed at a cast ratk wmth ae aeeual avkradk ratk jc =% jvkr thk pkrmjf2??> „2??40 smenk thke, mts drjwth ratk has sljwkf tj arjuef ;%. Mefjeksma has alsjpkrcjrgkf wkll wmth ae avkradk drjwth ratk jc 3% smenk 2??3. Bjth thk _RN aef Mefmaark agjed thk 1? lardkst knjejgmks me thk wjrlf as gkasurkf by drjss fjgkstmnprjfunt (DF_).

Vhk menmfkenk jc pjvkrty me thk Asmae rkdmje ms qumtk hmdh fkspmtk thk spkntanular

drjwth pkrcjrgaenk jc thk _RN, Mefma aef jthkr knjejgmks me thk rkdmje. Annjrfmed tjthk 2?1> Tjrlf Fkvkljpgket Mefmnatjrs, 12.;% jc thk pjpulatmje me Kast Asma aef >1%jc thk pjpulatmje me ^juth Asma ark bkljw thk $1.2;/fay pjvkrty lmek uskf by thk TjrlfBae`.1 A staddkrmed 33.4% jc thk pjpulatmje me ^juth Asma aef 21.4% jc thk pjpulatmjeme Kast Asma ms uefkr thk $2/fay pjvkrty lmek. _jvkrty menmfkenk uefkr thk $1.2;/faypjvkrty lmek ms >2.34%, 18.?3%, aef 11.8?%, rkspkntmvkly, me Mefma, Mefjeksma aef thk_RN. Vhk pmnturk ms kqually fmsturbmed whke eatmjeal pjvkrty lmeks ark uskf. Vhkmenmfkenk jc pjvkrty me rural Mefma aef rural _RN ms qumtk hmdh njgparkf tj thkmr urbaenjuetkrparts, mefmnatmed ae uekqual fmstrmbutmje jc drjwth anrjss rural aef urbaerkdmjes jc thksk njuetrmks.

Annjrfmed tj thk Asmae Fkvkljpgket Bae` (2?12), jvkr thk last 2? ykars, mekqualmty me

thk fmstrmbutmje jc menjgk has wjrskekf me thk thrkk gjst pjpuljus njuetrmks. Me thk_RN, thk Dmem gkasurk jc mekqualmty has menrkaskf crjg ?.>2 tj ?.6>0 me Mefma crjg ?.>>tj ?.>4 aef me Mefjeksma crjg ?.2= tj ?.>4. Vhms gkaes that mekqualmty me thk rkdmje hasdkekrally bkke je thk rmsk whmlk DF_ has bkke drjwmed at mgprkssmvk ratks.

Me thms papkr wk kxagmek lkvkls aef trkefs jc mekqualmty aef pjvkrty me Asma furmed thkpkrmjf 1==2 „2?1?. Alsj, baskf je thk fata je DF_ drjwth, mekqualmty me thk menjgkfmstrmbutmje, aef pjvkrty menmfkenk me varmjus njuetrmks me thk Asmae rkdmje, mt msmgpjrtaet tj kxagmek thk bkekcmts annrukf tj thk pjjr crjg DF_ drjwth me thkskknjejgmks. Has thk drjwth me thk Asmae rkdmje bkke prj-pjjr: Hjw havk thk damescrjg DF_ drjwth bkke fmstrmbutkf tj hjuskhjlfs at fmcckrket lkvkls jc menjgk: Has thkprj-pjjr drjwth bkke absjlutk jr rklatmvk: Tmth ae absjlutk apprjanh, drjwth msnjesmfkrkf tj bk prj-pjjr mc mt rkfunks absjlutk pjvkrty. Me njetrast, drjwth ms fkcmekfas prj-pjjr uefkr a rklatmvk apprjanh mc thk drjwth bkekcmts thk pjjr prjpjrtmjeatklygjrk thae thk eje-pjjr.

A eugbkr jc gkthjfs cjr kxagmemed prj-pjjrekss jc drjwth havk bkke fkvkljpkf jvkrthk last fknafk. Ravallmje aef Nhke (2??>) afvjnatk thk usk jc drjwth menmfkenknurvks aef prjvmfk ae mefkx jc prj-pjjrekss jc drjwth usmed thk Tatts mefkx. @a`waemaef _krema (2???) prjvmfk a eugbkr jc gkasurks jc prj-pjjrekss jc drjwth aef alsjjcckr uskcul fknjgpjsmtmjes jc thk prj-pjjrekss gkasurks jc drjwth. Funljs aefSkrfmkr-Njunhaek (2?1?) aef @laske kt al. (2??6) prjvmfk uskcul applmnatmjes jc thkskgkthjfs tj thk aealysms jc prj-pjjr drjwth me ^juth Acrmna, Gaurmtmus, aef Bjlmvma.

1 http9//www.snrmbf.njg/fjn/1>;=33814/Tjrlf-Fkvkljpgket-Mefmnatjrs-2?1>

http://www.scribd.com/doc/135966817/World-Development-Indicators-2013







6

Vypmnally, aealysks jc prj-pjjrekss jc drjwth rkqumrk uemt rknjrf fata je menjgks jrkxpkefmturks at twj fmcckrket pjmets jc tmgk. Fata je hjuskhjlfs ark thke uskf tjkxagmek drjwth me menjgk at fmcckrket quaetmlks, whmnh me ture prjvmfks mecjrgatmje tjnjgputk prj-pjjrekss gkasurks. Vhus, fata rkqumrkgkets ark fkgaefmed whke mtnjgks tj njefuntmed aealysms jc prj-pjjr drjwth. Mc thk aealysms ms tj njvkr a lardkeugbkr jc njuetrmks aef mc mt ms tj bk applmkf tj kxagmek trkefs jvkr a ljed pkrmjf jctmgk, thk rkqumrkgket jc havmed annkss tj hjuskhjlf kxpkefmturk survkys ms a gaijrlmgmtatmje. Dljbally avamlablk menjgk fmstrmbutmje fatabasks lm`k thk TMFKR menjgkfmstrmbutmje fata skt jctke prjvmfk lmgmtkf menjgk fmstrmbutmje fata me thk cjrg jc fknmlkjr qumetmlk sharks.

Me thms papkr, wk kxagmek mekqualmty, pjvkrty, aef prj-pjjr drjwth pkrcjrgaenk me thkrural aef urbae rkdmjes jc sklkntkf Asmae knjejgmks, menlufmed thk _RN, Mefma, aefMefjeksma, usmed addrkdatk menjgk fmstrmbutmje fata. Me thk cmrst stadk, wk ga`k usk jcthk rknket njetrmbutmjes jc Nhjtmàpaemnh kt al. (2??4) aef Nhjtmàpaemnh kt al. (2?12)aef thk gkthjfjljdy prjpjskf me thksk papkrs tj gjfkl clkxmblk menjgk fmstrmbutmjesusmed lmgmtkf fata. At thk sknjef stadk, wk ga`k usk jc thk menjgk fmstrmbutmjes cmttkf

tj addrkdatk fata tj aealyzk mekqualmty, pjvkrty, aef prj-pjjr drjwth.

Menjgk fmstrmbutmjes cjr njuetrmks me Asma ark kstmgatkf cjr thk ykars 1==2, 2???, 2??;,aef 2?1? usmed thk assugptmje that thksk fmstrmbutmjes cjlljw bkta-2 fmstrmbutmjes. Vhkbkta-2 fmstrmbutmje that wk havk nhjske cjr jur aealysms ms a gkgbkr jc thk dkekralmzkfbkta-2 nlass jc fmstrmbutmjes (skk GnFjealf aef Xu P1==;W). Mt ms a clkxmblk fmstrmbutmjethat has bkke shjwe tj prjvmfk a djjf cmt tj a varmkty jc kgpmrmnal menjgk fmstrmbutmjes.^kk cjr kxagplk GnFjealf (1=86) aef GnFjealf aef Raesjg (1=4=). Vhk tknhemqukthat wk usk tj kstmgatk kanh bkta-2 fmstrmbutmje crjg suggary fata njgprmsmedpjpulatmje sharks aef menjgk sharks ms thk gkthjf jc gjgkets kstmgatjr suddkstkfby Nhjtmàpaemnh kt al. (2??4). Jenk njuetry-lkvkl fmstrmbutmjes ark kstmgatkf wkfkrmvk rkdmjeal menjgk fmstrmbutmjes by njgbmemed thk bkta-2 fmstrmbutmjes cjr kanh

njuetry. Vhk sagk prjnkfurk ms applmkf tj njgbmek arka-lkvkl (urbae jr rural) menjgkfmstrmbutmjes tj fkrmvk njuetry menjgk fmstrmbutmjes. Cmeally, menjgk fmstrmbutmjes fkrmvkfcjr njuetry aef rkdmjeal lkvkls ark uskf tj stufy thk lkvkls aef trkefs me menjgkmekqualmty aef pjvkrty. Jur cjnus ms je kstmgatmed aef gkasurmed mekqualmty aefpjvkrty aef thkmr nhaedks jvkr tmgk0 wk fj ejt fmsnuss pjvkrty-rkfunmed metkrvketmjesjr prj-pjjr pjlmnmks. Alsj, jur gkasurks jc wkll-bkmed ark rkstrmntkf tj thk usk jckxpkefmturk jr menjgk0 wk fj ejt fmsnuss gultmfmgkesmjeal mekqualmty jr pjvkrty.

Vhkrk ark a eugbkr jc lardk-snalk stufmks je pjvkrty me Asma mevjlvmed gaey njuetrmks.Kxagplks ark Damha kt al. (2??=), Yhuaed (2?1?), aef Ravallmje (2?12). Gjst jc thkgrkly je pjvkrty kstmgatks jbtamekf crjg thk Tjrlf Bae` tj fj thkmr aealysms. Vhk wjr`by Tae aef ^kbastmae (2?11) ms slmdhtly fmcckrket. Vhkmr papkr ms nljskly rklatkf tj what

wk amg tj fj me thms papkr. Vhky upfatk pjvkrty kstmgatks cjr 2; njuetrmks me thk Asmaaef _anmcmn rkdmje cjr 2??; aef 2??8 aef prjiknt thkmr kstmgatks curthkr tj 2??= aef2?1?. [smed pjvkrty lmeks jc $1.2; aef $2 a fay, thky cmef ae mgprkssmvk rkfuntmje mepjvkrty me thk _RN aef a smdemcmnaet fknlmek me thk eugbkr jc pjjr me Asma as a whjlkbktwkke 2??; aef 2??8. Thke thk njuetry survky fata ark avamlablk, thk hkafnjuetratmjs ark jbtamekf by njuetmed thk eugbkr jc pkjplk bkljw thk pjvkrty lmeks. Thkethk avamlablk fata ark me drjupkf cjrg, thky kstmgatk thk njuetry fmstrmbutmjes usmed thkgkthjf suddkstkf by ^hjrrjn`s aef Tae (2??=). Vhms apprjanh ms pkrcjrgkf tj jbtamekstmgatks cjr Mefma cjr 2?1? aef cjr thk _RN cjr 2??8, 2??=, aef 2?1?. Cjr njuetrmkswhkrk thkrk ark ej fata avamlablk, thky usk thk Tjrlf Bae`”s kstmgatks crjg_jvnalEkt jr rkly je thk kstmgatks jbtamekf by applymed thk pjvkrty klastmnmty jc drjwthtj njuetry pkr napmta DF_.




;

Me ^kntmje 2 wk ga`k rkckrkenk tj whkrk fktamls jc jur gkthjfjljdy cjr kstmgatmed aefnjgbmemed thk bkta-2 fmstrmbutmjes aef cjr nalnulatmed mekqualmty aef pjvkrty gkasurksnae bk cjuef. Tk alsj fksnrmbk thk prj-pjjr gkasurks uskf me thk stufy. Fktamls jc thkfata uskf ark dmvke me ^kntmje >. Vhk kgpmrmnal rksults ark prksketkf me ^kntmje 6.^kntmje ; njetames a suggary jc thk njetrmbutmje jc thk papkr.

2. GKVHJFJLJD] CJR K^VMGAVMED MENJGKFM^VRMB[VMJE^ AEF NALN[LAVMED _JSKRV]

Vhk game sjurnks jc fata cjr pjvkrty gkasurkgket jrmdmeatk crjg hjuskhjlf survkysnjefuntkf me gjst njuetrmks, at varymed metkrvals. Mc annkssmbmlmty jc uemt rknjrf fatacrjg thksk hjuskhjlf survkys ms ejt a prjblkg, ejeparagktrmn pjvkrty kstmgatks naebk njgputkf crjg thk uemt rknjrf fata usmed fmsnrktk vkrsmjes jc thk varmjus pjvkrtygkasurks that appkar me thk lmtkraturk. Hjwkvkr, whke narrymed jut lardk-snalk prjikntsmevjlvmed gaey njuetrmks aef fmcckrket tmgk pkrmjfs, annkssmed aef njgpmlmed thk uemt

rknjrf fata nae bk fmccmnult, tmgk njesugmed, aef labjr metkesmvk. A lkss rksjurnkmetkesmvk altkreatmvk ms tj usk drjupkf fata that havk bkke njestruntkf crjg thk uemtrknjrf fata aef whmnh havk bkke gafk rkafmly avamlablk tj rkskarnhkrs by thk TjrlfBae`. Vhksk drjupkf fata ark me thk cjrg jc pjpulatmje aef menjgk sharks aef menlufksuggary statmstmns sunh as gkae menjgk.

Thke drjupkf fata ark thk prmgary sjurnk jc mecjrgatmje, thk uskculekss jcejeparagktrmn tknhemquks ms lmgmtkf. Fmsnrktk vkrsmjes jc pjvkrty gkasurks ekkf tjassugk menjgks ark uemcjrgly fmstrmbutkf wmthme kanh drjup, jr usk sjgk jthkrarbmtrary gkthjf jc metkrpjlatmje. Vhk altkreatmvk ms tj ga`k sjgk `mef jc paragktrmnassugptmje. Vwj pjssmblk ways me whmnh a paragktrmn assugptmje nae bk gafk ark (1)tj spknmcy aef kstmgatk a cuentmjeal cjrg cjr a Ljrkez nurvk, aef (2) tj assugk a

partmnular fkesmty cjr thk menjgk fmstrmbutmje aef kstmgatk mt. Jenk a Ljrkez nurvk jr aemenjgk fmstrmbutmje has bkke kstmgatkf, kstmgatks jc pjvkrty gkasurks nae bknjgputkf crjg kmthkr thk Ljrkez nurvk paragktkrs jr thk menjgk fmstrmbutmjeparagktkrs. Vhk cmrst apprjanh, kstmgatmje jc a Ljrkez nurvk, has bkke nhagpmjekf bythk Tjrlf Bae` aef ms uskf algjst kxnlusmvkly me applmnatmjes. _jvkrty gkasurksnjgputkf je thkmr _jvnalEkt wkbsmtk ark baskf je thk bkttkr cmttmed Ljrkez nurvk,nhjske crjg thk dkekral quafratmn (Smllaskejr aef Arejlf 1=8=) jr thk bkta Ljrkeznurvk (@a`waem 1=8?). Vhk sknjef apprjanh, kstmgatmje jc ae menjgk fmstrmbutmje, hasrknkmvkf lkss attketmje, pjssmbly bknausk tknhemquks cjr kstmgatmed menjgkfmstrmbutmjes crjg drjupkf fata havk ejt bkke wmfkly fmsskgmeatkf. Hjwkvkr, rknketpapkrs by Nhjtm`apaemnh kt al. (2??4) aef Haiardasht kt al. (2?12), shjwmed hjw tjnjgputk dkekralmzkf gkthjf jc gjgkets kstmgatks jc menjgk fmstrmbutmjes crjg

drjupkf fata, havk cmllkf that dap.Vhkrk ark skvkral rkasjes cjr njesmfkrmed menjgk fmstrmbutmjes as ae altkreatmvk tjLjrkez nurvks cjr kstmgatmed pjvkrty gkasurks. Jenk ae menjgk fmstrmbutmje has bkkekstmgatkf mt nae bk uskf tj njgputk a varmkty jc nharantkrmstmns jc that fmstrmbutmje,menlufmed thk Ljrkez nurvk. Vhk njevkrsk ms ejt truk, hjwkvkr. Mt ms ejt always pjssmblktj rktrmkvk ae uefkrlymed menjgk fmstrmbutmje aef mts nharantkrmstmns crjg a Ljrkeznurvk. Vhkrk ark twj prjblkgs that thk Tjrlf Bae` kenjuetkrs whke kstmgatmeddkekral quafratmn aef bkta Ljrkez nurvks. Vhk cmrst ms that thk paragktkr kstmgatksgay ejt ymklf ae afgmssmblk Ljrkez nurvk that ms gjejtjemnally menrkasmed aef njevkx.Me thms nask kstmgatmje brka`s fjwe. Me njetrast, Ljrkez nurvks fkrmvkf mefmrkntly crjgae kstmgatkf menjgk fmstrmbutmje wmll autjgatmnally satmscy thk rkqumrkf prjpkrtmks. Vhk

sknjef prjblkg ms that thkrk ms a raedk jc menjgks cjr whmnh ae kstmgatkf Ljrkez




3

nurvk has ej njrrkspjefmed valmf menjgk fmstrmbutmje. Vhk Tjrlf Bae` rkpjrts a raedkjc "valmf menjgk valuks" assjnmatkf wmth kanh jc mts Ljrkez nurvk kstmgatks. Mc a pjvkrtylmek calls bkljw thk gmemgug valuk jc thms raedk, as nae happke cjr rklatmvkly wkalthynjuetrmks, thk raedk jc menjgks jvkr whmnh a pjvkrty gkasurk ms nalnulatkf ms "mevalmf",aef thk valmfmty jc pjvkrty kstmgatks ms me fjubt. Kvke whke a pjvkrty lmek calls wmthmethk valmf menjgk raedk, thkrk wmll bk a raedk jc "mevalmf menjgks" that njetrmbutk tjpjvkrty gkasurk nalnulatmje.

Vhk fmstrmbutmje that wk usk cjr gjfklmed menjgks ms thk bkta-2 fmstrmbutmje. Mt ms nhjskebknausk jc mts smgplmnmty, clkxmbmlmty aef mts supkrmjr cmt jvkr ljd-ejrgal aef jthkrfmstrmbutmjes. Vhksk prjpkrtmks ark fmsnusskf me Nhjtmàpaemnh kt al. (2??4) aef alsj meHaiardasht kt al. (2?12).2 Vhk prjbabmlmty fkesmty cuentmje (pfc) cjr thk thrkk-paragktkrbkta-2 fmstrmbutmje uskf tj gjfkl thk njuetry menjgk fmstrmbutmjes ms fkcmekf as

1

( )

( , ) 1

p

p q

p

y c y

yb B p q

b

? y (1)

whkrk y fkejtks menjgk, ?b , ? p , aef ?q ark paragktkrs0 ( , ) B p q ms thk bkta

cuentmje. Vhk nugulatmvk fmstrmbutmje cuentmje (nfc) cjr menjgk ms dmvke by

P ( )W

1 1

( )

?

1( ) (1 ) ,

( , )

y b y

p q

y b y C y t t ft B p q B p q

(2)

whkrk thk cuentmje ( , )t

B p q ms thk nfc cjr thk ejrgalmzkf bkta fmstrmbutmje fkcmekf je thk

(?,1) metkrval. Vhms rkprksketatmje ms njevkemket bknausk ( , )t B p q ms rkafmly njgputkf

by gjst statmstmnal sjctwark. Nhjtmàpaemnh kt al. (2??4) prjvmfk kxprkssmjes cjr gkaemenjgk, thk Dmem njkccmnmket, thk Vhkml mefkx aef thk hkafnjuet ratmj me tkrgs jc thk

paragktkrs jc thk bkta-2 fmstrmbutmje. Cjr jthkr pjvkrty gkasurks sunh as thk Cjstkr „Drkkr „Vhjrbkn`k (CDV) gkasurk, thk At`mesje aef thk Tatt gkasurks, Nhjtmàpaemnhkt al. (2?1>) prjvmfk kxprkssmjes cjr thksk gkasurks me tkrgs jc thk paragktkrs jc thkdkekralmzkf bkta fmstrmbutmje jc whmnh thk bkta-2 fmstrmbutmje ms a spknmal nask. Vhkyalsj dmvk fktamls jc thk tknhemquk uskf cjr kstmgatmed thk paragktkrs aef suddkst away tj njgbmek njuetry menjgk fmstrmbutmjes tj nrkatk rkdmjeal menjgk fmstrmbutmjes.Vhk sagk apprjanh nae bk uskf tj njgbmek rural aef urbae menjgk fmstrmbutmjes tjjbtame a njuetry menjgk fmstrmbutmje.

2.1 Gkasurks jc _rj-_jjr Drjwth

Me affmtmje tj kxagmemed nhaedks me pjvkrty menmfkenk jvkr tmgk usmed gkasurks sunhas thk hkafnjuet ratmj jr rkcmekgkets jc mt that ta`k metj annjuet thk skvkrmty jc thkpjvkrty, mt ms uskcul tj kxagmek whkthkr drjwth has cavjrkf thk pjjr rklatmvk tj jthkrsplankf at gjrk cavjrablk pjmets me thk menjgk fmstrmbutmje. Cjlljwmed Funljs aefSkrfmkr-Nhjunhaek (2?1?), wk njesmfkr thrkk sunh prj-pjjr gkasurks, eagkly,gkasurks attrmbutablk tj Ravallmje aef Nhke (2??>), @a`waem aef _krema (2???), aef apjvkrty kqumvalket drjwth ratk (_KDR) suddkstkf by @a`waem kt al. (2??>).

2 Haiardasht kt al. (2?12) prjvmfk a spknmcmnatmje tkst, aef rksults rkpjrtkf thkrkme suddkst thk bkta-2

fmstrmbutmje cmts wkll aef pkrcjrgs bkttkr thae jthkr fmstrmbutmjes. Curthkr kstmgatks jc knjejgmnquaetmtmks jc metkrkst lm`k thk Dmem aef Vhkml mefmnks aef pjvkrty menmfkenk crjg thk bkta-2 fmstrmbutmjeark nljsk me gademtufk tj thjsk fkrmvkf usmed gjrk njgplkx fmstrmbutmjes lm`k thk dkekralmzkf bkta

fmstrmbutmje. Cjr a gjrk fktamlkf fmsnussmje jc thksk prjpkrtmks thk rkafkr ms rkckrrkf tj Nhjtmàpaemnh ktal. (2??4) aef Haiardasht kt al. (2?12).




4

Vhk cmrst stkp tjwarf thk Ravallmje „Nhke gkasurk ms thk njestruntmje jc a drjwthmenmfkenk nurvk (DMN ) whmnh fksnrmbks thk drjwth ratk jc menjgk at kanh pkrnketmlk u jc thk fmstrmbutmje. ^pknmcmnally, mc ( )

A C y ms thk menjgk fmstrmbutmje cuentmje at tmgk A,

aef ( ) B

C y ms thk fmstrmbutmje cuentmje cjr thk ekw menjgk fmstrmbutmje at a latkr pjmet B,

thke

1 1

1( )

B A

A

C u C uDMN u

C u

Cjr njgputmed valuks jc ( )DMN u crjg thk bkta-2 fmstrmbutmje, ejtk that

1

1

1

,

1 ,

u

u

bB p q C u

B p q

whkrk 1 ,u

B p q ms thk quaetmlk cuentmje jc thk staefarfmzkf bkta fmstrmbutmje kvaluatkf

at u. Thke wk havk a rkdmjeal fmstrmbutmje jr a njuetry fmstrmbutmje whmnh ms a gmxturk jc

rural aef urbae bkta-2 fmstrmbutmjes, mt ms ej ljedkr stramdhtcjrwarf tj njgputk 1 C u .

Jek ekkfs kmthkr tj sjlvk thk rksultmed ejelmekar kquatmje eugkrmnally jr kstmgatk

1 C u usmed ae kgpmrmnal fmstrmbutmje cuentmje jbtamekf by dkekratmed jbskrvatmjes

crjg thk rklkvaet bkta-2 fmstrmbutmjes me thk gmxturk. Tk cjlljwkf thk lattkr apprjanh mejur applmnatmjes.

Vhk DMN nae bk uskf me a eugbkr jc ways. Mc ( ) ?DMN u cjr all u, thke thk fmstrmbutmje

at tmgk B cmrst-jrfkr stjnhastmnally fjgmeatks thk fmstrmbutmje at tmgk A. Mc ( ) ?DMN u cjr

all u up tj thk memtmal hkafnjuet ratmj A H , thke drjwth has bkke absjlutkly prj-pjjr. Mc

( ) B A ADMN u cjr all u up tj thk memtmal hkafnjuet ratmj A H , that ms, thk drjwth

ratk jc menjgk jc thk pjjr ms drkatkr thae thk drjwth ratk jc gkae menjgk ( ) , thkedrjwth has bkke rklatmvkly prj-pjjr.

Cjr a smedlk gkasurk jc prj-pjjr drjwth Ravallmje aef Nhke suddkst usmed thkavkradk drjwth ratk jc thk menjgk jc thk pjjr. Mt nae bk kxprksskf as

?

1( )

A H

A

RN DMN u fu H

Cjr a bkta-2 fmstrmbutmje (ejt a gmxturk), thms metkdral nae bk kvaluatkf eugkrmnally. Altkreatmvkly, wk nae dkekratk jbskrvatmjes crjg a bkta-2 fmstrmbutmje jr a gmxturk aefnjgputk

1

11

1

E

m

RN DMN m E E

whkrk E ms thk tjtal eugbkr jc jbskrvatmjes dkekratkf, aef 1 A E H E .

Vhk @a`waem „_krema gkasurk njgparks thk nhaedk me a pjvkrty mefkx sunh as thknhaedk me thk hkafnjuet ratmj, A B H H , wmth thk nhaedk that wjulf havk jnnurrkf wmth

thk sagk drjwth ratk, but wmth fmstrmbutmje ekutralmty, A B H H . Hkrk, B fkejtks ae

menjgk fmstrmbutmje that wjulf bk jbtamekf mc all menjgks nhaedkf me thk sagkprjpjrtmje as thk nhaedk me gkae menjgk that jnnurrkf whke gjvmed crjg fmstrmbutmje

A tj fmstrmbutmje B. Vj jbtame B me thk njetkxt jc usmed bkta-2 fmstrmbutmjes, wk nae

smgply nhaedk thk snalk paragktkr b aef lkavk thk paragktkrs p aef q uenhaedkf.




8

Vhk Ljrkez nurvk aef mekqualmty gkasurks jbtamekf crjg a bkta-2 fmstrmbutmje fkpkefje p aef q, but fj ejt fkpkef je b. Vhus, wk havk

A B p p A B

q q

B A B

A

b b

Cmefmed B cjr a gmxturk jc bkta-2 fmstrmbutmjes‖a smtuatmje that jnnurs whke wknjgbmek rural aef urbae fmstrmbutmjes tj cmef a njuetry fmstrmbutmje‖ms lkssstramdhtcjrwarf. [smed thk supkrsnrmpts r aef u tj fkejtk rural aef urbae, rkspkntmvkly,

aef , r u

A A tj fkejtk thk rkspkntmvk pjpulatmje prjpjrtmjes at tmgk A, wk jbtame thk

fmstrmbutmje cuentmje cjr B as cjlljws9

i i

A B p p i i

A Bq q

i i i B

A i B

A

b b , i u r

r r u u

A A B B B

C y C y C y

Vhus, tj jbtame B wk assugk that all menjgks me thk rural aef urbae skntjrs menrkaskme thk sagk prjpjrtmje as thkmr rkspkntmvk gkae menjgks, aef thk fmstrmbutmjes jcmenjgk aef thk pjpulatmje prjpjrtmjes me kanh jc thk skntjrs rkgame thk sagk.

Vhk @a`waem „_krema gkasurk ms

A B

A B

H H @_

H H

Assugmed thk drjwth me gkae menjgk has bkke pjsmtmvk, a valuk ? @_ mgplmks thknhaedk me thk fmstrmbutmje has bkke absjlutkly prj-pjjr, aef a valuk 1 @_ mgplmks thknhaedk me fmstrmbutmje has bkke rklatmvkly prj-pjjr.

Vhk thmrf gkasurk jc prj-pjjr drjwth ms thk pjvkrty kqumvalket drjwth ratk (_KDR)suddkstkf by @a`waem kt al. (2??>). Me thk njetkxt jc jur fksnrmptmje jc thk @a`waem „

_krema gkasurk, mt ms thk drjwth ratk uskf tj njestrunt thk fmstrmbutmje B sunh that

B B H H . Me jthkr wjrfs, mt ms thk drjwth ratk eknkssary tj anhmkvk thk jbskrvkf

nhaedk me thk hkafnjuet ratmj whke fmstrmbutmje ekutralmty ms gametamekf. Me tkrgs jc thk

bkta-2 fmstrmbutmje, mt ms thk valuk d that sjlvks thk cjlljwmed kquatmje9

, ,

B B B B A A z b z u

H B p q B p q , whkrk

*

1

A

z u

d b z

Vhus, wk havk,

1 ( , ) B H A Au B p q aef

11

A

z u d

b u

Cjr a gmxturk jc bkta-2 fmstrmbutmjes thms nalnulatmje ms lkss stramdhtcjrwarf. Ae

altkreatmvk wmth smgmlar prjpkrtmks, aef thk apprjanh wk cjlljwkf, ms tj usk d d @_

whkrk 1 B A d ms thk antual drjwth ratk jc avkradk menjgk. Thke drjwth has ejt

bkke rklatmvkly gjrk cavjrablk tj thk pjjr jr eje-pjjr, thke d d d . Mc d d (jr

d d ) ms ekdatmvk, drjwth agjed thk pjjr ms ljwkr thae thk avkradk drjwth ratk. Je

thk jthkr haef, mc d d (jr d d ) ms pjsmtmvk, drjwth agjed thk pjjr ms hmdhkr thae

thk avkradk drjwth ratk.




=

As ejtkf by Funljs aef Skrfmkr-Nhjunhaek (2?1?), njesmfkratmje jc thk fmstrmbutmje B ,

whmnh has thk sagk menjgk sharks aef mekqualmty as thk fmstrmbutmje A, but thk sagkavkradk menjgk as fmstrmbutmje B, gjtmvatks a fknjgpjsmtmje jc a pjvkrty nhaedk metj“drjwth‗ aef “rkfmstrmbutmje‗ njgpjekets. ^pknmcmnally, wk nae wrmtk thk nhaedk me thk

hkafnjuet ratmj as A B A B B B

drjwth kccknt rkfmstrmbutmje kccknt

H H H H H H

Mc wk narrmkf jut thk sagk aealysms wmth a njuetkrcantual fmstrmbutmje A wmth thk sagkmenjgk sharks aef mekqualmty as fmstrmbutmje B, but thk sagk avkradk menjgk asfmstrmbutmje A, wk wjulf ejt eknkssarmly jbtame thk sagk rksult. Me thms nask thkfknjgpjsmtmje wjulf bk

A B A B A A

rkfmstrmbutmje kccknt drjwth kccknt

H H H H H H

Vj annjggjfatk thms fmcckrkenk me rksults, Funljs aef Skrfmkr-Nhjunhaek (2?1?)suddkst avkradmed thk twj altkreatmvks.

All thk rkqumrkf quaetmtmks‖thk gkaes jc thk fmstrmbutmjes, thk fkesmty aef fmstrmbutmjecuentmjes, thk Dmem njkccmnmkets, thk pjvkrty gkasurks, aef thk prj-pjjr drjwthgkasurks‖fkpkef je thk ue`ejwe paragktkrs jc thk bkta-2 fmstrmbutmjes b, p aef q. A gkthjf-jc-gjgkets prjnkfurk cjr kstmgatmed thksk paragktkrs ms fmsnusskf byNhjtm`apaemnh kt al. (2??4).

>. FAVA AEF NJ[EVR] NJSKRADK

A gaijr sjurnk jc fata cjr nrjss-njuetry stufy jc menjgk fmstrmbutmjes, mekqualmty, aefpjvkrty ms crjg thk Tjrlf Bae` _jvnalEkt wkb smtk.> Tk uskf thk fata je all njuetrmksme ^juth aef ^juthkast Asma rkpjrtkf je thk smtk cjr whmnh thkrk ark fata cjr thk ykarsas nljsk as pjssmblk tj 1==2, 2???, 2??;, aef 2?1?. Vhms has lkf tj 11 njuetrmks bkmedmenlufkf me thk stufy, wmth thk fata skparatkf metj rural aef urbae arkas cjr thk_kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea (_RN), Mefma, aef Mefjeksma. Vhk lmst jc thk njuetrmksnjesmfkrkf ms me Vablk 2. Vhk fata avamlablk ark me drjupkf cjrg njgprmsmed pjpulatmjesharks aef njrrkspjefmed menjgk jr kxpkefmturk sharks cjr a eugbkr jc nlassks,tjdkthkr wmth gkae gjethly kxpkefmturk jr menjgk that has bkke rkpjrtkf crjgsurvkys, aef thke njevkrtkf tj purnhasmed pjwkr parmty (___) usmed thk Tjrlf Bae`”s2??; ___ kxnhaedk ratks cjr thk njesugptmje addrkdatk crjg eatmjeal annjuets. Alsjavamlablk ark thk fata je pjpulatmje smzk. Dmvke a nhjmnk bktwkke menjgk aef

kxpkefmturk sharks, wk prkckr kxpkefmturk, me lmek wmth kstablmshkf prantmnk at thkTjrlf Bae`. Kxpkefmturk was uskf cjr all thk sklkntkf njuetrmks kxnkpt Galaysmawhkrk jely menjgk was avamlablk. Vhrjudhjut thk papkr wk usk thk dkekrmn tkrgmenjgk fmstrmbutmjes, althjudh algjst all jc jur kxagplk fmstrmbutmjes ark cjrkxpkefmturk. Vhk njvkradk pkrnketadks rklatmvk tj thk whjlk jc Asma cjr kanh ykar ark8;.6%, 83.3%, 4?.;%, aef 48.6% cjr 1==2, 2???, 2??;, aef 2?1?, rkspkntmvkly.6

> Vhk latkst vkrsmje jc thk fata was fjweljafkf je 1; Jntjbkr 2?1> at http9//rkskarnh.wjrlfbae`.jrd/

_jvnalEkt/mefkx.htgl6

Njesmfkratmje jc rkdmjeal sharks ms eknkssary whke njgparmsjes jvkr tmgk ark gafk at thk rkdmjeallkvkl.




1?

6. KG_MRMNAL RK^[LV^

Tk start thms skntmje by ljj`med at thk nhaedks me thk dljbal menjgk fmstrmbutmjesbktwkke 1==2 aef 2??;, hjw Asma cmts metj thk nhaedks, aef what njetrmbutmje Asma

has gafk tjwarfs dljbal mekqualmty me thk fmstrmbutmje jc menjgk. Tk wjulf kxpknt thknhaedk me Asma tj play ae mgpjrtaet rjlk me kxplamemed thk nhaedk me thk dljbal menjgkfmstrmbutmje smenk furmed thms pkrmjf Asma gafk up abjut 3?% jc thk wjrlf pjpulatmje.Vhke wk cjnus thk aealysms je mekqualmty aef pjvkrty me Asma aef kxtkef thk rksults tjmenlufk 2?1?. _jvkrty me thk _RN, Mefma, aef Mefjeksma ms aealyzkf me fktaml.

6.1 Dljbal Menjgk Fmstrmbutmjes9 Lkvkls aef Vrkefs

Tk cmrst prksket thk rksults cjr thk dljbal menjgk fmstrmbutmje aef mekqualmty ta`ke crjgTarekr kt al. (2?1>). Me that stufy thk fata uskf cjr njuetry pkr napmta menjgk wkrk thkDF_ pkr napmta me ___ tkrgs, jbtamekf crjg Tjrlf Bae`”s 2??; MetkreatmjealNjgparmsje _rjdrag (MN_). Vhk aealysms njvkrs =6, =2, aef => njuetrmks cjr thk wjrlf

cjr 1==>, 2???, aef 2??;, rkspkntmvkly. Vhms njvkradk ms apprjxmgatkly =?%, 88%, aef8;% jc thk tjtal pjpulatmje me thk wjrlf. Cjr Asma, thk stufy njvkrs 1=, 18, aef 16njuetrmks, jc bjth fkvkljpkf aef fkvkljpmed njuetrmks, cjr 1==>, 2???, aef 2??;,rkspkntmvkly. Me thk ekxt skntmje wk cjnus je jur rksults nalnulatkf me thms papkr cjrpjvkrty me Asma cjr thk pkrmjfs 1==2, 2???, 2??;, aef 2?1?. Jur aealysms njesmfkrsjely thk fkvkljpmed njuetrmks me Asma. Jek fmcckrkenk bktwkke thk pjvkrty aealysms methms papkr aef that jc thk prkvmjus stufy me Tarekr kt al. (2?1>) ms that wk usk thknjuetry survky gjethly gkae menjgk rkpjrtkf by thk Tjrlf Bae` je thk _jvnalEktsmtk as njuetry pkr napmta menjgk.

Cmdurk 1 shjws pljts cjr thk dljbal menjgk fkesmty cuentmjes jvkr 1==>, 2???, aef2??;. Vhksk fkesmty cuentmjes ark thk pjpulatmje wkmdhtkf avkradks jc thk fkesmty

cuentmjes jc kanh mefmvmfual njuetry njesmfkrkf. Vhk fmstrmbutmjes havk njesmstketlygjvkf tj thk rmdht rkclkntmed thk menrkask me wjrlf gkae menjgk jvkr tmgk. Hjwkvkr,thk pka`s jc thk fmstrmbutmjes (whmnh rkclknt gjfal menjgks) ark stmll lkss thae thkaeeual menjgk jc $1,;??, mefmnatmed that thkrk ms a smdemcmnaet prjpjrtmje jc thk wjrlf”spjpulatmje that rknkmvks ae menjgk gunh lkss thae $6.1? a fay.

Cmdurk 19 Dljbal Fkesmty Cuentmje Jvkr Vmgk

^jurnk9 Tarekr kt al. (2?1>).




11

Vablk 1 prjvmfks jvkrall kstmgatks cjr dljbal menjgk mekqualmty cjr 1==>, 2???, aef2??; jbtamekf crjg Tarekr kt al. (2?1>). Jvkr thk pkrmjf 1==> „2??;, bjth thk Dmemaef Vhkml njkccmnmkets mefmnatk a njetmeual fknlmek me dljbal menjgk mekqualmty. Vhk Dmemnjkccmnmket fknlmekf crjg ?.4??? me 1==> tj ?.3=?6 me 2??? aef thke curthkr tj ?.34?2 me2??;. Vhk fknlmek me thk Vhkml mefkx appkars kvke gjrk smdemcmnaet, dmvke thk drkatkrskesmtmvmty jc thms gkasurk tj nhaedks me menjgk wmth mekqualmty, callmed crjg 1.?;>2 me1==> tj ?.=836 me 2??? aef thke tj ?.8442 me 2??;.

Vablk 19 Dljbal Mekqualmty

1==> 2??? 2??;

Dljbal

Dmem ?.4??? ?.3=?6 ?.34>>

Vhkml”s L 1.?;>2 ?.=836 ?.=?31

Tmthme ?.284> (24.28%) ?.>??3 (>?.64%) ?.>?46 (>>.=>%)

Bktwkke ?.43;= (42.42%) ?.38;8 (3=.;>%) ?.;=84 (33.?4%)

Asma

Dmem ?.;33; ?.;2=> ?.63?=

Vhmkl”s L ?.;;?1 ?.6864 ?.>381

Tmthme ?.2;;? (63.>3%) ?.26=2 (;1.61%) ?.28=1 (48.;6%)

Bktwkke ?.2=;1 (;>.36%) ?.2>;; (68.;=%) ?.?4=? (21.63%)

Ejtks91. Vhk rksults cjr thk dljbal skntmje ark ta`ke crjg Tarekr kt al. (2?1>).2. Vhk rksults cjr thk Asma skntmje ark thk authjrs” nalnulatmjes.

A fknjgpjsmtmje jc mekqualmty metj njetrmbutmjes crjg thk fmcckrkenks me menjgks wmthmeaef bktwkke njuetrmks ms uskcul me uefkrstaefmed thk cantjrs frmvmed thk jvkrallfjwewarf trkef me dljbal mekqualmty. Vhms fknjgpjsmtmje mefmnatks that thk frmvmed cjrnkbkhmef thk fknlmek me jvkrall dljbal mekqualmty has bkke thk fknlmek me mekqualmtybktwkke njuetrmks, bjth me absjlutk aef rklatmvk tkrgs. Me 1==>, bktwkke njuetrymekqualmty gkasurkf ?.43;=, njetrmbutmed 4>% jc tjtal dljbal mekqualmty0 whmlk me 2??;thms haf rkfunkf tj ?.;=84, njgprmsmed 33% jc tjtal mekqualmty. Vhms ms ae mefmnatmje jcnjevkrdkenk me menjgks anrjss njuetrmks. Vhk fknlmek me bktwkke-njuetry mekqualmtyhas bkke njuplkf wmth a slmdht menrkask me wmthme-njuetry mekqualmty bjth me absjlutkaef rklatmvk tkrgs, rmsmed slmdhtly crjg ?.284> (24%) me 1==> tj ?.>?46 (>;%) me 2??;.

Vhk sknjef part jc Vablk 1 prkskets thk trkef me mekqualmty me Asma nalnulatkf me thmspapkr. Vhkrk ms a fknrkask me mekqualmty bktwkke 1==> aef 2??; as nae bk shjwe bythk fknrkask me thk Dmem njkccmnmkets crjg ?.;33; cjr 1==> tj ?.63?= cjr 2??;. Vhk Vhkml

mefmnks alsj shjw a fknrkask me mekqualmty9 crjg ?.;;?1 me 1==> tj ?.>381 me 2??;. Aswmll bk mevkstmdatkf curthkr me thms skntmje, thk trkef me mekqualmty me Asma ms lm`kly tj bkattrmbutkf tj thk strjed drjwth pkrcjrgaenk jc thk _RN aef Mefma. Bjth thksk pjpuljusnjuetrmks havk skke drjwth me gkae menjgk whmnh ms lm`kly tj bk frmvmed fjwebktwkke-njuetry mekqualmty as ms kvmfket crjg thk fknrkask me bktwkke-njuetrymekqualmty me Asma prksketkf me Vablk 10 aef havk kxpkrmkenkf ae menrkasmed fmsparmty jcmenjgk wmthme thkmr bjrfkrs bktwkke 1==> aef 2??;.

6.2 _jvkrty me Fkvkljpmed Njuetrmks me Asma

Me Vablk 2 wk rkpjrt thk rksults cjr thk hkafnjuet ratmj, thk pjvkrty dap aef thk CDV

cjr fkvkljpmed njuetrmks njesmfkrkf me thms papkr cjr thk ykars 1==2 „2?1?, usmed apjvkrty lmek jc $1.2;/fay ($>8/gjeth), a valuk prjpjskf by thk Tjrlf Bae` tj gkasurk




12

kxtrkgk pjvkrty.; Tk usk thk mekqualmty avkrsmje 2 cjr thk CDV gkasurk. Crjgthms tablk wk nae njgpark thk fkdrkk jc pjvkrty me fmcckrket njuetrmks, jbskrvk hjwpjvkrty menmfkenk has nhaedkf jvkr tmgk, aef kxagmek whkthkr rklatmvk pjvkrtyasskssgkets ark rjbust tj nhjmnk jc pjvkrty mefkx. Althjudh thk gademtufks jc thk

thrkk pjvkrty mefmnks vary njesmfkrably, rkclkntmed thkmr fmcckrket fkcmemtmjes, pjvkrtynjgparmsjes jvkr tmgk aef njuetrmks ark dkekrally ejt skesmtmvk tj nhjmnk jc mefkx. Vhkcjlljwmed jbskrvatmjes nae bk gafk crjg aey jek jc thkg9

Furmed thk pkrmjf 1==2 „2?1?, Baedlafksh was thk pjjrkst njuetry. Me 1==2,4?% jc thk tjtal pjpulatmje jc thk njuetry was me kxtrkgk pjvkrty. Vhk pjvkrtyfknrkaskf jvkr tmgk0 but 6>% jc thk tjtal pjpulatmje was stmll me kxtrkgkpjvkrty me 2?1?.

Me 2?1?, pjvkrty was drkatkst me Baedlafksh, rural Mefma, aef urbae Mefma0 mtwas ljwkst me urbae _RN, Vhamlaef, aef Galaysma. Ekarly 2? ykars karlmkr, me1==2, Baedlafksh, _a`mstae, Smkt Eag, aef rural _RN wkrk thk pjjrkstnjuetrmks. Galaysma, Vhamlaef, aef urbae _RN haf thk lkast pjvkrty.

Njuetrmks whmnh havk gafk thk drkatkst prjdrkss tjwarfs klmgmeatmed pjvkrty,aef thk pkrmjfs me whmnh thk gaijr pjvkrty rkfuntmjes tjj` plank ark rural _RN(1==2 „2??;), rural aef urbae Mefjeksma (2??? „2?1?), Smkt Eag (1==2 „2??;),urbae _RN (1==2 „2?1?), aef _a`mstae (1==2 „2??;). Mefma (rural aef urbae)aef Baedlafksh havk gafk sjgk prjdrkss, but thk menmfkenk jc pjvkrty stmllrkgames kxtrkgkly hmdh.

Vhk _RN, Mefma, aef Mefjeksma ark lardk njuetrmks, tjdkthkr annjuetmed cjrgjrk thae 8?% jc thk tjtal pjpulatmje jc thk Asmae njuetrmks njesmfkrkf me thmsstufy. Vhksk njuetrmks, wmth thk _RN me partmnular, drkw at a cast ratk. Vhus,gjvkgkets me thksk njuetrmks havk haf a strjed mgpant je gjvkgkets me Asmaas a whjlk. Ljj`med gjrk nljskly at what has happkekf me thksk njuetrmks, me

Cmdurk 2 wk prksket thk eugbkr jc pjjr me thk whjlk jc Asma aef thknjetrmbutmjes crjg thk _RN, Mefma, aef Mefjeksma cjr 1==2, 2???, 2??;, aef2?1?. Mt nae bk skke that thksk thrkk njuetrmks njetrmbutk tj gjrk thae thrkk-quartkrs jc thk tjtal pjjr me Asma. Me thk ekxt skntmje wk mevkstmdatk thk lkvklaef trkefs jc pjvkrty me kanh jc thksk thrkk njuetrmks aef asskss thk prj-pjjrekss jc thk fmstrmbutmvk nhaedks jvkr thms pkrmjf jc tmgk.

;

^kk Ravallmje kt al. (2??=) aef Ravallmje (2?1?) cjr a fktamlkf kxplaeatmje jc hjw thk $1.2; pjvkrty lmekwas skt aef cjr fmsnussmje abjut altkreatmvk pjvkrty lmeks cjr fmcckrket njuetrmks.




1>

Vablk 29 _jvkrty me Asma

]kar Njuetry HkafNjuetRatmj

_jvkrtyDapRatmj

CDV(α72)

_jpulatmje(gmllmjes)

Ej. jc_jjr(gmllmjes)

]kar Njuetry HkafNjuetRatmj

_jvkrtyDapRatmj

CDV(α72)

_jpulatmje(gmllmjes)

Eugbkr jc_jjr(gmllmjes)

2?1? Asma ?.21? ?.?;? ?.?14 >>28.8;3 4??.624 2??? Asma ?.>82 ?.11? ?.?66 >14=.=>1 121>.=86Baedlafksh ?.624 ?.11; ?.?6> 168.3=? 3>.;?1 Baedlafksh ?.;34 ?.186 ?.?48 1>1.?;? 46.>6=Nagbjfma ?.186 ?.?>8 ?.?12 16.16? 2.3?? Nagbjfma ?.>4? ?.1?8 ?.?6> 1>.?2? 6.813_RN Rural ?.1=8 ?.?64 ?.?13 4;>.42= 16=.;>8 _RN Rural ?.6== ?.136 ?.?42 81;.=?? 6?3.88=_RN [rbae ?.??> ?.??? ?.??? ;4?.=23 1.;?> _RN [rbae ?.?42 ?.?16 ?.??6 6>4.8?? >1.3?=Mefma Rural ?.>6= ?.?81 ?.?24 81?.82? 282.44? Mefma Rural ?.6;4 ?.118 ?.?62 426.;?? >>?.=64Mefma [rbae ?.284 ?.?4> ?.?23 >2=.11? =6.2=8 Mefma [rbae ?.>31 ?.1?1 ?.?6? 6>3.1?? 1;4.;24Mefjeksma Rural ?.13? ?.?>? ?.??= 111.?3? 14.46= Mefjeksma Rural ?.;6; ?.166 ?.?;1 126.8;? 38.?>4Mefjeksma [rbae ?.136 ?.?>4 ?.?1> 128.811 21.?43 Mefjeksma [rbae ?.6?? ?.11? ?.?62 8;.431 >6.>?2Galaysma ?.??8 ?.??2 ?.??1 24.=;? ?.21= Galaysma ?.?13 ?.??6 ?.??1 21.48? ?.>66_a`mstae ?.221 ?.?6> ?.?1> 134.66? >3.=;? _a`mstae ?.>3; ?.?88 ?.?>? 1;?.61? ;6.8=8_hmlmppmeks ?.13> ?.?61 ?.?1; =1.4?? 16.=8? _hmlmppmeks ?.2?> ?.?;; ?.?21 44.>1? 1;.416^rm Laeà ?.?63 ?.??4 ?.??2 2?.3;? ?.=64 ^rm Laeà ?.16; ?.?>? ?.??= 18.4;? 2.42>Vhamlaef ?.??3 ?.??1 ?.??? 38.41? ?.66; Vhamlaef ?.?6; ?.??= ?.??> 3>.13? 2.8;4Smkt Eag ?.13> ?.?>4 ?.?1> 8;.12? 1>.8;? Smkt Eag ?.>36 ?.?=3 ?.?>3 4=.;6? 28.=4?

2??; Asma ?.2;8 ?.?33 ?.?26 >11;.1== 8?2.66; 1==2 Asma ?.6=? ?.136 ?.?4; 24>;.;;3 1>>=.468Baedlafksh ?.682 ?.16? ?.?;; 1;>.28? 4>.=21 Baedlafksh ?.4?? ?.262 ?.1?4 111.==? 48.6>?Nagbjfma ?.>11 ?.?83 ?.?>6 1>.4;? 6.23= Nagbjfma ?.6>4 ?.6>4 ?.6>4 1?.;6? 6.3?8_RN Rural ?.2;2 ?.?32 ?.?22 4;=.46? 1=1.>4= _RN Rural ?.32> ?.26; ?.123 824.23? ;1;.14>_RN [rbae ?.?13 ?.??> ?.??1 ;66.43? 8.3?4 _RN [rbae ?.1>6 ?.?26 ?.??4 >;1.18? 63.88>Mefma Rural ?.6>1 ?.112 ?.?6? 336.?3? 283.>6> Mefma Rural ?.;22 ?.164 ?.?;3 336.?3? >63.;4>Mefma [rbae ?.>36 ?.1?? ?.?>8 >?4.4?? 112.?64 Mefma [rbae ?.6?= ?.116 ?.?66 2>;.23? =3.146Mefjeksma Rural ?.268 ?.?;1 ?.?1; 113.4;> 28.=6; Mefjeksma Rural ?.;86 ?.133 ?.?3> 128.;?1 4;.?68Mefjeksma [rbae ?.183 ?.?61 ?.?1> 11>.133 21.?1= Mefjeksma [rbae ?.646 ?.16> ?.?;8 3;.?2; >?.8>6Galaysma ?.?16 ?.??> ?.??1 2;.;=? ?.>;4 Galaysma ?.?2= ?.??4 ?.??> 1=.2?? ?.;;8_a`mstae ?.266 ?.?;2 ?.?13 1;8.3;? >8.432 _a`mstae ?.3;? ?.2>4 ?.111 116.=4? 46.443_hmlmppmeks ?.2?? ?.?;3 ?.?22 84.12? 14.>=8 _hmlmppmeks ?.28= ?.?86 ?.?>6 3>.1;? 18.23=^rm Laeà ?.?4> ?.?1> ?.??> 2?.?6? 1.631 ^rm Laeà ?.134 ?.?>2 ?.??= 14.46? 2.=;3Vhamlaef ?.?13 ?.??> ?.??1 34.28? 1.?8= Vhamlaef ?.1?2 ?.?26 ?.??= ;8.2>? ;.=2;Smkt Eag ?.2?2 ?.?;1 ?.?1= 8>.>1? 13.868 Smkt Eag ?.3>3 ?.2>; ?.11? 38.6;? 6>.;61

_RN 7 _kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea, CDV 7 Cjstkr„Drkkr „Vhjrbkn`k gkasurk.

^jurnk9 Authjrs” nalnulatmjes.




16

Cmdurk 29 Eugbkr jc _jjr me Asma, _kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea, Mefma, aefMefjeksma

_RN 7 _kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea.


6.> Mekqualmty aef _jvkrty me thk _kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea

Vhk _RN ms thk wjrlf”s gjst pjpuljus njuetry. Mt haf ae kstmgatkf pjpulatmje jc 1.>

bmllmje me 2??;. Mt ms alsj agjed thk cmvk lardkst knjejgmks me thk wjrlf wmth aekstmgatkf DF_ (me ___ njestaet 2??; metkreatmjeal fjllars) jc =.1 trmllmje fjllars cjr2?1?. Vhk aeeual DF_ drjwth ratk me thk _RN cjr thk pkrmjf 2??; „2?1? was bktwkke=.2% aef 11.>%.3 Actkr lmbkralmzatmje rkcjrgs aef thk Nultural Rkvjlutmje me thk latk1=4?s, thk _RN gafk qumn` knjejgmn prjdrkss. Fuk tj nhkap labjr, thk _RN attrantsgassmvk kxtkreal mevkstgket. Vhrjudh gassmvk metkreal mevkstgket je gjfkremecrastrunturk aef urbae canmlmtmks, aef gjvmed crjg prmgary tj gaeucanturmed antmvmtmks,thk _RN has bkke drjwmed at a rapmf ratk.

Vablk > prkskets thk jvkrall gkae, mekqualmty, aef pjvkrty me thk _RN aef thknjrrkspjefmed valuks cjr urbae aef rural arkas skparatkly, jvkr thk pkrmjf 1==2 „2?1?.Vablk 6 rkpjrts thk drjwth ratks, thk mefmnks cjr gkasurmed prj-pjjr drjwth, aef thk

drjwth rkfmstrmbutmje cmdurks cjr thk whjlk jc thk _RN bktwkke thksk pkrmjfs.4

Vhkrksults njecmrg thk _RN”s vkry rapmf drjwth, as mefmnatkf by thk mgprkssmvk menrkasksme gkae menjgks (Vablk >) crjg arjuef $63 a gjeth me 1==2 tj $163 a gjeth me 2?1?,wmth thk drjwth ratk (Vablk 6) jc thk _RN as a whjlk as hmdh as 66.43% bktwkke 1==2aef 2???, cjlljwkf by a sharp menrkask tj 3>.81% cjr thk pkrmjf 2??? „2??;, bkcjrksljwmed fjwe tj >>.8=% bktwkke 2??; aef 2?1?. Vhk mgprkssmvk drjwth ratksbktwkke 1==2 aef 2??; ark alsj apparket me bjth thk urbae aef rural arkas.

3http9//fatabae`.wjrlfbae`.jrd/fata/vmkws/varmablksklkntmje/sklkntvarmablks.aspx:sjurnk7wjrlf-fkvkljpgket-mefmnatjrs

4 Drjwth ratks ark nalnulatkf bktwkke thk twj ykar pkrmjfs whkrk thk fata ark avamlablk. Vhk drjwth ratk

bktwkke 1==2 aef 2??? njvkrs ae kmdht-ykar pkrmjf whmlk thjsk cjr 2???-2??; aef 2??;-2?1? njvkrcmvk-ykar pkrmjfs.

662.4 688.;>=8.6 >44.1

;32.1 6>8.;

2??.?1;1.?

1?;.=

1?2.>

;?.?

>8.8

22=.1

186.4

1;6.1

1>>.;

?.?

2??.?

6??.?

3??.?

8??.?

1???.?

12??.?

16??.?

?.?

2??.?

6??.?

3??.?

8??.?

1???.?

12??.?

16??.?

1==2 2??? 2??; 2?1?

V j t a l E u g b k r j c _ j j r m e A s m a

E u g b k r j c _ j j r

Mefma _RN Mefjeksma Jthkr Asma




1;

Vablk >9 Mekqualmty aef _jvkrty me thk _kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea

_kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea 1==2 2??? 2??; 2?1?

Gkae 6;.==3 33.;86 1?=.?46 163.?6>

[rbae 34.4;> 1??.123 131.=2? 1=3.84?Rural 23.824 68.3?; 41.143 8>.>?6

Dmem ?.>>; ?.>=? ?.61= ?.668

[rbae ?.2632 ?.>141 ?.>;?6 ?.>;>;

Rural ?.>268 ?.>;;1 ?.>;;> ?.>=68

Hkaf Njuet Ratmj ?.643= ?.>6=8 ?.1;>> ?.112>

[rbae ?.1>>; ?.?422 ?.?1;8 ?.??63

Rural ?.8?6= ?.6=8; ?.2;2? ?.2142

_jpulatmje (gmllmjes) 1148.>> 12;>.4 1>?6.; 1>>1.>8

[rbae % 2=.8? >6.=2 61.43 66.??

Rural % 4?.2? 3;.?8 ;8.26 ;3.??Eugbkr jc _jjr (gmllmjes) ;32 6>= 2?? 16=

[rbae 134 1;> 86 33

Rural >=6 28; 113 86^jurnk9 Authjrs” nalnulatmjes.

Me tkrgs jc mekqualmty, thkrk ark ejtablk fmsparmtmks me thk gkae menjgks bktwkke urbaeaef rural arkas, wmth gkae menjgks me thk urbae arkas njesmstketly gjrk thae twmnkthjsk me thk rural arkas cjr all ykars njesmfkrkf. Vhk fmsparmtmks ark alsj mefmnatkf bythk menrkasmed valuks jc thk Dmem njkccmnmkets cjr thk whjlk jc thk _RN0 thk valuksmenrkask at a rklatmvkly njestaet ratk crjg ?.>>; me 1==2 tj ?.668 me 2?1?. Vhkmenrkasks me mekqualmty ark alsj jbskrvkf wmthme bjth thk rural aef urbae arkas.

Me tkrgs jc pjvkrty, thk memtmal lkvkl cjr thk hkafnjuet ratmj cjr 1==2 was as hmdh as64.3=% cjr thk whjlk jc thk _RN. Mt fknrkaskf jvkr tmgk aef me 2?1? thk hkafnjuetratmj was at 11.2>%. But smenk thk _RN ms a bmd njuetry wmth a gassmvk pjpulatmje jcapprjxmgatkly 1148.>> gmllmje aef 1>>1.>8 gmllmje me 1==2 aef 2?1?, rkspkntmvkly, thkantual eugbkr jc kxtrkgkly pjjr lmvmed je lkss thae $1.2; a fay ms stmll vkry hmdh kvkethjudh mt rkfunkf crjg ;32 gmllmje me 1==2 tj 16= gmllmje me 2?1?.

Vuremed tj Vablk 6, wk skk that thk _RN has drjwe at ae mgprkssmvk ratk smenk 1==2,but thk pka` pkrmjf was bktwkke 2??? aef 2??; whke thk drjwth ratk was 3>.81%.Furmed thms pkrmjf, bjth rural aef urbae arkas alsj drkw at vkry hmdh ratks jc 63.66%aef 31.42%, rkspkntmvkly. Vablk 6 alsj shjws that crjg 1==2 tj 2???, thk rural arkasdrkw at a vkry hmdh ratk jc 81.18%. Vhk ratk jc drjwth sljwkf fjwe bktwkke 2??; aef

2?1? cjr thk whjlk jc thk _RN me bjth urbae aef rural arkas. Vj kxagmek hjw thkstrjed drjwth was fmstrmbutkf agjed thk pjpulatmje, thk last skntmje jc Vablk 6 rkpjrtsthk mgpant jc drjwth je pjvkrty. Vhk nhaedks me thk hkafnjuet ratmjs ark fknjgpjskfmetj thk kccknts crjg drjwth mtsklc aef crjg hjw thk menjgk fmstrmbutmjes havk nhaedkf.Bktwkke 1==2 aef 2???, thk antual hkafnjuet ratmj fknrkaskf by 12.42 pkrnketadkpjmets. Mc thkrk haf bkke ej nhaedk me thk menjgk fmstrmbutmje bktwkke thk twj ykars,drjwth wjulf havk rkfunkf pjvkrty by as gunh as 13.31 pkrnketadk pjmets. Vhkmgpant jc thk nhaedk me menjgk fmstrmbutmje ms ae menrkask me menmfkenk jc pjvkrty by>.8= pkrnketadk pjmets. Vhk kccknt jc drjwth ekt jc fmstrmbutmjeal kccknts ms a rkfuntmjeme pjvkrty jc 12.42%. Gjvmed je tj thk pkrmjf jc hmdh drjwth bktwkke 2??? aef 2??;,thk mgpant jc strjed drjwth rksultkf me a rkfuntmje jc thk hkafnjuet ratmj by 1=.3;pkrnketadk pjmets. Bjth drjwth aef thk rkfmstrmbutmje jc menjgk njetrmbutkf tj thms

rkfuntmje. Vhms rksult suddksts that furmed thms pkrmjf, thk _RN's pjlmny jc rkfmstrmbutmje




13

jc drjwth tj thk pjjrkst jc thk pjpulatmje was sunnksscul. Vhk pkrmjf bktwkke 2??;aef 2?1? saw a sgall rkfuntmje me thk hkafnjuet ratmj jc 6.11 pkrnketadk pjmets. Mcthkrk haf bkke ej nhaedk me thk menjgk fmstrmbutmjes bktwkke thksk twj ykars, thkmgpant jc drjwth wjulf havk rksultkf me a rkfuntmje jc thk hkafnjuet ratmj by 4.86pkrnketadk pjmets. Vhk afvkrsk kccknt jc thk rkfmstrmbutmje jc drjwth, whmnh menrkaskfpjvkrty menmfkenk by >.46% furmed thk pkrmjf, jccskts thms rkfuntmje rksultmed me a ektrkfuntmje me pjvkrty jc 4.86%.

Vablk 69 Drjwth aef _rj-_jjr Drjwth me thk _kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea

_kjplk's Rkpublmn jc Nhmea 1==2 „2??? 2??? „2??; 2??; „2?1?

Drjwth Ratk ?.6643 ?.3>81 ?.>>8=

[rbae ?.6448 ?.3142 ?.21;8

Rural ?.8118 ?.6366 ?.14?6

Ravallmje aef Nhke (2??>) Mefkx ?.>12= ?.;23? ?.1161

@a`waem aef _krema (2???) Mefkx ?.48>> 1.?48> ?.;>6;

_KDR Mefkx ?.>;?3 ?.3881 ?.1812

Drjwth Rkfmstrmbutmje

Nhaedk me pjvkrty (hkaf njuet ratmj) ?.1242 ?.1=3; ?.?611

Avkradk drjwth kccknt ?.1331 ?.181; ?.?486

Avkradk rkfmstrmbutmje kccknt -?.?>8= ?.?1;? -?.?>46_KDR 7 pjvkrty kqumvalket drjwth ratk.


Vhk rkfmstrmbutmje kccknts je pjvkrty shjwe me Vablk 6 nae bk kxagmekf curthkr by

njetrastmed thk sharks jc menjgk annrumed tj thk pjjrkst 2?% jc thk pjpulatmje wmth thkmenjgk sharks jc thk tjp ;% jc thk pjpulatmje. Crjg Vablk ;, thk shark jc thk bjttjg2?% frjppkf crjg 3.36% me 1==2 tj 6.83% me 2?1?, a 23.8% frjp me thk shark jc thkpjjrkst 2?%. Me njetrast, thk shark jc thk tjp ;% jc thk pjpulatmje menrkaskf crjg16.?4% tj 21.;4%, rkprksketmed a ;>.>% menrkask me thkmr shark jc thk tjtal menjgk.Vhksk cmdurks ark njesmstket wmth thk smdemcmnaet menrkask me thk Dmem gkasurk jcmekqualmty crjg ?.>>; me 1==2 tj ?.668 me 2?1? aef thk ekdatmvk njetrmbutmje gafk bythk fmstrmbutmjeal nhaedk tj pjvkrty menmfkenk me thk _RN.

Vablk ;9 Menjgk ^harks cjr ^klkntkf _jpulatmje Drjups me thk _kjplk”s Rkpublmnjc Nhmea

_kjplk's Rkpublmn jc Nhmea Menjgk ^harks

1==2 2??? 2??; 2?1?

Bjttjg 1% ?.12% ?.1;% ?.16% ?.12%

;% ?.=4% 1.?6% ?.=4% ?.81%

1?% 2.;?% 2.6=% 2.>?% 1.=2%

2?% 3.36% 3.2?% ;.4?% 6.83%

Vjp 2?% 6?.?;% 6;.6=% 64.=4% ;?.1>%

1?% 26.?6% 2=.?1% >1.61% >>.2=%

;% 16.?4% 18.?;% 2?.?2% 21.;4%^jurnk9 Authjrs” nalnulatmjes.

Apart crjg mevkstmdatmed whkthkr drjwth hklps rkfunk pjvkrty jr ejt, mt ms alsj uskcul tjkxagmek whkthkr thk fkvkljpgket pjlmny me thk _RN rksultkf me prj-pjjr drjwth. Vhk




14

gmfflk skntmje jc Vablk 6 rkpjrts thk RN , @_ , aef _KDR mefmnks. _jsmtmvk valuks jcthksk mefmnks mefmnatk that drjwth has bkke absjlutkly prj-pjjr. Vj njesmfkr whkthkr

drjwth has bkke rklatmvkly prj-pjjr, wk nae njgpark RN aef _KDR wmth thk drjwth

ratk, d , aef @_ wmth 1. Mc thk fmcckrkenks RN d , _KDR d , aef 1 @_ ark

pjsmtmvk, thke drjwth ms rklatmvkly prj-pjjr. Mt nae bk skke that all thk mefmnks, RN , @_ aef _KDR ta`k pjsmtmvk valuks cjr all pkrmjfs, suddkstmed that drjwth me 1==2 „2?1?was absjlutkly prj-pjjr. Mevkstmdatmed whkthkr drjwth ms alsj rklatmvkly prj-pjjr furmedthksk pkrmjfs wk cmef that me thk pkrmjfs 1==2 „2??? aef 2??; „2?1?, all thrkkfmcckrkenks ark ejt pjsmtmvk, suddkstmed that drjwth was ejt rklatmvkly prj-pjjr. Menjgkjc thk pjjr fmf ejt drjw succmnmketly tj cjlljw thk jvkrall drjwth ratk. Cjr thk pkrmjf

2??? „2??;, thk rksults ark menjenlusmvk. Vhk valuks cjr RN d , 1 @_ , aef

_KDR d ark „?.1121, ?.?48>, aef ?.?;, rkspkntmvkly. As a rksult, RN d fjks ejt

suddkst rklatmvkly prj-pjjr drjwth whmlk 1 @_ aef _KDR d mefmnatk that drjwth

has bkke prj-pjjr me thk rklatmvk skesk.

Vhk prj-pjjr mefmnks njesmfkrkf abjvk ark suggary mefmnks. Mt gay bk gjrkmecjrgatmvk tj ljj` gjrk nljskly at thk mgpant jc drjwth je thk ketmrk fmstrmbutmje.Cmdurks > „; shjw thk drjwth menmfkenk nurvks (DMN ) cjr thk pkrmjfs 1==2 „2???, 2??? „2??;, aef 2??; „2?1?, rkspkntmvkly. Vhk hjrmzjetal lmeks me thksk cmdurks rkprksket thkgkae menjgk drjwth ratk, d , bktwkke thksk pkrmjfs Cjr all cmdurks, thk DMN ms abjvk

thk zkrj lmek, njecmrgmed that drjwth cjr all pkrmjfs ms absjlutkly prj-pjjr rkdarflkss jcwhkrk wk gmdht put thk pjvkrty lmek. Me tkrgs jc thk rklatmvk mgpant jc drjwth, wk naeskk me Cmdurk > that bktwkke 1==2 aef 2???, thk DMN starts hmdhkr thae thk drjwth lmekuetml arjuef ;% jc thk pjjrkst pjpulatmje0 crjg thkrk thk nurvk gjvks bkljw thkdrjwth lmek uetml arjuef 8?% jc thk pjpulatmje, bkcjrk menrkasmed abjvk thk drjwth lmek.Vhms suddksts that furmed thms pkrmjf, drjwth was rklatmvkly prj-pjjr cjr thk pjpulatmjewhj wkrk kxtrkgkly pjjr, at thk ljwkst ;%. Hjwkvkr, drjwth was ejt rklatmvkly prj-pjjr cjr pjjr pkjplk whj wkrk abjvk thk ljwkst ;%. Cjr thk pkrmjfs 2??? „2??; aef2??; „2?1?, thk DMN nurvks ark bkljw thk drjwth lmek cjr thk pjjrkst 8?% jc thkpjpulatmje. Drjwth me thksk pkrmjfs was ejt rklatmvkly prj-pjjr cjr aey rkdmje me thkljwkr tamls jc thk fmstrmbutmjes.

Cmdurk >9 Drjwth Menmfkenk Nurvk, _kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea, 1==2 „2???


?

?.;

1

1.;

2

2.;

>

>.;

6

? 2? 6? 3? 8? 1??

D r j w t h m e M e

n j g k

_jjrkst % jc _jpulatmje

Drjwth Menmfkenk Nurvk Gkae Menjgk Drjwth Ratk




18

Cmdurk 69 Drjwth Menmfkenk Nurvk, _kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea, 2??? „2??;


Cmdurk ;9 Drjwth Menmfkenk Nurvk, _kjplk”s Rkpublmn jc Nhmea, 2??; „2?1?


Jvkrall, furmed 1==2 „2?1? thk _RN was ablk tj anhmkvk strjed drjwth, aef alsjrkfmstrmbutk mt me sunh a way that mt was sunnksscul me rkfunmed pjvkrty. Hjwkvkr, thk_RN alsj cankf menrkasmed mekqualmty jvkr thms pkrmjf jc tmgk.

6.6 Mekqualmty aef _jvkrty me Mefma

Mefma ms thk sknjef gjst pjpulatkf njuetry me thk wjrlf, wmth a pjpulatmje jc 1.?8 bmllmjeme 2??;. Mt ms alsj agjed thk lardkst knjejgmks me thk wjrlf wmth ae kstmgatkf DF_ (me___ njestaet 2??; metkreatmjeal fjllars) jc $>.44 trmllmje me 2?1?. Vhk aeeual DF_

drjwth ratk cjr Mefma cjr thk pkrmjf 2??; „2?1? was as hmdh as 1?.;% me 2?1? aef as

?

?.2

?.6

?.3

?.8

1

1.2

? 2? 6? 3? 8? 1??

D r j w t h m e M e n j g k



?

?.?;

?.1

?.1;

?.2

?.2;?.>

?.>;

?.6

?.6;

? 2? 6? 3? 8? 1??

D r j w t h R a t k m e M e n j g k






1=

ljw as >.=% me 2??8.8 Me tkrgs jc fkvkljpgket, Mefma uefkrwket cuefagketal rkcjrgsme 1==1, cjlljwkf by a rkekwal jc thksk rkcjrgs me thk 2???s. ^menk 2???, knjejgmnfkvkljpgket has bkke frmvke by kxpaesmje jc thk skrvmnk skntjr, whmnh has drjwecastkr thae jthkr skntjrs. Ekvkrthklkss, thk adrmnultural skntjr plays ae mgpjrtaet rjlkme jvkrall fkvkljpgket aef rkgames thk game, lardkst knjejgmn skntjr. Me affmtmje, thknjuetry has djek thrjudh ae adrmnultural rkvjlutmje that has traescjrgkf thk eatmjecrjg havmed a fkpkefkenk je drame mgpjrts tj bkmed a dljbal kxpjrtkr jc cjjf.

Vablk 3 prkskets rksults je mekqualmty aef pjvkrty me Mefma cjr 1==2, 2???, 2??;, aef2?1?, as wkll as thk drjwth ratks aef thk mgpant jc drjwth je pjvkrty rkfuntmje me thkpkrmjfs 1==2 „2???, 2??? „2??;, aef 2??; „2?1?. Vhk memtmal gkae menjgk cjr 1==2 msapprjxmgatkly thk sagk as thk gkae menjgk jc thk _RN cjr thk sagk ykar. Thmlk thkgkae menjgk menrkasks jvkr thk ykars, drjwth ratks ark ljw cjr all pkrmjfs (Vablk 4),kspknmally cjr 2??? „2??;. Vhk ljw drjwth ratks ark rkclkntkf me bjth thk urbae aefrural arkas.

Vablk 39 Mekqualmty aef _jvkrty me Mefma

Mefma 1==2 2??? 2??; 2?1?

Gkae 63.44> ;2.36> ;>.=?3 ;=.=2=

[rbae ;6.=>6 ;=.?;? 32.>=? 4>.?3?

Rural 6>.881 68.484 6=.8;> ;6.3??

Dmem ?.>?=8 ?.>1?> ?.>>>4 ?.>286

[rbae ?.>6>> ?.>688 ?.>432 ?.>=23

Rural ?.283> ?.2812 ?.2=== ?.2=>4

Hkaf Njuet Ratmj ?.6=2? ?.6?>4 ?.6?=3 ?.>>12

[rbae ?.6?88 ?.>31? ?.>361 ?.2831

Rural ?.;21; ?.62=; ?.6>12 ?.>6=3

_jpulatmje (gmllmjes) 8==.6?? 113?.3?? =;1.8?? 11>=.=??

[rbae % 2=.8? >6.=2 61.43 66.??

Rural % 4?.2? 3;.?8 ;8.26 ;3.??

Eugbkr jc _jjr (gmllmjes) 662.;61 638.;42 >8=.81? >44.;3;

[rbae =3.1=2 1;4.6>; 112.?64 =6.168

Rural >63.>6= >11.1>4 244.436 28>.613^jurnk9 Authjrs” nalnulatmjes.

Vhk eatmjeal Dmem njkccmnmkets cjr Mefma ark rklatmvkly stablk, mefmnatmed a slmdht menrkaskme mekqualmty crjg ?.>1 tj ?.>> jvkr thk pkrmjf 1==2 „2?1?, a lkvkl jc mekqualmty that msabjut avkradk. Vhk Dmem njkccmnmkets cjr rural aef urbae arkas ark alsj rkpjrtkf me

Vablk 3. Memtmal mekqualmty me 1==2 was at ?.>6>> me urbae arkas, njgparkf tj a rklatmvklyljw lkvkl jc ?.283> cjr rural arkas. Mekqualmty wjrskekf me urbae arkas tj ?.>=23 me2?1?. Hjwkvkr, mekqualmty me rural arkas was rklatmvkly stablk wmth a lkvkl jc ?.2=>4 me2?1?.

Vablk 3 alsj rkpjrts hjw thk hkafnjuet ratmjs nhaedk jvkr tmgk. Vhk memtmal lkvkl cjrMefma me 1==2 was vkry hmdh wmth 6=.2% jc thk tjtal pjpulatmje lmvmed me kxtrkgk pjvkrty.Njefmtmjes mgprjvkf jvkr tmgk wmth thk hkafnjuet ratmj fknrkasmed tj >>.12% me 2?1?.^mgmlar trkefs nae bk cjuef me bjth rural aef urbae arkas wmth a fknrkask me pjvkrty jc

8http9//fatabae`.wjrlfbae`.jrd/fata/vmkws/varmablksklkntmje/sklkntvarmablks.aspx:sjurnk7wjrlf-fkvkljpgket-mefmnatjrs#




2?

apprjxmgatkly 12 „14 pkrnketadk pjmets jvkr thk pkrmjf 1==2 „2?1?. Vhk fkvkljpgketpjlmnmks appkar tj bk sunnksscul me rkfunmed pjvkrty me bjth arkas. Me tkrgs jc thkeugbkr jc pkjplk lmvmed me kxtrkgk pjvkrty, wk cmef that thk memtmal cmdurk was 662.;61gmllmje pkjplk. By 2?1? thkrk wkrk stmll >44.;3; gmllmje me kxtrkgk pjvkrty me Mefma, wmththk gaijrmty jc thk pjjr lmvmed me rural arkas.

Vuremed tj drjwth aef thk rkfmstrmbutmje jc drjwth, Vablk 4 rkpjrts thk drjwth ratks, thknhaedks me pjvkrty as gkasurkf by thk hkafnjuet ratmjs, aef thk fknjgpjsmtmje jc thknhaedks metj kccknts jc drjwth aef jc nhaedks me mekqualmty. Cjr 1==2 „2???, thkrk ms arkfuntmje me thk hkafnjuet ratmj, whmnh nae bk kxplamekf me lardk part by a drjwthkccknt. Jc thk 8.8> pkrnketadk pjmet rkfuntmje me thk hkafnjuet, 4.3; pkrnketadk pjmetsnae bk kxplamekf by thk kccknt jc drjwth. Vhk nhaedk me thk fmstrmbutmje jc menjgkwmthme thms pkrmjf rksultkf me a slmdht rkfuntmje jc 1.18 pkrnketadk pjmets jc thkhkafnjuet ratmj. Bktwkke 2??? aef 2??;, pjvkrty menrkaskf slmdhtly wmth thkhkafnjuet ratmj menrkasmed by ?.;8 pkrnketadk pjmets. Vhms slmdht wjrskemed me pjvkrtynae bk kxplamekf purkly by thk wjrskemed me thk rkfmstrmbutmje jc drjwth. Mc thkfmstrmbutmje jc menjgk rkgamekf as mt was me 2???, drjwth shjulf havk fknrkaskf

pjvkrty by 2.66 pkrnketadk pjmets. Bktwkke 2??; aef 2?1?, thkrk was a call me pjvkrtyby 4.8> pkrnketadk pjmets. Vhms call wjulf havk bkke 8.14 pkrnketadk pjmets mcmekqualmty haf rkgamekf thk sagk as mt was me 2??;.

Vablk 49 Drjwth aef _rj-_jjr Drjwth me Mefma

Mefma 1==2 „2??? 2??? „2??; 2??; „2?1?

Drjwth Ratk ?.12;; ?.?26? ?.1114

[rbae ?.?46= ?.?;33 ?.141?

Rural ?.1118 ?.?21= ?.?=;2

Ravallmje aef Nhke (2??>) Mefkx ?.1?16 -?.?1>8 ?.11;>@a`waem aef _krema (2???) Mefkx 1.11=6 -?.2>22 ?.=;;?

_KDR Mefkx ?.16?; -?.??;3 ?.1?34


Nhaedk me pjvkrty (hkaf njuet ratmj) ?.?88> -?.??;8 ?.?48>

Avkradk drjwth kccknt ?.?43; ?.?266 ?.?814

Avkradk rkfmstrmbutmje kccknt ?.?118 -?.?>?2 -?.??>6_KDR 7 pjvkrty kqumvalket drjwth ratk.


Vablk 8 shjws thk nhaedks me menjgk sharks annrumed tj thk pjjrkst aef rmnhkst me thkMefmae pjpulatmje. Vhk shark jc thk bjttjg 2?% rkfunkf crjg 8.=?% me 1==2 tj 8.63%me 2?1? thjudh thkrk was a gjfkst menrkask crjg 8.>;% me 2??; tj 8.63% me 2?1?.Furmed thms pkrmjf, thk shark jc thk rmnhkst ;% jc thk pjpulatmje menrkaskf crjg 1;.4=%me 1==2 tj 14.>8% me 2?1?, whmnh rkprkskets a 1?% menrkask me thkmr shark. Menjgparmsje tj thk shmcts me thk sharks jc thk pjjr aef rmnh me thk _RN, nhaedksjbskrvkf me Mefma appkar tj bk gjfkst. Hjwkvkr, thk afvkrsk fmstrmbutmjeal nhaedks methk _RN havk bkke jccskt by spkntanular drjwth ratks me rkal menjgk.




21

Vablk 89 Menjgk ^harks cjr ^klkntkf _jpulatmje Drjups me Mefma

Mefma Menjgk ^harks

1==2 2??? 2??; 2?1?

Bjttjg 1% ?.24% ?.2;% ?.2;% ?.23%;% 1.4?% 1.3>% 1.;8% 1.31%

1?% >.86% >.41% >.;8% >.3>%

2?% 8.=?% 8.4?% 8.>;% 8.63%

Vjp 2?% 6?.??% 6?.18% 62.11% 61.=1%

1?% 2;.>2% 2;.>=% 24.>>% 24.13%

1% 1;.4=% 1;.44% 14.3?% 14.>8%^jurnk9 Authjrs” nalnulatmjes.

Vablk 4 alsj rkpjrts thk thrkk prj-pjjr mefmnks, RN , @_ , aef _KDR . Tk cmef thatfurmed 1==2 „2???, all thksk mefmnks ark pjsmtmvk suddkstmed drjwth was absjlutkly prj-

pjjr. Me thk rklatmvk skesk, thk kstmgatks cjr 1 @_ aef _KDR d ark pjsmtmvk

suddkstmed thkrk was rklatmvkly prj-pjjr drjwth. Vhms njenlusmje ms ejt rkanhkf,

hjwkvkr, by usmed thk mefkx RN d , whkrk thk kstmgatk ms ekdatmvk. Cjr 2??? „2??;,

RN , @_ , aef _KDR ark all ekdatmvk suddkstmed that thk fmstrmbutmvk nhaedk jc drjwthhas menrkaskf absjlutk pjvkrty aef thkrkcjrk drjwth was absjlutkly aetm-pjjr. Gjvmed

tj thk last pkrmjf, 2??; „2?1?, wk cmef RN , @_ , aef _KDR tj bk pjsmtmvk, mefmnatmedthat drjwth was absjlutkly prj-pjjr. A njetrafmntmje jnnurs whke wk njesmfkr thk

rklatmvk pkrspkntmvk, whkrk RN d suddksts that drjwth was prj-pjjr whmlk 1 @_

aef _KDR d suddkst that drjwth was ejt prj-pjjr.

Cmdurks 3 „8 prksket thk DMN nurvks cjr Mefma cjr thk thrkk pkrmjfs njesmfkrkf. Vhk

nurvk cjr thk pkrmjf 1==2 „2??? ms pjsmtmvk cjr thk whjlk pjpulatmje suddkstmed thkrkwas absjlutkly prj-pjjr drjwth furmed thms pkrmjf. Hjwkvkr, thk nurvk ms bkljw thkdrjwth lmek cjr thk gjst part suddkstmed that thk pjjr fmf ejt bkekcmt crjg drjwth asgunh as thk eje-pjjr. Cjr 2??? „2??;, thk DMN ms ekdatmvk crjg apprjxmgatkly 1.33% „3;% jc thk pjjrkst pjpulatmje. Mt ms alsj bkljw thk drjwth lmek cjr gjst jc thkpjpulatmje. Me thms pkrmjf, drjwth ms absjlutkly prj-pjjr cjr thk kxtrkgkly pjjrpjpulatmje bkljw 1.33% jc thk pjpulatmje, but cjr gjst jc thk pjjr pjpulatmje drjwthwas ekmthkr absjlutkly ejr rklatmvkly prj-pjjr. Cjr 2??; „2?1?, thk DMN ms ketmrklyabjvk zkrj aef gjstly abjvk thk drjwth lmek up tj abjut 2?% jc thk pjjrkstpjpulatmje. Crjg thke, mt cluntuatks arjuef thk drjwth lmek up tj abjut 6?% bkcjrkfmppmed fjwe bkljw thk drjwth lmek. ^menk thk hkafnjuet ratmjs ark ?.6?=3 aef ?.>>12cjr 2??; aef 2?1?, rkspkntmvkly, wk nae njenlufk that drjwth furmed thms pkrmjf ms bjth

absjlutkly aef rklatmvkly prj-pjjr.




22

Cmdurk 39 Drjwth Menmfkenk Nurvk, Mefma, 1==2 „2???


Cmdurk 49 Drjwth Menmfkenk Nurvk, Mefma, 2??? „2??;


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Cmdurk 89 Drjwth Menmfkenk Nurvk, Mefma, 2??; „2?1?


Jvkrall, wk naeejt njenlufk that fkvkljpgket pjlmny me Mefma furmed 1==2 „2?1? wassunnksscul me rkfunmed mekqualmty aef pjvkrty. Mefma was drjwmed rklatmvkly sljwly me thkpkrmjf 2??? „2??;. Me tkrgs jc mekqualmty, thkrk ms a slmdht menrkask jvkr thk ketmrkpkrmjf. Althjudh thk fkvkljpgket prjnkss rksultkf me drjwth that rkfunkf pjvkrty,thkrk wkrk stmll jvkr >44 gmllmje pkjplk me kxtrkgk pjvkrty me 2?1?.

6.; Mekqualmty aef _jvkrty me Mefjeksma

Mefjeksma ms agjed thk wjrlf's gjst pjpuljus njuetrmks, wmth a pjpulatmje jc jvkr 2>?gmllmje me 2??;. Mt ms thk lardkst knjejgy me ^juthkast Asma wmth ae kstmgatkf DF_ (me___ njestaet 2??; metkreatmjeal fjllars) jc $?.=>2 trmllmje me 2?1?. Vhk aeeual DF_drjwth ratk was ;.4% me 2??; aef 3.2% me 2?1?.= Mefjeksma ms a njuetry wmth rmnheatural rksjurnks that menlufk nrufk jml, eatural das aef gmekral jrks, rklymed tj a lardkkxtket je jml kxpjrts. _kjplk me rural arkas gjstly kedadk me adrmnulturk. Furmed 1==2 „2?1?, Mefjeksma wket thrjudh phasks jc pjlmtmnal aef knjejgmn turgjml. Mefjeksma wasbafly acckntkf by thk Asmae cmeaenmal nrmsms me 1==4 whmnh rksultkf me ljw knjejgmn

drjwth, hmdh uekgpljygket, aef menrkaskf pjvkrty ratks. Vhk knjejgy startkf tjrknjvkr wmth pjsmtmvk drjwth ratks actkr 2???, aef actkr 2??6 varmjus knjejgmn rkcjrgswkrk metrjfunkf.

Vablk = prkskets mekqualmty aef pjvkrty me Mefjeksma, aef Vablk 1? rkpjrts Mefjeksmaedrjwth ratks aef thk mgpant jc drjwth je pjvkrty rkfuntmje. Vhk memtmal gjethly gkaemenjgk cjr Mefjeksma cjr 1==2 ms $6>.;8. Vhms lkvkl ms njgparablk wmth thk _RN aefMefma cjr thk sagk ykar. Mt menrkasks jvkr thk pkrmjf tj $8>.>1 me 2?1?. Vhms lkvkl mshmdhkr thae Mefma but gunh ljwkr thae thk _RN. Mefjeksma startkf wmth a ljw drjwthratk (Vablk 1?) jc 8.6=% jvkr thk 8-ykar pkrmjf bktwkke 1==2 aef 2???. Vhms pkrmjfwas nharantkrmzkf by thk rkdmje”s cmeaenmal nrmsms me 1==4 aef thk njuetry”s knjejgmn

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aef mestmtutmjeal rkcjrgs. Cjr thk cjlljwmed pkrmjf, 2??? „2??;, thk knjejgy rknjvkrkfcrjg thk nrmsms wmth a hmdh drjwth ratk jc ;=.1;% bkcjrk sljwmed fjwe tj 1?.4?%bktwkke 2??; aef 2?1?.

Vablk =9 Mekqualmty aef _jvkrty me Mefjeksma

Mefjeksma 1==2 2??? 2??; 2?1?

Gkae 6>.;8 64.2= 4;.2; 8>.>1

[rbae ;1.?= ;3.1= 88.8? =?.2?

Rural >=.4= 61.14 32.4? 4;.>2

Dmem ?.2=4= ?.>?2? ?.>;43 ?.>;2=

[rbae ?.>;>; ?.>68= ?.>=84 ?.>8?;

Rural ?.23?; ?.2688 ?.2=3> ?.>1>8

Hkaf Njuet Ratmj ?.;63= ?.6836 ?.218? ?.131=

[rbae ?.64>4 ?.6?1? ?.183 ?.13>3

Rural ?.;8>= ?.;6;? ?.268 ?.1;=8_jpulatmje (gmllmjes) 1=>.;2 21?.31 224.>? 2>=.84

[rbae % >>.3? 6?.42 6=.22 ;>.4?

Rural % 33.6? ;=.28 ;?.48 63.>?

Eugbkr jc _jjr (gmllmjes) 1?3 1?2 ;? >=

[rbae >3 62 26 21

Rural 4? 31 2; 18^jurnk9 Authjrs” nalnulatmjes.

Vablk 1?9 Drjwth aef _rj-pjjr Drjwth me Mefjeksma

Mefjeksma 1==2 „2??? 2??? „2??; 2??; „2?1?

Drjwth ratk ?.?86= ?.;=1; ?.1?4?

[rbae ?.?=== ?.2381 ?.23;8

Rural ?.?>64 ?.>>;3 ?.>3=8

Ravallmje aef Nhke (2??>) Mefkx ?.?482 ?.6?>4 ?.?4;;

@a`waem aef _krema (2???) Mefkx 1.6>>4 ?.8?;1 ?.8=>;

_KDR Mefkx ?.1214 ?.6432 ?.?=;3


Nhaedk me pjvkrty (hkaf njuet ratmj) ?.?3?; ?.2386 ?.?;32

Avkradk drjwth kccknt ?.?661 ?.>18= ?.?;=8

Avkradk rkfmstrmbutmje kccknt ?.?136 -?.?;?; -?.??>3_KDR 7 pjvkrty kqumvalket drjwth ratk.


Memtmal mekqualmty me 1==2 was rklatmvkly ljw wmth a Dmem njkccmnmket jc ?.2=4=. Mt thkefktkrmjratkf jvkr thk ykars sunh that, me 2?1?, thk Dmem was ?.>;2=. Vablk = alsjrkpjrts urbae aef rural mekqualmtmks. Cjr all ykars njesmfkrkf, mekqualmty me urbae arkaswas hmdhkr thae me cjr rural arkas. Bktwkke 1==2 aef 2??? mekqualmty fknrkaskfslmdhtly cjr bjth arkas bkcjrk menrkasmed me 2??; aef 2?1?. Me dkekral, thkrk wkrkupwarfs trkefs cjr bjth rural aef urbae mekqualmtmks bktwkke 1==2 aef 2?1?.




2;

Vhk eatmjeal lkvkl jc pjvkrty startkf crjg a hmdh lkvkl me 1==2 wmth ;6.3=% jc thkpjpulatmje lmvmed me kxtrkgk pjvkrty. By 2???, thk lkvkl haf fknrkaskf tj 68.36%.Crjg 2???, pjvkrty fknrkaskf sharply tj 21.8?% aef 13.1=% me 2??; aef 2?1?,rkspkntmvkly. Vhksk lkvkls aef trkefs me pjvkrty alsj hklf cjr bjth rural aef urbaearkas. Vraeslatmed thk hkafnjuet ratmj metj thk eugbkr jc pjjr, thkrk wkrkapprjxmgatkly a tjtal jc 1?3 gmllmje pkjplk me pjvkrty me 1==2, 1?2 gmllmje pkjplk me2???, ;? gmllmje pkjplk me 2??;, aef >= gmllmje pkjplk me 2?1?.

Vhk last skntmje jc Vablk 1? prkskets thk nhaedks me thk hkafnjuet ratmjs aef thkfknjgpjsmtmjes metj thk kccknts jc drjwth aef jc rkfmstrmbutmjes je thk nhaedks. Vhknhaedk me pjvkrty, as gkasurkf by thk hkafnjuet ratmj, nae bk kxplamekf lardkly by adrjwth kccknt. Cjr thk pkrmjf 1==2 „2???, 6.61 pkrnketadk pjmets jc thk nhaedk mskxplamekf by drjwth. Vhk rkgamemed 1.36 pkrnketadk pjmets ark kxplamekf by arkfmstrmbutmje that was me cavjr jc thk pjjr. Furmed 2??? „2??; aef 2??; „2?1? thkfkvkljpgket prjnkss rksultkf me drjwth that was ejt rkfmstrmbutkf me cavjr jc thk pjjr.Tmth fmstrmbutmje ekutralmty, but thk sagk drjwth ratk, pjvkrty shjulf havk fknrkaskfby >1.8= aef ;.=8 pkrnketadk pjmets me 2??? „2??; aef 2??; „2?1?, rkspkntmvkly. Vhk

kccknt jc thk rkfmstrmbutmje jccskt thk kccknt jc drjwth furmed thksk pkrmjfs.

Vablk 11 shjws thk rklatmvk sharks jc thk pjjr aef rmnh me Mefjeksma. Vhkrk ms asmdemcmnaet rkfuntmje me thk shark jc thk pjjrkst 2?% jc thk Mefjeksmae pjpulatmje crjg=.26% me 1==2 tj 4.3;% me 2?1?, a frjp jc 14.2%. Furmed thk sagk pkrmjf, thk shark jcthk tjp ;% menrkaskf crjg 1;.36% me 1==2 tj 18.26% me 2?1?, ae menrkask jc 13.36%.Jc partmnular ejtk ms thk smdemcmnaet rkfuntmje me thk shark jc thk pjjrkst 2?% jvkr thkpkrmjf 2??? „2??;, whmnh ms annjgpaemkf by a njrrkspjefmed menrkask me thk shark jcthk tjp ;% furmed thk sagk pkrmjf. Nhaedks me thksk sharks ark rkclkntkf me thkmenrkask me pjvkrty jc ;.?;% fuk tj rkfmstrmbutmjeal kccknts rkpjrtkf me Vablk 1?.

Vablk 119 Menjgk ^harks cjr ^klkntkf _jpulatmje Drjups me Mefjeksma

Mefjeksma Menjgk ^harks

1==2 2??? 2??; 2?1?

Bjttjg 1% ?.2=% ?.2=% ?.2>% ?.21%

;% 1.4=% 1.48% 1.68% 1.>8%

1?% 6.?2% >.==% >.>3% >.21%

2?% =.26% =.1=% 4.83% 4.3;%

Vjp 2?% >=.68% >=.84% 66.2=% 6>.;>%

1?% 26.=4% 2;.6>% 2=.>=% 28.>8%

;% 1;.36% 13.?>% 1=.24% 18.26%^jurnk9 Authjrs” nalnulatmjes.

Me tkrgs jc thk mgpant jc drjwth je pjvkrty, Vablk 1? prkskets thk thrkk prj-pjjrmefmnks9 thk RN , @_ , aef _KDR . Mt ms cjuef that all mefmnks ark pjsmtmvk cjr all pkrmjfsnjesmfkrkf, suddkstmed that drjwth was absjlutkly prj-pjjr furmed 1==2 „2?1?. Metkrgs jc thk rklatmvk pkrspkntmvk, thk RN d gkasurk ms ekdatmvk cjr thk thrkk pkrmjfs

suddkstmed that drjwth was ejt rklatmvkly prj-pjjr. Vhms njenlusmje alsj hjlfs cjr1 @_ aef _KDR d cjr thk pkrmjfs 2??? „2??; aef 2??; „2?1?. Hjwkvkr, cjr 1==2 „

2???, 1 @_ aef _KDR d suddkst that drjwth was rklatmvkly prj-pjjr.

Cmdurks = „11 prksket thk drjwth menmfkenk nurvks cjr thk thrkk pkrmjfs njesmfkrkf.Vhk nurvks cjr 1==2 „2??? aef 2??? „2??; ark ketmrkly pjsmtmvk cjr all thk pjpulatmjebut thky ark ejt abjvk thk drjwth lmeks uetml wk rkanh 8?% „=?% jc thk pjpulatmje. Vhms

suddksts that drjwth furmed 1==2 „2??? aef 2??? „2??; was prj-pjjr me thk absjlutk




23

but ejt rklatmvk pkrspkntmvk. Bktwkke 2??; aef 2?1?, whkrk thk hkafnjuet ratmjs ark?.218 aef ?.131=, gjst jc thk nurvk ms pjsmtmvk, but mt ms bkljw thk drjwth lmek up tjapprjxmgatkly 2?% jc thk pjjrkst pjpulatmje. Drjwth furmed thms pkrmjf was prj-pjjrme thk absjlutk skesk cjr thk pjjr pjpulatmje abjvk apprjxmgatkly ?.;33%. Vhkkxtrkgk pjjr bkljw ?.;33% fmf ejt bkekcmt at all crjg drjwth.

Cmdurk =9 Drjwth Menmfkenk Nurvk, Mefjeksma, 1==2 „2???


Cmdurk 1?9 Drjwth Menmfkenk Nurvk, Mefjeksma, 2??? „2??;


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Cmdurk 119 Drjwth Menmfkenk Nurvk, Mefjeksma, 2??; „2?1?


Jvkrall, cjr thk pkrmjf 1==2 „2???, whmnh menlufks thk Asmae cmeaenmal nrmsms, thkMefjeksmae knjejgy drkw at a vkry ljw ratk wmth a hmdh pjvkrty lkvkl. By 2??; thkknjejgy haf rknjvkrkf0 thk pkrmjf bktwkke 2??? aef 2??; saw a hmdh drjwth ratkaef a lardk rkfuntmje me pjvkrty. Vhk metkreatmjeal jml prmnk rmsk me 2??; haf a bmdmgpant je thk Mefjeksmae knjejgy. Vhms sljwkf thk drjwth ratk me 2??; „2?1?,hjwkvkr thkrk was a vkry sgall mgpant je mekqualmty furmed thms pkrmjf.

;. NJENL[^MJE^

[smed avamlablk fata me thk cjrg jc pjpulatmje aef menjgk sharks wk kstmgatkf bkta-2menjgk fmstrmbutmjes cjr gjst jc thk njuetrmks me Asma. Vhksk njuetry fmstrmbutmjes arknjgbmekf metj rkdmjeal menjgk fmstrmbutmjes crjg whmnh wk nae njgputk mekqualmty me Asma cjr 1==2, 2???, aef 2??;. Mt was cjuef that mekqualmty fknrkaskf jvkr tmgk‖arksult jc thk fknrkasmed mekqualmty bktwkke njuetrmks me Asma. Tk kxtkefkf thk aealysmstj menlufk 2?1?, aef kxagmekf curthkr thk lkvkls aef trkefs jc pjvkrty me Asma as awhjlk aef cjr kanh jc thk fkvkljpmed njuetrmks. Tk cjuef that thkrk was sjgkrkfuntmje me pjvkrty jvkr tmgk me rklatmvk aef absjlutk tkrgs cjr thk whjlk jc Asma aefcjr gjst jc thk fkvkljpmed njuetrmks. Cmeally, wk cjnuskf je pjvkrty aealysms cjr thkthrkk bmd njuetrmks me Asma9 thk _RN, Mefma, aef Mefjeksma. ^uggary cmefmeds cjr kanh

njuetry ark as cjlljws.Vhk _RN, wmth a cast drjwmed knjejgy, has bkke gaeadmed wkll tj fmrknt drjwth tjallkvmatk pjvkrty. Vhkrk was prj-pjjr drjwth crjg ae absjlutk pkrspkntmvk but ejt me arklatmvk skesk. Vhk menjgk jc thk rmnh skkgs tj drjw castkr thae that jc thk pjjr. Vhmshas rksultkf me menrkasmed lkvkls jc mekqualmty jvkr tmgk.

Crjg 1==2 tj 2?1?, avkradk menjgk me Mefma fmf ejt drjw strjedly kejudh tj brmedgaey jc thk pjjr jut jc pjvkrty. Vhkrk was sjgk rkfuntmje me pjvkrty, but by 2?1?>>.12% jc thk pjpulatmje was stmll me kxtrkgk pjvkrty. Furmed 2??? „2?1?, thk pjsmtmvkkccknt jc drjwth je pjvkrty rkfuntmje was jccskt by a ekdatmvk kccknt jc rkfmstrmbutmje.Vhms suddksts that drjwth fmf ejt trmn`lk fjwe car kejudh aef, as a rksult, thkrk wasae menrkask me mekqualmty. Mt ms wjrth ejtmed that drjwth furmed thk pkrmjf 2??? „2??;

was ejt prj-pjjr me thk absjlutk jr rklatmvk skesk.

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28

Cjr Mefjeksma, avkradk menjgk drkw vkry rapmfly furmed 2??? „2??;. Vhms hmdh drjwthratk lmctkf gaey pkjplk jut jc pjvkrty, wmth apprjxmgatkly a 24 pkrnketadk pjmetrkfuntmje by 2??;. Vhk sunnksscul fkvkljpgket pjlmny furmed thms tmgk fmf ejt njetmeuktj thk ekxt pkrmjf, 2??; „2?1?, whkrk thk drjwth ratk aef thk rkfuntmje me kxtrkgkpjvkrty wkrk rklatmvkly ljw. Fkspmtk thk rkfuntmje me pjvkrty, crjg 2??? jewarfsdrjwth has ejt bkke prj-pjjr me a rklatmvk skesk. Vhk menrkask me mekqualmty bktwkke2??? aef 2??; njecmrgs thms rksult.

Vhk game cjnus jc thk papkr has bkke je thk gkasurkgket jc drjwth aef thkrkfmstrmbutmje kccknts je pjvkrty aef je thk rksults cjr thk _RN, Mefma, aef Mefjeksmawhmnh ark thk thrkk lardkst aef gjst pjpuljus njuetrmks me thk Asmae rkdmje. Vhkaealysms njefuntkf wmthme thk lmgmtkf tmgkcragk has eknkssarmly cjnuskf je pjvkrty atthk eatmjeal lkvkl. Crjg a pjlmny pkrspkntmvk mt ms mgpjrtaet tj kxagmek pjvkrtymenmfkenk at thk rkdmjeal jr prjvmenmal lkvkl as thk drjwth pkrcjrgaenk tkefs tj bkuekvke anrjss fmcckrket rkdmjes. Fmstrmbutmje pattkres aef nhaedks me menjgk sharks jcfmcckrket pjpulatmje subdrjups nae bk smdemcmnaetly fmcckrket anrjss fmcckrket prjvmenks.^mgmlarly, ratks jc urbaemzatmje at thk eatmjeal aef rkdmjeal lkvkl gay havk a smdemcmnaet

meclukenk je menjgk lkvkls aef je thk fmstrmbutmjeal nharantkrmstmns whmnh me ture gaygaemckst me fmcckrket lkvkls jc pjvkrty menmfkenk aef prj-pjjr drjwth pattkres. Vhkpapkr fkgjestratks thk ckasmbmlmty jc utmlmzmed addrkdatkf menjgk fmstrmbutmje fata megjfklmed aef fmstmllmed mecjrgatmje eknkssary tj asskss prj-pjjrekss jc drjwthjbskrvkf me fmcckrket njuetrmks. Vhk gjfklmed tjjls fksnrmbkf me thk papkr wmll hjpkcullykenjuradk kgpmrmnal gjfklmed aef aealysms jc menjgk fmstrmbutmjes at thk eatmjeal aefrkdmjeal lkvkls aef jvkr a ljed pkrmjf tmgk whmnh nae prjvmfk uskcul meput metj pjlmnycjrgulatmje tj allkvmatk pjvkrty me thk Asmae knjejgmks.




2=

RKCKRKENK^

Asmae Fkvkljpgket Bae`. 2?12. Asmae Fkvkljpgket Jutljj` 2?129 Njecrjetmed RmsmedMekqualmty me Asma. Gaemla9 Asmae Fkvkljpgket Bae`.

Nhjtmàpaemnh, F., T. K. Drmccmths, T. @aruearathek, aef F. ^. _. Raj. 2?1>.Nalnulatmed _jvkrty Gkasurks crjg thk Dkekralmzkf Bkta Menjgk Fmstrmbutmje.Knjejgmn Rknjrf 8=9 68 „33.

Nhjtmàpaemnh, F., T. K. Drmccmths, aef F. ^. _. Raj. 2??4. Kstmgatmed aef NjgbmemedEatmjeal Menjgk Fmstrmbutmjes [smed Lmgmtkf Fata. Ijureal jc Busmekss aefKnjejgmn ̂ tatmstmns 2;9 =4 „1?=.

Nhjtmàpaemnh, F., T. K. Drmccmths, F. ^. _. Raj, aef S. Salkenma. 2?12. Dljbal MenjgkFmstrmbutmjes aef Mekqualmty, 1==> aef 2???9 Menjrpjratmed Njuetry-lkvklMekqualmty Gjfklkf wmth Bkta Fmstrmbutmjes. Vhk Rkvmkw jc Knjejgmns aef^tatmstmns =69 ;2 „4>.

Funljs, I.-]., aef A. Skrfmkr-Nhjunhaek. 2?1?. Aealyzmed _rj-pjjr Drjwth me^juthkre Acrmna9 Lkssjes crjg Gaurmtmus aef ^juth Acrmna, Tjr`med _apkr^krmks Ej. 11;. Vuems, Vuemsma9 Acrmnae Fkvkljpgket Bae`.

Damha, R., @. Mgam, aef G. A. Eaefhm. 2??=. Gmllkeemug Fkvkljpgket Djal jc Halvmed_jvkrty me Asma9 _rjdrkss, _rjspknts aef _rmjrmtmks. Ijureal jc Asmae aef Acrmnae^tufmks 66(2)9 21; „2>4.

Haiardasht, D., T. Drmccmths, I. Brmnk, F. ^. _. Raj, F. aef Nhjtmàpaemnh. 2?12.Meckrkenk cjr Menjgk Fmstrmbutmjes [smed Drjupkf Fata. Ijureal jc Busmekss jcKnjejgmn ̂ tatmstmns >?9 ;3> „;43.

@a`waem, E. 1=8?. Je a Nlass jc _jvkrty Gkasurks. Knjejgktrmna 689 6>4 „663.

@a`waem, E., aef K. G. _krema. 2???. That ms _rj-_jjr Drjwth: Asmae FkvkljpgketRkvmkw 18(1)9 1 „13.

@a`waem, E., ^. @haef`kr, aef H. ^je. 2??>. _jvkrty Kqumvalket Drjwth Ratk9 Tmth Applmnatmjes tj @jrka aef Vhamlaef. Vknhemnal rkpjrt. Knjejgmn Njggmssmje cjr Acrmna.

@laske, ^., G. Drjssk, R. Vhmklk, I. Lay, I. ^patz, aef G. Tmkbklt. 2??6. Jpkratmjeal_rj-_jjr Drjwth9 Njuetry Nask ^tufy9 Bjlmvma. Fmsnussmje _apkr Ej. 1?1,Dkjrd-Audust [emvkrsmty, Mbkrj-Agkrmna Mestmtutk cjr Knjejgmn Rkskarnh.

GnFjealf, I. B. 1=86. ^jgk Dkekralmzkf Cuentmjes cjr thk ^mzk Fmstrmbutmje jc Menjgk.Knjejgktrmna ;2 (>)9 364 „33>.

GnFjealf, I. B., aef G. R. Raesjg. 1=4=. Cuentmjeal Cjrgs, Kstmgatmje Vknhemquksaef thk Fmstrmbutmje jc Menjgk. Knjejgktrmna 64(3)9 1;1> „1;2;.

GnFjealf, I. B., aef ]. I. Xu. 1==;. A Dkekralmzatmje jc thk Bkta Fmstrmbutmje wmth Applmnatmjes. Ijureal jc Knjejgktrmns 33 (1 „2)9 1>> „1;2.

Ravallmje, G. 2?1?. _jvkrty Lmeks anrjss thk Tjrlf. Tjrlf Bae` _jlmny RkskarnhTjr`med _apkr ;286. Tashmedtje, FN9 Tjrlf Bae`.

Ravallmje, G. 2?12. Hjw Ljed wmll mt Va`k tj Lmct Jek Bmllmje _kjplk jut jc _jvkrty:"Vhk ^klkntkf Tjr`s jc Gartme Ravallmje Avamlablk at9http9//wjr`s.bkprkss.njg/gartmeZravallmje/23

Ravmllmje, G., aef ^. Nhke. 2??>. Gkasurmed _rj-_jjr Drjwth. Knjejgmns Lkttkrs 489=> „==.




Ravallmje, G., ^. Nhke, aef _. âedraula. 2??=. Fjllar a Fay Rkvmsmtkf. Tjrlf Bae`Knjejgmn Rkvmkw 2>9 13> „186.

^hjrrjn`s, A. C., aef D. H. Tae. 2??=. [edrjupmed Menjgk Fmstrmbutmjes9^yethksysmed âgplks cjr Mekqualmty aef _jvkrty Aealysms. Me Ardugkets cjr a

Bkttkr Tjrlf9 Kssays me Hjejr jc Agartya ^ke, Sjl MM , kfmtkf by @. Basu aef R.@aebur. Jxcjrf9 Jxcjrf [emvkrsmty _rkss.

Smllaskejr, I., aef B. N. Arejlf. 1=8=. Kllmptmnal Ljrkez Nurvks. Ijureal jcKnjejgktrmns 6?9 >24 „>>8.

Tae, D., aef ^. Mva. 2?11. _jvkrty me Asma aef thk _anmcmn9 Ae [pfatk. AsmaeFkvkljpgket Bae` Knjejgmns Tjr`med _apkr Ej. 234. Gaemla9 AsmaeFkvkljpgket Bae`. Avamlablk9http9//papkrs.ssre.njg/sjl>/papkrs.ncg:abstrantZmf71=1==4>

Tarekr, F., F. ^. _. Raj, T. K. Drmccmths, aef F. Nhjtmàpaemnh. 2?1>. DljbalMekqualmty9 Lkvkls aef Vrkefs, 1==>-2??;, Hjw ^kesmtmvk ark thksk tj thk

nhjmnk jc ___s aef Rkal Menjgk Gkasurks: Rkvmkw jc Menjgk aef Tkalth (Cmrst rjuef subgmssmje.)

Tmlclmed, B. 1==3. Ljrkez Jrfkrmed jc Dkekralmzkf Bkta-MM Menjgk Fmstrmbutmjes. Ijurealjc Knjejgktrmns 41(1 „2)9 >81 „>88.

Yhuaed, I. 2?1?. _jvkrty, Mekqualmty, aef Menlusmvk Drjwth me Asma9 Gkasurkgket,_jlmny Mssuks aef njuetry ^tufmks. Fklhm9 Aethkg _rkss.

income distributions, inequality, and poverty in asia, 1992–2010

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