inclusion of young children with special needs early childhood education

8/11/2019 Inclusion of young children with special needs early childhood education

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E a r l y h i ld h o o d R e s e a r c h Ouar ler ly,13 , No . 1 , 3 -2 5 1998) ]998 Ab lex Pub l ish ingCorpora t ion

ISSN: 0885-200 6 Al l r iohts in any form reserved

I n c l u s i o n o f Y o u n g

C h i l d r e n w i t h S p e c i a l N e e d s

I n E a r l y C h i l d h o o d E d u c a t i o n :

T h e R e s e a r c h B a s e

S am u e l L O d o m

U n i v e r s i t y o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a a t C h a p e l H i l l

K a r en E D i a m o n d

P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y

Increasingly, early childhood programs include children with disabilities and typ-

ically developing children. The purpose of this paper is to review the recent

empirical literature that underlies the practice of inclusion at the early childhood

level in order to provide a context for the research articles appearing in this issue

of ECRQ. We fwst describe the definitions of inclusion, rationales for inclusive

classes, and demographics of inclusi ce programs and staff. Using Bronfenbren-

ner s ecological systems theory as a conceptual framework, we review research

related to variables proximal to the program (i.e., microsystem and mesosystem

levels) such as classroom practices, children s social interactions, teacher beliefs,

and professional collaboration. Next, we examine research associated with vari-

ables occurring more distally from the classroom program (i.e., exosystem and

macrosystem levels): families perspectives, social policy, community and cul-

ture. We conclude this review with an examination of research that illustrates the

influence of variables a one level of the ecological system on those occurring at a

different levels and recommend directions for future research.

When a mother brings her child to the preschool program in her community, when

a child steps off the bus to go into his Head Start classroom, and when the Mont-

essori teacher looks around the class before beginning the day s activities, they all

are likely to see children with different abilities and different family backgrounds.

Developmental and cultural diversity characterizes early childhood education in

the late 1990s, and these themes are likely to become more prominent in the next

Direct all correspondence to: Samuel L. Odom, School of Education, CB-3500, University of

North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3500.


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4 O d o m a n d D i a m o n d

cen tury . Inc lud ing yo ung ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i li ti e s in ea r ly ch i l dhoo d prog rams i s

on e t rend tha t exem pl i f ies thi s d ivers i ty .

Al thoug h spec if ic r e fe renc es t o i nc lus ive p rac ti ce s w ere mi ss in g f rom the o r ig i-

na l N A E Y C pub l i c at ion o f D e ve l opm e n t a l l y A ppr op r ia te P r a c ti c e ( B r e de ka m p ,

1987), t he mos t r ecen t r ev i s ion co n t a ins som e s t ra teg i es fo r i nc lud ing ch i l d ren

wi th spec ia l needs (Bre dek am p & Cop ple , 1997). L eade rs f rom the f i e lds o f ea r ly

ch i l dhoo d educa ti on and ea r ly ch i l dho od spec i a l educa t i on hav e co l l abora t ed t o

i de n ti f y w a ys i n w h i c h p r og r a m s m i gh t be m o d i f i e d t o a c c om m o da t e t he ind i v i d -

ua l needs of chi ldren w i th di sabi l i t i es (A l len & Schw artz, 1996; Chan dler , 1994;

W ole ry , S train , & Ba i l ey , 1992; W ole ry & W i lbe rs , 1994). Resea rche rs hav e no t ed

the s imi l ar it ie s be tween acc ep t ed p rac t ice s i n ea r l y ch i l dho od educa t i on and ea r ly

ch i l dhoo d speci al edu ca t i on (Fox , H anl ine , Va i l, & Ga lan t, 1994; M cL ean &

Od om , 1993), and a ca ll fo r co l l abora t i on am on g profe ss iona l s p rov id ing se rv i ce s

for bo th g roups of ch i l d ren has b een c l ea r and pe rs i s ten t (Bredek amp , 1993; Bur -

t on , Ha ins , Hanl ine , M cLean , & M cCo rm ick , 1992; S t ay ton & M i ll e r, 1993;

W ole ry & Bredekam p, 1994).

G i ve n t he m om e n t um ge ne r a t e d by t h is m ov e m e n t t ow a r d i nc lu s ion , a n e xa m i -

na t i on of t he re search t ha t un de r l i e s p rac ti ce i s t ime ly and impor t an t . The cur ren t

spec ia l i ssue of

ECRQ

p r ov i de s a ve nu e f o r t he m os t r e c e n t r e s e ar c h on i nc lu s i on .

Th e purpose of th is i n t roduc tory a r ti c le is to p rov ide an em pi r i ca l con t ex t fo r t he

a r ti c le s i n t h is i s sue t h rou gh a rev i ew of t he recen t l i te ra tu re t ha t ha s ap pea red i n

o the r j ourna l s and publ i ca ti ons . Co m preh ens iv e rev i ew s of t he l i te ra tu re on i nc lu-

s ion , i n t egra t i on , and ma ins t reaming have appea red i n t he pas t (Kames & Lee ,

1979, O dom & M c E voy , 1988; P e c k & C ooke , 1983 ), w i t h B uys s e a nd B a i le y

( 1993 ) a nd L a m or e y a nd B r i c ke r ( 1993 ) ha v i ng c onduc t e d t he m os t r e c e n t

r e v ie w s . O ur r e v i e w t a ke s up w h e r e t he s e e a r li e r r e v i e w s l e ft o f f - - w i t h r e s e a r c h

pub l i shed i n t he ea r ly 1990s t o t he p re sen t . The rev i ew focused spec i f i ca l ly on

re sea rch wi th you ng ch i l d ren , p r imar i l y f rom the t odd l e r yea rs t h roug h k inde rga r -

t en . Al so , un l e s s au thors r epor t ed co ndu c t i ng re sea rch wi th ch i l d ren hav in g a

s ing l e t ype of d i sab i li ty o r d i agno s i s , t he gen e ra l de sc r ip tor , ch i l d ren wi th d i sab il -

i t ie s i s used . A c om m on prac t i ce i n ea r l y ch i l dh oo d spec ia l educa t i on has been t o

iden t i fy ch i ld ren a s hav ing dev e lop m enta l de l ays , so o f t en spec i f i c d isab i li t y i n for -

mar ion i s no t ava i l ab le bey on d a gene ra l i den t i f i ca ti on of t he m agn i tude of de l ay .

In m os t ca se s , we repor t em pi r i ca l r e sea rch t ha t ha s appea red or w i l l appea r i n re f -

e reed j ourna l s, a l t hou gh i n ex t en d ing t h is d i scuss ion to i s sues o f soc i a l po l i cy , w e

expan d our rev i ew to scho l a r ly publ i ca t i ons i n w hich po l i cy ana lyses appea r .

C O NC EP TU A L F R A M E W O R K F O R R E V I E W

A n e c o l og i c a l s y s te m s f r a m e w or k , ba s e d on t he w o r k o f B r on f e nb r e nn e r ( 1979 ),

se rves a s t he concep tua l o rgan i ze r fo r t h i s rev i ew. B ronfen brenn e r p rop osed t ha t

even t s occur r i ng wi th in sp ec i f ic se t t ings a f fec t ch i l d ren ' s beh av ior and de ve lop -

men t , and h e i den t i f i ed t he se spec i f i c se tt ings a s microsystems. For ou r purposes ,

t he m ic rosys t em i s conc ep tua l i zed a s t he i nc lus ive c l a ss room. V ar i ab le s ope ra t i ng

ou t s ide t he i m m e d i a t e c la s s r oom s e t ti ng i n f l ue nc e the i m p l e m e n t a t ion o f i nc l u s ion


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Presc hoo l Inclus ion 5

i n s id e an d o u ts id e the m ic r o sy s t em . A seco n d l ev e l o f t h e eco lo g ica l sy s tem , id en -

t i f fed as the

mesosystem,

co n s i s t s o f f ac to r s o c cu r r in g in o th e r se t ti n g s in wh ich th e

ch i ld o r o th e r k ey p a r t ic ip an t s i n t h e m ic r o sy s t em m ig h t p a r ti c ip a t e . Fo r ex a m p le ,

m e s o s y s t e m v ar ia b le s m a y i n c l u d e a n e v e n t o c c u r r i n g in t h e h o m e o r f a m i l y o r

in t e r ac t io n s o ccu r r in g am o n g p r o f e ss io n a l s o u t s id e o f t h e im m ed ia t e c l a s s r o o m

set t ing (e .g ., co l labora t ive in te rac t io ns am on g profess iona ls) .

Th e exosystem,

t h e th i r d eco lo g ica l sy s t em l ev e l , co n s i s ts o f ev en t s o r i n d iv id -

u a l ' s a c t io n s o ccu rr in g in se t t i n g s in w h ic h m ic r o sy s t em p a r t ic ip an ts d o n o t

p a r ti c ip a t e , b u t wh ich h av e an in f lu en ce o n ev en t s o r ac t io n s in th e m ic r o sy s t em .

Fo r ex am p le , so c ia l p o l i c ie s e s t ab l i sh ed b y in d iv id u a l s n o t d i r ec t ly p a r t ic ip a t in g in

th e in c lu s iv e se t ti n g rep r e sen t e x o s y s t em v a r i ab le s .

Macrosystem

var iab les a re cu l -

tu ra l o r soc ie ta l va lues and be l ie f s tha t a f fec t par t ic ipan ts o r even ts in the

m ic r o sy s t em . Fo r ex am p le , cu l tu r a l v a lu es r e l a t ed to d i sab i l i t y o r cu l tu r a l r o l e s

r e l a t ed to au th o r i ty r ep r e sen t m ac r o sy s t em v a r i ab le s . Las t , i n f lu en ces b e tween

v a r i ab le s a t d i f f e r en t l ev e l s co u ld ex i s t an d Br o n f en b r en n e r a s su m ed th a t su ch

in f lu en ces co u ld b e r ec ip r o ca l ( e .g . , in f lu en ces co u ld g o f r o m ex o sy s t em to m ic r o -

sy s t em o r v i sa ve r sa ) . Fo r a m o r e in - d e p th d i scu ss io n o f t h e eco lo g ica l sy s t em s

m o d e l s an d in c lu s io n r e sea r ch , se e P ec k ( 1 9 9 3 ) an d O d o m e t a1.( 19 96 ). I n t h is

p ap e r , we w i l l f o l lo w Br o n f en b r en n e r ' s l e ad b y f i r st ex am in in g r e sea r ch o n m ic r o -

sy s t em v a r i ab le s l i k e c l a s s r o o m p r ac t i ce s an d t each e r b e l i e f s , an d f o l lo w th i s

in i ti a l s ec tio n wi th r ev iews o f r e sea r ch r e l a t ed to m eso - , ex o -, an d m ac r o sy s t em

var iab les (e .g . , f ami ly , soc ia l po l icy , and cu l tu ra l in f luences on inc lus ive p ro-

g r am s) . We b eg in wi th a d i scu ss io n o f t h e d e f in i t i o n o f an d r a t io n a le s f o r

inc lus ion .

D E F I N I T I O N O F I N C L U S I O N

A c o m m o n l y a g r e e d u p o n d e f i n i ti o n o f i n c l u s i o n d o e s n o t e x i st , a n d i n f a c t t h e

t e r m in o lo g y a sso c ia t ed wi th in c lu s io n h as ch an g ed o v e r t h e y ea r s . P r o g r am s

th a t f i r s t p l aced y o u n g ch i ld r en wi th an d wi th o u t d i sab i l i t i e s i n ea r ly ch i ld h o o d

c la ss r o o m se t t i n g s wer e ca l l ed

integrated

( A l l e n , B e n n i n g , & D r u m m o n d ,

1972; Br ick er & B r icke r 1971; G ura ln ic k , 1976).

Mainstreaming,

a te rm or ig i -

n a t in g in p u b l i c sch o o l se t t i n g s f o r o ld e r ch i ld r en , wa s l a t e r ap p l i ed to su ch p r o -

g r a m s . H o w e v e r , B r i c k e r ( 1 9 9 5 ) h a s n o t e d t h a t t h e m a i n s t r e a m i n g t e r m h a s

n ev e r f i t ex ac t ly , b ecau se o f t en p u b l i c sch o o l p r o g r am s h av e n o t p r o v id ed p r o -

g r am s f o r t y p ica l ly d ev e lo p in g p r e sch o o l - ag ed ch i ld r en ( a l th o u g h th i s t r en d i s

c h a n g i n g ). T h e t e r m

inclusion

b eg an ap p ea r in g in t h e ea r ly 1 9 90 s ( S ta in b ack &

Sta in b ack , 1 9 90 ) in p a r t a s a reac t io n to t h e way in w h ich m a in s t r eam in g was

b e i n g p o o r l y i m p l e m e n t e d i n s o m e p u b l i c s c h o o l s e t t i n g s f o r e l e m e n t a r y

sch o o l - ag ed ch i ld r en , an d th e t e r m was r ap id ly ap p l i ed to ea r ly ch i ld h o o d p r o -

g r a m s . T h e d e f i n it i o n im p l i e d a m o r e e m b e d d e d ( i n r e g u l a r e d u c a t io n ) a n d c o m -

p r e h e n s i v e ( e. g. , c o m m u n i t y a s w e l l a s s c h o o l s e tt in g s ) f o rm o f i n v o l v e m e n t o f

ch i ld r en wi th an d wi th o u t d i sab i l i t i e s t h an o ccu r r ed in m a in s t r eam ed p r o g r am s .

H o w e v e r , w h e n a u t h o r s c u r r e n t l y w r i t e a b o u t i n c l u s i o n a t t h e e a r l y c h i l d h o o d


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O d o m a n d D i a m o n d

l eve l, they t end t o de f ine i nc lus ion i n d i f fe ren t ways (com pare Br i cke r , 1995;

Fi l ler , 1996; O do m et a l. , 1996; Sa l isbury , 1991; Sieg el , 1996).

The s i ng l e com mo na l i ty ac ross d e f in i t ions o f i nc lus ion i s tha t ch i l d ren wi th and

wi thout d i sab il it ie s a re p l aced i n t h e sam e se t ti ng , w hich i s m os t o f t en a c l a s s room .

The spec i f i c con t ex t s va ry ac ross o rgan i za t i ons (e .g . , p r i va t e communi ty-based

chi ld ca re programs, H ead S t a rt p rog rams , p re -k inde rga r t en programs i n p ubl i c

schoo ls) and service de l iver y m od els (e .g ., i r inerant -di rec t se rvice , i tinerant -co l -

labora tive , t eam teaching, e tc . ) (O do m e t a l. , 1997; W olery, H olc om be e t a l .,

1993a) . T he ra t io o f ch i l d ren w i th d i sab i l it i e s to t yp i ca ll y dev e lop in g ch i ld ren a l so

va r ie s ; howeve r , r e sea rche rs and prac t it i one rs appea r t o app ly t he t e rm i nc lus ion

m o s t f r eque n tl y t o p r og r a m s i n w h i c h t he m a j o r i ty o f t he c h i l d r e n a re t yp i c a l ly

deve lop ing . Othe r desc r ip tor s such a s rever se ma ins t r eaming , i nc lus i ve ear l y

ch i l dhood sp ec ia l educa t ion , o r i n t egra t ed sp ec ia l educa t i on are of t en app l i ed t o

programs i n w hich t he ma jor i t y o f ch i l d ren hav e d i sab i li ti e s and som e typ i ca l ly

deve lop ing ch i ld ren a re a l so enr o l l ed (Od om & Spe l tz , 1983). In t h is r ev i ew, w e

wi l l use t he te rminology tha t au thors use i n t he i r r e spec t ive pape rs (wh en desc r ib -

i ng t he i r pape rs ) o r t he gene r i c t e rm inc lus ion w hen mul t i p l e pape rs a re c i ted .

R A T I O N A L E S F O R I N C L U S I O N

Educa t i ona l, l ega l , and ph i l oso phica l r a t iona l e s fo r i nc lus ive p rogram s a re no t ed

by Br i cke r (1978) and Ba i l ey , McWi l l i am, Buysse , and Wes l ey (1998) . In p rac -

r ice, t he se ra ti ona le s appea r t o be im plem en ted n way s t ha t d i ffe renr iaUy a f fec t t he

na ture o f i nc lus ive p rograms . O ne p h i l osoph ica l r a t iona l e fo r p l ac ing ch i l d ren wi th

d i sab il it ie s in i nc lus ive se tt i ngs has bee n t ha t a l l ch i ld ren hav e t he r i gh t t o a l i f e

that is as norm al a s poss ib l e . Th i s ph i l osoph ica l /e th i ca l r a t iona l e em phas i ze s t ha t

ch i l d ren wi th d isab i li ti e s should exp e r i ence t he same qua l i ty p re schoo l c la s s room

prog ram (pre sumably h igh q ua l i ty ) a s t yp i ca l ly dev e lop ing ch i ld ren (Ba r l ey e t a l.,

1998); t hat t he y be c om e m e m be r s o f t he c l a s sr oom c om m u n i t y t h r ough pa rt ic i pa-

t ion in c lass ac tivi ti es (Schw artz , 1996) ; an d tha t they d eve lop po s i t ive soc ia l re la -

t ionships wi th c lass m em be rs and teach ers (G nra lnick, in press ; Storey, 1993) .

Leg a l and l eg i s l a ti ve i s sues a l so p rov id e a r a t i ona l e fo r i nc lus ive p rogram s fo r

pre school ch i l d ren . The Ind iv idua l s wi th Di sab i l i t i e s Educa t i on Ac t ( IDEA) ,

passed i n 1986 and recen t l y re -au thor i zed wi th s imi l a r l anguage , ex t ended it s sup-

por t fo r spec i al educa t i on t o p re sc hoo l ch i ld ren and ma in t a ined the p ro v i s ion in t he

ea r l ie r l aw tha t ch i l d ren be p l ace d i n c l a s se s w i th t yp i ca l ly dev e lop ing pee rs t o t he

ex t en t appropr ia te . In add i t i on , t he A m er i cans w i th Di sab i li ti e s Ac t h a s s t ipu l a t ed

tha t enro l lm ent i n regu l a r ch i l d ca re se t ti ngs canno t be den i ed to ch i l d ren wi th d i s -

ab i l it ie s because o f t he i r d isab i li t y . In co mb ina t i on , the se l aws p rov ided im pe tus

for t he p l acem ent o f ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i li ti e s i n se t ti ngs wi th typ i ca l ly dev e lop in g

chi ld ren . Ho wev e r , as w i l l be d i scusse d i n a l a te r sec t i on on soc i a l po l i cy , the se

l aws a re im plem ented t h roug h s t a t e and l oca l po l i c ie s , which som e t ime c rea t e ba r -

r ie rs to inc lus ion.

A n ed uca t i ona l r a t i ona l e is so m e t im es used t o supp or t inc lus ion . Fo l l ow ing th i s

ra ti ona l e , ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i li t ie s a re p l aced i n i nc lus ive set ti ngs because pro fe s -


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P r e s c h o o l I n c l u s i o n 7

s io n al s an d f am i ly m em b er s b e l i ev e th a t t h e d e v e lo p m en ta l b en e fi t s i n i n c lu s iv e

se tt in g s a r e su p e r io r t o n o n in t eg r a t ed se t ti n g s . Fo r so m e o f t h e se ch i ld r en , h o w-

ev e r , t h e se se t t i n g s m ay n eed to b e ad ap ted ( Ca r t a , Sch war t z , A twa te r , &

McCo n n e l l , 1 9 9 1 ; Wo le r y e t a l . , 1 9 9 3 b ) so th a t l e a r n in g ex p e r i en ces b eco m e

em b ed d ed in th e o n g o in g d ev e lo p m en ta l ly ap p r o p r i a t e cu r r i cu lu m ( Cav aUar o ,

Ha ney , & Ca bel lo , 1993) . In fac t , Ba i ley e t a l . (1998 , th is issue) p ropo se tha t the

q u es t io n o f wh e th e r o r n o t t o p l ac e a ch i ld w i th a d i sab i l it y i n an in c lu s iv e p r o g r am

wo u ld n o t b e an i s su e i f p r o f e ss io n a l s a n d p a r en t s w e r e co n f id en t t h a t t h e p r o g r am

was o f h ig h q u a l i ty p r o g r am an d s t a f f p l an n ed in d iv id u a l le a r n in g ex p e r i en ces to

m e e t t h e ch i ld r en ' s n eed s .

D E M O G R A P H I C S O F I N C L U S I O N

I n c lu s io n ap p ear s t o o ccu r f r eq u en t ly in t h i s c o u n t r y . I n a se r ie s o f s tu d ie s, W o le r y

a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s h a v e e x a m i n e d t h e f r e q u e n c y o f i n c l u s i o n a n d p e r s o n n e l

in v o lv ed in su ch p r o g ram s . Em p lo y in g n a t io n a l r an d o m sam p l in g s t r a teg ies , th ey

h av e f o u n d th a t ch i ld ren wi th d i sab i li t ie s h av e b e en in c lu d e d in Head S ta rt ( i .e . ,

r ep o r t ed b y 9 4 % o f t h e r e sp o n d en t s ) , p u b l i c sch o o l p r ek in d e r g a r t en (7 3 % o f

r e sp o n d en t s ) , p u b l i c sch o o l k in d e r g a r t en ( 8 1 .5 % o f r e sp o n d en t s ) , an d co m m u -

n i ty - b ased p r o g r am s ( 5 9 .2 % o f r e sp o n d en t s ) ( W o le r y e t a l. , 1 9 93 a). Ac r o ss a f o u r

y ea r p e r io d f r o m 1 98 6- 19 90 , t h e p e r cen tag e o f p r o g r am s en r o l l i n g a t l e as t o n e

ch i ld w i th d i sab i li ti e s i n c r ea se d f r o m 3 7 % to 7 4 .2 % ( W o le r y e t a l. , 1 9 93 b) . I n a

r e c e n t s tu d y o f A E Y C a c c r e d i te d p re s c h o o l s , M c D o n n e l l , B r o w n e l l , a n d W o l e r y

( 1 9 9 7 ) f o u n d a sm a l l e r p e r cen tag e ( 5 6 %) o f p r o g r am s , t h an in p r ev io u s su r v ey

r e sea r ch , en r o l l i n g ch i ld r en w i th d i sab i li t ie s .

O th e r r e sea r ch e r s h av e co r t f i r m ed th e f in d in g b y Wo le r y an d co l l eag u es th a t

in c lu s io n o ccu r s i n d i f f e r en t o r g an iza t io n a l se t t i n g s . Bu scem i , Ben n e t , Th o m as ,

an d De lu ca ( 1 9 9 5 ) an d S in c l a i r ( 1 9 9 3 ) h av e n o ted th a t Head S ta r t h a s b eco m e a

f r eq u en t se t ti n g fo r i n c lu s io n , w h ich co r r e sp o n d s to t h e m an d a te to en r o l l ch i ld r en

wi th d i sab i li t ie s g iv en to H ead S ta r t o v e r a q u a r t e r cen tu r y ag o . I n so m e s t a te s ,

i n c lu s iv e p r e sch o o l p r o g r am s a r e b eg in n in g to b e im p lem en ted in p u b l i c sch o o l s .

Ba r n e t t an d Fr ed e ( 1 9 9 3) f o u n d th a t i n M assach u se t t s , 6 7 % o f th e 3 an d 4 y ea r o ld

c h i l d re n w i t h d is a b il it ie s w e r e i n s o m e f o r m o f i n c l u s i v e p l a c e m e n t w i t h in t h e p u b -

l ic sch o o l s . I n o th e r s t at e s ( TN an d CT ) , Br o w n , Ho r n , He i se r , an d Od o m ( 1 9 9 6)

a n d B r u d e r , S ta ff , a n d M c M u r r e r - K a m i n e r ( 1 99 7 ) h a v e n o t e d th a t c o m m u -

n i ty - b ased ch i ld ca re p r o g r am s se r v e a s i n c lu s iv e p l acem en t s .

P r o f e ss io n a l tr a in in g i s an im p o r t an t d im en s io n o f p r o g r am s f o r a l l y o u n g ch i l -

d r en . I n th e i r n a t io n a l su r v ey , W o le r y e t a l . ( 1 9 9 4 a ) f o u n d th a t t e ach e r s i n ea r ly

ch i ld h o o d in c lu s iv e p r o g r am s h ad t r a in in g p r im ar i ly i n ea r ly ch i ld h o o d ed u ca t io n ,

th e m a jo r i ty h ad a b ach e lo r ' s d eg r ee , an d sp ec ia l ed u ca t io n p r o f e ss io n a l s we r e

o f t e n n o t e m p l o y e d d i r e c t l y b y i n c l u s i v e p r o g r a m s . I n t h e i r s u r v e y o f N A E Y C

acc r ed i t ed p r o g r am s , M cD o n n e l l e t a l. ( 1 9 9 7 ) f o u n d s im i l a r r e sul ts . F r o m an o th e r

s tu d y , i t ap p ea r s t h a t r e l a t ed se r v i ce s p e r so n n e l ( e . g . , p h y s i ca l t h e r ap i s t s ) we r e

s o m e t i m e s e m p l o y e d b y i n c l u s i v e p r o g r a m s , b u t o f t e n t h e r e w e r e n o t e n o u g h

r e la t e d s e r v i c es p e r s o n n e l e m p l o y e d t o f o r m a n i n te r d is c ip l in a r y t e a m ( W o l e r y e t


6/23


a l., 1994a ). Spec i f ica ll y , m ore i nc lus ive p rogram s em plo yed mo re sp eech pa tho l -

og i s ts t han noninc lus ive p rog ram s for t yp i ca l l y deve lop ing ch i l d ren , bu t n o t a l l

p r og ra m s e n r o ll ing c h i ld r e n w i t h s pe e c h i m pa i r m e n t e m p l oye d s pe e c h pa t ho l o -

gis t s (W olery e t a l . , 1994b) .

Gene ra l ly , ch i ld ren w ho enro l l i n i nc lus ive se t t ings a re m ore l i ke ly to h ave m i ld

or m ode ra t e d isab il it ie s ( e .g ., com m un ica t i on d i sorde rs , m i ld m enta l r e ta rda t ion)

ra ther than mo re severe di sabi l i t ies (e .g . , sev ere men ta l re ta rda t ion, m ul t iple di s -

abi l it ies , auti sm). In a s ta te -w ide surv ey in No rth Carol ina , Bu ysse , Bai ley, Sm i th,

and S imeo nsson (1994) fou nd t ha t -ch i l d ren wi th seve re d isab i li ti e s w e re m ore

l i ke ly t o be p l aced in spec i a l i zed se tt ings . Ba rne t t and Frede (1993) and W ole ry e t

a l. (1993a ) repor t ed s imi l a r t r ends fo r o the r s ta te s. P l acem ent dec i s ions appea r t o

be m ot iva t ed by conce rns o f t e ache rs about i nc lud ing ch i ld ren wi th seve re d i sab i l-

i t i e s i n t he i r c l a s s rooms (Buysse , Wes l ey , Keyes , & Ba i l ey , 1996) , add i t i ona l

conce rns about spec if ic ch i l d behaviors (Ba rne t t & F rede , 1993), t e ach e rs ' p e r -

c e i ve d c om pe t e nc e a t p r ov i d i ng a pp r op ri at e s e rv i ce s ( G e m m e l - C r os by & H a nz l i k ,

1994), and t he pe rcep t i on t ha t ch i l d ren w i th sev e re d i sab i l it ie s migh t no t ben e f i t

deve lop m enta l l y f rom inc lus ive se t t i ngs (B uysse e t a l., 1994).

Th e conce rn about po t en t i a l bene f i t s o f i nc lus ion for ch i l d ren w i th seve re d i sab i l-

i t ies appears to be only par t ia l ly su ppo r ted by the l i te ra ture . In an ex am ina t io n of

the e f fec ts o f p l acemen t o f c h i l d ren w i th m i ld d i sab il it ie s i n reve rse ma ins t ream and

segrega t ed c la s ses , Cole , Mi l l s , Da l e , and Jen kins (1991) fo un d t ha t ch i l d ren w i th

l e s s subst an ti al de lays m ade m ore prog re ss i n t he reve rse ma ins t ream ed c l a s se s and

chi ld ren wi th m ore subs t an ti a l de l ays p rogre ssed m ore i n segreg a t ed c l a sse s . Ho w -

e ve r , w h e n i nve s t iga t ing e f fe c t s o f i nc l u s ive c om m u n i t y - ba s e d a nd s e g r e ga t ed

p l a c em e n t s , H unde r t, M a hone y , M undy , a nd V e r non ( 1998 , t h is i s s ue ) f ound t ha t

ch i l d ren wi th seve re d isab i l it i e s mad e grea t e r ga ins i n i nc lus ive ra the r t han segre -

ga t ed se t ti ngs. D i f fe rences i n t he t ype of i nc lus ive se t ti ngs and cha rac te r is t ic s o f

ch i l d ren probably con t r i bu t ed t o t he d i f fe ren t f i nd ings o f t he se tw o s tud i e s . The

de t e rmina t i on of t he e f fec t i veness o f spec i f ic p l acem ent s fo r ch i l d ren wi th spec i f i c

cha rac t er is t ic s , w hich Gu ra ln i ck (1997) has ca l l ed t he secon d gene ra t i on of ea r l y

in t e rven t i on re search , w i l l r em a in a n ac t ive re sea rch a rea w e l l in to t he nex t cen tury .

THE MICROSYSTEM: CLASSROOM AND TEACHER VARIABLES

I nc l u si ve e a rl y c h i l dhoo d cl a ss e s m a y be s e e n a s a m i c r o s ys te m w i t h i n a

ch i l d ' s soc i a l e co logy . Aspec t s o f t h i s mic rosys t em, such a s c l a s s room cha rac -

t e r i s t i c s , a f fec t ch i l d ren ' s deve lopment . These cha rac t e r i s t i c s i nc lude ove ra l l

qua l i t y , t he make -up of t he c l a s s ( e .g . , s ame-age , mixed-age ) , t he ways t ha t

t eache rs a r range t he c l a s s room envi ronment , and t he i r t e ach ing s t ra t eg i e s . In

the nex t sec t i ons , w e w i l l d i scuss re sea rch t ha t ha s exa m ined the i n f l uence of

c l a s s room va r i ab l e s on ch i l d ren ' s ex pe r i ences i n i nc lus ive p re scho ol c la s ses .

Curriculum

In i nc lus ive ea r ly ch i l dho od programs , t he cur r i cu lum fo l l ow ed wi l l a f fec t ch i l -

d r e n ' s pa r t i c i pa t i on a nd ou t c om e s . A s no t e d e a r l i e r , N A E Y C ( B r e de ka m p &


7/23

P r e s c h o o l I n c lu s i o n 9

Copple , 1997) has p roposed dev e lop m enta l l y appropr i at e cur r icu lum gu ide l i nes

for a ll e a r ly ch i l dhood program s , i nc lud ing t hose t ha t i nc lud e ch i l d ren wi th d i s -

abi li ti es . In the i r study of the qua l i ty of de ve lo pm en ta l ly appropr ia te prac t ice in

inc lus ive and segrega ted spec i a l educa t i on ea r ly ch i l dho od c la s s rooms , LaPa ro ,

Sex ton , and Snyde r (1998) foun d t he qua l i t y o f d eve lop m enta l l y appropr ia t e p rac -

t ice t o be m ode ra te ly h igh i n bo th t ypes o f p rogram s . Th ey foun d no s ign i f i can t

di f fe rences in quali ty across th e two grou ps o f programs.

Prov id ing ch i ld ren t he f ree do m to se l ec t the i r ow n p l ay ac t iv i ti e s i s an a spec t o f

deve lopm enta l l y appropri at e p rac t ice s t ha t m ay have an impor t an t i n f l uence on

c h i l d r e n 's de ve lopm e n t . H a us e r - C r a m , B r ons o n a nd U ps hu r ( 1993 ) c ond uc t e d a

na tura li st ic s t udy of 153 ch i l d re n wi th d i sab i li ti e s enro l l ed i n c om m uni ty-b ased

pre school programs. In c l a s s room s w her e t eache rs o f fe red m ore cho i ce o f ac t i v i -

t ie s , ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i li ti e s eng age d i n m ore and h igh e r l eve l s o f pee r

in t e rac t ion . . . and appeared to b e l e s s d i s t r ac ted and m ore pe r s i s ten t w hen i nv olv ed

in mas t e ri ng t asks (p. 494) . S imi l a r ly , Ant i a , Kre imey e r , and E ldredg e (1994)

f ound m or e pos i t i ve i n t e r a c t i ons be t w e e n c h i l d r e n w i t h a nd w i t hou t he a r i ng

impa i rment s whe n teache rs p ro v ide d cons i s t en t oppor tun i ti e s fo r ch i l d ren to w ork

toge the r i n t he same sma l l g roups .

M ixed age Gr ouping

Th e age -grouping of ch i l d ren i n i nc lus ive p rograms a l so a f fec ts ch i l d r en ' s pa r -

t ic i pa t ion and dev e lopm ent . Robe r t s , B urch ina l , and B a i l ey (1994) found t ha t

ch i l d ren (2- , 3 -, and 4-yea r o lds ) i n m ixed -age groups t ook m ore tu rns i n conv e r -

sa ti ons wi th pa r tne r s w i th d i sab i li ti e s and rece ived m ore t u rns f ro m pa r tne r s w i th

d i sab i l i t i e s t han d id ch i l d ren i n same-age groups . Othe r r e sea rch i n i nc lus ive

m ixed-ag e group , ha s revea l ed t ha t deve lopm enta l t r aj ec tor i e s fo r com m unica t i on ,

m o t o r , a nd c ogn i ti ve de ve l opm e n t w e r e e nha n c e d f o r you nge r c h i ld r e n ( B a i le y ,

Burch ina l , & McWi l l i am, 1993) and i n t e rac t i ons wi th pee rs we re h ighe r fo r

young e r c h i ld r e n (B a i le y , M c W i ll ia m , W a r e , & B ur c h ina l , 1993 ) w he n c om pa r e d

wi th ch i l d ren i n same-age groups . Fur the rmore , ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i l i t i e s i n

m ixed-ag ed i nc lus ive se tt ings en gag ed i n h igh e r leve l s o f p l ay m as t e ry (B la seo ,

Ba i l ey , & Burch ina l , 1993) when compared wi th pee rs wi th d i sab i l i t i e s i n

same-age c l a s se s . McWi l l i am and Ba i l ey (1995) repor t ed , howeve r , t ha t a t t en-

t i ona l eng agem ent ( i.e ., a t t end ing t o an o the r ch i l d o r adu l t o r p l ay ing nea rby w i th

s imi l a r ma te r ia l s ) was a f fec t ed on ly mo des t l y by age grouping , and t he re was n o

e f f ec t o f a ge g r oup i ng on o t he r m e a s u r e s o f e nga ge m e n t .

Social Competence n Classroom Se t t ings

In t he 1970s and 1980s, m os t r e sea rch focuse d on t he e f fec t iveness o f d i f fe ren t

i n te r ve n ti ons in p r om o t i ng c ogn i t ive , c om m u n i c a ti ve , and m o t o r ou t c om e s f o r

ch i l d ren wi th d i sab il it ie s . W he n these va r i ab l e s w ere used t o d e f ine ou t co m es for

ch i l d ren , r e sea rch dem ons t ra t ed t ha t ch i l d ren w i th d i sab il it ie s bene f i t ed f rom ea r ly

in t e rven t ion , and t ha t hav ing a w e l l -de f ine d cur r i cu lum was a ssoc iaWxl wi th m ore

pos i t i ve ou t comes for ch i l d ren rega rd l e s s o f t he cur r i cu lum tha t was chosen


8/23


(Shon kof f & Hause r -Cram, 1987). W i th t he em ergen ce , i n t he ea rly 198 0 ' s , o f

soc ia l com petence as an im po rtant dev e lop m enta l con s t ruc t (Har tup, 1983),

re sea rch tha t focused on soc i a l com pe ten ce a s an im por t an t ou t com e for ch i l d ren

w i th di sabi li ti es soon fol low ed.

Gurah t i ck and Ne vi l l e (1997) desc r ibe soc i al com pe ten ce a s t he way i nd iv idu-

a l s de f i ne a nd s o l ve t he m os t f unda m e n t a l p r ob l e m s i n hum a n r e l a t i ons h i p s

(p. 579). To deve lop soc i a l com pe te nce requ i re s tha t ch i l d ren i n tegra t e cogn i t ive ,

com m unica t ion , a f fec ti ve and m oto r sk i l ls t o m ee t t he i r ow n in t e rpe rsona l goa l s . A

you ng ch i l d ' s socia l com pe te nce has imp or t an t imp l i ca ti ons fo r l a te r deve lop m ent ,

s i nce young ch i l d ren ' s d i f f i cu l t i e s i n pee r i n t e rac t i on a re p red i c t i ve o f soc i a l

ad jus tment p rob l ems dur ing l a t e r ch i l dh oo d and ado l e scen ce (Pa rke r & Ashe r ,

1987). W hi l e socia l co m pe te nce i nc ludes co gni t i ve ( i n forma t ion-process ing) and

emo t iona l com ponen t s (Do dge , Pe t ti t, M cClaskey , & B row n, 1986), i n t e ract i ons

wi th pee rs p rov ide an aven ue for c h i l d ren t o p u t i n to p rac t ice t he i r soc i a l sk il ls .

Recen t r e sea rch examin ing soc i a l i n t e rac t i on among pee rs wi th and wi thout

disabi l i t i es suppor t s ear l i e r f indings tha t peer inte rac t ion for chi ldren wi th di s -

ab i li ti e s occurs m ore f req uent ly i n i nc lus ive se t t ings t han i n n onin c lus ive se t t ing

conta in ing on ly ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i l it ie s . Us ing p l ay groups of bo ys w i th m i ld

deve lop m enta l de l ays and bo ys w i thout d i sab i l it ie s , Gura ln i ck , Conn or , Ha m -

m ond , G o t t m a n , a nd K i nn i s h ( 1996 ) f ound t ha t a l l c h i l d r e n w e r e m or e

in t erac t ive w hen i n an i nc lus ive se t t i ng t han w hen t hey w ere i n seg rega t ed set -

t i ngs i nc lud ing on ly ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i l i t i e s ( s imi l a r t o spec i a l educa t i on

pre school s ) o r on ly t yp i ca l l y de ve lo p ing ch i l d ren ( simi l a r t o r egu l a r p re -

schools ) . Th i s d i f fe rence was ev id en t in t he f i r s t w eek and w as m os t cons i s t en t ly

appa ren t fo r ch i l d ren wi th dev e lop m enta l d i sab il it ie s .

S imi l a r f i nd ings hav e be en rep or t ed i n obse rva t i ona l st ud i e s o f p re schoo l ch i l-

d ren w i th d i sab il it ie s enro l l ed in co m m un i ty p rograms . H ause r -Cram e t a l. (1993)

used c l a s s room obse rva t i ons (Bro nso n Soc i a l and Task Ski l l s P rof i le ) and t each-

e r s ' r epor t s t o ex am ine re l a t ionsh ips a m on g c l a s s room cha rac te r is t ic s (deg ree o f

in tegra t ion , t e ache r -ch i ld rat io , and ch i l d ren ' s oppor tun i t ie s fo r cho os ing ac ti v i-

t i e s ) and soc i a l i n t e rac t i ons and t a sk mas t e ry s~a t eg i e s o f young ch i l d ren wi th

d i sab il it ie s . They foun d t ha t ch i l d ren w i th d i sab i li ti e s in i nc lus ive c l a s s room s tha t

i nc lude a h i ghe r p r opo r t ion o f t yp i ca l ly d e ve l op i ng pe e rs e nga ge d i n m or e i n te r a c-

t ions t han c h i l d ren i n i nc lus ive c l a s se s t ha t i nc lud ed few er typ i ca l ly de ve lop ing

peers .

In an o the r s tudy o f soc i a l pa r t ic i pa t ion i n p re school se t ti ngs , E rw in (1993) foun d

tha t ch i ld ren wi th v i sua l impa i rm ent s i n i nc lus ive se tt ings enga ged i n m ore soc i a l

i n t erac ti on , le s s uno ccup ied p l ay , an d l e s s inappropr i a te o r se l f abus ive beh avior

than s imi l a r ch i l d ren i n se grega t ed cl a sse s . For t h ree p re scho ol ch i l d ren w i th p ro-

f ound d i sa b il it ie s e n r o l l e d i n a n 8 - w e e k f u l l- inc l u s ion s um m e r p r e s choo l p r og r a m ,

Hanl ine (1993) found t ha t each of t he ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i l i t i e s i n t e rac t ed wi th

pee rs i n ov e r 90% of t he ob se rva t i on pe r iods . A l thoug h ch i l d ren wi th d isab i l it i es

in i ti a ted i n t e rac t ions a t l ow er ra t e s t han d id t he i r typ i ca l l y dev e lop in g pee rs , on ce

an i n t e rac t i on began t he l eng th of t he i n t e rac t i on was comparab l e t o t hose t ha t

i nvo l ve d on l y t yp i c a ll y de ve l op i ng pe e rs . A n une xpe c t e d f ind i ng w a s t ha t t yp i -


9/23

P r e s c h o o l I n c l u s io n 11

caUy d ev e lo p in g ch i ld r en w er e q u i t e p e r s i s ten t i n t r y in g to e l i c i t r e sp o n ses f r o m

th e i r c la s sm a te s w i th d isab i li t ie s , m o r e so th an w h en in t e r ac t in g w i th th e i r c la s s -

m ates wi tho u t d isab il it ies . In con t ras t , Hu nd er t and h is co l lea gue s (1998) fou nd no

d i f f e ren ces in t h e f r eq u en cy o f p ee r - r e l a t ed so c i a l i n t e r ac t io n s f o r ch i ld r en wi th

sev e r e d i sab i li ti e s en r o l led in e i th e r seg r eg a ted o r i n c lu s iv e p r e sch o o l s . T h e d i f f e r-

en ces in t h e se f in d in g s m ay b e r e l a t ed , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , t o t h e v a r i e ty o f s t r a teg ie s

th a t we r e u sed to o b se r ve an d r eco r d ch i ld r en ' s i n t e r ac tiv e b eh av io rs .

Th e r e su lt s o f recen t s tu d ie s co n t in u e to su g g es t a t en d en cy f o r ch i ld r en wi th o u t

d i sab i l i t i e s t o p r e f e r i n t e r ac t in g wi th o th e r t y p ica l ly d ev e lo p in g ch i ld r en

( Gu r a ln i ck , i n p re ss ; G u r a ln i ck , Go t tm an , & H am m o n d , 1 99 6) . Th i s f i n d in g is

co n s i s t en t w i th p r ev io u s r e sea r ch d em o n s t r a t in g th a t o v e r t h e p r e sch o o l y ea r s ,

ch i ld r en a r e in c r ea s in g ly l i k e ly to ch o o se a s p l ay m a te s t h o se ch i ld r en wh o a r e l ik e

th em se lv es . A l th o u g h th is h a s b een s tu d ied m o s t o f t en in t h e co n tex t o f g en d e r an d

r ac i a l s im i l a r i t y ( F i sh b e in & I m a i , 1 9 9 3 ; Macco b y , 1 9 8 8 , Ram sey & My er s ,

1 99 0) , A n t i a an d h e r co l l eag u es ( 1 9 9 4 ) r ep o r t ed th a t ch i ld r en wi th an d w i th o u t

h ea r in g im p a i r m en t s p r e f e r r ed to i n t e r ac t w i th ch i ld r en o f t h e sam e h ea r in g s t a tu s

a s th em se lv es . W h i l e o th e r s h av e r ep o r t ed s im i l a r f i n d in g s ( e . g ., Ar n o ld & Tr em -

b lay , 1 9 7 9), i t i s u n c lea r h o w m u ch c h i ld r e n ' s p r e f e r en ce f o r p ee r s o f t h e sam e

h ea r in g s t a tu s r e f l ec t s d i f f e r en ces in co m m u n ica t io n s t r a t eg ie s ( i . e . , sp eech f o r

ch i ld r en wi th o u t d i sab i l i t i e s , m an u a l co m m u n ica t io n f o r ch i ld r en wi th h ea r in g

i m p a i r m e n t s) c o m p a r e d w i t h a p r e f e r e n c e fo r s o m e o n e w h o i s ' l ik e ' t h e m s e l ve s .

So c ia l re j ec t io n b y p ee r s ap p ea r s m o r e c o m m o n f o r ch i ld r en wi th d i sab il i ti e s

th an ty p ica l ly d ev e lo p in g ch i ld r en an d h as b een r ep o r t ed in s tu d ie s o f p r e sch o o l

ch i ld r en ( Gu r a ln i ck & N ev i l l e , 1 9 9 7 ). Th e r e i s n o ev id e n ce th a t r e j ec t io n o ccu r s

m o r e o f t en in i n c lu s iv e th an in sp ec i a l i zed se t t in g s ( Gu r a ln i ck e t a l . , 1 9 96 a) . Ch i l -

d r en wi th d i sab i l i t i e s a r e o f t en r a t ed a s l e s s we l l l i k ed th an th e i r t y p ica l ly

d ev e lo p in g p ee r s , b u t ev en in th e se ca se s i n t e r ac t io n s b e twe en ty p ica l ly d ev e lo p -

in g ch i ld r en an d ch i ld r en wi th d ev e lo p m en ta l d i sab i l i t i e s a r e r ep o r t ed to o ccu r

f reque n t ly in inc lus ive se t t ings (G ura ln iek e t a l ., 1996a; Ha nl ine , 1993).

Des p i t e t h e f ac t th a t r e j ec t io n m a y b e m o r e l i k e ly f o r ch i ld r en wi th d i sab i li t ie s ,

Bu y sse ( 1 9 9 3 ) p r o v id ed ev id en ce , b a se d o n p a r en t s ' an d t each e r s ' r ep o r ts , th a t a

m a jo r i ty o f ch i ld r en wi th an d w i th o u t d i sab i li t ie s w h o w er e en r o l l ed in i n c lu s iv e

p r o g r a m s h a d a t le a s t o n e m u t u a l f r ie n d . C h i l d r e n w i t h c o g n it i v e d e l a y s w e r e m o r e

ap t t o f o r m u n i l a t e r a l f r i en d sh ip s o r t o h av e n o f r i en d s th an wer e ch i ld r en wi th

m i ld e r d i sab i l it i e s ( in c lu d in g co m m u n ica t io n d i so r d e rs ) . Gu r a in i ck , Co n n o r , an d

H a m m o n d ( 1 9 9 5 ) a l s o c o l l e c t e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t c h i l d r e n ' s f r i e n d s h i p s f r o m

p ar en t s o f ch i ld r en wi th d i sab i li t ie s . Th e y f o u n d th a t ch i ld r en wi th d ev e lo p m en ta l

d e l ay s h ad f ewer r ec ip r o ca l f r i en d sh ip s th an ty p ica l ly d ev e lo p in g ch i ld r en an d

ch i ld r en w i th o th e r d i sab i l it i e s, w h i l e t h e r e w as n o s ig n if i can t d i f f e r en ce in t h e

p r o p o r ti o n o f c h i l d r e n w i t h c o m m u n i c a t i o n d i so r d e rs w h o h a d m u t u a l f r ie n d s h ip s

w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e ir t y p i c a ll y d e v e l o p i n g a g e - m a t e s . T h e r e s u lt s o f r e s e a r c h

ex am in in g so c i a l re j ec t io n o f ch i ld r en wi th d i sab i li t ie s a r e a f f ec t ed , i n p a r t, b y th e

m e t h o d o l o g y t h a t i s e m p l o y e d . T h u s , w h i l e p r e s c h o o l c h i l d re n w i t h d i sa b il it ie s

r ece iv e lo wer sco r e s t h an d o o th e r p r e sch o o le r s o n so c io m e t r i c a s se ssm en t s ,

r ep o r ts f r o m p a r en t s a n d t each e r s , a s we l l a s c l a s s r o o m o b se r v a t io n s , su g g es t t h a t


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m any young ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i l it i e s eng age i n mu tua l ly sa t i s fy ing soc i a l i n t e rac -

t ions wi th t he i r norm a l ly de ve lo p in g pee rs .

As n o t ed ear lie r, so c i a l com pe tenc e i nc ludes cogni t i ve and em ot iona l com po-

nent s , a s we l l a s pee r - re l a t ed behaviors . In a r ecen t s t udy , Diamond, Hes t enes ,

Ca rpen te r , & l anes ( i n p re s s ) ex am ined t he i n f l uen ce of ch i l d ren ' s pa r t ic i pa t ion i n

an i nc lus ive p re school p ro gra m on accep t ance o f c l a s sma te s w i th d i sab i l it ie s . They

found t hat t yp ica ll y deve lop ing ch i l d ren i n i nc lus ive c l a sse s g ave h ighe r soc i a l

accep tance ra ti ngs in re sp ons e t o scena r ios about im agina ry c l a ssma te s w i th phys -

i ca l and sensory d i sab i l it i e s t han d id ch i l d ren i n non inc lus ive ea r ly ch i l dh oo d

programs . Chi ld ren w i thou t d i sab i li t ie s i n bo th t ypes o f c l a s se s gave t he h ighes t

soc ia l a ccep t ance rat ings t o ima gina ry c l a s sma te s w i thout d isab i li ti e s. To exa m ine

the re la t ionsh ip o f accep t ance ra t ings and ch i l d re n ' s behav io r in t he c l a s s room ,

Ogagagi , Diamond, Kontos , & H es t enes (1988 , t h is i ssue ) obse rved ch i l d ren i n

un i ver s it y -ba s ed a nd c om m un i t y - ba s e d c l as s room s . T yp i c a ll y de ve l op i ng c h i l d r e n

wi th more pos i t ive a t t i tudes toward chi ldren wi th di sabi l i t i es ( i .e . , as measured

through a hypo the t ica l a s se ssm ent ) a l so p l ayed m ore of t en wi th ch i l d ren wi th d i s -

abi l it i es in the i r c lass than d id c hi ldr en wi th less p os i t ive at ti tudes . T hes e au thors

a l so found a pos i t i ve re l a t i onsh ip be tween pa ren t a l a t t i t udes t oward t he i r ch i l -

d ren ' s p l ay wi th ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i l i t i e s and t he i r ch i l d ren ' s i n t e rac t i on wi th

ch i l d ren wi th d i sab il it ie s . The s t ud i e s j us t r epor ted , a l ong wi th recen t wo rk b y

Stonem an and he r co l l eagu es (S toneman , Rug g , & R ive rs, 1996) sugg es t t ha t

t eache rs and pa ren t s may p l ay impo r t an t ro l e s i n p romo t ing ch i l d re n ' s accep t ance

of pe ers w i th di sabi li t ies .

Un de rs t and ing t he way s i n w hich adu l t s i n f l uence ch i l d re n ' s ideas about , and

in te rac ti ons wi th , o the r ch i l d ren i s an a rea fo r fu ture re sea rch . B a i l ey (1997) sug-

ges t s tha t a pr im ary fac tor tha t di f fe rent ia tes approaches to ad ul t -chi ld inte rac t ion,

i nc lud ing teach ing , i s w he th e r t he adu l t ( t e ache r o r pa ren t) a s sum es a d i rec t i ve o r

re spons ive ro l e in re l a t i onsh ip t o t he ch i l d . A ques t i on tha t ha s b een of pa r t icu l a r

i n t e re s t i n r ecen t yea rs has b een t h e way s i n w hich such d i rec t ive o r r e spon s ive

c l a s s room t each ing prac t ice s m ay prom ote i n te rac ti ons amo ng ch i l d ren i n i nc lu-

s ive c l a s sroom s

I n t e rv e n t i o n S t ra t eg i es t o P r o m o t e P e e r S o c i a l I n te r a c ti o n a n d P o s i ti v e A ~ f u d e s

M any ea r l ie r s t ud ie s ha ve focu sed on spec if i c, con t ro l led t eache r behaviors t ha t

m ight i n f l uence i n t e rac ti ons am on g ch i l d ren . Th ose f i nd ings sugges t ed t ha t the u se

of coope ra t i ve ac t i v i t i e s ( Johnson & Johnson , 1986) o r p rompt ing and pra i s i ng

s t ra tegies to prom ote soc ia l in te rac t ion s (McC onn el l , S i sson, Cor t , & St ra in , 1991)

re su l t ed i n s i gn i f i can t ga ins i n soc i a l and academ ic ad jus tment fo r ch i l d ren wi th

disabi l i t i es . One of the cons t ra int s in research of th i s type i s tha t t eachers a re

r e qu i re d t o u s e on l y one t ype o f i n te r ve n ti on , i m p l e m e n t e d i n s pe c i fi e d s e tt ings i n

o r de r t o e va l ua t e t he e f f i ca c y o f t he i n t e rve n t ion . F o r e xa m p l e , i n t he M c C o nne l l

e t a l. s t udy , t he t each e r focused he r a t t en ti on on on e ch i l d a t a t ime for a 2 -m inut e

t ime b lock , p ra i sed o ccur rences o f spec i f ic in t e rac t ive behaviors , and u sed v e rba l

or phy s i ca l cues t o p ro m pt ch i l d ren to e xh ib i t spec i f ic behav iors. Recen t r e sea rch

sugges t s t ha t t he se k inds o f t e ache r behaviors occur i n f requent ly i n t he na tura l


11/23

P r e s c h o o l I n c l u s i o n 1 3

en v i r o n m en t o f ea rly ch i ld h o o d c l a s s r o o m s ( F i l e , 1 9 94 ; H u n d e r t , Mah o n ey , &

Hopkins, 1993) .

I n a r ecen t s tu d y , Hu n d e r t e t a l . (1 9 9 3 ) e x am in ed d i f f e r en ces in t h e b eh av io r s o f

ea r ly ch i ld h o o d an d ear ly ch i ld h o o d sp ec ia l ed u c a t io n t each e r s , an d th e r e l a t io n -

sh ip s b e tw een t each e r b eh av io r s an d p ee r i n t e r ac t io n s , f o r 3 5 p r e sch o o l ch i ld r en

wi th d i sab il it i es en r o l led in 1 9 d i f f e r en t i n t eg r a t ed p r e sch o o l c l a s ses . Th ey f o u n d

th a t h ig h e r lev e l s o f p ee r i n t e r ac t io n o ccu r r ed w h en ea r ly ch i ld h o o d sp ec ia l ed u ca -

t io n t each e r s fo cu sed o n g r o u p s o f ch i ld r en w i th an d w i th o u t d i sab il it i es , r a th e r

than on ind iv idua l ch i ld ren w i th d isab i l i t ies .

Sev e r a l d if f e ren t ap p r o ach es h av e b e en u s ed to en co u r ag e in t e r ac tio n s b e twee n

n o r m a l ly d ev e lo p in g p r e sch o o l ch i ld r en an d th e i r p ee r s w i th d i sab i l i t i e s . Fo r

ex am p le , i n o n e s tu d y , En g l i sh , Go ld s t e in , Sch a f e r , & K aczm ar ck ( 1 9 9 7) d es ig n ed

a p e e r b u d d y s y s te m i n w h i c h t y p i c a ll y d e v e l o p i n g c h i l d r e n w e r e t a u g h t w a y s t o

en g ag e ch i ld r en wi th d i sab i l i t i e s i n so c i a l i n t e r ac t io n . Th i s sy s t em p r o d u ced

increases in in te rac t ions fo r ch i ld ren w i th d isab i l i t ies in those inc lus ive se tt ings .

To p r o m o te p o s i t iv e a t t i tu d es to w ar d in d iv id u a l s w i th d i sab i li ti e s , i n co n t r a s t t o

sp ec i f i c so c i a l i n t e r ac t io n s , Fav azza an d Od o m ( 1 9 9 7 ) d es ig n ed a k in d e r g a r t en

in t e r v en t io n p r o g r am u s in g ch i ld r en ' s b o o k s an d g u id ed d i scu ss io n s ab o u t d i sab il -

i ti e s , a lo n g w i th s t r u c tu r ed p l ay o p p o r tu n i t i e s w i th ch i ld r en w i th d i sab il i ti e s , t o

p r o m o te p o s i t i v e a t ti tu d es o f y o u n g ch i ld r en to w ar d in d iv id u a l s w i th d i sab il it i es .

Th ey f o u n d th a t ty p ica l ly d ev e lo p in g k in d e r g a r tn e r s wh o p a r t i c ip a t ed h ad s ig n if i -

can t ly m o r e p o s i t iv e a t t it u d es , fo l lo w in g th e in t e r v en t io n , th an a co m p ar ab le g r o u p

o f ch i ld r en wh o d id n o t p a r ti c ip a te , an d th e se d i f f e ren ces m a in ta in e d o v e r a p e r io d

o f 5 m o n th s . Th ese au th or s su g g es t ed th a t n a tu r a li s ti c i n t e r v en t io n s tr a teg ie s , su ch

as r eg u la r so c i a l co n tac t w i th p ee r s w i th d i sab i l i t i e s , r ead in g ch i ld r en ' s b o o k s

ab o u t sp ec i a l n eed s o r d i sab il i ti e s , an d g u id ed d i scu ss io n s ab o u t t h e s to ri e s d u r in g

s to ry t im e an d a t h o m e , m a y b e e f f ec t iv e an d eco n o m ica l s t ra t eg ie s f o r p r o m o t in g

y o u n g ch i ld r en ' s p o s i t iv e a t t i t u d es to w ar d p eo p le w i th d i sab il it ie s .

T e a c h e r s m a k e m a n y d e c i s i o n s a b o u t h o w , a n d w h e t h e r o r n o t , t o e x p l i c i t l y

t each ch i ld r en ab o u t i n d iv id u a l d i f f e r en ces . So m e t each e r s b e l i ev e th a t ch i ld r en

wi l l l e a r n b es t ab o u t acce p t in g o th e r s i f i n d iv id u a l d i f f e r en ces a re i g n o r ed , w h i l e

o th e rs su g g es t t h a t le a r n in g to ap p r ec i a t e each p e r so n ' s i n d iv id u a l i ty r eq u i r e s sp e -

c i f i c a t t en t io n to t h e way s in wh ich ch i ld r en a r e a l ik e an d d i f f e r en t

( Der m an - Sp a r k s an d th e AB C Task F o r ce , 1 98 9; L ieb e r e t a l ., 1 9 98 , th i s v o lu m e) .

Th e r e sea r ch ju s t r ev i e w ed su g g es t s th a t ad u l t s ' r e sp o n ses to ch i ld r en ' s q u es tio n s ,

a lo n g wi th p l an n ed ac t iv i t i e s ( su ch a s b o o k r ead in g ) m ay a f f ec t ch i ld r en ' s i d eas

ab o u t , an d in t e r ac t io n s w i th , o th e r s . C lea r ly , t e ach e r s ' b e l i e f s , an d th e way s in

w h ich th e se b e l i e f s a r e p u t i n to p r ac t ice , i n f lu en ce ch i ld r en ' s ex p e r i en ces in i n c lu -

s iv e c l a s s r o o m s .

Teacher B eliefs.

I n a s tu d y r ep o r t ed in t h i s i s su e , Ha n so n e t a l. su g g es t t h a t

b e l i e f s an d v a lu es th a t g u id e t each e r s ' p r ac t i ce s a r e u n iq u e wi th in each c l a s s r o o m

a n d m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d a s r e f l e c ti n g th e c l a s s r o o m c u l tu r e . F o r e x a m p l e , L i e b e r e t

a l. ( 1 9 9 8 , t h i s v o lu m e) f o u n d th a t t e ach e r s i n i n c lu s iv e p r e sch o o l s b e l i ev ed th a t

in c lu s io n m e an t t h a t ch i ld r en wi th d i sab i l i ti e s we r e m em b er s o f t h e o v e r a l l c la s s -

r o o m g r o u p. T h e w a y s i n w h i c h t e a c h e rs e n a c t e d t h e i r b e l ie f s v a ri e d , h o w e v e r ,


12/23

1 4 O d o m a n d D i a m o n d

f rom m inimiz ing di f fe rences am on g chi ldren ( i .e . , ignor ing d i f fe rences) to high-

l ight ing di ffe rences am on g a l l chi ldren in the c lass in order to promote respec t for

each individua l . Even w hen there w as ag reement o n the meaning of inc lus ion, the

cul ture (shared be l ie fs ) wi thin the c lassroom appeared to shape the w ays in w hich

inc lus ive programs we re im plem ented. In another s tudy, how ever , Fi le (1994)

found few re la t ionships be tween teachers ' be l ie fs about the importance of soc ia l

ski l l s for chi ldren and teachers ' ac t ions tha t might promote soc ia l in te rac t ion.

When teachers provided suppor t for chi ldren 's soc ia l in te rac t ions , they typica l ly

s tepped into the chi ldren 's play ( for examp le , by taking o ver the chi ld ' s role ) ra ther

than he lping chi ldren to neg ot ia te w i th each other ( for example , by re m indin g chi l -

dren tha t they needed to f ind a solut ion to the problem).

In inc lus ive c lassroom s, there i s of ten an und er lying phi losophy of app rec ia t ion

and suppor t for divers i ty in which a l l chi ldren a re va lued as unique par t ic ipants

wi th the i r own individua l needs . However , there a re a l so l ike ly to be compet ing

values , be l ie fs , and prac t ices re la ted to the role of the teacher and other adul t s .

W hi le legi s lat ion man dates inte rd i sc ipl inary team wo rk in ear ly chi ldhoo d spec ia l

educa t ion, and research has emp hasized the advantages of teamw ork fo r individu a l

chi ldren (see Bai ley, 1996), d i f fe rences in approaches be tween educa tors t ra ined in

spec ia l educa t ion and those t ra ined in ear ly chi ldhood educa t ion have important

ramificat ions for c lassroom pract ice (Fi le & Kontos, 1993; Kontos & Fi le , 1993).

For example , even though integra t ing spec ia l therapies wi thin ear ly chi ldhood

classroom ac t ivi t ies and schedules i s advoca ted as bes t pract ice in ear ly inte rven-

t ion (e . g. , Goldstein, Kaczmarek, & Hept ing, 1996), out-of-the-room treatment

cont inues t o be a p redominant mode l o f p rov id ing t he rapy t o young ch i l d ren i n

ear ly chi ldhood programs (Gra ham & B ryant , 1993) . This mod el i s one tha t is not

compat ible wi th prac tices in mo st ea r ly chi ldhood se t tings , and presents cha l lenges

to both ear ly chi ldhoo d and ear ly ch i ldhood spec ia l educa t ion prac tice . Peck, Fur-

man, and Helmste t te r (1993) founded tha t compat ibi l i ty in the des ign of

inte rvent ions and the rout ines of regular ear ly chi ldhood c lassroom s were c r i t i ca l ly

important for ensur ing the surv iva l of inc lus ive preschool programs.

Collaboration and Consultation Coopera t ion, col labora t ion and mutua l

respec t be tween regular and spec ia l ear ly chi ldhood teachers and therapis ts a re

important components of successful inc lus ive programs (Kontos & Fi le , 1993) .

When rece iving services and suppor t s by consul tants , ea r ly chi ldhood teachers

repor t preferr ing a consul ta t ive model ra ther than a medica l or exper t model

approach (B uysse , Schul te , Pie rce , & T erry, 1994). This f inding i s cons i s tent wi th

the work of Peck e t a l . (1993) who found tha t col labora t ive re la t ionships among

ear ly chi ldhood teachers and spec ia l i s t s were a ha l lmark of successful inc lus ive

programs.

Barr ie rs to successful col labo ra t ion a l so exis t . In thi s i ssue , research b y S toiber,

Get t inger , and G oetz (1998, th i s i ssue) sugges t s tha t l imi ted time and o pporum i t ies

for col labora t ion among teachers and therapis t s a re viewed by prac t i t ioners as

majo r barrie rs to inc lus ion. Sim i la r ly , Buy sse , Wes ley and K eyes (1998, th i s issue)

found tha t the com plexi t i es o f coordina t ing services for chi ldren wi th di sabi l it i es

and the i r fami l ies of ten serves as a barr ie r to inc lus ion, a t l eas t f rom the perspec t ive


13/23


o f p r ac t it i o n er s an d ad m in i s tr a to r s . I n t h e i r ex am in a t io n o f t h e r e l a t io n sh ip s am o n g

p r o f e ssio n a l s wo r k in g in in c lu s iv e p r o g r am s , L ieb e r e t a l . ( 1 9 9 7 ) id en t i f i ed a r an g e

o f f ac to r s t h a t f u n c tio n ed a s b a r r i e rs t o o r m a l t e r n a t i v e ly - - a s f ac il i ta to rs o f co l l ab -

o r a tio n . Th e se in c lu d ed h av in g a sh a r ed p h i lo so p h y , p e r c e iv ed o w n er sh ip o f t h e

ch i ld wi th d isab i l i t ies , s ta f f communica t ion , ro le re lease , and admin is t ra t ive

support .

M E S O S Y S T E M V A R I A B L E S : F A M I L Y P E R S P E C T I V E S

F o r i n c l u s i v e p r og ra m s , m o s t r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o f a m i l ie s m a y b e v i e w e d a s m e s o -

sy s t em l ev e l v a r iab le s in t h a t f am i l i e s r ep r e sen t a sec o n d m ic r o sy s t em co n tex t i n

w h ich th e ch i ld p a r ti c ip a te s an d w h ich m ay a f f ec t t h e in c lu s iv e p r o g ram . A r i ch

h i s to ry o f re sea r ch o n f am i ly m em b er s ' p e r sp ec t iv e s o n ea r ly ch i ld h o o d in c lu s io n

ex i s t s ( Ba i l ey & Win to n , 1 9 8 7 ; Tu r n b u l l & Win to n , 1 9 8 3 ; Win to n & Tu r n b u l l ,

1 98 1) an d h as b een su m m a r ized w e l l in an e a r l i e r r ev i e w ( W in to n , 1 9 9 3). T h e g en -

e r a l f in d in g s ac r o ss s tu d ie s h av e b een th a t f am i ly m e m b er s : ( a) h av e p o s i t i v e f ee l-

ings about inc lus ive set tings ; (b ) hav e iden t i f ied som e benef i t s fo r the i r ch i ld ren ;

an d ( c ) sh a r e so m e f ea rs o r co n ce r n s ab o u t i n c lu s iv e p l acem en t s .

Re cen t s tu d ie s h av e ex ten d e d th e l i t e r a tu r e o n f am i ly sa t i sf ac tio n wi th in c lu s iv e

se t t i n g s . I n t h e i r su r v ey o f 2 3 0 f am i l i e s i n Pen n sy lv an ia , Mi l l e r , S t r a in , Bo y d ,

H u n s i c k e r , M c K i n l e y a n d W u ( 1 9 9 2 ) f o u n d t h a t f a m i li e s o f c h i l d re n

in

i n c lu s iv e

p r o g ra m s - - -b o t h w i th d i s a b il it ie s a n d t y p i c a l ly d e v e l o p i n g c h i l d r e n m h a d m o r e

f av o r ab le a t t i t u d es ab o u t t h e i r ch i ld ' s p r o g r am th an co m p ar ab le f am i l i e s wh o se

ch i ld r en wer e in n o n in teg r a t ed p l acem en t s . F r o m a su r v ey o f 5 39 f am i l i e s in No r th

C a r o l i n a ( 50 % o f w h o m h a d c h i l d r e n in i n c l u s i v e s e t ti ng s ), M c W i l li a m , L a n g ,

Van d ev ie r e , An g e l l , Co l l i n s , an d Un d e r d o w n ( 1 9 9 5 ) f o u n d o v e r a l l p o s i t iv e r a t in g s

o f sa t i s fac t io n , w i th am o u n t o f t im e in in c lu s iv e se t t i n g s b e in g p o s i t i v e ly a s so c i-

a t ed wi th sa t i s f ac t io n . S im i l a r ly , Gu r a ln i ck ( 1 9 9 4 ) ex am in ed th e p e r cep t io n s o f

m o t h e r s o f c h i ld r e n w i t h s p e c i a l n e e d s ( 5 3 o f w h o m h a d c h i l d re n i n i n c lu s i v e se t-

t i n g s ) , an d f o u n d th a t m o th e r s g en e r a l ly h ad p o s i t i v e f ee l in g ab o u t t h e i r ch i ld ' s

p r o g r am , a l th o u g h in th i s s tu d y th e r e w as n o t a d i f f e r en ce b e tween m o th e r s o f ch i l-

d r en in i n c lu s iv e an d seg r eg a ted p ro g r am s . I n a q u a l i t a ti v e s tu d y wi th m o th e r s o f

ch i ld r en wi th d i sab i li ti e s , Ben n e t t , D e lu ca , an d B r u n s ( 1 9 9 7) f o u n d s im i l a r ev i -

d en ce o f s t r o n g ly p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d es ab o u t t h e b en e f i t s o f i n c lu s iv e se t t i n g s f o r

ch i ld r en wi th sp ec i a l n eed s .

Pa r en t s h av e id en t i fi ed sp ec i f i c b en e f i t s o f i n c lu s iv e se tt in g s f o r t h e i r ch i ld r en .

Sev e r a l s tu d ie s r ep o r t ed th a t f am i l i e s f e l t t h e in c lu s iv e p r o g r am h ad a p o s i t i v e

e f f ec t o n th e i r ch i ld ' s d ev e lo p m en t i n g en e r a l ( M i l l e r e t a l ., 1 99 2) , an d sp ec i f i ca lly

on the i r ch i ld ren ' s soc ia l sk i l l s o r re la t ionsh ips wi th peers (Bennet t e t a l . , 1997 ;

Gura ln ick e t a l . , 1995) . Paren ts repor ted tha t the i r ch i ld ren in inc lus ive c lasses

we r e accep ted b y th e i r p ee r s ( B en n e t t e t a l ., 1 9 9 7 ) an d th a t t h e p r o g r am p r ep a r ed

th e i r ch i ld r en f o r t h e r ea l w o r ld ( Gu r a ln i ck , 1 99 4) .

I n a u n iq u e s tu d y o f t h e b en e f i t s o f i n c lu s io n f o r t y p ica l ly d ev e lo p in g ch i ld r en ,

Peck , Ca r l so n , an d H e lm s te t t e r ( 1 9 9 2 ) su r v ey ed 1 2 5 p a r en ts i n Wash in g to n s t at e .

Th e se p a r en t s f e l t t h a t a s a r e su l t o f b e in g in in c lu s iv e p r o g ram s , t h e i r ch i ld r en


14/23


w e r e m or e a cc e p ti ng o f h um a n d i f fe r e nc e s, m or e a w a r e o f o t he r s ' n e e ds , a nd ha d

l e s s d i scomfor t a round p eop l e w i th d i sab i l it ie s . They a l so repor t ed t ha t t he i r ch i l -

d ren d id no t p i ck up und es i rab l e behav iors f rom the ch i l d ren wi th d isab i l it i e s o r

r e c e ive le ss a t te n ti on f r om t he t e a c he r, w ho m i gh t ha ve t o s pe nd m or e t i m e w i t h

the ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i li ti e s . In t he M i l l e r e t a l. (1992) s t udy desc r ibed prev ious ly ,

pa ren ts o f t yp ica ll y deve lop ing ch i l d ren we re s t rongly pos i t ive abou t t he i r ch i l -

d re n ' s expe r iences i n i nc lus ive se tt ings , i nd i ca t i ng tha t exp e r i ences wi th ch i l d ren

wi th d i sab il it ie s pos i t i ve ly i n f l uen ced t he i r ch i l d re n ' s deve lop m ent . I t i s im por t an t

t o no t e tha t a l l o f t he se s t ud i e s w ere d esc r ip t i ve in na ture , w i th pa ren t s se l f s e l ec t-

i ng enro l lment fo r t he i r ch i l d , so se l ec t i on b i a s cou ld poss ib ly ha ve occur red .

Al thou gh pa ren t s' appra i sa l s o f i nc lus ive p rogram s hav e been s t rongly pos i t ive ,

t hey a l so no t ed conce rns . Pa ren t s i n Gu ra in i ck ' s (1994) s t udy were co nce rned tha t

t he i r ch i ld ren wi th d i sab il i ti e s mig ht b e soc i a ll y re j ec t ed by t he pee rs i n t he i r c l a ss -

room. In add i t ion , som e pa ren t s r epor t ed d i f f icu l t ie s in rece iv ing spec i a l s e rv i ce s

and i nd iv idua l i zed i ns t ruc t ion fo r t he i r ch i l d and w ere co nce rn ed about t he qua l i -

f i ca t i ons o f s t a f f . McWi l l i am e t a l . (1995) found t ha t pa ren t s o f ch i l d ren wi th

spec i a l needs som e t imes repor t ed hav ing t o s t ruggl e t o f i nd i nc lus ive se rv i ce s fo r

the i r ch i l d ren . Al so , fo r s om e pa ren t s i n t h i s s t udy , t he pe rce ived bene f i t s f rom

indiv idua l i zed se rv ice s ava i l ab l e i n segrega t ed se t t ings ov e rshad ow ed the po t en t i a l

bene f i t s o f i nc lus ive p rogram s .

Resea rche rs al so hav e no t ed va r i ab l e s t ha t appea r t o a f fec t pa ren t s ' r e spon ses t o

pre schoo l i nc lus ion . Ben ne t t , Lee , an d Lu eke ( i n p re s s ) r epor t ed f ind ing d i f fe r i ng

re sponse f rom m othe rs and fa the r s abou t the i r expec t a ti ons fo r and con ce rns abou t

i nc lu s i ve p r og r a m m i ng f o r t he i r youn g c h i l d re n . I n a n e xa m i na ti on o f ba r r ie r s t o

inc lus ion , Buysse e t a l . (1998 , t h i s i s sue ) foun d t ha t pa ren t s ' e t hn i c it y , edu ca t i on

l eve l , and em plo ym ent st atus a f fec t ed t he i r r a ti ngs o f ba rr ie r s. Gen e ra l ly , t he se

va r iab l e s have no t been i n c lud ed in p rev ious an a lyses o f pa ren t s ' pe r spec t i ves bu t

pe rhaps sh ould be con s ide red i n fu ture ana lyses.

EXOSYSTEM VARIABLES: SOCIAL POLICY

Soc i a l po l i c i e s t ha t a f fec t inc lus ive p rogram s o f t en a re fo rmu la t ed ou t s ide o f t he

m ic rosys t em and , a s such , can be con s ide red exosys t em va r i ab l e s . Ga l laghe r , Ha r -

b in , Ec ldand , & C l i f fo rd (1994) hav e de f ined po l i cy as : t he ru l e s and s tanda rds

tha t a re e s t ab l ished i n o rde r t o a l loca t e sca rce publ i c r e sources t o m ee t a pa r t i cu la r

soc i a l nee d (p. 235 ) . Po l i c i e s tha t a f fec t p re sch ool inc lus ion occu r a t t he na t i ona l

(Fede ra l r egu l a t ions o f Edu ca t i on or H ead S ta rt) , s t at e (S ta t e Depa r tmen t s o f Edu-

ca t ion or H um an Reso urces ) , and l oca l l eve l s ( i nd iv idua l p rogram s , see Sm i th &

Rose , 1993). K och anek and B uk a (1997) no t ed t hat , a long w i th fam i l ie s ' de s i re s

for t he i r ch i l d ' s p l acem ent , t he i nc reas ing i nc idence of inc lus ion a t the p re sch ool

l eve l ha s b een g iven im pe tus by t he co ngress iona l ac t ion an d s t a tu t es r e l a t ed to t he

Ind iv idua l wi th D i sab i li t ie s Edu ca t i on A c t (EL 9 9-457) an d C iv i l R igh t s l eg i s la -

t i on ( i.e ., A m er i cans w i th D i sab i li ti e s Ac t ). H ow eve r , t he t r ans la t ion o f na t i ona l

po l i cy a t t he s t a te l eve l ma y a l so a f fec t ea r l y ch i l dhoo d i nc lus ion . Sm i th and R ose

(1993) surv eyed adm in i st rato r s , s ta t e po l i cy mak e rs , f am i ly m em bers , and o the r


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const i tuents f rom 10 s ta tes . These respondents fe l t tha t s ta te pol ic ies inf luenced

m os t t he p rov i s ion of inc lus ive se rv i ce s a t t he l oca l l eve l . In t he i r s t udy o f imp le -

menta t i on of po l i cy i n Colorado , Nor th Ca ro l i na , and Pennsy lvan i a , Ha rb in ,

M cW i ll iam, and Ga l l aghe r ( i n p re s s ) i den t i f i ed t h ree po l i cy fac tor s t ha t a f fec t ed

the nu m ber o f ch i l d ren se rved i n i nc lus ive se t t ings : ( a ) po l i cym ake rs ' i n te rpre ta -

t ions o f t he fede ra l law; (b ) t he e m ph ases (o n i nc lus ion) t hey choo se to fo l l ow in

pol i cy deve lopm ent ; and (c ) t h e spec i f i c it y o f t he po l i cy c rea ted .

M os t f r equently , r e sea rchers , po l i cy ana lys ts , a nd po l i cymak e rs hav e focused on

pol ic ies tha t se rve as barr ie rs to o r fac i l it a tors o f the pro vis ion of inc lus ive pre-

school serv ice s . In t he Sm i th and R ose (1993) s t udy no t ed prev ious ly , r e spond ent s

iden t i f ied t he m os t f r equent po l i cy ba r r i e r s t hey encoun te red . J anko and Por t e r

(1997) descr ibe 10 key po l icy i ssues tha t se rve as barr ie rs to an d fac i l it a tors o f pre-

school i nc lus ion i n the s t a te o f W ashing ton , w i th t he se i s sues be ing c ross -va l ida t ed

by qua l it a ti ve w ork occur r i ng i n t h ree o th e r s ta te s. In 1995 , t he A dm ini s t ra t i on For

C h i l d r e n a nd F a m i li e s' ( A C F ) C h i l d C a r e B ur e a u s pons o r e d a L e a de r s h ip F o r um

on pre scho ol i nc lus ion t ha t i nvo lve d 125 con s t it uen t s f rom ac ross t he cou nt ry wh o

w e r e g i ve n t he ta sk s o f r e v i e w i ng po l ic y a nd m a k i ng r e c om m e nda t i ons on k e y

i s sues re l a ted t o i nc lus ion of yo un g ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i li ti e s in com m uni ty-ba sed

chi ld care (A CF, 1995). In Vi rgin ia , spec ia l educ a t ion adminis t ra tors par t ic ipa ted

in focus group s tha t, th rou gh a qu a l i t a t ive researc h process , g enera ted po l icy-re le -

van t i s sues tha t a f fect ed t he p rov i s ion o f i nc lus ive p rograms for p re sch ool ch i l d ren

(Harvey , Vo orhees , & Land on , 1997).

Acro ss thi s range o f s tudies , key i ssues co ns i s tent ly appear as barr ie rs . Th e f i rs t

se t of i ssues re la tes to prog ram standards or pol icies regu l a t ing programs ; such

pol ic ies of ten requi re tha t chi ldr en w i th d i sabi l i ti es be se rve d in ca tegor ica l ( i.e .,

Spec i a l Educa t i on) c la s se s i n publ i c school bu i l d ings . The se po l i c i e s hav e bee n

iden t i f i ed a s ba rr ie r s t ha t p rev en t p l acem ent o f ch i l d ren i n com m uni ty-ba sed or

H ead Star t se t tings (Jank o & Por te r , 1997; Sm i th & Ro se , 1993) . Financial orris-

cal policies

repre sen t a secon d se t o f i s sues ; the se re fe r t o po l ic i e s t ha t p reven t t he

use o f spec i a l educa t ion funds fo r se rv i ce s i nvo lv ing typ i ca l ly dev e lop ing ch i ld ren ,

t he b l end ing of funds ac ross agen c i e s , and t he ava i lab i li ty o f funds (AC T, 1997;

Bai ley e t al. , 1998 this volum e; H arv ey e t a l. , 1997; Jank o & Por te r , 1997; Sm i th

& Rose , 1993) . Personnel issues and staffing repre sen t ano the r po l i cy i s sue t ha t

can be a ba r ri er . For exa mp le , regu l a t i ons som e t imes spec ify tha t youn g ch i l d ren

wi th d i sab i l it ie s be p l aced on ly i n c l a s ses wi th a l i c ensed spec i a l educ a t i on teache r ,

w h i c h p r e c lude s s e r v ic e s i n m a ny c om m un i t y - ba s e d o r H e a d S ta rt p r og r a m s ( A C F

1997; H arvey e t a l ., 1997; S m i th & R ose , 1993). A no ther perso nn el i ssue re la tes to

preservice and inservice training. In severa l s ta tes a barr ie r w as iden t i f i ed beca use

pe r s onne l w e r e no t t ra i ne d t o w o r k i n i nc l u s ive e a rl y c h i l dhood p rog r a m s ( H a r ve y

et a l. , 1997; Jan ko & Por te r , 1997; Sm i th & Ro se , 1993) . A l thou gh no t a form al

po l icy issue , the

atti tudes o f po licy m akers and implementers

(e .g . , spec ia l educ a-

t i on admin i s tra to r s , p rogram d i rec tor s ) tow ard pre scho ol i nc lus ion exe r t a m a jor

in f luence on t he p rov i s ion of se rv i ce s (Rose & Sm i th , 1993). L ikew i se , K och anek

and B uka (1997) fou nd a t ti tudes an d be l i e f s o f adu l ts i n dec i s i on m aking ro l e s t o


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be a mo re power fu l i n f l uen ce on p l acem ent dec i s i ons t han e i t he r the ava i l ab i l it y o f

com m uni ty p l acement s o r t he fam i l i e s ' a t ti tudes t ow ard i nc lus ion .

MACROSYSTEM VARIABLES: CULTURE AND COMMUNITY

I s sues re la t ed t o com m un i ty and cu l t u re fa l l wi th in Bro nfen bren ne r ' s concep tua l -

i za ti on of mac rosys t em va r i ab le s . A t t en t i on to cu l tu ra l va lues i s a k ey and d i s ti nc -

t i ve fea ture o f accep t ed prac t i ce i n ea r l y ch i l dhood educa t i on (Bredekamp &

Copple , 1997) and ea r ly ch i l dh oo d spec i a l educa t i on (McL ean & Od om , 1996).

How eve r , r e search on t he re l a t i onsh ip be tw een cu l t u ral va lues and i nc lus ive p rac -

t ice s is j us t beg inn ing t o appea r . In t he i r e xam ina t i on of cu l tu ra l va r iab l e s , Hans on

e t a l. (1996 , t h is i s sue ) fo un d t ha t cu l t u ra l be l i e fs in f l uen ced fami ly m em be rs '

exp l ana t i ons fo r and unde rs t and ing of t he i r ch i l d ' s d i sab i l i t y ; t he conce rns and

des ire s by fam i li e s f rom d i f fe ren t cu l t u re s fo r t he i r ch i l d ren w ere so m e t im e in co n-

f li c t wi th c la s s room goa l s ; cu l t u ra l d i f fe rences so m e t imes a f fec t ed the soc i a l r e la -

t ionsh ips ch il d ren w i th d i sab i l i ti e s and fami l i e s fo rme d w i th o the rs ; and p rogram s

va r i ed i n how they re spo nde d t o cu l t u ra l d ive r s i ty and d i f fe rence .

In an ex t ens ion of t h i s s t udy , Hanso n , G ui t ie r rez , M organ , B rennan , and Z e rche r

(1997) no t ed t ha t i s sues re l a t ed t o l anguage , cu l t u re , and d i sab i l i t y a re c lose ly

in t e r twined for yo ung ch i l d ren w i th d i sab i li t ie s i n i nc lus ive cl a s srooms . Ha ving

both a d i sab i l i t y and a l anguage o the r t han Engl i sh spoken a t home toge the r

a f fect ed t he ch i l d ' s pa r t i c i pa t ion i n t he c l a ss room. A pos i t i ve p ract ice fo l l ow ed by

s om e p r og r a m s w a s t o p r ov i de i n s tr uc ti on i n t he na t ive l a ngua ge w h i l e a ls o t ea c h -

i ng E ng l i s h . B u t i n s om e p r og r a m s l a ngua ge d i f f e r e nc e a f f e c t e d t he

c om m un i c a t ion be t w e e n t he ho m e a nd t he s c hoo l . I n H a ns on e t a l. ( 1997 ), s c hoo l s

som e t ime prov ided a t r ans l a to r , bu t t he i r cu l t u ra l com pe ten ce i n fos t e r i ng com -

m un i c a ti on w a s a p r ob l e m . A l t hough m a ny p r og r a m s e m br a c e the p r i nc ip l e o f

cu l tu ra l d ive r si ty , t he c om plex i n t e rac ti ons o f l angu age d i f fe rences and d i sab i li ti e s

a re m a jor is sues in so m e inc lus ive p rograms .

Separa t ing cul ture , com m un i ty , and fam i ly is som ew hat a rti fi cia l. Charac te r i s -

t i c s o f t he communi ty ce r t a in ly a f fec t t he ava i l ab i l i t y and na ture o f i nc lus ive

c l a s s room programs for young ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i l i t i e s (Beckman e t a l . , t h i s

i ssue ; Ha nson e t a l., t h i s i s sue ; K och anek & Buka , 1997). Ho w eve r , i nc lus ion a s

a con cep t ex t ends be yo nd c l a s s ro om se t ti ngs to t he b road e r pa r ti c ipa t i on o f ind i -

v idua l s wi th d i sab i li ti e s i n co m m uni t i e s (Al l en & Schwar t z , 1996). Resea rch

desc r ib ing com m un i ty pa r t i c ipa t i on o f you ng ch i l d ren wi th d i sab i li ti e s and t he i r

f a m i li e s i s j u s t e m e r g i ng . E h r m a n , A e s e h l e m a n , a nd S va num ( 1995 ) s u r ve ye d pa r -

en t s o f ch i l d ren wi th and wi thout d i sab i l i t i e s about t he communi ty ac t i v i t i e s i n

wh ich t he i r ch i l d ren pa r t ic ipa t ed . Al tho ug h no t i ng s imi l a ri ti e s fo r t he two groups ,

t he au thors foun d t ha t ch i l d ren w i th d i sab il it ie s pa r t ic i pa ted i n few er com m un i ty

ac t iv i ti e s t han t yp i ca l l y d eve lop ing ch i ld ren , wi th t he p r imary d i f fe rence occur r i ng

for ac t i v i ti e s r e l a t ed t o fa m i ly en r i chm ent ( e.g ., e a t i ng i n a r e s tauran t, go ing t o a

m ovie , a c ti v i ty wi th a s i b li ng) . To exam ine fac tor s i n the co m m un i ty t ha t may

se rve a s ba r r i e r s t o o r f ac i l i t a t o r s o f communi ty i nc lus ion for young ch i l d ren ,

Be ckm an e t al. (1998 , t h i s i s sue ) d re w u pon a c ross - s it e qua l i ta t i ve da t a base .


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Fac i li ta t o rs i nc luded t he fam i ly ' s s en se o f com m uni ty , s ch ool -com m uni ty con nec -

t ions , fami l ies ' soc ia l contac t s , de l ibera te s t ra tegies to fos te r par t i c ipa t ion, and

envi ronm enta l adap ta tions. Fac tor s t ha t l im i t ed co m m uni ty pa r t ic i pa ti on i nc luded

neig hb orh oo d safe ty and s tabi l ity , l imi ted resources , fam i ly schedu les , and

una vai labi l i ty o f peers,

CONCLUSION

Th e re sea rch base on ea rly ch i l d ho od i nc lus ion i n t he mid- t o l a te -1990s i s ex t en-

s ive . Whi l e much re sea rch con t inues t o addre ss ques t i ons re l a t ed t o c l a s s room

prac t i ce s and fami l i e s ' pe r spec t i ves , t he t op i c s have expanded grea t l y . S tud i e s

have gene ra t ed i n forma t ion on prac t ica l i s sues su ch a s t he f requen cy of i nc lus ive

placem ents , the charac te ris ti cs o f per son nel in inc lu s ive se t tings , and th e barr ie rs

to and fac i l i t a tors of inc lus ion. Important new di rec t ions in research on cul tura l

va lues, com mu ni ty , and soc i a l po l i cy a re em erg in g and m ay w e l l i n f l uence prac -

t i ce in th e future .

U s ing Bro nfenbrenn e r ' s e co log i ca l sys tem s t heory a s ou r concep tua l o rgan i ze r,

i t s eem s appropr ia t e to no t e t ha t r e sea rch i s r i ch and ac t ive w i th in sys t em l eve l s,

and re sea rche rs a re beg inn ing t o e xam ine l i nkages o f va r iab l e s ac ross sys t ems . For

exam ple , J anko , Schwartz , Sanda l l , And e rson , and C ot t am (1997) ex am ined t he

organ iza t iona l fea tures ( i.e. , po l ic ies , rules an d reg ula t ions) of inc lu s ive prog ram s

(an exo sys t em va ri ab l e ) and t he i r l inkag es t o t he way i nc lus ion occur red a t t he

c l a s s room l eve l (mic rosys t em) . Kochanek , Ha rb in , and t he i r co l l eagues have

exam ined how soc ia l po l i cy cha rac te r is t ic s ( ex osys t em ) af fec t p rogram prov i s ion

(mic rosys t em) (Harbin , M cW i l l iam s & Ga l l aghe r i n p re s s; Ko chan ek & Buka ,

1997). In a s tudy tha t i llus t ra tes the re c iproca l inf luenc es across sys tem v ar iables ,

Harvey e t a l. (1997) desc r ibed a p rocess by w hich fac tors ope ra t i ng a t t he l oca l

p r og r a m l e ve l ( m i c r o sys t em ) i n f l ue nc e d the de ve l op m e n t o f po l i cy a t t he s ta te

l eve l ( exosys t em leve l ), w hich i n t u rn i n f l uen ced loca l p rogram p ract ice . Ha nson

and co l l eagues (1998 , t h i s i s sue ) have b egu n t o ex am ine cu lt u ral va lues (mac ro-

sys t em) and i s sues wi th in c l a s s rooms (mic rosys t em) . Thi s sys t ems ana lys i s o f

fac tor s r e l a t ed to i nc lus ion m ay w e l l con t r ibu t e t o o ur unde rs t and ing of ho w inc lu-

s ive p rogram s w ork w e l l fo r ch i l d ren and fam i l i e s and the range o f fac tor s r e l a ted

to such opera t ion.

T he e m e r g i ng the m e s f o r f u t u r e r e s ea r c h c om e f r om e a c h l e ve l o f t he e c o l og i c a l

s y s t e m m ode l B r on f e nb r e nne r p ropos e d . A t t he m i e r o s ys t e m l e vel , s pec i fi c p r ac -

t ic e s f o r p r om o t i ng de ve l opm e n t a l ou t c om e s f o r c h i l d r e n a nd f o r i n f lue nc i ng t he

qua l i ty o f i nc lus ive se t ti ngs a re fe r t i le a reas fo r fu ture re sea rch . At t he m esos ys t em

leve l , r e sea rch on s t ra t eg i e s fo r co l l abora t i on am on g profe ss iona l s and be tw een

profe ss iona l s and fami l i e s wi l l con t ri bu t e s t rongly t o t h e imp lemen ta t ion of i nc lu-

s i ve p r og r a m s . A t t he e xo s ys t e m l e ve l, r e s ea r c h on t he de ve l opm e n t a nd

imp leme nta t i on of soc i a l po l i cy , t he rec iproca l i n f l uences be tw een po l i cy and

prac ti ce, t he ana lys i s o f cos t s and f l ex ib l e m od e l s fo r fundin g m ay we l l s e rve a s t he

founda t i on fo r fu ture i nc lus ive p rograms . At t he mac rosys t em l eve l , our unde r -

s t and ing of how cu l t u ra l and l i ngu i s t i c d ive r s i t y a f fec t i nc lus ive p re school

inclusion of young children with special needs early childhood education

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