INCEPTION REPORTEarthquake Reconstruction: Group 2

Team MembersSupervisors

Edward RomillyMatthew John WoodKoki MatsuokaHassan Mufti MirzaThomas Huxter-FreerHugo CurrellMahdi AbdiDr. Maja SummersProf. Suby BhattacharyaDr. Alan Packwood

Submission Date: 26th October 2015ABSTRACT

This inception report aims to find a feasible and effective approach to reconstruction and future prevention following an earthquake event such as the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The report focuses around the country of Sri Lanka and the key areas deemed to be essential for an effective strategy. These concepts are rubble disposal, transport infrastructure, disaster-proof buildings, tsunami mitigation, power, communications, and water infrastructure. Each of these topics is explored in terms of its options and potential to help produce an effective reconstruction strategy, to gain a more detailed understanding of what the final report will focus on.

Table of Contents

1.INTRODUCTION52.INTERPRETATION OF THE BRIEF53.TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE63.1Road Network63.2Rail Network73.3Sea (Port and Fisheries)73.4Reconstruction74.DISASTER PROOF BUILDINGS94.1Introduction94.2Construction Methods and Materials94.2.1 Mud and pole construction94.2.2Concrete frame with masonry walls104.2.3PVA reinforced concrete114.2.4Steel114.3Flooding114.4Conclusion125.RUBBLE DISPOSAL125.1Introduction125.2Waste Benchmarking135.3Recycling135.3.1Separation Techniques135.3.2Applications of Recycled Material145.4Recycling Plant145.4.1Mobile Recycling Plant155.4.2Recycling Plant on a Vessel156.TSUNAMI MITIGATION166.1Introduction166.2Land Use Management166.3Natural Barriers176.4Man-Made Barriers176.5Drainage186.6Erosion Protection186.7Channelling and Diversion187.WATER INFRASTRUCTURE197.1Pre-existing infrastructure197.2Devastation by the tsunami197.3Immediate response207.4Long term solutions207.5Focus218.COMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE228.1Overview of a typical telecomm infrastructure228.2Areas of concern for risks238.3Subscribers238.4Exchanges248.4.1Local Exchanges248.4.2Toll Exchanges248.5Links259.POWER INFRASTRUCTURE269.1Introduction269.2Permanent Emergency Backup Power269.3Earthquake/Tsunami Resistant Power Station & Transmission system2710.CONCLUSION2911.REFERENCES30

1. INTRODUCTION

The 2004 Boxing Day Indian Ocean earthquake reached a magnitude of 9.0 on the Richter scale and was one of the most devastating natural disasters in recorded history. It resulted in over 250,000 casualties and left more than 1.7 million homeless in multiple countries (Tsunami2004, 2015). The selected country for which this report will focus is Sri Lanka; it was the second most affected country with over 35,000 deaths and approximately two thirds of its coast line inundated.By creating a reconstruction strategy for the affected communities, future damage and loss of human life caused by earthquakes and tsunamis can be minimised. Constructing earthquake and tsunami resistant buildings is the most direct method of reducing the effects of the disaster. Furthermore, an efficient rubble disposal scheme and tsunami mitigation measures will be crucial for the recovery process. Therefore, it is the aim of this report to provide a feasible approach to reconstruction and future damage mitigation following a similar disaster in the future.2. INTERPRETATION OF THE BRIEFThe aim of this project is to design a solution for the earthquake reconstruction that would provide a long-term but cost effective solution. Due to its location, Sri Lanka is prone to earthquakes and therefore an earthquake resistant approach will be taken into account for reconstruction. The proposed solution can be used to duplicate earthquake reconstruction across regions of seismically unstable zones. A reconstruction strategy will be proposed for the building construction as well as the design for the critical infrastructure including electricity, gas, water, transport networks and communications. Consideration will be given to a modular design that allows for deployment of the elements that are initially required as well as the potential to scale up.An integral part of the project is to propose solutions which encompass the following: An efficient method for clearing and disposing of rubble to facilitate the rebuilding phase. An earthquake resistant building reconstruction strategy. Design of communications, power and transport infrastructure.As the reconstruction will be financed through aid funds, the proposed solution will seek to identify the most efficient use of aid funds which provides improved infrastructure for the region that fits with the local population requirements.

3. TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE

Disruption in the transport sector generally impacts the economic and social infrastructure of a region within a nation; therefore this sector is considered a crucial one. Transport systems are typically designed to work under average conditions henceforth a provision for disruptions caused by a natural or man-made disaster is usually not accounted for. The tsunami that struck two thirds of the coast of Sri Lanka in December 2004 severely disrupted the transport infrastructure. Roughly 800 km of national roads, 1500 km of provincial and local roads, and a 160 km stretch of railway infrastructure in the south were damaged as a result (Weerakoon, Jayasuriya, Arunatilake and Steele, 2007).

3.1 Road Network

The road network in Sri Lanka comprises of National roads that are operated by the central government, Provincial roads and Local Governmental roads which are the responsibility of local municipal authorities. Provincial roads act as links between National and Local Governmental roads. Prior to the 2004 tsunami 60% of the entire road network ( particularly in the north and east) was in a deteriorated condition due to the lack of maintenance therefore the impact of tsunami cannot be estimated precisely (Ratnasooriya, Samarawickrama and Imamura, 2007). Long stretches of national roads that run along the coast were largely affected. 5% of the countrys entire national road network was damaged due to this tsunami, whereas 2% of provincial and local roads were damaged (Ratnasooriya, Samarawickrama and Imamura, 2007). In addition several bridges on the national networks, culverts, and road ferry services were damaged. 3.2 Rail Network

The rail corridor originates from the capital Colombo located in the west and stretches all the way to the north, northeast, east, central highlands, and south of the country. A large population of the nation relies on this network. Nearly 78000 commuters use the southern corridor on a daily basis. The majority of this southern corridor was affected by the tsunami. Although 80% of this corridor suffered substantial damage, severe damage was caused to approximately 20 km of this track. Damages also occurred to several tracks in the north-eastern and eastern regions with the addition of a bridge in the eastern corridor. However the most noteworthy accident occurred in the southern corridor where a passenger train carrying around 1500 passengers was derailed as a result of this natural disaster. In addition several embankments, tracks, signalling, and communication systems suffered damage. 3.3 Sea (Port and Fisheries)

As Sri Lanka is an island, fishing industry plays an important role in driving the economy of the country. The tsunami almost wiped the whole sector as 10 of 12 fishing harbours were damaged and approximately two thirds of the nations boats were destroyed. The degree of damage at each harbour depended on their respective locations. Harbour structures such as breakwaters and basins, shore facilities and supportive services were also damaged as a result. 3.4 ReconstructionIn the event of a natural disaster road infrastructure plays an important role in the fast recovery process of a country. Majority of the roads affected by the tsunami were inaccessible during the immediate aftermath. It is evident that previous design approaches and construction standards used in Sri Lanka were not sufficient enough to withstand the impact. The process of reconstruction is an opportunity to relocate communities from hazard prone areas. Moreover it helps in reducing previous inequities and rectifies poorly designed infrastructure. Reconstruction will ensure the implications of reducing disaster vulnerability in the long term. In order to do so DRR strategies (disaster risk reduction) shall be introduced to improve the reconstruction process. Arterial roads, railway tracks, and other similar transport infrastructure are to be redesigned well inside the setback line. Provision of access ways perpendicular to the coast going inland is also beneficial. Hard engineering measures such as the physical and technical measures for road reconstruction are: Land use planning or buffer zones. Construction of raised roads Drainage systems Flood defences Robust concrete roadsWhile redesigning bridges, few considerations need to be taken into account. Bridges that may be subjected to tsunamis are to be designed for earthquake motion and tsunamis, so that both the superstructure and substructure can be used in case of emergency. Moreover it is to be designed so that the tsunami does not result in the overturning, tilting or washing out of the structure. For bridges that are further inland (earthquake motion only), the design approach is to ensure that the substructure stays in a useable condition for emergency situations. Lastly a unique bridge shape can be designed to smooth the tsunami flow around the structure and minimize the impact of the water. More importantly the provision of coastal vegetation belts benefit both environmentally and economically. Plantation of trees, especially the ones with deep roots, along the coast can prove beneficial against tsunamis. In tsunami mitigation the role of coastal vegetation belts are: Trapping effect (stops debris from houses, driftwoods etc.) Energy dissipation: dissipates the energy of the waves. Barrier effect: blocks wind-blown sand and raises dunes. Soft landing effect. Escaping effectSeveral other coastal structures can be constructed along the coast that helps in preventing these natural disasters. Sea dikes are normally constructed on shore. Their purpose is to keep floods out of low-lying areas. Similarly, sea walls are also onshore structures that help in preventing flooding and keep the structures behind the wall safe. In densely populated areas and ports, sea walls provide the best defence against tsunamis. Breakwaters are constructed to reduce the impact of waves. They calm the waves and hence are used in construction of harbour to allow smooth manoeuvre of boats.4. DISASTER PROOF BUILDINGS

4.1 Introduction

Approximately half a million Sri Lankans were made homeless by the 2004 Tsunami. The initial response to supporting those affected was to provide tents as a short term relief solution providing shelter whilst the rubble is cleared and temporary housing is constructed. The temporary housing consisted of wooden and metal framed shacks with half height concrete block walls where resources and building guidelines are provided by humanitarian organisations. This housing is designed to protect from normal weather conditions and provides satisfactory conditions until another natural disaster occurs. After 6 months only a few thousand of the 90,000 required permanent homes had been constructed. (Luthra, 2005) They take a lot longer to build as they must be built to protect from flooding, tsunamis and earthquakes. This section of the report will look at the construction methods and building materials that can be used to protect occupants from extreme weather conditions.Earthquakes impart vibrational forces in all directions on a structure, so it requires high strength both parallel and perpendicular to the walls. As well as this the frame of the buildings must be ductile, avoiding brittle failure and allowing for the inevitable movement that will occur during an earthquake. The main danger from housing during earthquakes comes from collapse of the roof structure, causing the whole roof to fall in on the occupants. Therefore this study will look at identifying the most appropriate solution for providing homes that will maintain their structural integrity in the event of an earthquake. 4.2Construction Methods and Materials

4.2.1 Mud and pole construction

One of the building methods used in Sri Lanka is mud and pole construction. This uses wooden poles intertwined with each other to form a matrix which is then plastered with earth. An example of this is shown in Figure 4.1. This method of construction is effective against the effect of earthquakes as the wooden poles provide flexibility, meaning that they are not brittle so do not snap under the vibrational loading. It is also a very light weight solution so it is less catastrophic when the building collapses and less damage is caused. However, timber is prone to rotting and without the correct maintenance it can come under attack from fungal growth. Also with this method of construction, joints and material reliability can be sub-standard and so provide a potentially weak structure. (Schilderman, 1990) It is also very vulnerable during flooding as the walls leak water into the home and homes can fill with water. It may therefore be beneficial to consider a more reliable building material.Figure 4.1. Mud and pole construction in Sri Lanka. (Explore Sri Lanka, 2012)

4.2.2Concrete frame with masonry walls

Another approach would be to use concrete framed buildings with masonry walls. Masonry walls within a concrete frame are not connected to their surrounding concrete so when columns are put under significant horizontal force the masonry walls tend to resist the movement of the column. Since masonry is a brittle building material, these forces can cause cracks to develop as shown in Figure 4.2. They therefore act as a sacrificial fuse for the structure and fail whilst maintaining the structural integrity of the concrete frame. (The Constructor, 2012)Figure 4.2. Infill masonry walls protect concrete frame under earthquake conditions. (Theconstructor)

Reinforced concrete is proven to be a satisfactory material in the event of an earthquake. However, there are concerns about concretes ability to withstand tension forces as well as the uniformity and quality control associated with casting concrete. The main problem with using concrete in earthquake situations is the brittle nature in which it fails. Concrete has a very low failure strain and will rely on the steel reinforcing bars to absorb the tension forces applied. In an earthquake situation where large lateral forces are applied repeatedly, this can become catastrophic if there is insufficient reinforcing steel, as shown in Figure 4.3.Figure 4.3. Improper anchorage of transverse reinforcement has resulted in failure of confinement in columns during the 1985 Mexico earthquake (Rosenblueth & Meli, 1986)

4.2.3PVA reinforced concrete

A relatively new technology that will change the way buildings are being constructed in earthquake zones all over the world has removed the biggest flaw in using concrete frames in buildings to withstand earthquakes. Reinforcing concrete mortar with 2% Poly Vinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibres increases the strain capacity by 500 times, meaning that the engineered cementitious composite can extend 500 times more than regular concrete before failure as shown in Figure 4.4. The fibres are not expensive and the concrete is made as it would normally be, but without adding any aggregate and simply mixing in the fibres. This material is being researched all over the world and is currently being used to construct buildings in earthquake zones. (Gibson, 2011)Figure 4.4. Concrete reinforced with Poly Vinyl Alcohol Fibres loaded under a 4 point bend test. (Klemenc, n.d.)

4.2.4Steel

Steel is a construction material that is arguably more appropriate in earthquake zones than concrete. When the building is single story then a steel frame can easily be designed to withstand earthquake loading. However, steel members on a large scale are difficult to transport and place on site so large cranes and trucks would be necessary to move and place steel beams and columns. This means that it is likely to only be a solution for larger public buildings such as hospitals and schools.4.3Flooding

The new buildings in Sri Lanka will also have to be designed to withstand flooding. In the 2014-2015 floods 39 people were killed and 1,000,000 people lost their homes. (Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System, 2015) This could have been avoided if all homes were designed to be a safe place during flooding. The easiest way to ensure that no water can get into the houses in the event of a flood is to raise the floor level of the house above the maximum flooding level. A house safe from flooding can save lives and prevent the need to rebuild homes. Therefore if the original investment that goes into building homes is more, then not as many homes will have to be rebuilt in the long term, causing an overall saving of both money and lives. A solution to this problem could include a raised concrete floor resting on top of concrete columns, this would be an easily buildable solution and very effective in avoiding damage to the building during flooding.4.4Conclusion

Designing buildings to be located on the Sri Lankan coast line brings many challenges. The buildings must be designed to withstand earthquakes, flooding and tsunami despite being located on a poor island country with hundreds of thousands of homes to be rebuilt as well as major community buildings. Possible building materials include steel bar reinforced concrete, fibre reinforced concrete, timber and mud or steel. In an attempt to avoid damage during flooding, the floor level can be raised off the ground above the predicted height of flooding.

5. RUBBLE DISPOSAL

5.1 Introduction

Disasters, both natural and man-made, can generate vast quantities of waste that threaten public health, hinder reconstruction and impact the environment. During recent years, the delays in response and significant environmental impacts caused by disasters have raised many questions due to the debris generated. The environmental and financial costs of debris management have been devastating (Solis, Hightower, Sussex, & Kawaguchi, 1995). One of the major challenges in responding to almost all disasters is the large amount of rubble created and the obstacles the rubble cause to relief and reconstruction efforts. In the case of Sri Lanka, the tsunami of 2004 destroyed almost 100,000 houses, generating about 450,000 tonnes of debris (Karunasena, Amaratunga, & Haigh, 2010). According to United Nations Environment Protection (UNEP), the debris resulting from the tsunami of 2004 was not properly disposed, reused or managed in Sri Lanka (UNEP, 2005). There are three types of debris associated with a disaster (Solis, Hightower, Sussex, & Kawaguchi, 1995): Debris generated directly by the disaster, e.g., rubble, roofing, insulation. Debris generated indirectly by the disaster, e.g., spoiled food due to power failure or excessive donations. Debris generated by abnormal patterns of life, e.g., greatly increased consumption of bottled water and canned food.This section seeks to identify efficient methods for the clearing and disposing of debris generated directly by the disaster to facilitate the rebuilding phase.

5.2 Waste Benchmarking

The inability to forecast the amount of waste over the affected areas was one of the issues encountered with the tsunami of 2004. As a result, the scale of disaster waste was initially difficult to comprehend. Reasonable estimates of the amount of debris help improve the overall efficiency in clearance. This may be in the form of defining resource needs, efficient resource allocation or evaluating disposal capacity of existing sites (Solis, Hightower, Sussex, & Kawaguchi, 1995). This also allows relief and reconstruction agencies to understand the scale of clear up required, measure progress, provide focus, and prioritise actions. Visual inspection and photography are the methods predominately used to estimate the amount of debris generated. Further work shall seek to determine the most efficient method considering the cost, time consumed, and practicality of both methods. 5.3 Recycling

Recycling is the collection and separation of materials from waste and subsequent processing to produce marketable products (Tam & Tam, 2006). Giving focus to re-use and recycling efforts could decrease the overall cost of reconstruction. They can reduce adverse impacts by diverting large quantities of rubble away from more costly disposal options (Solis, Hightower, Sussex, & Kawaguchi, 1995). Increasing recycling efforts would also reduce the burden on local landfills. 5.3.1Separation TechniquesThe collection of recycling materials can be implemented by source separation or commingled collection. Under source separation, materials are separated at the kerbside, into vehicles containing different departments for different materials. Under commingled collection, materials are mixed together and separated later, usually at a materials recycling facility (Friends of the Earth, 2009). It is anticipated that whilst commingled collection is more practical during disasters, every effort should be made to ensure materials are separated at source. Some advantages of source separation are listed below: Source separation results in less contamination of recyclables and so a higher proportion of them can be recycled. The risk of contamination makes it unsuitable to commingle some materials Materials which cant be recycled can be identified early to avoid double handing of materials.

5.3.2Applications of Recycled MaterialMasonry represents the majority of housing in Sri Lanka. Findings from the tsunami of 2004 found insufficient landfill capacities resulted in haphazard dumping of wastes in open areas such as playgrounds (Basnayake, Chiemchaisri, & Mowjood, 2005). In order to conserve landfill space and reduce the environmental impact of producing new materials, consideration will be given to possible applications of recycled masonry.One method of recycling demolished masonry is by crushing it into aggregates. Aggregates are coarse particulate materials used in construction. They serve as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material. Recycled aggregates can, depending on their physical properties, be used in a variety of construction applications including temporary roads, fill material and as a replacement of virgin aggregates. Additionally, crushed recycled masonry aggregate can be used for pavement applications (Schwein, Cavalline, & Weggel, 2013).A concern highlighted with the use of recycled aggregates is that water absorption is much higher than that of virgin aggregates due to impurities attached to the recycled aggregates. This poses a risk as a high amount of rainfall is experienced along the coastal regions in Sri Lanka. Pre-soaking of recycled aggregates may help maintain uniformity of absorption during concrete production (Reycling Concrete and Masonry, 1999). Also, surface coating of recycled aggregate may prevent the absorption of water. Further work shall look into the effect of water absorption on the physical properties of recycled aggregates, implications on their applications and benefits which may be gained from pre-soaking or coating.5.4 Recycling Plant

Furthermore, the tsunami had a significant impact on Sri Lankas transport system. Road blockages due to debris resulted in many vital transport routes being cut off. One of these routes was access to some of the very limited landfills and recycling plants available in the country. This further compounded the relief and reconstruction phase and meant significant amounts of rubble were disposed of in unsafe areas. One of the lessons learnt from the tsunami was that there were not enough recycling plants available to deal with the significant amount of demolished rubble. Also, as shown in Figure 5.1, the affected areas spanned from the North to the South. Therefore, a recycling plant would need to be easily accessible to the whole country. Building many plants across the whole country therefore may not be the most cost effective solution. Further work will look into two possible solutions:Figure 5.1 Sri Lanka Tsunami Affected Areas (Trauma and Global Health Program)

A mobile recycling plant. A recycling plant on a vessel. 5.4.1Mobile Recycling PlantOne of the main benefits of a mobile recycling plant is the ability to get access to remote locations. This is particularly useful in disaster conditions where road blockages due to debris may cut off access to a recycling plant indefinitely. Also, it can be moved around the country to areas most needed reducing the need to multiple fixed plants to be built across the country.5.4.2Recycling Plant on a VesselA recycling plant mounted on a vessel can potentially be both cost-effective and a solution to a regional problem that is not solely limited to Sri Lanka. As shown in Figure 5.2, neighbouring countries such as Indonesia and Malaysia were also affected by the earthquake and thus a recycling plant stationed on a vessel would provide various countries an efficient method for disposing of rubble to facilitate rebuilding.

Figure 5.2 Areas Affected Regionally (Indian Ocean Earthquake Triggers Deadly Tsunami, 2005)6. TSUNAMI MITIGATION

6.1 Introduction

This section aims to cover and focus on possible concepts that reduce the damaging effects of the flow and impact of a tsunami on coastal areas. These include options such as the implementation of physical barriers, conservation of existing features, and land use management. The aim of this section within the final report is for some of these options to be implemented alongside the other areas of focus within to provide a feasible approach to reconstruction and future damage mitigation following a tsunami.To arrive at feasible outcomes from the following concepts, all of them must be explored with several underlying points in mind. The relative financial cost must be considered for each option in terms of its effectiveness at reducing damage and loss of human life. Every options efficacy must be examined in different coastal situations and topographies, as something that may prove effective in one location could have little or no effect in another. Furthermore, that the community and environmental impacts sought after for each concept must be as little as possible; as it is important to find a method of mitigation that does not require the sacrifice of permanent land use.6.2 Land Use Management

A considerable portion of the damage caused when the 2004 tsunami hit the coast of Sri Lanka can be attributed to poor land use management within high risk areas. It can be divided into building and agricultural arrangement. Building arrangement covers concepts such as the permitted distance from the shoreline, the height from the high tide level and the position of buildings relative to each other. Furthermore, it addresses areas in which it is high risk to reconstruct or settle in due to it being within an area of likely inundation.Agricultural arrangement is the use of the remaining land for human purposes after buildings and infrastructure. Where flat farm land, larger plantations and unused ground are in relation to a settlement and its shoreline have been shown to impact the number of potential casualties both positively and negatively due to changes to the force of tsunami itself and the routes people are able to take whilst seeking safety.As these options come at almost no cost, it makes them a very simple option for improving the safety of a settlement. However, their effectiveness must first be considered alongside the levels of impact that they might have on a community, to be able to identify their suitability.

6.3 Natural Barriers

Natural barriers can be considerably effective at reducing the speed, height and damaging capabilities of a moving wave, whether it is either offshore or once it has hit land. The effectiveness of agricultural arrangement is a lot down to the concept of onshore natural barriers, as it is ultimately the properties of the agriculture and topography that either hinder the advance of the water or let it through. Many studies have been carried out on the effectiveness of on-land coastal vegetation, including both cultivated land and natural forest, and their effect on water flow during a tsunami. Generally, a reduction in the number of potential casualties is found when larger plantations and natural forests lie directly on the coastline. This is because of the friction they cause on the water as it flows through. By having these areas of plantation on the shoreline, it also produces a further buffer zone in terms of distance to a settlement.Natural barriers also include vegetation such as mangrove forests, which are situated within the water itself and are able to grow in most places around Sri Lanka. They have been shown to be very effective at dissipating the energy of water surges; this is due to their network of snorkel, stilt and prop roots. Sri Lanka already contains large areas of mangrove forest. However, due to the fishing industry, a large growth in the tourist sector and local requirements for wood; large areas of mangrove forest have been cut down. An estimated 76% of the countrys mangrove forests have been lost in the last 100 years (Kinver, 2015). Coral reef is also a natural barrier and plays a very important role in slowing and dissipating water energy. Therefore, the continued mining of coral reef in the surrounding waters for aggregate further outlines the need for preservation of natural barriers. Furthermore, due to their efficiency in mitigating the effects of a tsunami along with general flooding, it is important to consider replanting areas of mangrove and increasing the size of existing forests.The beneficial aspect of using natural barriers is that they come at a relatively small financial cost to the country or local people, making them a very favourable option given their effectiveness.6.4 Man-Made Barriers

Man-made barriers have long been an effective solution to storm surges and extreme high tides, therefore their use to mitigate the effects of a tsunami wave must be considered. They can also be split into onshore and offshore. Examples of onshore barriers are earth ramparts, vertical concrete walls and breakwaters. Breakwaters are usually constructed using large stones or concrete blocks with the aim to dissipate energy with their irregular shape. However, theoretically it would be possible to construct them using recycled material or rubble to save on costs.Although all of these are likely to protect against large waves, due to economic reasons and the frequency of large scale tsunami events, unless the material costs are low it is more than likely not cost efficient to construct on shore defences. Furthermore, these barriers are likely to have an effect on the existing community or tourism industry. These problems can potentially be overcome however, if man-made barriers are placed offshore, where they can be multifunctional by also serving as harbour walls in settlements with fishing boats.Examples of offshore barriers include jetties, stone or concrete walls, submerged embankments and artificial reefs. All of these are effective at dissipating the energy of a wave before it reaches land, plus they have the potential to be integrated into general infrastructure. A study conducted by (Esfandiar, 2009) showed that multiple offshore tsunami wall layouts reduced the heights of the waves falling on land by over 70%. However, like onshore barriers, their cost efficiency must be determined to check their overall feasibility for different areas.6.5 Drainage

Due to slow ground water seepage and areas of low level, once a tsunami surge has hit land it can take a while before all areas are free of standing water. This is first and foremost an issue when trying to provide immediate aid and rescue to the areas affected. It is then an issue in the long term for the salinity of the soil as well as having the potential to saturate soil to the extent of causing damage to building foundations. Therefore, the report will look at the feasibility of providing a network of underground or covered storm drains that allow water a faster route to drain back to the sea from inundated areas.6.6 Erosion Protection

Areas that have settlements under or near steep soil slopes may be at further risk due to slope failure when surges of water saturate the toe of the slope. This may then destabilise the slope causing a slip. The number of settlements located in such areas, how high the risk levels are and the feasibility of stabilising these slopes is therefore of interest in the report.6.7 Channelling and Diversion

Another potential option that may be explored in the report is the concept of allowing the water through onto land, but by channelling the main front of highest energy down paths that would encounter fewer human casualties and less damage. This could be achieved by using earth walls, excavated channels and buildings that are strong enough to direct water between them.

7. WATER INFRASTRUCTURE

7.1 Pre-existing infrastructure

Water supply at the coastal regions of Sri Lanka comprised of pipe-borne water to the cities from reservoirs, deep groundwater wells, and private shallow wells. The most common source of water in the areas affected by the tsunami came from shallow wells less than 10m in depth. (UNEP, 2006) Many of these open wells had high levels of salinity even before the tsunami hit due to their proximity to the ocean and shallow depth. Some of these wells produced no water at all during the dry season between monsoons. As a result, many people bought and stored potable water in the home. (Clasen T., 2005)7.2 Devastation by the tsunami

The damage a tsunami causes to a water supply system can be described in two phases. The first phase consists of an immediate physical impact on the existing infrastructure. The initial force of waves and subsequent backwash can rupture pipelines, sewer systems, storage tanks, and groundwater wells. These may also become blocked by the huge amount of silt and debris transported by the tsunami. The second phase is a chemical impact and has longer term consequences. The inundation of seawater contaminates wells and increases the salinity of soil as saltwater leaches through the ground. Just a 5% mix of seawater with freshwater can render it unsuitable for drinking (Violette, 2009). It can take years for rainwater to naturally flush out or dilute the system to a safe level. This has a major impact on crop harvesting along with clean water supply in the area.

The damage caused by the 2004 earthquake and following tsunami on Sri Lankas coastal water network was comprehensive. The majority of the pipe-born water supply was rendered out of service mainly due to blockages and overloading in the system. An estimated 62,000 shallow coastal wells were contaminated by sea water along with debris and sewage stirred up by the tsunami (Villholth K.G., 2011). Many aquifers also became contaminated as seawater gained direct entry into the water table through open wells. Around 9000 acres of paddy fields and 1467 acres of vegetable and fruit crops were destroyed affecting 7,500 farmers (Imbulana K., 2006). Major paddy fields in Trincomalee and Batticoloa which produce about one third of the countrys total rice harvest were heavily afflicted. The impact of the tsunami on rice crop is a major concern as close to 90% of irrigated land in Sri Lanka is cultivated with paddy. (Imbulana K., 2006) According to a study it took roughly 5 years for ground water in the affected area to completely recover back to purity. (Villholth K.G., 2011)

7.3 Immediate response

Immediately following the tsunami bottled water (200ml PET bottles) was supplied by helicopter to survivors gathered at emergency points such as churches, mosques, schools and public buildings. As roads became useable, freshwater was provided in the form of large tankered 500L to 2500L trucks to squatter camp sites. (Clasen T., 2005) These trucks were supplied by the government water board along with NGOs and used water from sources inland which were unaffected by the tsunami. Mobile water treatment and desalination units were also set up in rural regions to provide clean water as shown in Figure 7.1. These units use reverse osmosis or electro dialysis to purify salty water. A problem encountered was that not enough water was being supplied to survivors as tanker trucks would only arrive to the camps once or twice a day. In some cases tanks were being filled using local irrigation points to fulfil the daily quota which caused serious cross contamination issues. There was also a problem in the quality of water provided which was mainly due to lack of knowledge in disinfection techniques and disorganisation. Finally, pumping of shallow wells was conducted to rinse the well of seawater however this procedure was largely ineffective and often exacerbated the problem due to seawater intrusion from below. (Clasen T., 2005)

Figure 7.1. Mobile water purification machine in Kalmunai Sri Lanka Source: (UNEP, 2006)

7.4 Long term solutions

Improvement of irrigation, pipes, and wellsThere was a need to improve the water supply infrastructure to the coast even before the tsunami struck. The shallow wells along the coast were simply not adequate in providing all year round safe drinking water. There are a number of ways in which the infrastructure could be improved. Firstly, constructing deeper wells and boreholes would enable tapping of aquifers with a lower risk of saline intrusion. A deeper well would also mean that water could still be extracted during the dry season when the level of the water table falls. (Villholth K.G., 2011) Secondly, the design of the wells themselves could be improved vastly. Constructing sealed wells would greatly reduce the risk of contamination compared to open wells. Re-enforcing the well heads and increasing the height of the standpipe by placing it on raised structure would also improve the design. This would help mitigate against coastal flooding which occurs quite frequently in the country. Construction of desalination plantsAn option in providing clean water would be to construct a desalination plant. Since the coastal sand aquifers have quite a high saline concentration anyway it could be beneficial to construct a desalination plant for certain areas. There are a number of different ways salty water can be purified including reverse osmosis, multistage flash distillation, electro dialysis, and mechanical vapour compression. Perhaps the most commonly used today is reverse osmosis due to its low energy consumption. However the biggest problem for desalination is its cost compared to conventional water collection. Energy is needed to separate the salt from the water therefore the cost of the water produced from the plant is higher compared to treated freshwater from a reservoir for example. As Sri Lanka is still a developing country it may not be feasible to develop an expensive desalination plant unless an innovative solution is presented. One of these solutions could be using a renewable energy source such as tidal energy or solar energy to provide the power needed. (Friszmann, 2009) There is already a project underway in Australia which will utilise tidal energy to power a desalination plant. (Hanafi, 2013)Another option would be cogeneration in which a desalination facility could be coupled to a power plant so that excess or waste heat can be used efficiently. Rainwater harvestingRainwater harvesting is a very simple technique that can be used to provide freshwater. Rainwater is simply channelled from roofs into tanks. (Han, 2009) This provides a very cheap source of water however there can be issues in the reliability of the supply especially during the dry season. 7.5 Focus

The main focus will be on the long term solutions available which will be researched in greater detail. A feasibility study will be conducted comparing the advantages and disadvantages of each option. The sustainability needs to be investigated to ensure a good solution is presented that is right for the local population. It would be unreasonable to suggest the construction of an expensive desalination plant only for the local population to be priced out by the cost of the water. Therefore, a cost analysis will also be conducted taking into account the aid funds available post tsunami. The overall solution may include a combination of the options described above. 8. COMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTUREThe purpose of this section is to investigate options for constructing a disaster-resilient telecommunications network. This is done by developing an understanding of the top-level structure of a typical telecoms network and identifying the types of components that could be at risk for a cataclysmic failure during an environmental disaster stemming from, but not limited to earthquakes. Once these risks have been identified, investigation into disaster-recovery solutions will be carried out. For the purposes of this investigation cataclysmic failure should be defined as the following:A failure of the network such that vital communications in the hours or days after the disaster are limited in such a way as to cause further loss of many human lives that could have otherwise been prevented. Due to the lack of information available on the state of Sri Lankas communications network and the system already in place, this section focuses mainly on identifying areas of concern that can be further improved upon in a typical telecom network to make it more disaster-resilient.8.1 Overview of a typical telecomm infrastructure

Figure 8.1 A top-level diagram of an international telecommunications network (Huurdeman, 1997) In a telecommunications network, all participating end devices can be thought of as subscribers. These subscribers are connected together through a hierarchy of switching nodes known as exchanges. Exchanges are joined by electrical or optical lines known as links. In a geographically local region, subscribers will be linked to the same local exchange. This allows for all subscribers in the local region to open up a connection to initiate a phone call or other telecomm. Local exchanges within a large geographical region or country are linked to a toll exchange. The link between a local exchange and the toll exchange are known toll links. Toll exchanges allow for telecoms between subscribers across all connected local exchanges. To link countries or other large geographical regions toll exchanges must be linked together. Between subscribers in different countries, there may be large bodies of water, mountainous topology or fault-lines between tectonic plates. All of these environmental factors present challenges to telecoms. To combat these challenges a variety of different solutions for inter-toll exchange links exist, such as terrestrial and submarine toll cables, radio-relay links and satellite links. (Huurdeman, 1997) 8.2Areas of concern for risks

From Huurdemans illustration of a telecommunications infrastructure (see Figure 8.1) it can be seen that the main components can be categorized as subscribers, exchanges, and links. Exchanges can be further divided into local and toll exchanges. Links can be divided in to local links, toll links, and inter-toll links. In this sub-section, the three main risk areas are discussed in detail. For each network component, the effect of failure in a disaster is described.8.3Subscribers

Subscribers to the telephone service may be associated to individuals or companies. Individual subscribers that are at risk during a disaster will belong to individuals that may require emergency assistance from the ambulance or fire service. Individual subscribers are the most time-dependant as loss of life may be imminent in many scenarios. The only way for a typical individual subscriber to help make sure they can use telecoms in a disaster is to ensure their device (mobile, landline, etc.) has a power supply and is connected to a local exchange link (plugged into phone network, antenna is attached, etc.). The subscriber will always be dependent on access to a functioning local link. In addition to this it should be noted that one individual is usually only associated with one subscriber. Because failure of a single subscriber does not usually result in the fatalities of many persons, it should be disregarded as a candidate for this project despite the fact that the requirement for aid may be imminent.Companies may require a functioning communication network for business to continue as usual. This is less time-critical as the business can pick up again in the weeks following the disaster. Its also possible that companies may be able to fund disaster-recovery solutions not only to prevent loss of data and services they may provide, but also to temporarily restore communications for their premises. These kinds of scenarios may involve the use of entirely independent networks.8.4Exchanges

As described earlier in 8.1 there are at least two categories of exchanges, these being toll exchanges and local exchanges. Firstly local exchanges are covered, followed by toll exchanges.8.4.1Local ExchangesLocal exchanges allow for a local region to be connected to each other for telecoms. For a single region to be able to manage its own emergencies, its important that the entire emergency infrastructure is connected within a local region. Because of this the emergency services should be prioritised for a local exchange connection, particularly the hospitals. For this reason a case could be made to block non-emergency service connections in the event of a serious disaster such as an earthquake-tsunami. Doing so would free up more bandwidth for emergency services calls. Especially considering the higher than usual telecom traffic generated from personal calls that is likely to be present after an earthquake.For the purpose of example it is simpler to see how exchanges and hospitals relate in a familiar area, than investigate the situation in Sri Lanka. Guildfords local telephone exchange serves more than 30,000 people (SamKnows.com, 2015). Royal Surrey County Hospital, located in Guildford serves a total of 320,000 people (Royal Surrey County NHS Foundation Trust, 2015). While there are other hospitals in Surrey, the important thing to note is that the coverage (in terms of population) of a single local telephone exchange could be an entire order of magnitude different to the coverage of hospitals. Its clear from this that a large hospital like Royal Surrey County could be taking calls that have arrived through a number of different exchanges. If one of these exchanges were to fail, it could lead to a large loss of life as the distance may be too great to another suitable hospital for badly-injured patients to survive the journey. This is escalated when it is considered that they may be unable to call an ambulance for this trip. For this reason there should be redundancy in local exchanges, so that if one fails the same people are covered by another. This could be done by using overlapping local exchanges so that traffic can be split from a failed exchange to multiple other nearby exchanges. Its better to overlap than to simply duplicate the number of exchanges as it would require fewer exchanges to be built.8.4.2Toll ExchangesThe importance of the toll exchange is to link local exchanges together. Having a connection between local exchanges and the toll exchange after an earthquake will allow for overfull hospitals to spread the load to neighbouring less-busy hospitals.Its likely that the army will be called into to aid in the recovery effort following an earthquake. While most typical emergency services will have outposts all across the country, its important to note that the army may not.To fund many aspects of the recovery, aid will be required from outside the country, this is up to the government to distribute, and as such parliament will need to communicate with smaller regions of the country. While a lack of these extra aid factors may not be as time-critical as a phone connection to a local hospital, theres still quite a large amount of possible loss of life from losing the toll exchange. Along with the local exchanges, redundancy should also be built into the toll exchange. More than one toll exchange in a separate location should prevent any single disaster from cutting off all local exchanges from each other.8.5Links

The final area of the telecoms network to consider is the links. One important thing to note about the telephone network is that it operates on a hierarchy as opposed to a web. However it should be possible to create dormant lines between subscribers and a local exchange other than their own. The lines could then be activated by a switch between exchanges in the event of a local exchange failure.While redundancy is one way of recovering from failure, another way is to construct the lines in more resilient ways. One possible way is to put telephone lines underground instead of on masts. Elevated lines are likely to be snapped by debris carried in by the wave of a tsunami. However this would only affect the first few kilometres in from the coast. Past this the lines should be safe.While all coastal links are likely to be equally vulnerable points, loss of some links will cause more problems than others. Loss of a link between a local exchange and the toll exchange will isolate that region from international aid. While the link between a subscriber and the local exchange will probably only isolate an individual from the emergency services. Priority should be given to the links between local and toll exchanges.

9. POWER INFRASTRUCTURE

9.1 Introduction

According to the Central Bank of Sri Lanka (2014), the generation of electricity in Sri Lanka is dominated by Thermal Heat Power and Hydro-electric Power, along with a type of renewable energy, i.e. wind power, solar power, etc., that accounts for a few percent of the total energy generation. Therefore, designing some resilient power plants and transmission network in this country can ensure consistent power supply when earthquakes, tsunamis and other disasters occur; especially for the critical infrastructure such as hospitals, water supply, and shelters etc. that are located or used to supply the coastal area because of the high population density. However, no matter how resistant the structure is, there are always opportunities for the occurrence of an unpredictable natural disaster, so it will be vital to prioritise the restoration of power supply and backup power for critical infrastructure.9.2 Permanent Emergency Backup Power

Extreme events such as tsunamis will always bring casualties to a country; therefore an emergency plan is crucial. By securing an uninterrupted power supply to the critical infrastructure, especially hospitals, the number of deaths and injuries can be reduced significantly. The following are several types of backup power that can be implemented under different circumstances.Emergency Power Supply VehiclesThis kind of vehicle provides mobility and flexibility when disasters occur. They can ensure power supply to different critical infrastructure when the power system is damaged and facilitate the reconstruction process. An underground oil tank is constructed for these vehicles, so that it can allow reliable power generation for a period of time right after when an earthquake or tsunami happens.Power plants will usually be shut down automatically when an earthquake happens because of safety reasons to provide backup power to the control system therefore preventing unnecessary hazards, e.g. leakage of chemicals, radioactive substances and fly ash from damaged fabric filters. However, the drawback of this solution is that it cannot be accessed if the transport network is destroyed. As a result, multiple emergency backup power approaches should be applied for the critical infrastructure.Figure 9.1 Emergency Electricity Vehicle

Massive battery storageOne of the most typical ways to provide backup electricity is the installation of a backup power generator within a building or structure. Once the main power supply is out of service, this massive battery will be able to provide the minimum power required to maintain the services which are more important. For example, sufficient electricity to the water supply system to provide clean water, electricity to maintain the operation in the hospital and clinic, and lighting for the shelters, etc.On top of that, this can also be a smart power supply system. Shimizu (2015) states that the battery itself is able to charge up during the night, which can save energy cost as the electricity consumed at night is less expensive, and may be used as a secondary power supply during the busy hours.Renewable EnergyDespite the fact that solar power is not a reliable or consistent supply of energy, it can play an essential role in assisting electricity supply after a disaster when there is only limited energy supply. One common example would be providing energy for indoor lighting. Installing solar panels on the roofs of key buildings will therefore be very useful in order to provide alternative electricity options.

9.3 Earthquake/Tsunami Resistant Power Station & Transmission system

The figure on the right is the transmission map of Sri Lanka, which shows the locations of Power Plants and substations as well as the transmission line around the country. Since the Hydro Power plants are not located along the coastal area, a tsunami will be unlikely to affect the service of these power plants. On the other hand, the locations of the Thermal Power Plants are typically closer to the coastal lines as water is needed to be used in the cooling water systems. These plants should be designed to be both earthquake and tsunami proof. Although the level of damage for power infrastructure was limited for the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake according to Ratnasooriya (2007), the electricity supply of about 70000 households were affected by the tsunami. There is obviously a need to ensure the electricity supply immediately after different disasters. The most direct way to keep power generating is the protection of power plants and substations.Figure 9.2. Transmission Network

Water-proof power plantsWhen earthquakes or tsunamis occur, flooding will usually occur subsequently. The power generator would easily be damaged by water if there is no suitable protection from the outside. Hence designing the structure with impermeable materials can prevent water from getting in and as a result avoids the potential submergence of the electrical systems and devices, for example, the step-up transformer and electrical generator in a coal thermal power station. Concrete with lower water/cement ratio should be chosen due to its low permeability to prevent and minimise the water from reaching the steel elements and reinforcements, which may lead to durability and other structural issues. In addition to that, an embedded membrane to its outer surface will be able to overcome this problem and maintain the robustness of the structure. Another method to avoid water from getting into the power station district is to build a tsunami (wave) barrier. It works by building a high wall that surrounds the power station and consequently stops the water from entering.Earthquake Resistant Power stationTo achieve a power station that is resistant to different disasters is the primary aim to ensure steady power supply for the residents, businesses and most importantly for the critical infrastructures. By using the application of earthquake resistant building design, seismic isolation systems should be included which is basically reducing the earthquake energy that affects the structure by extending the structural period rather than increasing the resistance capacity according to Torunbalci (2004). Undoubtedly, seismic isolation systems are some expensive technology, however, safety is always the most important consideration, and so human life must be prioritized. Moreover, the hydro power plants must be constructed to sustain seismic loads, so that the water from the dam or reservoir will not cause serious flooding.Robust Power Distribution SystemAs mentioned above, as the population in Sri Lanka is focused along the coastal areas, ensuring the resiliency of the power distribution system, including transmission lines. Substation, transformers, etc., can supply the country with electricity immediately after the earthquake or other disasters, which could allow prompt rescue and assistance for reconstruction work of devastated buildings. Due to the differences in structural characteristics of a power station and a transmission tower, instead of applying seismic isolation systems, making sure the seismic resistance capability of the distribution system would be more suitable. Babu and Selvam (2012) recommend that there should be consideration of seismic loads when designing distribution systems and transmission line towers, hence ensuring these kinds of structures are capable of withstanding critical loadings without any deformations and structural failures.

10. CONCLUSION

The 2004 tsunami was a devastating event that caused vast damage to every aspect of the Sri Lankan Coast line. This report has looked at rebuilding measures that can be taken in the wake of this disaster so that a similar event in the future would not have such a devastating effect.Before any rebuilding efforts begin, the rubble from damaged buildings and infrastructure must be cleared. It is a priority to ensure that this rubble is not just wasted but recycled and reused. For this to happen there must be available recycling plants for the whole coast line so a portable recycling plant would be very effective. When it comes to rebuilding the long term housing solutions, multiple construction methods were discussed. The most likely option would be raised floor concrete frame buildings. This would not be as cheap as typical mud and pole construction, but provides a more effective solution against future disasters. The infrastructure of the coastline was severely damaged and a complete redesign of the whole system is potentially a viable option with more appropriate road materials and rail routes. Mitigation measures have also been proposed to reduce the damage inflicted in the future. Such measures include preserving mangrove areas to act as a physical barrier to tsunamis; improving town planning to channel and divert tsunamis and developing an improved drainage system to remove flood water. Flooding and earthquakes had a severe effect on services including water, gas, electricity and communications. New systems have been discussed that can replace the damaged service routes and provide a solution that is able to withstand similar events in the future.

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32Earthquake Reconstruction: Group 2