incentives and barriers to adopting aquaponic … and barriers to adopting aquaponic and ... 2.3.3...
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Incentives and Barriers to Adopting Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems in Canada
by
Hollie Matthews
A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts
Geography Department University of Toronto
© Copyright by Hollie Matthews 2017
ii
Incentives and Barriers to Adopting Aquaponic and Biofloc
Systems in Canada
Hollie Matthews
Master of Arts
Department of Geography
University of Toronto
2017
Abstract
Aquaponic and biofloc systems can contribute to increasing food security while reducing
environmental impacts of aquaculture. Other countries are promoting and investing in
aquaponics to increase their competiveness in the food and marine sector but there are a limited
number of aquaponic and biofloc facilities in Canada. Give the limited research regarding the
adoption of commercial aquaponic and biofloc systems, this thesis identifies influences and
barriers of implementing biofloc and aquaponic systems in Canada. Through interviews with
aquaponic facilities, aquaculture facilities, government officials and biofloc professionals, this
research provides insight into the aquaponic and biofloc industry in Canada. This thesis found
that there is potential for an increase in both systems in Canada. Adoption of these systems
would increase with collaboration and partnership opportunities, examples of profitable systems,
increased access to sustainable energy, grants or benefits for creating jobs, grants for
implementation and support for sustainable initiatives.
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Acknowledgments
First I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Harvey Shear, for being encouraging and
supportive throughout my Master’s degree. I am truly grateful to have had his consistent
guidance and support. I am also grateful for Professor Kathi Wilson for her insight and
encouragement throughout my thesis process.
I would like to thank Professor Andrea Olive and Professor Kathi Wilson, my committee
members, for being supportive of my research and providing insightful feedback.
I would like to acknowledge and thank all the participants that gave their time to speak with me.
I greatly appreciate that each participant took time out of their busy lives to contribute and
support my research. Insight provided by the participants was invaluable and this thesis would
not have been possible without their contribution.
Finally, thank you to my friends and family for always having unwavering confidence in me and
encouraging me through each step of my graduate degree. To my grandparents, Bernice and
Oliver, who kept a roof over my head and lived with me through this process, thank you for your
patience and support every day. Thank you to my Mom, Dad and Courtney for always being
there when I needed someone I could talk to and for providing constructive feedback. Last but
not least, I also would like to thank S.E., Renee, Yousra, Meaghan, Paulina, Katie, Léa, Mia,
Marie-Line and my MA cohort for always being a support system, always having an ear to lend
and for making long days and late nights at the library more enjoyable.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. viii
List of Appendices ...........................................................................................................................x
Chapter 1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background ..........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Research Question and Rationale ........................................................................................6
Chapter 2 Literature Review ............................................................................................................7
2.1 Global Fisheries and Aquaculture .........................................................................................7
2.1.1 Importance of Fisheries and Aquaculture to Human Society .....................................7
2.1.2 Pressures on Wild Fish Populations ..........................................................................10
2.1.3 Recent Fish Populations ............................................................................................11
2.2 Importance of Aquaculture .................................................................................................13
2.2.1 Commercial Aquaculture in Canada .........................................................................13
2.2.2 Methods of Aquaculture ...........................................................................................19
2.2.3 Concerns of the Aquaculture Industry on the Environment and Commercial
Fisheries .................................................................................................................22
2.3 Biofloc Technology (BFT) ..................................................................................................25
2.3.1 History of Biofloc Aquaculture Systems and Methods ............................................25
2.3.2 Species Grown in Biofloc Aquaculture Systems ......................................................27
2.3.3 Benefits of Biofloc Aquaculture Systems .................................................................28
2.3.4 Challenges of Biofloc Aquaculture Systems ............................................................30
2.4 Aquaponic Systems .............................................................................................................31
2.4.1 History of Aquaponic Systems and Methods............................................................31
2.4.2 Species Grown in Aquaponic Systems .....................................................................33
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2.4.3 Benefits of Aquaponic Systems ................................................................................34
2.4.4 Challenges of Aquaponic Systems............................................................................35
2.4 Diffusion of Aquaponics and Biofloc in Aquaculture .......................................................36
2.5.1 Adopting Innovation ................................................................................................36
2.5.2 History of Biofloc and Aquaponics in Canada ........................................................38
2.5.3 Research Purpose .....................................................................................................38
Chapter 3 Research Methods .........................................................................................................39
3.1 Geographic Location ..........................................................................................................39
3.2 Study Population ................................................................................................................39
3.3 Sample Size ........................................................................................................................40
3.4 Interview Questions ...........................................................................................................43
3.5 Recruitment Strategy .........................................................................................................44
3.6 Data Collection Method .....................................................................................................45
Chapter 4 Interview Results ...........................................................................................................47
4.1 Commercial Aquaculture Participants ................................................................................47
4.1.1 Aquaculture Facility Location and Production ......................................................47
4.1.2 Stage of Aquaculture Facilities to Implement Aquaponics ...................................49
4.1.3 Stage of Aquaculture Facilities to Implement a Biofloc System ...........................50
4.1.4 Incentives for Aquaculture Facilities to Implement Aquaponic and Biofloc ........51
4.1.5 Barriers for Aquaculture Facilities to Implement Aquaponic and Biofloc
Systems ..................................................................................................................53
4.1.6 Potential Influences for Aquaculture Facilities to Implement Aquaponic and
Biofloc Systems .....................................................................................................55
4.2 Commercial Aquaponic Participants .................................................................................58
4.2.1 Aquaponic Facility Location and Production ........................................................58
4.2.2 Stage of Aquaponic Facilities in Canada ...............................................................61
4.2.3 Incentives to Implement Aquaponics.....................................................................62
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4.2.4 Barriers to Implement Aquaponics ........................................................................63
4.2.5 Potential Influences for Aquaculture Facilities to Implement Aquaponics ...........65
4.2.6 Recommendations ..................................................................................................68
4.2.7 Stage of Aquaponic Facilities to Implement a Biofloc System .............................71
4.2.8 Incentives, Influences and Barriers for Aquaponic Facilities to Implement a
Biofloc System .......................................................................................................72
4.3 Experts in the Biofloc Field ................................................................................................74
4.4 Provincial Government Employees.....................................................................................78
Chapter 5 Discussion .....................................................................................................................81
5.1 Adopting Innovations ..........................................................................................................81
5.1.1 Stage of Adoption of Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems ............................................82
5.1.2 Incentives for Implementing Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems ................................83
5.1.4 Potential Influences to Implement Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems ........................93
Chapter 6 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................97
Research Limitations ...................................................................................................................100
Future Research ...........................................................................................................................100
References ....................................................................................................................................102
Appendices ...................................................................................................................................117
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List of Tables
Table 1. Total Aquaculture Production in Canada 2003 to 2014 ................................................. 17
Table 2. Major Issues about Aquaculture that are of Concern to Environmentalists ............... 23
Table 3. Species Raised in Aquaponic Facilities .......................................................................... 33
Table 4. Interview Participants ..................................................................................................... 39
Table 5. Participant Sample Size and Response Rate ................................................................... 40
Table 6. Crustacean and Fish Species Tried in Aquaponics in Canada ........................................ 60
Table 7. Plant Species Tried in Aquaponics in Canada ................................................................ 61
Table 8. Challenges Faces by Aquaponic Participants ................................................................. 65
Table 9. Top Four Skills that Assisted Aquaponic Owners with Implementing Aquaponics ...... 66
Table 10. Recommendations for Newcomers to the Aquaponic Industry .................................... 68
Table 11. Suggestions to Reduce Challenges in Aquaponics ....................................................... 69
Table 12. Potential Benefits Aquaponics can provide for Aquaculture Facilities ........................ 70
Table 13. Recommended Species to Raise in Aquaponics ........................................................... 70
Table 14. Changes Recommended by Aquaponic Facilities ........................................................ 71
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List of Figures
Figure 1. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Emissions from Producing Beef, Pork, Chicken, Fish and
Bivalves........................................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 2. Employment in Wild Capture Fisheries and Fish Farmers (1990 to 2010) ................... 10
Figure 3. World Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture Production .................................................. 12
Figure 4. State of the Global Marine Fish Stocks (1974 - 2011) .................................................. 12
Figure 5. Reported Aquaculture Production in Canada (1950 - 2010) ......................................... 14
Figure 6. Aquaculture Production in Canada 1986-2013 ............................................................. 18
Figure 7. Aquaculture Production in Canada by Province (Percentage of Volume) in 2013 ....... 19
Figure 8. Fed and Non-Fed Global Aquaculture Production, 2000 to 2012 ................................. 20
Figure 9. Types of Aquaculture Operations in Canada ................................................................. 21
Figure 10. Observations and Predictions for the Declining Use of Fishmeal in Aquaculture ...... 24
Figure 11. An individual biofloc (scale 100 microns) .................................................................. 26
Figure 12. Biological Process of Biofloc ...................................................................................... 27
Figure 13. Basic diagram of an aquaponic system ....................................................................... 32
Figure 14. Some countries with aquaponic and biofloc systems .................................................. 32
Figure 15. Simplified model of Rogers innovation-decision process ........................................... 37
Figure 16. Influences on innovation adoption .............................................................................. 37
Figure 17. Location of Aquaculture Facilities Interviewed .......................................................... 48
Figure 18. Species Raised in Aquaculture Facilities .................................................................... 48
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Figure 19. Stage of aquaculture facilities to adopt aquaponics systems in Rogers (2003)
innovation-decision process .......................................................................................................... 50
Figure 20. Stage of aquaculture facilities to adopt biofloc systems in Rogers (2003) innovation-
decision process ............................................................................................................................ 51
Figure 21. Location of Aquaponic Facilities ................................................................................ 58
Figure 22. Stage of aquaponics facilities to adopt biofloc systems in Rogers (2003) innovation-
decision process ............................................................................................................................ 72
Figure 23. Willingness of Aquaponic Facilities to Pilot Biofloc .................................................. 73
x
List of Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment E-mail for Aquaculture Owners ....................................................... 117
Appendix B: Recruitment E-mail for Aquaponic Facilities ....................................................... 118
Appendix C: Recruitment E-mail for Biofloc Experts ............................................................... 119
Appendix D: Recruitment E-mail for Government Officials in Aquaculture Departments ....... 120
Appendix E: Interview Consent Details ..................................................................................... 121
Appendix F: Interview Questions for Aquaculture Owners ....................................................... 122
Appendix G: Interview Questions for Aquaponic Facilities....................................................... 128
Appendix H: Interview Questions for Biofloc Experts............................................................... 135
Appendix I: Interview Questions for Government Officials in Aquaculture Departments ........ 140
1
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Background
An increase in food production by 50-70 percent is required to meet the increased demands of
two billion people (World Bank, 2016; Searchinger et al., 2013: 17; UNFAO, 2013) by 2050
(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNESA) 2015; UNFAO, 2016: 2).
Aquaculture is an essential part of global food security, accounting for over half of the fish and
seafood consumed by humans (The United Nations Fisheries and Agriculture Organization
(UNFAO), 2016: 98; Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO), 2012; Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2014; Moffitt & Cajas-Cano, 2014: 552).
Boyd, Queiroz & McNevin (2013: 15) and the UNFAO does not expect the global supply of
seafood from commercial wild fisheries to increase, as nearly ninety percent are fully or over-
fished (UNFAO, 2016: 6). Aquaculture is vital to fulfill this gap between traditional capture of
wild fish and food demand (UNFAO, 2016: 182; DFO, 2012; OECD, 2014; Boyd, Queiroz &
McNevin, 2013: 15; Leung, Lee, & O’Bryen, 2007; House of Commons Canada, 2003).
Aquaculture production is expected to double within the next four decades to keep up with
seafood demands (National Research Council (NRC), 2015: 59). Since resources required for
aquaculture, such as land and water, are expected to be less available in the future (Béné et al.,
2015: 265), it is vital for aquaculture production to develop sustainably to contribute to global
food security and economic growth, while minimizing ecological impacts (Mathiesen, 2014).
Aquaculture in Canada
Aquaculture production is expected to increase substantially, however, growth is limited by the
availability of suitable water and land (De Schryver, Crab, Defoirdt, Boon & Verstraete, 2008:
125; Avnimelech, 2011; Crab, Defoirdt, Bossier, & Verstraete, 2012; Naylor et al., 2000). The
requirement to increase global aquaculture production provides an opportunity for the Canadian
aquaculture industry (House of Commons Canada, 2003). Canada has extensive land, marine and
freshwater resources as well as skilled scientists and a labour force that can work in the
aquaculture industry (DFO, 2012). Despite having sufficient land and water resources, Canada’s
aquaculture production of 133 583 tonnes (Statistics Canada, 2015) is small compared to global
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production (DFO, 2012). Canada produces approximately 0.18 percent of the 73.8 million tonnes
of aquaculture produced globally (UNFAO, 2016). Canada has the means to become a larger
global producer of aquaculture (Canadian Council of Fisheries and Aquaculture Ministers
(CCFAM), 2016: 7; DFO, 2012: 6) to contribute to the 140 million tonnes projected to be
required in 2050 (NRC, 2015: 59; Waite et al., 2014: 2; Searchinger et al., 2013: 96).
Many current aquaculture practices cannot be used to meet the goal of increasing production by
fifty percent because the resources required for those practices are limited and the environmental
impacts are not conducive to extensive production (Waite et al., 2014: 25). Valuable resources,
including available fresh water and appropriate land for aquaculture, are expected to become
scarcer in the next decade and the cost of fishmeal, fish oil and other feed is expected to increase
(UNFAO, 2014a: 202). As Canada increases aquaculture production, it is imperative that
aquaculture practices become more sustainable to contribute to future food requirements and
support the national economy in the long term (Mathiesen, 2014). Avnimelech (2011: 66) and
Waite et al. (2014: 2) have argued that intensive commercial aquaculture practices are a feasible
and environmentally acceptable way to achieve growth in production. Aquaculture technologies
that minimize negative environmental impacts are expected to be used more frequently as the
demand for aquaculture products increases (Standing Senate Committee on Fisheries and Oceans
(SSCFO), 2015b: 17). Aquaculture technologies such as recirculating facilities are required to
intensify aquaculture sustainably (Turcios & Papenbrock, 2014: 837). Recirculating facilities
minimize the amount of water used and discharged to the environment by continuously reusing
the water (Waite et al., 2014: 47; Turcios & Papenbrock, 2014: 838). An increase in the
abundance of recirculating facilities in the aquaculture field is expected, particularly in Canada,
to expand aquaculture production (SSCFO, 2015b: 17). The Canadian Standing Senate
Committee on Fisheries and Oceans “supports the development of land-based, closed-contained
technologies in niche markets for which opportunities for growth exist” (SSCFO, 2015b: 18).
Land-based systems, such as recirculating facilities, have the advantage of being able to control
and manage the wastewater produced to reduce impacts on the surrounding environment. Before
being filtered or treated, effluent from aquaculture production is often considered waste from
production as it contains nutrients that can cause significant environmental problems, such as
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eutrophication (Amosu et al., 2016: 299; Kloas et al., 2015: 180; Turcios & Papenbrock, 2014:
837). These nutrients can also be considered valuable and can be used as fertilizer. Two
aquaculture systems, aquaponic and biofloc, that utilize the nutrients in wastewater were chosen
for this research because of the potential of the systems to increase food security, increase the
environmental sustainability of aquaculture production and for the potential economic benefits
for aquaculture facilities. Aquaponics reuse wastewater from aquaculture facilities to grow crops.
Biofloc systems use the nutrients in wastewater to produce feed for fish, reducing the
requirement of feed. Feed is often sourced from wild fish which is unsustainable for future
aquaculture production.
Aquaponic Systems
One method to utilize the nutrients in aquaculture effluent is to grow plants for human and
animal consumption. Aquaponic systems combine aquaculture and plant production by reusing
the wastewater from aquaculture production to supply plants with water and nutrients (Rakocy,
2012: 343, Turcios & Papenbrock, 2014: 838). After the plants utilize the nutrients in the
effluent, the water can be returned to the aquaculture system (Turcios & Papenbrock, 2014: 838).
Removing waste in recirculating aquaculture systems is important since nutrient levels can
accumulate to levels that are toxic for fish (Rakocy, 2012: 343). By reducing the nutrient levels
in the water, aquaponic systems increase the amount of water that can be reused in the system
providing environmental benefits including decreasing the amount of water discharged into the
environment as well as the amount of water withdrawn from the environment (Rakocy, 2012:
344). Reusing water can also reduce the requirement to heat incoming water which can be a large
expense (Rakocy, 2012: 344) as water heaters can be the most costly component of energy
consumption in the system (Love, Uhl & Genello, 2015: 23).
Biofloc Systems
Reducing the cost of fish feed is also important for aquaculture facilities as it is typically one of
the highest expenses in aquaculture production (Hargreaves, 2013: 1). Affordable fish feed is
imperative for the financial feasibility of production and often comprises 50 to 70 percent of
operating expenses (Crab et al., 2009: 110; Rana, Siriwardena & Hasan, 2009: 12; UNFAO,
2014b: 6; Netherlands Business Support Office, 2010: 15; DFO, 2012). Biofloc systems are
4
considered a method of aquaculture that minimizes environmental impacts of production (Waite
et al., 2014: 3, 30; UNFAO, 2010: 31) and can reduce the use of fish feed (Pérez-Rostro, Pérez-
Fuentes & Hernández-Vergara, 2014: 91) up to 20 percent (Ogello, Musa, Aura, Abwao &
Munguti, 2014: 21, Avnimelech, 2015: 78). By restricting water exchange, microscopic
organisms including bacteria, fungi, algae, and/or protists accumulate in biofloc systems
(Hargreaves, 2013: 1). The accumulation of microorganisms is a sustainable method to produce
protein rich fish feed in situ in addition to improving and controlling water quality in a closed
system with no effluent to the natural environment (Crab et al., 2012: 351). By producing fish
feed, biofloc systems can assist in reducing the dependence on fish meal and fish oil from wild
fish (De Schryver et al., 2008: 125; Avnimelech, 2011; Crab et al., 2012; Naylor et al. 2000).
The current dependence on wild fish for aquaculture is another limiting factor on the growth of
aquaculture production (De Schryver et al., 2008: 125; Avnimelech, 2011; Crab et al., 2012;
Naylor et al., 2000). New technologies such as biofloc systems can reduce the dependence on
wild fish (Ogello et al., 2014: 21) and are a cost effective and environmentally sustainable
method of aquaculture (Waite et al., 2014: 34; UNFAO, 2010: 31; Crab et al., 2012: 352;
Avnimelech, 2015: 15, 16). Many countries use biofloc systems including Israel (Emerenciano,
Gaxiola & Cuzon, 2013b: 302), Belize (Taw, 2010: 20; Burford, Thompson, McIntosh, Bauman
& Pearson, 2003), Indonesia (Avnimelech, 2015: 161; Taw, 2010: 20), Malaysia (Taw, 2016),
Australia (Taw, 2010: 20), the United States of America, Tahiti, South Korea, Brazil, Italy,
China and countries in Latin and Central America (Emerenciano et al., 2013b: 303). Biofloc
systems are designed to increase environmental control in aquaculture (Hargreaves, 2013: 1) and
can be viewed as a sustainable water treatment method (Crab et al., 2012) to recycle waste
nutrients and provide a nutrient source to the farmed species (Hargreaves, 2013: 2; Boyd &
McNevin, 2015: 11).
Economic Considerations
Financial feasibility is essential for aquaculture operations to be sustainable. Improving the
environmental performance of current operations should have a benefit to facilities. As an
economic incentive, companies in Canada may be interested in participating in methods that
reduce their environmental impact as people are becoming more aware of the environmental
impacts involved with the food they consume (Ward et al., 2014: 701). Companies that reduce
5
environmental impacts may see a higher demand for their products and have the opportunity to
sell their products for a higher price than companies that do not reduce environmental impacts.
Public acceptance of aquaculture products is very important for the future sales of aquaculture
production. More consumers are becoming interested in learning about where their food
originates and how it is produced (Ward et al., 2014: 701). Companies that demonstrate the use
of environmentally sustainable practices may have more public acceptance and may be more
successful than companies that do not.
Within the aquaculture industry, there are various methods for producers to reduce
environmental impacts. Two methods for addressing environmental issues with salmon
aquaculture include closed containment aquaculture (CCA) and integrated multi-trophic
aquaculture (IMTA) (Yip, Knowler, Haider, 2012: 4). Two studies demonstrate that consumers
in the United States are willing to pay price premiums for IMTA and CCA Atlantic salmon (Yip,
Knowler, Haider & Trenholm, 2016: 18; Yip, Knowler & Haider, 2012: 18). As the United
States is the largest importer of Canadian farmed salmon, these studies are particularly important
for Canadian salmon producers to maintain a strong consumer base and achieve economic
success (DFO, 2015a). Both aquaponic and biofloc are relevant to these studies because they are
produced in systems that can be described as closed containment or recirculating systems and
aquaponics can be considered a form of fresh water IMTA (FIMTA) (Barrington, Chopin &
Robinson, 2009: 10). Waite et al. (2014: 47) and UNFAO (2010: 31) have described both
aquaponic and biofloc as systems that can reduce environmental impacts of intensive
aquaculture.
Methods that reduce the environmental impact of aquaculture production in Canada should be
considered by current producers as many stores and restaurants have committed to sell only
sustainable or responsibly farmed seafood. Some large chains that have made this commitment
include Metro (2016), Walmart (2016), IKEA (2015) and Loblaws (currently 94% of core
seafood categories) (Loblaw, 2015: 11). The Standing Senate Committee on Fisheries and
Oceans (2015: 14) “believes that new opportunities for growth should be encouraged in the areas
of land-based, closed-containment aquaculture, the monoculture of aquatic plants, and IMTA,
given Canada’s comparative advantage in these sectors”. Other countries are also promoting and
6
investing in aquaponics, as it is has the potential to contribute to global food security (INAPRO,
2014). For example, the European Union (EU) contributed 6 million Euros for a large-scale
aquaponics project (INAPRO, 2014). Iceland, Norway and Denmark are also working toward
increasing their competiveness in the food and marine sector with aquaponics (Skar et al., 2015).
As the increasing world population creates competition over valuable resources including water,
land, food, and energy (INAPRO, 2014), the price of these resources will likely increase over the
next four decades (Waite et al., 2014: 30). The increased price of resources may also persuade
producers to decrease their use of resources and impacts on the environment (Waite et al. 2014:
30).
1.2 Research Question and Rationale
Intensive land-based aquaculture production is one method of aquaculture that the Standing
Senate Committee on Fisheries and Oceans expects to increase to meet food demands of the
future (SSCFO, 2015b: 17). Aquaponic and biofloc systems are methods of land based
aquaculture that can provide benefits to facilities and may assist in decreasing negative
environmental effects of production (UNFAO, 2010: 31; Waite et al., 2014: 18,30). There have
been many experiments and considerable research on the processes and feasibility of both
aquaponics and biofloc systems worldwide since the 1970s (biofloc: Browdy, Ray, Leffler &
Avnimelech, 2012: 279; Emerenciano, Cuzon, Goguenheim, Gaxiola & AQUACOP, 2013a: 75,
aquaponics: Somerville, Cohen, Pantanella, Stankus & Lovatelli, 2014: 7; Turcios &
Papenbrock, 2014: 839).
Crab et al. (2012: 355) advise that more research is needed to make biofloc “a keystone of future
sustainable aquaculture”. Love et al. (2015: 67) and Eatmon, Piso and Schmitt (2013: 197)
acknowledge there is minimal research regarding commercial aquaponics and the adoption and
diffusion of aquaponic systems. Given this gap in the literature, the purpose of this thesis is:
To identify the influences and barriers of implementing biofloc and aquaponic systems in
Canada as a potential environmental and economic benefit for land-based facilities. This
thesis will examine reasons for the current lack of these systems and the extent to which
there is potential to increase the use of both aquaponic and biofloc systems in Canada.
7
Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Global Fisheries and Aquaculture
2.1.1 Importance of Fisheries and Aquaculture to Human Society
Fish and seafood are an important source of food and nutrition, containing high amounts of
protein, essential vitamins and minerals (Béné et al., 2015: 261; Thilsted et al., 2014: 3).
Globally almost one-fifth of the animal protein consumed was from fish and seafood products in
2014 (Moffitt & Cajas-Cano, 2014: 552). Fish and seafood are important for reducing poverty,
increasing food security (UNFAO, 2014a: 105) as well as improving nutrition (Allison, 2011;
Beveridge et al., 2013). Sustainable fish populations are particularly important to 400 million
people for protein and mineral consumption (Multi-Agency Brief (MAB), 2009), in countries
where protein intake levels are low (UNFAO, 2014a: 66) and for approximately one billion
people who rely on fish and seafood for their primary source of animal protein (Van Os, 2011).
In some countries, fish is the only affordable source of animal protein and can comprise over half
of the dietary animal protein (UNFAO, 2012: 82; Béné et al., 2015: 263) and the minerals that
people consume (MAB, 2009). Countries that rely on fish for more than 60 percent of their total
dietary protein include Sierra Leone, Ghana, Cambodia, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and
the Maldives (UNFAO, 2014a).
Fish is typically low in saturated fats, carbohydrates, and cholesterol and provides essential
micronutrients including, omega-3 fatty acids, minerals (calcium, phosphorus, iodine, zinc, iron
and selenium), amino acids (lysine and methionine) and vitamins A, B and D (Béné et al., 2015:
262; UNFAO, 2012: 82). With high amount of macro and micronutrients, fish and seafood are
important food sources to contribute to reducing malnutrition in human populations (Béné et al.,
2015: 262). Fish can assist in reducing the effects of micronutrient deficiencies (Kawarazuka &
Béné, 2010) such as cretinism (Béné et al., 2015: 264). Cretinism causes stunted growth and
intellectual disabilities due to a deficiency in iodine (Béné et al., 2015: 264) and affects 20
million people worldwide (Thilsted et al., 2014: 5). The essential nutrients fish provide are also
vital for the development of brain and neural systems in children (UNFAO, 2014a: 105). Given
8
the importance fish has for the development of children, some countries including Chile, Brazil
and Zambia have added fish to their school food programs (Béné et al., 2015: 262). In addition to
the benefits fish and seafood provide for children, there is solid evidence that adults who
consume fish have a lower risk of stroke and high blood pressure (Béné et al., 2015: 264), as
well as a decreased risk of dying from coronary heart disease (UNFAO, 2014a: 105).
Fisheries and aquaculture contribute to regional economic stability, supporting the livelihoods of
millions of people. Fisheries and aquaculture are economically significant as fish (including
seafood) is one of the highest traded food commodities worldwide (UNFAO, 2014a: 46, Tidwell
& Allan, 2012: 6). This sector produced 167 million tonnes globally in 2014 (UNFAO, 2016: 4)
and was worth over $217.5 billion (US in 2010) (UNFAO, 2012: 3), contributing to global trade
(Tidwell & Allan, 2012: 3) and to the GDP of 200 countries (UNFAO, 2014a: 7).
Fisheries and aquaculture support the livelihood of approximately 10–12 percent of the global
population (UNFAO, 2014a: 32), representing between 660–880 million people (UNFAO, 2016,
2012; Allison et al., 2013; High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE), 2014). This sector provides a
source of income for millions of people in low-income households (Béné, 2006; Béné et al.,
2015: 261), primarily in Asia (84%) and approximately ten percent in Africa (UNFAO, 2016: 5).
From an environmental point of view, it may be more beneficial to increase the production of
fish to meet future food demands instead of other animal products since meat production has a
higher carbon footprint than fish grown in aquaculture, per kilogram produced (Béné et al., 2015:
261; Hall et al., 2011). Nitrogen and phosphorus emissions are also lower in aquaculture
compared to beef and pork production, see Figure 1 (per kg of nitrogen and phosphorus produced
per tonne of protein produced) (Béné et al., 2015: 270).
9
Figure 1. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Emissions from Producing Beef, Pork, Chicken, Fish
and Bivalves (Data from Hall et al., 2011, Flachowsky 2002 and Poštrk 2003 in Béné et al.,
2015: 270)
Since fish are more efficient at converting feed into protein than other animals, it can be argued
that it is better environmentally and economically to increase the production of fish instead of
other animal husbandry practices (Béné et al., 2015: 261). Fish convert approximately 30 percent
of their feed into protein while poultry and pigs convert approximately 18 and 13 percent
respectively (Hannesson, 2015: 256; Hasan & Halwart, 2009). Fish are more efficient at
converting proteins because of the smaller requirement for skeletal production and not needing to
allocate energy to maintain their body temperature since fish are poikilotherms (cold-blooded)
(Béné et al., 2015: 270).
Fish and seafood are an important food source for people, providing essential macro and
micronutrients, while also having a better protein conversion efficiency and lower emissions and
carbon footprint than other animal husbandry systems (Béné et al., 2015: 270). These qualities
support the importance for improving the production of aquaculture and sustainability of fish
populations to assist in meeting future food requirements, as well as reduce micronutrient
deficiencies (HLPE, 2014: 18).
10
2.1.2 Pressures on Wild Fish Populations
Two major factors have contributed to the decline of global fisheries: increased capacity of
fishing fleets and the over-exploitation of fish populations (Willmann & Kelleher, 2009).
Advances in fishing technology have contributed to a significant increase in the amount of wild
fish caught and the over-exploitation of fish stocks (Tidwell & Allan, 2012: 5; Kennelly &
Broadhurst, 2002; NOAA, 2001), increasing global fish catches from 20 million tonnes in the
1950s to approximately 90 million tonnes in 2012 (Hannesson, 2015: 259). Advances in fishing
technology include electronic equipment (sonar), bottom trawling nets, larger and faster fishing
vessels and smaller mesh sizes in fishing nets (Kennelly & Broadhurst, 2002; NOAA, 2001). In
addition to the advances in technology and increasing size of vessels, the number of fishers in the
capture (wild) fishery has increased by 10 million in the past twenty years (UNFAO, 2012)
(Figure 2) contributing to the increased pressure on fish stocks.
Figure 2. Employment in Wild Capture Fisheries and Fish Farmers (1990 to 2010)
(UNFAO, 2012: 42)
Illegal fishing
In addition to the advancements in fishing equipment and the increased number fishing fleets,
illegal fishing also contributes to the decline of fish populations. Losses due to illegal and
unreported fishing are estimated to be between 11 and 26 million tonnes, equivalent to $10 to
$23.5 billion annually (US) (Agnew et al., 2009). Illegal fishing increases the difficulty in
monitoring fish populations and in creating management plans for sustainable fisheries.
11
Other factors in the decline in global marine and fresh water fish populations include lack of
long-term management (Kennelly & Broadhurst, 2002), pollution, habitat destruction, and
invasive species (Ye et al., 2013: 174; Sumaila, 2011: 44). Coastal development, dams, and
drilling oil can contribute to declining of aquatic populations as well (Béné et al., 2015: 265).
These human impacts, coupled with climate change have significantly negative effects on
freshwater ecosystems including the Aral Sea and Lake Chad (UNFAO, 2012: 8). The UNFAO
states, “globally, inland fishery resources appear to be continuing to decline as a result of habitat
degradation and overfishing” and that this trend “is unlikely to be reversed” (UNFAO, 2006: 34).
Declining fish populations will affect local fishers, post-harvest workers and consumers (Hall et
al., 2010: 78); sustaining fisheries and aquaculture are important for employment and food
security worldwide. Declining fish populations will have a significant impact in areas that
depend on local supplies oppose to markets that obtain seafood from a variety of international
sources (Hall et al., 2010: 78). Models estimate that fisheries and aquaculture can maintain
current fish consumption rates to meet population demands in the future only if wild fish are
harvested at sustainable rates and technological development in aquaculture continues (Béné et
al., 2015: 269).
2.1.3 Recent Fish Populations
Global seafood consumption has increased since the 1990s, but global harvests of wild fish have
remained steady (Figure 3) (UNFAO, 2012; Tidwell & Allan, 2012: 5; Hannesson, 2015: 251).
The tonnage of wild fish caught in global fisheries has declined slightly since 1996, from 86
million tonnes to 79 million tonnes in 2012 (UNFAO, 2014a: 37) despite increases in fishing
effort. It is likely that wild fisheries are at their maximum sustainable harvest levels (Tidwell &
Allan, 2012: 5) or are already at levels that are unsustainable (Coll et al., 2008). The majority of
capture (wild) fisheries around the world are currently either fully fished or over-fished (Figure
4) (UNFAO, 2012; Boyd et al., 2013: 15). It is not likely that there will be an increase in yields
from wild fisheries (Tidwell & Allan, 2012: 5).
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Figure 3. World Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture Production (UNFAO, 2012: 4)
Figure 4. State of the Global Marine Fish Stocks (1974 - 2011) (UNFAO, 2014a: 37)
There are various predictions as to when global fisheries are expected to collapse. Worm et al.
(2006) argue that most wild fish species are expected to be depleted by 2048 if current fishing
trends continue, as fish populations are currently being fished at, or above, their maximum
biological productivity (UNFAO, 2005). Froese, Stern-Pirlot & Kesner-Reyes (2009) expect “the
global reservoir of unexploited fishable stocks is likely to be exhausted in (the year) 2020”.
There are other estimates that indicate that a global collapse of fish stocks may not occur (Béné
et al., 2015: 267) as recent estimates project stability in global fishery yields in the near future
13
(Béné et al., 2015: 267). The OECD and FAO (2013) estimated that wild fish yields will increase
5 percent to approximately 96 Mt by 2024 and the World Bank, FAO and IFPRI estimated that
yields will increase to approximately 93 Mt in 2030 (Béné et al., 2015: 267).
There have been increases in catches of some species in the Northwest Atlantic and Northeast
Pacific (Tidwell & Allan, 2012: 5). This may be an indication of the regulation and management
that has occurred in these areas and may be an indicator that with proper management, yields can
continue without depleting populations (Tidwell & Allan, 2012: 5). Despite the controversy
about the depletion of wild fish stocks, there is consensus that wild marine and freshwater yields
may not increase significantly in the future (Tidwell & Allan, 2012: 5).
2.2 Importance of Aquaculture
2.2.1 Commercial Aquaculture in Canada
Aquaculture is thought to have been utilized by ancient civilizations; for example, aquaculture
has been depicted on Egyptian tombs 4000 years old; written in ancient Chinese books dating
over 2000 years (Costa-Pierce, 2010) and indigenous populations have been involved in
sustainable aquaculture for millennia (Aboriginal Aquaculture Association, 2015). In the 19th
century, aquaculture began in Canada with the objective of enhancing wild stocks (Olin, 2012).
The commercialization of aquaculture, however, did not begin until the 1950s, with trout farming
and culturing oysters (DFO, 2013a). Aquaculture has grown significantly in value and
production (tonnes) over the past 30 years (Diana et al., 2013: 255) (Figure 5) and is currently a
commercial industry in Canada (DFO, 2016a).
14
Figure 5. Reported Aquaculture Production in Canada (1950 - 2010) (UNFAO, 2016)
In 1986, aquaculture production was valued at $35 million (Canadian Aquaculture Industry
Alliance (CAIA), 2015) and production has continued to increase in value to over $800 million
in 2011 (Nguyen & Williams, 2013). Aquaculture has become an important industry in Canada,
contributing over $1 billion to Canada’s GDP (in 2010) (SSCFO, 2015b: 15). Aquaculture plays
a valuable economic role in the fisheries sector, contributing over a third of the total fish and
seafood value in Canada (SSCFO, 2015b: 12), worth $733 million (in 2014) (DFO, 2015b).
Although wild fisheries currently produce more seafood and fish in Canada, aquaculture
produces high value products; aquaculture contributes to more than a third of the total fisheries
value while producing one fifth of the fish and seafood (SSCFO, 2015b: 12).
Aquaculture contributes to the economies of all ten provinces and Yukon (CAIA, 2015). In
Canada, the aquaculture industry sustains over 14 000 full time jobs (directly, indirectly and
induced) (DFO, 2015c; SSCFO, 2015b: 15) and has the potential to double production,
increasing employment and GDP in Canada (SSCFO, 2015b: 15). Many jobs in the aquaculture
industry are a significant source of employment and economic growth for remote, rural and
coastal communities, including over 50 First Nations communities (DFO, 2015c; SSCFO, 2015b:
15
15; Aboriginal Aquaculture Association 2015: 8). For example, a quarter of the jobs in Charlotte
County, New Brunswick, are involved in the aquaculture industry, generating millions of dollars
for the New Brunswick economy (SSCFO, 2015b: 15). Aquaculture creates year round
employment and is particularly beneficial to areas that are susceptible to seasonal unemployment
and areas where wild fishery, forestry and mining sectors have declined (DFO, 2015c; DFO,
2013a).
By increasing aquaculture production, Canada can make a significant impact on future global
food requirements, assist in reducing the rates of malnutrition, and contribute to global food
security (Mathiesen, 2013). Despite Canada’s potential for aquaculture production, Canada is a
relatively small global producer (DFO, 2012). Canada produces about 0.25 percent of the total
global aquaculture production (UNFAO, 2014c) and ranks 18th in the world for aquaculture
production value (in 2010) (DFO, 2016b). Canada has a niche market with Atlantic salmon
production (Nguyen & Williams, 2013) and is the fourth-largest producer of farmed salmon
(DFO, 2015a). Canada produces about 7 percent of the farmed salmon worldwide in 2009,
behind Norway, Chile and the U.K. (Scotland) (Nguyen &Williams 2013). Almost 90 percent of
the value of the aquaculture industry in Canada is from Atlantic salmon sales (in 2010) (Olin,
2012). Blue mussels are another significant source of revenue for aquaculture in Canada,
accounting for over 50 percent of the revenue from shellfish (Olin, 2012).
Currently over 85 percent of the aquaculture produced in Canada is exported, primarily to the
United States (CAIA, 2016; DFO, 2016c). Canada is the largest fish and shellfish supplier to the
United States (Chopin, 2015: 28; CAIA, 2015); 97 percent of farmed salmon exports and 99
percent of mussel exports from Canada were shipped to the United States in 2011 (Nguyen &
Williams, 2013). Canada also exports aquaculture products to more than sixty countries (DFO,
2012). The amount of seafood Canada exports to China, Taiwan and Japan is increasing, for
example, the amount of mussels that have been exported to China increased over 400 percent
between 2008 and 2010 (Atlantic Canada Opportunities Agency, 2013).
With growing markets, increasing global demand and available resources in Canada, the
Canadian Aquaculture Industry Alliance (CAIA) estimates that Canada has the potential to
16
double aquaculture production in ten years (2014-2024) (SSCFO, 2015b: 15). Increasing
aquaculture production in Canada can support local food requirements and increase food security
internationally by exporting aquaculture products to countries that require additional sources of
food. Doubling aquaculture production would result in an increase from approximately 173,000
to over 378,000 tonnes of finfish and shellfish (SSCFO, 2015b: 13), raising the annual GPD to
$2.5 billion and expanding fulltime employment for an additional 18 000 people (SSCFO,
2015b: 15). Aquaculture in Canada currently uses about one percent of the areas biophysically
suitable for aquaculture (37 000 hectares) (SSCFO, 2015b: 16). In order to double aquaculture
production, it should not be necessary to double the environmental impacts on these areas. An
increase of 0.35 percent of these areas could be utilized to double aquaculture production,
amounting to an additional 14 400 hectares (SSCFO, 2015b: 16).
In Canada, total aquaculture production increased approximately 1.5 percent annually over a ten-
year period, between 2003 and 2013 (see table 1 and figure 6). Whereas, other countries have
grown at least six percent annually (ACFFA, 2014, Salmon, 2014), including competitors such
as Norway (growing at 8% on average) (SSCFO, 2015b: 13). Aquaculture growth in Canada has
not always been slow; annual growth was close to 20 percent between 1986 and 2002 (Figure 5
and 6) (SSCFO, 2015b:13). Canadian aquaculture production increased four-fold in ten years,
from 1990 to 2002; however, growth has remained stagnant for the past fifteen years (Salmon,
2014). Figures 5 and 6 show that the volume of aquaculture produced in Canada has not changed
significantly from 2002 to 2013. This stagnation has caused Canada to lose over 47 percent of its
global market share to competitors (ACFFA, 2014: 21; Salmon, 2014).
The Canadian aquaculture industry has faced challenges including public opposition, infectious
salmon anaemia (in the early 2000s), low global prices of salmon, dependence on the United
States market and complex internal regulations (UNFAO, 2016; Nguyen & Williams, 2013).
Public opposition of aquaculture has been most significant on the east and west coasts of Canada.
In the early 2000s, the Deputy Minister of Nova Scotia said that recreational property owners
and developers were concerned about the environment and “almost always oppose aquaculture
development” (Underwood, 2001). Canada’s aquaculture industry has been constrained by
complex federal and provincial regulations, resulting in lack of growth and investment funds
17
Table 1. Total Aquaculture Production in Canada 2003 to 2014 (DFO, 2016d)
allocated to businesses outside of Canada (Chopin, 2015: 30; ACFFA, 2014: 21; Salmon, 2014).
Parker (2015) indicates that the Fisheries Act limits the growth of aquaculture in Canada. The
Fisheries Act was created in 1868 (DFO, n.d.) to manage wild resources, not a commercial
aquaculture industry, and therefore has resulted in regulations not suitable to growth of the
industry (Chopin, 2015; ACFFA, 2014). Many stakeholders agree that a new federal Aquaculture
Act is needed as the Fisheries Act does not provide an acceptable framework (Nguyen &
Williams, 2013). A new federal Aquaculture Act is required to reduce regulatory confusion,
eliminate jurisdictional overlap and duplication (Salmon, 2014). This new Aquaculture Act will
assist the growth of responsible and sustainable aquaculture in Canada as well as support new
technologies and practices within the aquaculture industry (Salmon, 2014).
Canada has faced other challenges in the aquaculture sector, for example the value of the
Canadian dollar increased while the price for Atlantic salmon decreased (Nguyen & Williams,
2013). Moratoria have also negatively affected the growth of salmon production; a moratorium
Year Aquaculture
Production (tonnes)
2003 150 205
2004 141 580
2005 154 484
2006 171 629
2007 152 475
2008 155 362
2009 155 732
2010 162 146
2011 169 235
2012 183 106
2013 169 987
2014 133 583
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occurred from 1995 to 2002 on new salmon farm licenses in British Columbia and another
moratorium in 2009 followed a ruling that aquaculture regulation was the responsibility of the
federal government (Nguyen & Williams, 2013).
Production in Canada
All ten provinces and Yukon have aquaculture operations (DFO, 2015d, 2016a). The majority of
the aquaculture production in Canada occurs on the Pacific and Atlantic coasts (DFO, 2013b) as
seen in Figure 7. Over 90 percent of the aquaculture in Canada (by volume) is produced on the
east coast (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador and Prince Edward
Island) and Pacific coast (British Columbia) (SSCFO, 2015b:12). Ontario, Quebec, the Prairies
and Yukon Territory produce approximately 6 percent of the aquaculture produced in Canada
(by volume in 2013) (SSCFO, 2015b: 12).
Figure 6. Aquaculture Production in Canada 1986-2013 (in Thousands of Metric Tonnes)
(SSCFO, 2015b: 14)
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Figure 7. Aquaculture Production in Canada by Province (Percentage of Volume) in 2013
(Yukon is not included in Figure 7 because production was too small) (SSCFO, 2015b: 12)
2.2.2 Methods of Aquaculture
A variety of aquaculture production methods are used worldwide. This section briefly introduces
aquaculture methods, including methods used in Canada (figure 9). Extensive aquaculture
systems are those where organisms find food in the natural environment within the system (non-
fed aquaculture), whereas organisms produced in intensive systems depend on feed being added
to the system (fed aquaculture) (Bernal & Oliva, 2016: 5). Aquaculture has transitioned from an
extensive practice to an intensive industry and this transition is likely to continue. Semi-intensive
and intensive practices comprise almost 70 percent of the total aquaculture production, relying
on outside feed inputs for production (Bernal & Oliva, 2016: 6; Tacon, Hasan & Metian, 2011).
The primary supply of marine farmed species utilizes intensive practices (Anras et al., 2010: 12).
The amount of fresh water fed aquaculture (semi-intensive and intensive practices) has also
20
Figure 8. Fed and Non-Fed Global Aquaculture Production, 2000 to 2012 (UNFAO, 2014a)
significantly increased since 2000, increasing over 15 million tonnes, seen in Figure 8. Over 40
species of finish, shellfish and aquatic plants are commercially grown in Canada (DFO, 2015d)
in a variety of intensive and extensive aquaculture production methods including net pen
operations, land-based facilities, subtidal and intertidal operations (Figure 9). Net pens and land-
based systems in Canada are typically intensive productions methods (fed aquaculture).
Aquaculture in Canada typically involves fresh water or marine environments (see Figure 9), but
aquaculture can also occur in brackish water. Brackish water is a mix of fresh water and salt
water and is usually used for Penaeid shrimp farming (Boyd & McNevin, 2015: 3).
Land-based Operations
Land-based aquaculture facilities are facilities built on land where fish can grow in tanks,
raceways and ponds. Land-based facilities include flow-through facilities, closed-containment
facilities also known as recirculating facilities and partial re-circulating facilities. Flow-through
facilities are systems where the water used for aquaculture production returns to the
environment, whereas, recirculating facilities reuse the water before it leaves the facility.
21
Figure 9. Types of Aquaculture Operations in Canada (DFO, 2014a)
Ponds are confined bodies of standing water that grow aquatic plants, crustaceans and fish for
small-scale subsistence and large-scale commercial aquaculture (Tucker & Hargreaves, 2012:
191). Ponds can contain fresh, salt or brackish water and can be lined with impervious materials
or made from soil (Tucker & Hargreaves, 2012: 193).
Flow-through systems can be earthen ponds, tanks, or other units, but are most concrete (Boyd,
2015: 9). Since water is a constant input in the system (Tucker & Hargreaves, 2012: 192), these
systems can grow species at higher densities than pond operations (Boyd, 2015: 9).
Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) are also called closed loop systems, recycle systems or
intensive recycle systems (Tidwell, 2012: 74). These systems grow species in a manmade
operation, usually tanks, where operators have control over every aspect of the growing process
(Tidwell, 2012: 73) including feed, pH, temperature, suspended solids and dissolved oxygen.
Recirculating systems reuse the water in the system with the assistance of aeration and waste
removal (Tidwell, 2012: 74). These systems provide the opportunity for facilities to operate close
to market with minimal environmental impacts (Bostock, 2011: 136). With additional technology
and environmental control there is a high cost involved in building and operating recirculating
systems compared to other aquaculture operations (Ebeling & Timmons, 2012; Bostock, 2011:
136).
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2.2.3 Concerns of the Aquaculture Industry on the Environment and Commercial Fisheries
Aquaculture without environmental mitigation can be detrimental to ecosystems and has
received significant criticism from environmental advocate groups (Boyd & McNevin, 2015:
16). Concerns regarding the environmental impacts of aquaculture have contributed to the
development, as well as perhaps hindered development, of aquaculture in Europe and North
America (Bostock, 2011: 136). As the aquaculture industry develops, intensification of
aquaculture methods result in the production of more fish and seafood in a smaller physical area.
Higher stocking densities required for an increase in production in intensive systems also
produce a larger amount waste per unit than extensive systems. These systems often rely less on
the surrounding environment than extensive systems to operate but still require a significant
amount of input from the natural environment. Potential environmental impacts include
excessive fish feed, habitat degradation, pollution and sediments from waste, organisms escaping
from farms, (Bernal & Oliva, 2016: 5; UNFAO, 2016: 11; Moccia & Bevan, 2005: 16),
consumption of water and the release of chemicals and antibiotics into the surrounding
ecosystem (Tucker, Hargreaves & Boyd, 2008: 38). Environmental impacts from aquaculture
can involve a decrease in local biodiversity due to land use or water pollution (Boyd et al., 2013:
17). Table 2 lists some of the major concerns regarding aquaculture. Some of these
environmental concerns are discussed further in this section.
Aquaculture Feed
The largest impact aquaculture has on the world’s natural resources is the use of fishmeal and
fish oil (Boyd et al., 2013: 17). Feed is an essential input for intensive aquaculture systems.
Extensive systems that do not add feed for production, contribute to a net increase of global
animal protein (Bernal & Oliva, 2016: 5), whereas intensive systems that require feed in the form
of plant or animal protein, may not contribute to a net increase of global animal protein (Bernal
& Oliva, 2016: 5). The contribution of intensive aquaculture to global animal protein depends on
the efficiency of the aquaculture species to convert feed into biomass (Bernal & Oliva, 2016: 6).
In intensive aquaculture systems, fish feed is often a high-protein feed called fishmeal; producers
use fish oil as a feed additive (UNFAO, 2014a: 7). A sizeable amount of the world’s fish goes
23
into fishmeal and fish oil- about 75 percent of the fish production for non-human consumption is
used to produce fishmeal and fish oil (UNFAO, 2014a: 42). Annual production of aquaculture
feed increased 21 million tonnes in 13 years (1995-2008) (Tacon, Hasan & Metian, 2011).
Table 2. Major Issues about Aquaculture that are of Concern to Environmentalists (Boyd
& McNevin, 2015: 14)
Fishmeal and fish oil primarily consist of small fish that have high rates of reproduction, such as
anchovies, small sardines and menhaden (Bernal & Oliva, 2016: 7). There are arguments
suggesting that these fish used for fishmeal could be more useful as a protein source for direct
human consumption (HLPE, 2014). Dependence on wild fisheries for fishmeal is unsustainable
(Van Os, 2011: 15) and can be a barrier to increasing aquaculture production (Boyd et al., 2013:
17) because of the quantity that can be caught and the price. Aquaculture production will not be
able to increase to the amount required for future food requirements if aquaculture feed continues
to comprise of fishmeal and fish oil at the current levels (Boyd et al., 2013: 17). Aquaculture
feed (fishmeal) is subject to global market shocks and volatility. Since 2005, the price of
fishmeal increased by 55 percent (Rana et al., 2009). From 2005 to 2013, the price of fishmeal
increased 206 percent before declining 20 percent the following year (UNFAO, 2014a: 61).
24
The dependence on wild fish is decreasing, about 35 percent of the fishmeal in 2012 was
comprised of fisheries by-products (frames, off-cuts and offal from both wild and farmed fish)
(Bernal & Oliva, 2016). The price of feed can be a motivating factor to increase the sustainability
and affordability of feed (Béné et al., 2015: 268). There has been, and continues to be, attempts
to develop feed that is more environmentally sustainable and that can reduce or replace fishmeal
and fish oil from feed (UNFAO, 2014a: 44; Love et al., 2014: 9). Figure 10 shows the decrease
in fishmeal production from 1995. Aquaculture production is expected to increase from 2010 to
2030 while only increasing the supply of fishmeal by 8 percent (UNFAO, 2014a: 205; World
Bank, 2014).
Figure 10. Observations and Predictions for the Declining Use of Fishmeal in Aquaculture
(Bernal & Oliva, 2016: 9)
Impact of Effluent and Water Quality
High levels of nutrients and suspended solids are created within intensive aquaculture systems
from excess feed, fish excrement (Turcios & Papenbrock, 2014: 840) and organic and inorganic
fertilizers (Tucker, Hargreaves & Boyd, 2008: 40). In some cases, 50 to 80 percent of the
nutrients from feed is released into the aquaculture water, as species cannot consume the feed
efficiently (Castine et al., 2013: 286). Only 20-50 percent of total nitrogen supplemented in feed
contributes to the biomass of species; the remainder is released to the water or sediment (Boyd &
McNevin, 2015: 199, Martinez-Porchas & Martinez-Cordova, 2012: 3). Similarly, other research
25
has shown that only 5-10 percent of the organic carbon and 30-40 percent phosphorus in feed
contribute to the biomass of fish while shrimp only retain 5–10 percent of phosphorus (Boyd &
McNevin, 2015: 199).
If this waste is not managed appropriately, there can be serious impacts to the ecosystem
including eutrophication (Kloas et al., 2015: 180; Boyd & McNevin, 2015: 199; Martinez-
Porchas & Martinez-Cordova, 2012: 2) and pathogens spread to wild fish (Diana et al., 2013:
260) through effluent (Tucker, Hargreaves & Boyd, 2008: 45). Hormones, antibiotics and
pesticides are sometimes used in aquaculture and can have environmental impacts (Martinez-
Porchas & Martinez-Cordova, 2012: 2; Turcios & Papenbrock, 2014: 837). Antibiotic use can
change the composition of microbial communities and can lead to resistant strains of pathogenic
bacteria (Tucker, Hargreaves & Boyd, 2008: 43). There has been limited research on the
environmental impacts of hormones (Martinez-Porchas & Martinez-Cordova, 2012: 2) and
antimicrobial use in aquaculture (LaPatra & MacMillan, 2008: 500).
Energy Requirements
Intensive land-based aquaculture requires energy inputs for aeration, pumps and temperature
regulation (Ayer & Tyedmers, 2009: 370). Economic and environmental impacts of energy use
in aquaculture vary between methods of production and sources of electricity. For example,
hydropower and electricity produced from fossil fuels, in particular coal power plants produce
higher levels of harmful emissions to air and water (Ayer & Tyedmers, 2009: 328). The average
monthly electricity bill for one recirculating facility in Canada was approximately $3000 to
operate the oxygen generator, influent and recirculating pumps using 35 000 kWh (in 2014)
(Atkinson, Bibby & Atkinson, 2014: 12).
2.3 Biofloc Technology (BFT)
2.3.1 History of Biofloc Aquaculture Systems and Methods
Biofloc aquaculture is a system in which restricted water exchange results in the growth of
microscopic organisms including bacteria, zooplankton, nematodes, fungi, algae, and/or protists
26
(Hargreaves, 2013: 1). Biofloc systems remove excess nutrients from the water through these
micro-organisms, and in turn the microorganisms can be consumed by the cultured fish (or other
organism) (De Schryver et al., 2008: 125; Ogello et al., 2014: 21; Crab et al., 2012: 351,
Aquaculture Engineering Society (AES), 2014). Microorganisms increase water quality through
microbial uptake of fish excreta and feed waste (Crab et al., 2012: 351; De Schryver et al., 2008:
126; Pérez-Rostro, Pérez-Fuentes & Hernández-Vergara, 2014: 87, 91). Floc technology began
in the 1970s at Ifremer-COP (Emerenciano et al., 2013a: 75). Other studies in the late 1970s also
relating to biofloc began in the form of heterotrophic food web research (developed by Hepher,
Schroeder, Moav and Wohlfarth) (Tidwell, 2012: 279; Avnimelech, 2015: 37), and organic
detrital algae soup (ODAS) (researched by Steven Serfling and Dominick Mendola at Solar
Aquafarms) (Tidwell, 2012: 279; Avnimelech, 2015: ii). Commercial production based on the
concept of biofloc technology began in the 1980s (Serfling, 2006), however “the knowledge base
concerning the technique is still undeveloped” (Azim & Little, 2008: 29).
Figure 11. An individual biofloc (scale 100 microns) (Hargreaves, 2013: 1)
Bioflocs are typically grown in the same water as the fish for two reasons: to control water
quality and to provide additional food for the species in the aquaculture system (Lekang, 2013:
206, Hargreaves, 2013: 2). Figure 12 shows the biological process of the biofloc system. Biofloc
systems are typically comprised of heterotrophic (e.g. bacteria) and autotrophic (algae)
components (Lekang, 2013: 206). Solids must remain suspended in the water at all times or the
system will not function (Hargreaves, 2013: 3). Water quality is maintained by mixing water and
aeration (Hargreaves, 2013: 1). Biofloc systems are appropriate for species that can tolerate high
27
Figure 12. Biological Process of Biofloc (Pérez-Rostro, Pérez-Fuentes & Hernández-Vergara,
2014: 88)
solids concentrations (Hargreaves, 2013: 3) unless the biofloc production is in a separate tank
from the species being produced (ex-situ biofloc technology) (Avnimelech, 2015: 87). BFT have
low initial and maintenance costs for intensive aquaculture production (Avnimelech, 2015: 15).
High levels of inorganic nitrogen, ammonia (NH3) and transformed nitrite (NO2) are produced in
intensive aquaculture systems (Lekang, 2013: 206). Bacteria in BFT systems remove nitrogen
from the water for protein production (Avnimelech, 2015: 61). This system has several benefits
including maximizing feed, improving biosecurity, reducing water use through zero or minimal
water exchange and reducing environmental impacts of effluent (Avnimelech, 2015: 15).
2.3.2 Species Grown in Biofloc Aquaculture Systems
As noted above, species that grow most efficiently in in-situ biofloc systems are those that are
able to thrive in water with a high amount of suspended solids and that can consume flocs and
receive nutritional benefit from consumption (Hargreaves, 2013: 3). Shrimp, tilapia and carp are
28
the most common species used in biofloc systems (Hargreaves, 2013: 3). Other species grown in
biofloc systems include: North African catfish (Clarias gariepinus), mullet, prawns including
Malaysian prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) (Pérez-Rostro, Pérez-Fuentes & Hernández-
Vergara, 2014), black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon), Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus
vannamei), giant gourami (Osphronemus goramy) and Asian green mussel (Perna viridis)
(Ekasari et al., 2014). Aquatic species are continuously being experimented with biofloc systems.
Biofloc systems are used in many countries, seen in figure 14, including Israel (Emerenciano at
al., 2013b: 302), Belize (Taw, 2010: 20; Burford, Thompson, McIntosh, Bauman & Pearson,
2003), Indonesia (Avnimelech, 2015: 161; Taw, 2010: 20), Malaysia (Taw, 2016), Australia
(Taw, 2010: 20), the United States of America, Tahiti, South Korea, Brazil, Italy, China and
countries in Latin and Central America (Emerenciano et al., 2013b: 303).
2.3.3 Benefits of Biofloc Aquaculture Systems
Biofloc systems align with consumers’ expectations that their food is beneficial to their health
and has been produced in an environmentally responsible way (UNFAO, 2009: 64). Biofloc
systems have less impact on land and water resources and support economic and social
sustainability (Crab et al., 2012: 351). Intensive production systems, such as biofloc, are a
practical and environmentally responsible way to increase aquaculture production (Avnimelech,
2011: 66).
Decreased Feed Use
The expansion of aquaculture requires sustainable practices (Ogello et al., 2014: 22; Naylor et
al., 2000: 117; Crab et al., 2012: 351); this includes reducing the amount of wild fish contained
in fish feed (Naylor et al., 2000; Munguti et al., 2009). Biofloc systems address this requirement
by reducing the dependence on feed up to 20 percent (Ekasari et al., 2010; Pérez-Rostro, Pérez-
Fuentes, & Hernández-Vergara, 2014: 91, 96), through the production of proteinaceous flocs for
fish/crustaceans to feed on (Crab et al., 2012: 353; Lekang, 2013; Azim & Little, 2008: 29). By
decreasing the use of fish feed, BFT systems also decrease the pressure on wild fish stocks (Crab
et al., 2012: 353). Biofloc systems produce microalgae and bacteria that have high nutritional
29
content (Pérez-Rostro, Pérez-Fuentes & Hernández-Vergara, 2014: 96) and align with general
aquaculture feed standards (Crab et al., 2012: 354). The BFT system reduces feed expenses by
increasing the efficiency of protein utilization through reusing protein in feed (Crab et al., 2012:
351; AES, 2014; Pérez-Rostro, Pérez-Fuentes & Hernández-Vergara, 2014: 91). Consumption of
microbial protein contributes to 20 to 30 percent of shrimp and tilapia growth in BFT systems
(Hargreaves, 2013: 2). BFT improves feed conversion, a good indicator of profitability and
economic sustainability (Hargreaves, 2013: 2) as feed is one of the most expensive component in
intensive aquaculture operations, typically comprising 50 to 70 percent of operating expenses
(Charo-Karisa, 2008; Furuya et al., 2004; UNFAO, 2014d: 6; DFO, 2012). Improving feed
conversion is significant as prices are not expected to decrease and fishmeal prices are volatile,
having increased over 200 percent from 2005 to 2013 (UNFAO, 2014a: 61).
Increased Production
Another benefit of biofloc systems include faster growth rates and increased biomass during
cultivation, related to high survival rates, compared to traditional pond farming (Pérez-Rostro,
Pérez-Fuentes, & Hernández-Vergara, 2014: 96). For example, one study showed the net
production of tilapia was 45 percent higher in the biofloc tanks than in tanks without biofloc
(Azim & Little, 2008).
Efficient Water Treatment and Decreased Water Consumption
Intensive aquaculture production usually requires a waste treatment system (Hargreaves, 2013:
1). BFT can also be viewed as a sustainable water treatment technique and can provide an
economic advantage compared to conventional water treatment technologies in aquaculture
production (Crab et al., 2012: 351). BFT can be viewed as a sustainable water treatment method,
as the process to control water quality is achieved through microbial removal of excess nutrients
from the water, balancing nitrogen and carbon levels (Crab et al., 2012: 351, 353; De Schryver et
al., 2008: 126; Pérez-Rostro, Pérez-Fuentes & Hernández-Vergara, 2014: 87, 91). Biofloc
systems are a robust technique that are easy to operate (Crab et al., 2012: 353) and can decrease
the cost of water use by 30 percent (Crab et al., 2012: 351), whereas conventional technologies
require frequent maintenance, generate secondary pollution and are often expensive (Crab et al.,
2012: 353).
30
By managing the nutrients in the water, less water is required for production (Serfling, 2006).
Biosecurity increases in BFT systems since less water is exchanged as less water is required for
production (Hargreaves, 2013: 1). Previous shrimp ponds exchanged ten percent of the water for
production per day to manage the water quality, in areas where many shrimp farms were close
together this resulted in the spread of disease (Hargreaves, 2013: 1).
Economic Advantage
Avnimelech (2011: 66) describes commercial biofloc systems as having a reasonable investment
and operating costs. When compared to traditional pond farming, biofloc systems have faster
growth rates, increased biomass from higher survival rates and require less feed (Pérez-Rostro,
Pérez-Fuentes, & Hernández-Vergara, 2014: 96). However, biofloc systems also have higher
operating costs because they require aeration; increased costs can be between 10 and 40 percent
(Pérez-Rostro, Pérez-Fuentes & Hernández-Vergara, 2014: 96). Even with higher operating costs
Pérez-Rostro, Pérez-Fuentes & Hernández-Vergara (2014: 96) found a 12.9 - 14 percent overall
cost savings in shrimp, Malaysian prawn and tilapia biofloc systems compared to traditional
pond farming. These savings are a result of less water pumping and a 20 percent increase in
survival resulting in a 25 percent increase in biomass (Pérez-Rostro, Pérez-Fuentes &
Hernández-Vergara, 2014: 96).
Similarly, Azim & Little (2008) found the net production of Nile tilapia was 45 percent higher in
a biofloc system than in a system without biofloc. Apart from increasing production, biofloc
systems can also provide an economic advantage to aquaculture production by increasing feed
conversion (Azim & Little, 2008) and decreasing the requirement of feed by 20-30 percent
(Eksari, 2010).
2.3.4 Challenges of Biofloc Aquaculture Systems
In-situ biofloc systems are beneficial for producing species that can survive in high
concentrations of suspended solids (Hargreaves, 2013: 3). This limits the number of species that
will grow in these systems. Species such as channel catfish and hybrid striped bass would not be
suitable for BFT (Hargreaves, 2013: 3). Excessive solids can irritate or clog gills and increase the
31
oxygen required for production (Hargreaves, 2013: 10).
A barrier to implementing biofloc systems is the expectation of aquaculture operators that the
water in an aquaculture system should be clear (Crab et al., 2012: 351; Avnimelech, 2009).
When compared to RAS, BFT is less efficient and not more “attractive economically”
(Watterson et al., 2012: 4). Other challenges of BFT systems include maintaining the microbial
community (Haslun, Correia, Strychar, Morris & Samocha, 2012: 30). Although BFT has been
used for decades, the knowledge base of BFT is undeveloped (Azim & Little, 2008: 29) and
issues with the system are still not well understood (Hargreaves, 2013: 10). Ambiguity within
BFT may be due to the diversity of systems, which can cause difficulties in creating general
designs and standard practices (Hargreaves, 2013: 10).
2.4 Aquaponic Systems
2.4.1 History of Aquaponic Systems and Methods
Aquaponics is an interconnected system growing crops and fish. Plants grow without soil, using
aquaculture effluent as a source of water and nutrients; a diagram of the system is seen in figure
13 (Rakocy, 2012: 343; Turcios & Papenbrock, 2014: 838). After the plants utilize the nutrients
in the effluent, the water can be recirculated into the aquaculture system (Turcios & Papenbrock,
2014: 838). Aquaponics is not a new concept and has been used for hundreds of years (Turcios &
Papenbrock, 2014: 838). However, modern aquaponics date to the 1970s with the New Alchemy
Institute at the North Carolina State University (Turcios & Papenbrock, 2014: 839). Other North
American and European academic institutions in the late 1970s also contributed to the
development of modern systems today (Somerville et al., 2014: 7). The University of Virgin
Island’s Aquaculture Experiment Station (AES) has experimented and developed aquaponics and
became a world leader in commercial aquaponics (Eatmon et al., 2013: 199; Tokunaga et al.,
2015: 20). Currently aquaponics is used in over 40 countries and on every continent (Love et al.,
2014: 6) with a variety of methods that can operate indoors and outdoors. Countries that use
aquaponic systems, as identified in Love et al. (2014), can be seen in figure 14.
32
Figure 13. Basic diagram of an aquaponic system (Mssacay, 2013)
Figure 14. Countries with aquaponic and biofloc systems (Avnimelech, 2015; Burford,
Thompson, McIntosh, Bauman & Pearson, 2003; Emerenciano et al., 2013b; Love et al., 2014;
Taw, 2010; Taw, 2016)
33
2.4.2 Species Grown in Aquaponic Systems
Fish and Crustaceans
Tilapia is the most common fish species grown in aquaponic systems (Rakocy et al., 2006: 2). In
Love et al. (2014: 9), tilapia, ornamental fish and catfish were the species most often grown in
aquaponics systems. Other species raised in aquaponics are listed in table 3. Most species that
can grow in high densities are successful in aquaponics (Rakocy et al., 2006: 2). Species that
cannot tolerate high levels of potassium, such as hybrid striped bass, will not grow well in
aquaponic systems as potassium is often used for plant growth (Rakocy et al., 2006: 2).
Arctic char
Barramundi
Blue gill
Carp (including common
carp)
Channel catfish
Crappies
Crawfish
Goldfish
Guppies
Koi
Largemouth bass
Minnows
Mosquito Fish
Murray cod
Trout
Pacu
Perch (including jade perch)
Pangasius
Shrimp
Yabbies
Table 3. Species Raised in Aquaponic Facilities (Diver, 2006; Rakocy et al., 2006: 2; Love et
al., 2014: 8; Nelson, 2008)
Plants
Plants that have been grown in aquaponic systems include leeks, celery, eggplant, corn, taro,
flowers, cauliflower, okra, collard greens, ornamental plants, melons, beets, watercress, squash,
onions, cabbage, broccoli, bok choi, beans and peas, strawberries, chard, kale, cucumbers, head
lettuce, peppers, herbs, salad greens, tomato and basil (Love et al., 2014: 5).
34
2.4.3 Benefits of Aquaponic Systems
Aquaponics are systems that can contribute to global food security (Kloas et al., 2015: 179;
European Commission Community Research and Development Information Services (EU
CORDIS), 2016). Aquaponics are often described as a sustainable method of food production
because of the reduced environmental impacts and sustainable practices employed (Love et al.,
2014: 2; Tokunaga, 2015: 20). Aquaponic production uses water efficiently (Love et al., 2014: 2;
Tokunaga, 2015: 20; McMurtry et al., 1997), the same water recirculates from the fish species to
the plants and returns back to the fish. Using water efficiently through re-use in the system
increases profitability (Metaxa et al., 2006) and reduces environmental impacts of aquaculture
wastewater (Rakocy, 2012: 344; McMurtry et al., 1997). Since water is reused, less water is
extracted from surface or groundwater for production (Rakocy, 2012: 344). Areas with water
scarcity can benefit from utilizing aquaponics to produce food (Goddek et al., 2015: 4199, 4213).
Reducing the amount of water input into aquaponic systems also decreases the amount of heat
required to maintain water temperature; this can be a significant expense (Rakocy, 2012: 344)
and can have negative environmental impacts depending on the source of heat.
Aquaponics also provides the opportunity to sell additional products, diversifying potential
revenue sources (Dediu et al., 2012: 2349; Chopin, 2015). With ancillary products and a unique
food production system, aquaponics has the opportunity to create a “branding advantage”
(Chopin, 2015). Aquaponics can also produce food on marginal land not suitable for other food
production systems, as soil is not required for aquaponics (Tokunaga, 2015: 20). Aquaponic
systems can be simple to operate if fish densities are sufficient for plant growth (Rakocy et al.,
2006: 16). Aquaponics are also complex technological operations, as knowledge of horticulture,
aquaculture and ecological processes are required (Eatmon et al., 2013: 218).
Continued innovation in aquaponics has contributed to the increased environmental sustainability
of facilities. For instance, an aquaponic system for (nearly) emission free tomato and fish
production in greenhouses (ASTAF-PRO) has been tested and created by Scientists at Leibniz
Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB) in Berlin, Germany (Kloas et al.,
2015: 179; EU CORDIS, 2016). The ASTAF-PRO produces both fish and crops in an ideal
35
growing environment simultaneously (EU CORDIS, 2016). This system uses even less water and
has a smaller carbon footprint than other aquaponic systems (Kloas et al., 2015: 191; EU
CORDIS, 2016), improving the sustainability of this food production system. Aquaponics have
the potential to meet the “economic, environmental, and social goals of sustainable
development” (Eatmon et al., 2013: 214). Socio-economic benefits of aquaponic systems include
growing fish and produce year round, creating new jobs, community development opportunities,
including education and workshops, partnerships with schools, volunteer opportunities, youth
camps, local small business development and repurposing of abandoned buildings (Eatmon et al.,
2013: 195, 214).
2.4.4 Challenges of Aquaponic Systems
Aquaponic operations require significant capital investments, energy sources and specialized
operators, all of which can be challenging to obtain and maintain (Rakocy et al., 2006: 2). In
order to make a profit, fish and plant growth should both be continuously near maximum
production rates (Rakocy et al., 2006: 2). As the optimal levels of pH are different for fish and
plants, it is challenging to grow both in optimal conditions simultaneously (Kloas et al., 2015:
180). Fish and aerobic bacteria (nitrifying bacteria) are grown in optimum pH levels of ~7 to 9
and hydroponic plants typically grow well in pH levels of 5.8 to 6.2 (Rakocy et al., 2006; Kloas
et al., 2015: 180).
In addition to ideal growing conditions, access to niche markets may be necessary in order to
make a profit (Rakocy et al., 2006: 2), which may limit where operators can establish facilities.
Plant species chosen for cultivation in an aquaponic system are those that have a lower nutrient
requirement, including herbs and lettuce (Kloas et al., 2015: 180). A higher than average feed
conversion ratio can occur in aquaponic systems to raise the nitrogen waste levels (Kloas et al.,
2015: 180). Increasing feed usage has environmental impacts, discussed in other sections, and
increases expenses.
36
2.4 Diffusion of Aquaponics and Biofloc in Aquaculture
2.5.1 Adopting Innovation
An innovation is a new practice, or is perceived as new (Rogers, 2003: 12). The perception of the
innovation can be new in terms of knowledge, persuasion or deciding to adopt it (Rogers, 2003:
12). Rogers (2003) discusses basic diffusion models for innovations, including diffusion of
agricultural innovations. Rogers’ (2003) innovation-decision process is used as a way to
understand adoption practices and it is used in this thesis to understand stages of adoption and
what may influence facilities to implement biofloc and aquaponics systems.
The first stages of an innovation-decision process were conceptualized by Ryan and Gross in
1943 (Rogers, 2003: 169); Rogers presents a more recent model of the innovation-decision
process beginning in 1962. According to Rogers (2003: 20) there are five main steps in the
innovation-decision process; (i) knowledge, (ii) persuasion, (iii) decision, (iv) implementation
and (v) confirmation (figure 15) (Rogers, 2003: 20). The first stage in the innovation-decision
process is where the individual is introduced to the existence of the innovation and learns how it
works (Rogers, 2003: 169). Persuasion occurs when an opinion is made (favourable or
unfavourable) regarding the innovation (Rogers, 2003: 21). In this stage, the decision maker
wants to know the advantages and disadvantages of the innovations for their specific situation
(Rogers, 2003: 21). The decision stage involves activities that lead to a choice to either adopt or
reject the innovation (Rogers, 2003: 169). Implementation occurs when the new idea is used and
finally confirmation involves seeking further knowledge to support or oppose the adoption
Rogers, 2003: 169, 189).
Perceived attributes of innovations influence adoption and are important components of the
decision process (Rogers, 2003: 12). Adopters who perceive an innovation as having a greater
relative advantage, compatibility, trialability and observability and less complexity will adopt
that innovation more rapidly than other innovations (figure 16) (Rogers, 2003: 16). This thesis
examined some of the perceived attributes of aquaponic and biofloc systems, as these qualities
are the most significant in explaining the rate of adoption, according to past research (Rogers,
2003: 17).
37
Figure 15. Simplified model of Rogers innovation-decision process (adapted from Rogers,
2003: 170)
Eatmon et al. (2013: 202) found Rogers’ framework useful to understand the adoption of
aquaponics in the United States Great Lakes Region. The discussion section of this thesis
compares Rogers’ (2003) diffusion of innovation literature and the research of Eatmon et al.
(2013) to the results of this thesis involving the perception and willingness to adopt biofloc and
aquaponic systems in Canada.
Figure 16. Influences on innovation adoption (Rogers, 2003: 16)
38
2.5.2 History of Biofloc and Aquaponics in Canada
Commercial biofloc and aquaponic systems are relatively new practices in the aquaculture
industry in Canada. Commercial aquaponic operations increased in number in Canada in the
1990s (Turcios & Papenbrock, 2014: 839). These facilities often produced high-value crops,
including trout and lettuce (Turcios & Papenbrock, 2014: 839). In this thesis, the majority of
aquaponic facilities have been in operation for fewer than five years. Aquaponic operations are
expected to increase in number in Canada (Chopin, 2015). Biofloc is a system that is even less
utilized in Canada, to the researchers’ knowledge there are less than five known commercial
operations in Canada and one facility began operation within the past year.
2.5.3 Research Purpose
Using qualitative research methods, this research seeks to contribute to the literature on
commercial aquaponic production and the motivations for adopting aquaponic and biofloc
systems. There have not been many studies involving commercial aquaponic operations (Love et
al., 2015: 67) nor many studies that have involved the adoption and diffusion of aquaponics as a
method for sustainable agriculture (Eatmon et al., 2013: 197). Therefore, this thesis research
contributes to the limited literature on commercial aquaponic production (Love et al., 2015: 67)
as well as the limited studies on the adoption of aquaponic (Eatmon et al., 2013: 197) and biofloc
systems. This thesis will determine:
i) at what stage are aquaculture facilities in adopting aquaponic and biofloc systems?
ii) what are the incentives and barriers to adopting aquaponic and biofloc systems in
Canada?
iii) what may influence aquaculture owners’ to adopt aquaponic and biofloc systems and
why did operators decide to implement aquaponics?
This research will assist the need to spread information throughout the aquaponic community
by sharing this dissertation with all participants and industry professionals, as well as
individuals who expressed interest in this research. This dissertation provides an opportunity
for the aquaculture and aquaponic industry to locate other facilities as a publically accessible
list of all facilities in Canada is not available. This research also provides recommendations
and experiences from the aquaponic community in Canada.
39
Chapter 3 Research Methods
3.1 Geographic Location
To address the research questions in this thesis, aquaculture and aquaponic facilities and
government representatives were recruited from all provinces and territories that had aquaculture
operations (the Northwest Territories and Nunavut were not included because there was no
aquaculture or aquaponic facilities in these territories to the researchers’ knowledge) (DFO,
2012; CAIA, 2015). As there were no biofloc operations in Canada, to the researchers’
knowledge at the time of recruiting participants, international scientists in the biofloc field were
interviewed.
3.2 Study Population
This research involved participants from the following four categories; owners/operators of
commercial aquaculture facilities in Canada; owners/operators of commercial aquaponic
facilities in Canada; international biofloc experts; and Canadian government officials at the
provincial and territorial levels. The number of participants that participated in this research from
each participant group can be seen in table 4.
Participant Group Number of Participants
Commercial Aquaculture Facilities
(Owner/Operator)
10
Commercial Aquaponic Facilities
(Owner/Operator)
20
Government Officials 8
Biofloc Experts 4
Table 4. Interview Participants
40
3.3 Sample Size
The number of participants contacted to participate in this research and the response rates can be
seen in table 5. More details about each participant group is discussed below.
Participant Group Number of
Participants
Number of
Participants
Contacted
Response Rate
Commercial Aquaculture
Facilities
(Owner/Operator)
10 79 12.7%
Commercial Aquaponic
Facilities
(Owner/Operator)
20 33 60.6%
Government Officials 8 10 80%
Biofloc Experts 4 16 25%
Table 5. Participant Sample Size and Response Rate
Commercial Aquaculture Participants
There were over 900 aquaculture establishments in Canada (in 2014) (DFO, 2015b: 3). Due to
time constraints, the focus of this research narrowed the sample size to aquaculture license
holders that operate land-based commercial aquaculture facilities producing food for human
consumption. For the purpose of this research, commercial aquaculture was defined as
companies that operate to make an income; therefore, hobby farms were not included in the
sample. This research included land-based aquaculture facilities that operated flow-through or re-
circulating systems, including hatchery and grow-out operations. Companies that operated only
open-water, net pen aquaculture were not included in the sample as the methods of biofloc and
aquaponics were not currently applicable for these methods of aquaculture production.
41
It was difficult to identify the number of land-based aquaculture companies in Canada, as there
was no available national database containing all aquaculture license holders. This posed a
challenge to identify and contact potential participants. Some provincial websites (Quebec,
Manitoba, British Columbia, and Nova Scotia) had available information regarding the name of
aquaculture license holders in their province. These lists were a useful starting point to identify
potential participants, however; most of the lists were not up to date and did not contain contact
information. In addition to these challenges, provinces that had lists did not distinguish the
aquaculture production method the license holders used. Seventy-nine aquaculture facilities
relevant to this study were confirmed. Participants who were introduced to the author by
government officials, other aquaculture operators or were on-line were included in this study.
Commercial Aquaponic Participants
The aquaponic participants in this research were commercial facilities. Similar to Love et al.,
2015 (68), commercial aquaponic participants were defined as facilities that sell fish or plants (or
both) that have been grown in an aquaponic system. Facilities that were in construction and
planned to be a commercial operation were also included in this research. It was difficult to
identify the sample size of commercial aquaponic companies in Canada, as there was no publicly
available national database containing all aquaponic companies. From research and
communication with government officials from every province and territory in Canada, thirty-
four commercial aquaponic facilities were identified.
Participants Knowledgeable About Biofloc
The sample size of biofloc experts consisted of participants who had experience researching or
working with biofloc systems. Participants with biofloc experience in temperate regions and
indoor systems were contacted as their experience would be the most relevant to biofloc systems
in Canada and would provide more insight into the potential benefits and challenges of biofloc
systems in Canada. Biofloc experts were identified through academic, government and
aquaculture association literature. This purposive sampling method, used in qualitative studies,
was selected for the relevance to the research question (Schwandt, 2007: 270) to gain a better
understanding of the feasibility of implementing biofloc systems in Canada through primary
research of the opinions of biofloc experts. The criterion of purposive sampling consisted of
42
specialist knowledge (Oliver & Jupp, 2006: 245) of biofloc systems, based on literature
published in the field.
Government Participants
The sample of government participants included Canadian government officials from all ten
provinces and Yukon. The Northwest Territories and Nunavut did not have aquaculture or
aquaponic operations (DFO, 2014a) to the author’s knowledge, and were therefore not included
in this research. The government officials included individuals knowledgeable about aquaculture
in their province; participants were found online from provincial websites. Participants included
individuals from the following provincial ministries and departments;
Alberta Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture;
Ministère de l'Agriculture, des Pêcheries et de l'Alimentation du Québec (MAPAQ); Direction
des affaires législatives et des permis Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs; Ministère du
Développement durable, de l'Environnement et de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques
(MDDELCC); Manitoba Agriculture; Nova Scotia Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture;
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs; Saskatchewan Ministry of
Environment; Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture and two departments in Newfoundland.
Interviews inquired about aquaculture regulations and funding in each province and territory.
One representative from each of the ten provinces and the Yukon Territory was contacted by e-
mail. Additional participants from the same province were involved in this study when
participants felt it was important for a colleague to provide insight.
43
3.4 Interview Questions
This section reviews the interview questions that participants were asked. A full list of interview
questions is provided in Appendix F to I.
Aquaculture Facilities
Aquaculture facility owners and operators were asked questions about current operations
including species raised, waste management methods, community involvement, finances and the
number of years in operation. Participants were also asked about their awareness of aquaponic
and biofloc systems, compatibility of facilities with both systems and what would influence
facilities to implement either system.
Aquaponic Facilities
Owners of aquaponic facilities were asked a variety of questions about their operations,
including fish and plant species raised, reasons for species chosen, challenges of aquaponic
systems, community involvement and finances. Participants were also asked about their
experience in the aquaponic industry (including training), recommendations for people interested
in aquaponics and their opinion of aquaponics in Canada.
Experts in the Biofloc Field
Academics with experience in biofloc systems were asked questions about their experiences
including species raised, expenses, challenges and benefits of the system. Participants were also
asked their opinion of biofloc systems in Canada.
Provincial Government Employees
Provincial government employees involved in aquaculture licensing and regulations were asked
about permits required, species restrictions, funding opportunities for aquaculture facilities to
implement aquaponic and biofloc systems and limitations to implement either system.
44
3.5 Recruitment Strategy
All of the participants selected for this research fall into categories where internet usage is close
to 100 percent: government officials, college and university faculty, and members of business
and professional organizations (Guppy & Gray, 2008: 136). Therefore, initial participant contact
occurred by e-mail to obtain agreement to participate in a telephone interview. Initial contact e-
mails contained a description and intent of this study, the consent details if participants chose to
participate and the interview questions. This initial e-mail also provided the foundation for
snowball sampling, as this e-mail indicated that recipients could forward the e-mail to others in
the industry that may be willing to participate.
E-mail was chosen as the first method of contact as it is the least intrusive approach and can be
opened and answered by recipients at their convenience (James, 2006: 298). One hundred and
thirty-eight people were contacted for this research and forty-two people participated. Potential
participants who did not respond after one week were sent a follow up e-mail. In cases with no
response after two weeks, a phone call was made to inquire if participants were interested in the
study. For many aquaculture participants there was no e-mail available, therefore many of the
recruitment and initial contact for aquaculture participants occurred over the phone.
Interview lengths varied from approximately thirty minutes to almost two hours, depending on
the depth of participant answers. The average interview length was approximately one hour.
Eight participants preferred to respond by e-mail or mail, instead of participating in a telephone
interview, with the option to follow up with any questions that required further clarity on the
phone. One participant preferred to discuss the research questions on Skype. Prior to every
interview, consent was obtained verbally, by e-mail or mail, indicating that they read and
understood the details of participation according to the University of Toronto Ethics Board and
that the participants agree to be recorded during the interview for the sole purpose of the
researcher being able to record their answers accurately. Participants who consented to
participate in the interview received an ethics approved recruitment letter describing the
research, purpose of the study, instructions of what they were being asked to do, how their
information would be used and that they would have the opportunity to ask the researcher
questions prior to the interview (University of Toronto (UofT), 2010). A sentence in the consent
45
details explained that participants could contact the Office of Research Ethics at
[email protected] or 416-946-3273, if they had questions about their rights as
participants (UofT, 2010). Participants were also informed of their right to withdraw from the
study at any time.
3.6 Data Collection Method
The interviews, recruitment strategy and data collection methodology were approved by the
University of Toronto Ethics Board. Telephone interviews were chosen for this research as an
effective method to explore the opinion of participants. Telephone interviews are a time and cost
efficient research method as well as effective for accessing participants within a large geographic
area (Guppy & Gray, 2008: 149; Alreck & Settle, 1995: 38). Interviews over the telephone were
also considered the best way to contact government officials to receive a detailed response
(Guppy & Gray, 2008: 149). Interviews are recommended for more complex information
collection (Guppy & Gray, 2008: 149), therefore telephone interviews were conducted to
understand the motivations of aquaculture and aquaponic operators, gain expert opinions about
biofloc systems and receive information from government officials regarding complex issues of
regulations and funding opportunities. Interviews contained closed and open-ended questions;
open-ended questions are included to explore new and changing areas (Bryman et al., 2012: 83),
such as implementing a new technology (biofloc systems). Open-ended questions are important
for this research to engage in participant knowledge (for example aquaculture operators’
awareness of biofloc technology), understand issues as well as to include responses outside the
knowledge of the researcher (Bryman et al., 2012: 83). The analysis of open questions provides
added depth and richness to the data set (Julien, 2008: 847).
The author was unable to find previous interview or survey literature regarding motivations to
implement aquaponic and biofloc systems apart from Love et al.’s (2014, 2015) international
survey of aquaponic practitioners and Eatmon, Piso and Schmitt’s (2013) case studies on factors
influencing the adoption of commercial aquaponics in the Great Lakes region.
Love et al. 2014 (2) indicated that they were unable to find a survey tool to use for their study
46
regarding motivations and practices of aquaponic practitioners. Therefore, findings from Love et
al. (2014, 2015) were utilized to assist in the formulation of some of the interview questions. For
example, some of the motivating factors of aquaponic owners were compiled and used to see if
the same motivating factors would be applicable to aquaponics in Canada. Love et al. (2015: 68)
conducted a survey to document the production methods, crop and fish yields, and profitability
of commercial aquaponics in the United States and internationally. This research contributed to
the limited literature on commercial aquaponics but it left out the motivating factors for the
implementation of commercial aquaponic systems. Love et al. (2014) discussed the experiences
and motivations of participants involved with aquaponics, in addition to production methods and
demographics. These results are relevant to this thesis as their findings identify aquaponic
owner’s motivations to implement the system. In the study by Love et al. (2014, 2015), eighty
percent of the participants were from the United States and 10 commercial aquaponic
respondents were from Canada. I was not able to identify if the respondents who were surveyed
in Canada were the same as those whom I interviewed, since Love et al. (2014: 2) included
participants that sold aquaponic related materials, but were not aquaponic owners; this differs
from the inclusion criteria for this thesis. The interviews conducted for this thesis included 20
commercial aquaponic facilities that either sold the fish or plants that were produced (or both) as
well as facilities that were in construction and planned to be commercial facilities in Canada.
Interview Analysis
Interviews were recorded and transcribed in Microsoft Word. Responses were combined or
grouped with similar answers to understand common themes (Bryman et al., 2012: 83; Guppy &
Gray, 2008: 184; Cope, 2005: 231). Organizing responses were done by hand and through
NVivo. Basic principles for coding, identified by Bryman and Cramer (2004) were followed;
categories did not overlap, categories covered all possibilities, and clear rules ensured
consistency (Bryman et al., 2012: 84). A codebook contained how responses were combined and
included categories for missing information or unanswered questions (Guppy & Gray, 2008:
185). Random error-checking throughout the coding process ensured minimal errors occurred in
data analysis, including re-coding random samples, ensuring the number of responses correlated
with the number of participants, double checking data-entry and original responses (Guppy &
Gray, 2008: 191).
47
Chapter 4 Interview Results
4.1 Commercial Aquaculture Participants
Interviews with commercial aquaculture facilities provided insight into the stage of adoption,
motivations and barriers to adopting aquaponic and biolfoc systems in Canada. The criteria for
aquaculture participants in this research included land-based aquaculture facilities in operation to
sell fish for human consumption. Facilities included nurseries, hatcheries, recirculating and flow
through facilities. Fifteen aquaculture facilities participated in this study; five had a pilot
aquaponic system and are not included in this section, as they are included in the aquaponic
participant section. Three more aquaculture facilities with aquaponic experience, or undergoing
construction at the time of the interview, were involved in this study. This was unknown before
the interview and they have been included in the commercial aquaculture section. The discussion
chapter will provide more information on the characteristics and qualities of all of the
aquaculture participants with aquaponic systems.
4.1.1 Aquaculture Facility Location and Production
Ten aquaculture facilities participated in this section of the research. Aquaculture facilities were
located in six provinces, seen in figure 17. Seven companies have been in operation between
nine and thirty years, while three companies began operating more recently, between three and
five years ago. Eight companies had a recirculating facility or partial recirculating system. One
of the two companies that did not have a recirculating component to their operation indicated
they had some interest in adopting a recirculating operation.
48
Figure 17. Location of Aquaculture Facilities Interviewed
Aquaculture companies were growing ten different species, see figure 18, including trout
(rainbow, brown and speckled), Arctic char, salmon (Coho, Atlantic, Sockeye, Chinook), eel and
tilapia.
Figure 18. Species Raised in Aquaculture Facilities (some facilities raise more than one
species)
British Columbia
40%
Manitoba20%
Alberta10%
Ontario10%
Nova Scotia10%
Newfoundland and Labrador
10%
0
1
2
3
4
Trout(rainbow,
brown,speckled)
Arctic char Salmon(Coho,
Chinook,Sockeye,Atlantic)
Eel TilapiaNu
mb
er
of
Faci
litie
s
Species
Trout (rainbow, brown,speckled)
Arctic char
Salmon (Coho, Chinook,Sockeye, Atlantic)
Eel
Tilapia
49
Five participants said they would consider growing another species in the future, especially if
there was a market for it. Species that aquaculture facilities were interested in growing included
white sturgeon, shrimp, barramundi, tilapia, char, bass, perch, trout and species in the salmon
family. One facility specifically said they were interested in a species that can work with biofloc
and aquaponics.
4.1.2 Stage of Aquaculture Facilities to Implement Aquaponics
This study found aquaponics to have potential in the aquaculture industry, as eight of the fifteen
aquaculture facilities interviewed already had an aquaponic system, were in the process of
constructing a system or have had experience with the system. These facilities with aquaponic
systems were at the final three stages of Rogers’ innovation-decision model: decision,
implementation and confirmation (figure 19). The remaining seven aquaculture facilities seem to
have been at the beginning two stages of the innovation-decision model (knowledge and
persuasion) since facilities were not knowledgeable about the system and were unaware of the
potential benefits aquaponics could provide. For example, one facility owner said that they were
unsure what plants could grow at their facility, another facility specified that the “commercial
viability would have to be proven” before deciding to adopt the system. To move through the
decision process, these facilities require more information about the system to make a decision to
adopt it or not. The following results in this section focus on the responses from the ten
aquaculture facilities that did not have an aquaponic system at the time of the interview, the
additional five aquaculture facilities with aquaponic systems are discussed in the commercial
aquaponic section.
50
Figure 19. Stage of aquaculture facilities to adopt aquaponics systems in Rogers (2003)
innovation-decision process
4.1.3 Stage of Aquaculture Facilities to Implement a Biofloc System
Aquaculture facilities in this study were at the first two stages of Rogers’ innovation-decision
model: knowledge and persuasion (figure 20) as nine of the ten aquaculture participants were not
familiar with the biofloc system and were unaware of the potential benefits biofloc could
provide. The visibility and knowledge of biofloc in Canada appears limited as only one
aquaculture facility was aware of an operating biofloc system and no aquaculture facility was
aware of a biofloc system in Canada. Some facilities never heard of the biofloc system before the
interview, one facility said; “I hadn't thought about much until you asked about it, so it might be
something we can look at”. These aquaculture facilities require more information about biofloc
systems to make a decision to adopt it or not.
51
Figure 20. Stage of aquaculture facilities to adopt biofloc systems in Rogers (2003)
innovation-decision process
4.1.4 Incentives for Aquaculture Facilities to Implement Aquaponic and Biofloc
Relative Advantage
Innovations that are perceived as having an advantage are adopted faster; the greater the
perceived advantage, the higher the adoption rate (Rogers, 2003: 15). In this study, having a
financial or economic advantage was the primary incentive for aquaculture facilities to
implement aquaponic and biofloc systems. One facility expressed the importance of economics
saying, “got to have a profit or else it doesn't work”.
All aquaculture participants said they would be interested in an aquaponic or biofloc system if it
could provide a financial benefit to their facility, particularly if it saved their facility money. In
addition to financial benefits, eight of ten facilities would be more interested in an aquaponic or
biofloc system if there was funding to defray costs for facility changes.
52
An increase in the price of fish feed could be a potential influence for facilities to alter their
business practices to offset costs. Nine out of ten facilities said feed was one of the highest
operating expenses in aquaculture and eight facilities were concerned about fish feed prices
increasing in the future. One facility said that they were concerned because “it’s (fish feed) been
going up, I think it went up about 25% when we started, so that’s a pretty high cost. We started
in 06/07”. The potential to reuse the nutrients from aquaculture effluent to make a profit growing
plants with aquaponics or have an additional food source with a biofloc system could provide a
financial incentive for aquaculture facilities to adopt aquaponics or biofloc. However, an increase
in the price of fish feed price did not appear to be a significant incentive for aquaculture facilities
in this study to implement either system. Only four of ten facilities would consider looking into
aquaponics if prices continued to increase and even fewer facilities (two) said they would
consider looking at a biofloc system.
Piloting Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems
Since most innovations are not adopted unless they have been tried or tested (Rogers, 2003:
177), aquaculture facilities were asked about their willingness to pilot both an aquaponic and
biofloc system to see the potential for adoption in Canada. Eight of ten facilities expressed some
level of interest in piloting an aquaponic system; including one facility that was building an
aquaponic system at the time of the interview. Only half of the aquaculture facilities would
consider looking at piloting a biofloc system. To learn more about what might motivate facilities
to pilot both systems, participants were asked a series of questions.
The two most prevalent incentives, after having an economic benefit, for aquaculture facilities to
pilot both an aquaponic and biofloc system were: if the system was completely paid for by
someone else and if the system was de-coupled from their aquaculture facility system and did not
affect the operation. Having the aquaponic system de-coupled from the original aquaculture
operation was essential for facilities to consider adoption; facilities expressed that it would be “a
requirement to have it separate”, “probably definitely be a requirement, I couldn't mess around
with the productive system, if it doesn't go well, it definitely screws the bottom line” and having
a de-coupled system would “address the issue regarding the production cycle”.
Participants were asked if they would be willing to pilot an aquaponic and biofloc system if it
53
was a partnership or managed by another company that had experience. A partnership did
influence some facilities; five participants favoured a partnership while the other five said it
would not influence them. This incentive varied between facilities as some facilities specified
they “never work in partnerships” whereas other facilities said a partnership “would be a
significant learning opportunity” and they would “actually prefer that (a partnership) just because
of time” and “if it does not have a cost to the operation”. Therefore, the expansion of aquaponics
and biofloc within aquaculture facilities could occur if more partnerships were available.
The benefits of aquaponic and biofloc systems were discussed with aquaculture facilities and
facilities were asked if these benefits would affect their decision to pilot either system. The most
prevalent benefits facilities said would motivate them to pilot either system were: if the system
could reduce nutrient levels in the water (including nitrate, nitrite and ammonia), if the system
could increase the efficiency of fish feed, supplement the cost of fish feed and provide an
additional food and protein source.
Seven of the ten facilities were interested in the following other benefits aquaponics and biofloc
could provide: reduce thirty percent of their water treatment expenses, reduce the amount of
water exchange, assist with maintaining the temperature of the water, decrease the time to clean
filters and decrease the requirement of external filters.
4.1.5 Barriers for Aquaculture Facilities to Implement Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems
Lack of knowledge appears to be the largest barrier among aquaculture facilities to adopting
aquaponic and biofloc systems. All facilities expressed concerns about not knowing enough
about each system before adding it to their current operation. Limited knowledge of the systems
included concerns about controlling water temperature, monitoring the system, biosecurity, the
cost, not having an adequate return on investment and being unfamiliar with the system.
Facilities were unfamiliar with aquaponics and were not sure what plants would grow well in the
54
water from their facility, for example one facility said;
I was just wondering what plants would do good, let’s say, in a water temperature of
eight to ten degrees celsuis. I don’t know anything about it. I have not really done any
research on them (aquaponic systems). Our water is pretty cool and I don’t think it will
make sense for us to grow anything in this cold water.
Another barrier discussed with aquaculture facilities was the lack of awareness of aquaculture
regulations involving both systems, participants mentioned concerns about licensing, ministry
involvement and the regulatory process required to adopt an aquaponic system. Aquaculture
regulations vary provincially and can be a potential barrier due to the complexity of governance.
Regulations in Canada involve two levels of governance, sometimes three, with various
departments and agencies at each level (SSFO, 2015a: 2). There is often confusion around
provincial and federal responsibilities of aquaculture as well as statutes involved as
responsibilities overlap and statutes were not created to involve aquaculture but is often applied
to the industry (Newfoundland and Labrador DFFA, 2016; SSCFO, 2015a: 2). Restrictions on
the species that are allowed to be raised in aquaculture also vary provincially. Species
restrictions can be a potential barrier if facilities would like to grow a species in aquaponics that
is not on the list of acceptable species to raise in the province. Some species can be added to the
list of species allowed to be raised in aquaculture, but this can also be a complex process, as one
facility explained; the “licensing of new species or other species is a major undertaking, I've lost
track of dealing with red tape and governments”.
Other concerns aquaculture facilities had about adopting an aquaponic and biofloc system
included initial costs, time requirements and energy costs. Since electricity was the second most
prevalent expense identified by aquaculture facilities in this research, this could be a barrier to
adding an additional system onto current facilities as an aquaponic or biofloc operation would
add to one of the largest production expenses. One facility said, “to become more electrically
dependent is not something we would want to do because we already spend over $200 000 a year
on hydro”. Another aquaculture facility expressed the following concerns about energy:
Especially in Canada, or where we are anyways, winter time is a bit of an issue. It’s cold
and the energy consumption is relatively huge for a system, we just have a small system
55
right now, but if you scale that up, the heat source required is going to be quite large
unless you pair it with something that's already discharging heat or has waste heat.
Compatibility
Innovations that are not perceived as not being compatible with existing values and norms will
not be adopted as quickly as innovations that are perceived as being compatible (Rogers: 2003:
15). This was the case for four facilities that said that aquaponics did not coincide with the values
and goals of their company, facilities explained “it (aquaponics) is not our core business”, “it’s a
separate business” and “it would take off focus of business plan”.
The compatibility of biofloc with aquaculture operations is an important barrier in Canada. This
is a significant concern as nine of the ten facilities were raising a species that was not compatible
with a traditional biofloc system at the time of the interview and no facility said that biofloc was
compatible with their aquaculture facility. Physical compatibility with biofloc systems was a
concern expressed by four facilities. Traditional biofloc systems have biofloc accumulation in
the same water as the fish. This system requires species that are able to thrive in water with a
high amount of suspended solids and that can consume flocs and receive nutritional benefit from
this consumption (Hargreaves, 2013: 3). Shrimp, tilapia and carp are the most common species
used in biofloc systems (Hargreaves, 2013: 3).
4.1.6 Potential Influences for Aquaculture Facilities to Implement Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems
Relative Advantage
Since social status associations may also influence the perceived relative advantage of an
innovation (Eatmon et al., 2013: 202), participants were asked if receiving recognition was
important to their company. Although all nine of the respondents agreed that their company
utilized environmentally sustainable practices, only three facilities said it was a goal of their
company to receive recognition for being environmentally sustainable. Therefore, receiving
56
social recognition for using aquaponic and biofloc systems does not appear to be a significant
influence to adopt either system.
Understanding how an innovation functions and forming an opinion of the innovation comprise
the initial two stages of deciding to adopt an innovation (Rogers, 2003: 20). Participants were
asked about their interest in learning more about aquaponic and biofloc systems, the first step in
the decision process. Seven facilities had an interest in taking a course in both aquaponic and
biofloc systems, and eight facilities were interested if there were funding for the course. All
participants would be influenced to take a course if there was funding available for a third of the
course fees, half the course fees and all of the course fees for a typical course costing
approximately $1500.
Another method to learn the potential benefits of innovations is through consultations and
conversations with those familiar with the innovation. Facilities were asked if they would be
interested in having a consultant evaluate their facility. Seven participants said this would
interest them and that they would be interested if there was funding for the consultant.
Participants were told that typical consultation costs are approximately $2000. Participants said
they would be influenced if there was funding for between half and a hundred percent of the
consultation costs. One facility said there was no specific amount but if funding was available,
they would be interested in it.
Compatibility
Innovations are adopted faster when they are perceived as being compatible with the existing
values and needs of potential adopters (Rogers, 2003: 15). Compatibility with the values and
goals of aquaculture facilities was the most important influence found in this study for potential
adoption of aquaponic and biofloc systems. Six facilities said that aquaponics did, or could,
coincide with the values and goals of their company. Seven facilities indicated that community
awareness was important to their company for reasons including education and market
awareness. Aquaponics is a system that coincides with community engagement and can be used
for education and marketing. Of the ten participants, one was busy and did not answer all the
questions, therefore some of the following results include only nine facilities. All nine
57
respondents indicated that they were involved in contributing to their local community. Six
participants hosted community events or planned to in the future. In addition to providing tours
and educational events, facilities were also involved in charity events and supplied fish for
community events. Six of ten facilities said that contributing plants to a food bank or community
kitchen would be of interested to them. Aquaculture facilities that have compatible values and
goals of community engagement, contributing plants to a food bank or community kitchen could
be more interested in implementing aquaponics.
In this research, all of the facilities that were interested in adopting aquaponic systems perceived
aquaponics to be environmentally sustainable and were also interested in environmentally
sustainable practices. Therefore, other facilities in Canada interested in environmentally
sustainable practices and perceive aquaponics and biofloc systems as being environmentally
sustainable may be more willing to adopt these systems.
Participants were asked about the compatibility of aquaponics with existing aquaculture facilities
as Alonge and Martin (1995: 38) found the most important influence of adopting sustainable
practices is the compatibility with existing practices. There is potential for aquaponic adoption
within the facilities interviewed, as well as other facilities in Canada, as eight of ten aquaculture
facilities said that aquaponics was or could be compatible with their facility.
58
4.2 Commercial Aquaponic Participants
Interviews with commercial aquaponic facilities provided insight into the aquaponic industry in
Canada including species raised, years of operation, recommendations and the potential of
aquaponics in Canada in the future. Interviews also provided insight into the motivation for the
adoption of aquaponic systems, barriers in the industry and the potential for aquaponic facilities
to adopt biofloc systems. Aquaponic participants in this research were commercial facilities.
Similar to Love et al. (2015, 68), commercial aquaponic participants were defined as facilities
that sell fish or plants (or both) that have been grown in an aquaponic system. Commercial
facilities that were in construction were also included in this research. From research and
communication with government officials from every province and territory in Canada, thirty-
four commercial aquaponic facilities were identified in Canada during this study. Of the thirty-
four facilities identified and contacted in Canada, twenty agreed to participate in this research.
4.2.1 Aquaponic Facility Location and Production
Twenty aquaponic facilities participated in this section of the research. Aquaponic facilities were
located in six provinces, seen in figure 21. Only seven facilities were initially built to be
Figure 21. Location of Aquaponic Facilities
British Columbia50%
Manitoba5%
Alberta5%
Ontario25%
New Brunswick5%
Saskatchewan10%
59
aquaponic operations. The majority of aquaponic operations, including pilot systems, were added
onto pre-existing aquaculture operations, built inside former greenhouses or inside buildings.
All of the participants were, or planned to be, involved in commercial activities selling their
products. Participants operated their aquaponic facility as for-profit operations, or had plans to,
except the community engagement facility. Twelve participants sold both the fish and plants they
produced (or planned to), while six participants sold only the plants and the remaining facilities
only sold the fish at the time of the interview.
When asked about the main source of revenue, or expected revenue, eight participants responded
that they made most of the money from selling the plants, four participants indicated they made
the most money from the fish, and four participants made money from both the fish and plants.
One respondent did not indicate his or her revenue source, while another respondent was a
community engagement facility. Some participants identified various sources of income in
addition to aquaponics. Four participants expressed interest in not-for-profit work.
Species Grown in Aquaponics in Canada
Facilities were asked about species grown in aquaponics in Canada, to learn about the industry
and the potential for the future of aquaponics. Participants had experience growing eleven
aquatic species. Of the eleven aquatic species raised for production and pilot tests, tilapia was the
most commonly grown (nine facilities). Rainbow trout and koi were the second most common
species, raised by four facilities respectively. All crustacean and fish species that facilities have
been raised in aquaponics are shown in table 6. Species raised in aquaponics were primarily
chosen for their hardiness and temperature tolerance. The second most common reason was for
economic value and marketability. Participants discussed other reasons for species selection
including; “research led us to tilapia”, “tilapia was also used often in aquaponics due to their fast
growth rate”, “tilapia has been the most commonly used fish in aquaponics, so we went with
them”, “you have to go within the ones (species) that are legal”, “quite durable fish”, “tilapia are
edible”, “I wanted to stick with the species that I knew a lot more about”, “because they (fish)
were easier for us to source”, “extremely hardy to a lot of cold weather temperatures” and
“already producing (the fish species)”. One facility explained their species selection was
60
because they are native to the area and also their peak environmental temperature - the
temperature at which the peak metabolic rate occurs is 15 degrees Celsius, which happens
to coincide with our mean median temperature. So 15 degrees means that if we keep our
water at 15 degrees, it means my heat pumps and everything will have to work the least
to keep the water at that temperature.
Species with the qualities mentioned above may be more likely to be raised in aquaponic systems
in future facilities in Canada. Thirteen facilities expressed an interest in producing other species
of fish or crustaceans, expanding the potential of the industry in Canada.
Tilapia
Rainbow trout/steelhead
Salmon
Koi
Coho salmon
Blue gill
Rock bass
Pumpkinseed
White sturgeon
Signal crayfish
Goldfish
Table 6. Crustacean and Fish Species Tried in Aquaponics in Canada
When asked what plants participants had experience growing in aquaponics, fifteen participants
said they grew a variety of leafy greens and herbs/botanicals. Not including varieties of herbs,
the three most common crops produced by participants were varieties of lettuce (thirteen
participants), kale (six participants) and Swiss chard (six participants). See table 7 for a list of all
plants participants have grown in their aquaponic systems, to varying degrees of success.
Nineteen facilities were interested in growing other species of plants from those that they were
producing. Since all facilities except one were interested in growing other species of plants, there
appears to be potential for the aquaponic industry to expand species that are raised in Canada.
61
Arugula
Beets
Bok choy
Cilantro
Chives
Cucumber
Dill
Duckweed
Eggplant
Endive
Green beans
Kale
Mesclun
Mustard greens
Onions
Parsley
Peas
Peppers
Red dandelion
Sorrel
Spinach
Squash
Swiss chard
Tomatoes
Wasabi
Watercress
Zucchini
Varieties of mint
Varieties of basil
Varieties of lettuce
Table 7. Plant Species Tried in Aquaponics in Canada
4.2.2 Stage of Aquaponic Facilities in Canada
Thirteen participants self-identified as commercial facilities. Some indicated that they consider
their facility a small-scale commercial operation or semi-commercial, one facility did not
consider itself commercial although it sold to the public and to grocery stores. One facility
indicated that it planned to be a commercial venture, but considered itself more of a community
engagement education center and would have to increase the scale of its operations in order to be
commercially viable. The remaining facilities were in construction or had a pilot operation and
planned to be a commercial operation; five of these participants were aquaculture companies
with a pilot aquaponic operation.
Participants were asked at the time of the interview how many years of experience they had in
the aquaponic field, including training, research and pilot tests. All participants except two had
five years or fewer in the aquaponic field, with the average time of experience being 2.42 years.
Of the two participants having more than five years of experience, one participant had eighteen
years of experience, while the second participant did not disclose the length of experience.
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4.2.3 Incentives to Implement Aquaponics
Aquaponic facilities were asked what influenced them to pilot an aquaponic system. Almost half
(nine participants) responded that the reason they decided to pilot aquaponics was to learn about
the system. For example participants said; the “pilot project gave us all indications about data,
about scale, and business plan”, “allowed us to figure out how to make the system work better”,
“we wanted to improve the systems of the fish. We thought we better start with something small
and see if it works”, and to “drive out a bunch of business data over the last two years to see if
it's feasible”.
Eighteen of the twenty aquaponic participants had a pilot system before adopting a larger system,
which aligns with Rogers’ (2003: 177) concept that most innovations are not adopted unless they
have been tried or tested. Half the respondents identified having some source of external funding
to assist with their pilot aquaponic systems, which may have increased the rate of adoption.
Seven participants had both internal and external funding from various sources and to varying
degrees. For example, some participants received funding for labour and an internship; others
received full funding from a university program. Having access to external funding may be an
important incentive to adopt a pilot aquaponic system.
Relative Advantage
Innovations are adopted faster if they are perceived as having an advantage for the adopter
(Rogers, 2003: 15). Participants that already raised fish indicated they piloted aquaponics in
order to improve their existing system. Over half of the companies said conservation, reuse of
water and reuse of waste were major benefits to aquaponics. Just over a quarter of the companies
indicated other benefits including the fast growth of plants (six participants), growing organic or
better than organic products (seven participants) and growing food in an environmentally
friendly system (seven participants). Participants describe the benefit of aquaponics as being
adaptable and explained aquaponics as an “incredibly versatile system - you can scale up or
down or design to your space”, “you can farm this technology anywhere in the world as long as
you have an electrical source”, “you can set up an aquaponics system anywhere. You're not
dependent upon dirt, quality of dirt or land” and “it's local sustainable food that we're able to
grow without the use of fertilizers”.
63
Participants also describe aquaponics as a transparent food system that can be more nutritional
and taste better than soil based farming. Participants explained the advantages of aquaponics as
“fresh, natural, organic, healthy food”, “transparency of the food, that you know where it's
coming from”, “the produce is fresh and local, no chemicals, it has a good story”, “ I just think
that it's the most amazing thing, because I will know for sure that there's no contamination
anywhere within the system”, “our produce when you compare it to normal soil-based basil, is a
lot higher in nutrients”, “the stuff tastes better, it's healthier because it's lower in nitrates and
higher than magnesium and calcium”, “I like to think that it's better than organic in a lot of
ways”, “I think our stuff tastes different. It has a really unique taste to it. I think that's a little bit
of that it's so fresh, we harvest one day and it's in the stores by that afternoon. So there definitely
is a fresh factor”, “let them taste our produce, it's easily our best salesperson” and “the simple
fact of the taste profile, superior taste and quality”. One participant explained why they perceive
aquaponics as being a good organic way to produce food;
I tend to think that it's almost self-policing as far as organic levels go and the reason for
that is that using really any pesticides within aquaponics will then soak into the plants.
The plants then excrete some of that through the roots. That gets into the water, which
then kills off the microbacteria. When the microbacteria and the microorganisms start to
die, then it starts to affect the entire system, so I call it self-policing, because if you do
something wrong, the system will start to shut itself down. I kind of like that factor. To
some degree, I argue that it almost forces a respect for the system and a respect for the
environment. It's like a feedback loop.
4.2.4 Barriers to Implement Aquaponics
Aquaponic facilities were asked about the barriers and challenges they have experienced. The
most prevalent answer, fourteen respondents, discussed financial barriers including capital
required for initial costs and operating expenses. One participant discussed an initial financial
barrier as;
The lack of other aquaponic facilities being profitable. When you have money in your
account that you're looking to invest, you want to know what the return is going to be on
that investment. And it's very hard right now to convince somebody to invest in
64
aquaponics when there's not a whole bunch - again, this will come in time, but there's
not an industry out there that's profitable.
Participants also identified financial barriers for operating aquaponic facilities. Energy was one
of the highest operating expenses aquaponic facilities endured (nineteen participants identified).
Labour was the second most prevalent expense aquaponic facilities discussed, feed and rent were
the third most common expense.
Knowledge and expertise in the aquaponic field was the second most common barrier identified,
despite most of the participants (16 participants), or someone at their facility, having received
formal training in aquaponics in the form of a workshop or course. One participant stated; “In
this country, I think the biggest barrier is knowledge and acquiring correct knowledge, because
there's so much information on the Internet, which, in my opinion, is not 100% accurate”.
Another participant suggested the importance of learning and taking a course; “If more people
took courses before jumping into these big ventures - and experience with time, as well- then
there would be less failures in the industry”. Another participant discussed the importance of
knowledge said;
I would say that's (more than general knowledge) a challenge when you start it just
because if you learn about it in that wonderful simple home way, then that's really neat,
but once you start scaling it up, I think it needs a different knowledge base.
The third most common barrier involved resources for aquaponics, including land and a good
source of water. Participants described other barriers including; labour, regulations, viable size of
operation and working with a northern climate. Managing fluctuating temperatures and having a
temperature that worked well for both the fish and the plants was a prevalent challenge
participants had. Four participants indicated they had challenges with understanding the system,
including commercial production and managing nutrient deficiencies. Other challenges
aquaponic participants identified are in table 8. Although some participants indicated there were
always challenges, eight participants did not share any of their challenges with growing species
in aquaponics. In some cases, the respondent skipped the question in the interview, or said there
65
were no challenges or the challenges were manageable.
Challenges Faced by Aquaponic Participants
Unsuccessful at breeding Trying to not stress young
fish
Pests
High oxygen requirements Slow growth Managing ph levels
Disease or massive fish
deaths
Growing a mature bacteria
colony
Managing humidity to
maintain plant growth
Stabilizing heat and light
throughout the year
Designing aquaponics and
greenhouse
Educating public and learning
the market
Table 8. Challenges Faces by Aquaponic Participants
4.2.5 Potential Influences for Aquaculture Facilities to Implement Aquaponics
Complexity
The perception of aquaponics as not being a complex system appears to be an important
influence for adoption and may be significant for future adoption of the system and growth in the
industry. Eighty-five percent of aquaponic facilities thought aquaponics appeared to be a less
complicated system before they began operation. This perception aligns with Rogers’ (2003: 16)
decision model that explains adopters who perceive an innovation as being less complex will
adopt that innovation more rapidly than other innovations.
Experience
Interviewees at aquaponic facilities had a variety of experiences and backgrounds before entering
the aquaponic field; this suggests that future adopters may also be from diverse industries.
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Facilities had experience in industries that relate to aquaponics including aquaculture and
farming/gardening while just over a third of participants (seven facilities) had no previous
experience in aquaponics, aquaculture or farming prior to beginning their aquaponic facility.
Seventeen participants identified skills that assisted with implementing aquaponics, the top four
skills are identified in table 9. Individuals and companies with experience farming/gardening,
aquaculture, trades and business may be more likely to adopt aquaponic facilities, as these were
the top four skills participants identified having.
Top Four Skills That Assisted Aquaponic Owners with Implementing Aquaponics
Farming or gardening experience 31.5%
Business background 26%
Aquaculture experience 26%
Experience in trades* 37%
Table 9. Top Four Skills that Assisted Aquaponic Owners with Implementing Aquaponics
(*Experience in trades include construction, woodworking, electrical, plumbing, mechanical and
environmental engineering)
Observability and Communication
Communication with other operating aquaponic facilities appears to be an important influence
before adoption of the system in Canada. Aquaculture facilities that speak with aquaponic
facilities may be more willing to adopt the system. Almost all of the aquaponic participants have
spoken to another aquaponic facility (eighteen of twenty participants) and all of the participants
indicated that they had spoken to others in the industry for advice, or planned to for their next
facility. Rogers discussed how adoption increases with the visibility of innovation results
(Rogers, 2003: 16). The visibility of aquaponics and ability to contact facilities appears to be
important for adoption as most facilities interviewed that adopted aquaponics have
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communicated with others in the industry. However, there does not appear to be consistent
collaboration and communication across the aquaponic industry in Canada. For example, one
participant said, “we have found that the community is very small and isolated. Everyone is head
down right now and trying to get their operations off the ground, but with no form of association
or community of practice, we are pretty isolated from each other”. Other participants express that
they “received a great deal of assistance via email or the phone from another aquaponics facility”
and “it's a very transparent industry and we do collaborate with each other as much as we can”.
Compatibility
Innovations are adopted faster when they are perceived as being compatible with existing values
and needs of adopters (Rogers, 2003: 15). Community engagement and involvement appear to be
important values and goals of aquaponic facilities as all of the facilities interviewed contributed,
or planned to contribute, to the local community. About half of the participants (11 participants)
provided, or planned to provide, education to the community through tours, providing advice or
through speaking at events. Seven participants supported the local community by donating
products to local events, fundraisers, and the food bank. Other ways companies contributed to
their community included supporting and purchasing from other local businesses, providing local
food, employment and volunteer opportunities, contributing to local universities and the
Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Community awareness was identified as important to
eighteen participants. Most of the participants (fourteen) said community awareness was
important to educate people about their food and it was important for their market share. Others
indicated that they value community and it was their mission to contribute to the community.
Most participants in this study (sixteen) gave advice to others in the field, or were willing to.
Many facilities gave tours of their facility and spoke to people interested in setting up their own
facility, while others provided workshops. Aquaculture facilities that value community
engagement may be more willing to adopt aquaponic systems as this aligns with the values and
goals of many aquaponic facilities in Canada.
Relative Advantage
Social status associations may also influence adoption of an innovation (Eatmon et al., 2013:
202). However, similar to the interviews with aquaculture participants, the majority of aquaponic
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participants (fifteen participants) said it was not a goal of their company to receive recognition.
Despite the majority of participants not having a goal to receive recognition, fourteen
participants have experienced some form of recognition, for example receiving an award, being
nominated for an award or have been written about in a newspaper. Although social recognition
was not identified as being an important relative advantage for adopting aquaponics in the
interviews, social recognition is prominent in the facilities interviewed and could be a relative
advantage that influences future adoption.
4.2.6 Recommendations
When asked about any advice aquaponic facilities have for newcomers to the industry, the most
prevalent recommendation was to gain knowledge and experience. Additional advice for
newcomers to the industry included to do research, take a course, visit aquaponic facilities, speak
to people with experience, get hands on experience by working at a facility, or hiring someone
with experience. Other recommendations for newcomers to the aquaponics industry are in table
10.
Start small and
have a pilot
system
Have a business
plan
Understand the
market
Understand
costs
involved
Be good at
problem
solving
Understand
processes
required for the
system
Understand
impacts of
seasonal
variations
Be prepared to
constantly improve
the system and fix
problems
De-couple
the system to
optimize fish
and plant
growth
Have a good
knowledge of
fish and plant
growth and
behaviour
Table 10. Recommendations for Newcomers to the Aquaponic Industry
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Minimizing Challenges
Fifteen participants provided suggestions to reduce challenges for aquaponics in Canada. The
most common suggestion was to reduce heat and lighting costs (seven participants). Table 11
shows suggestions to reduce some challenges in aquaponics in Canada.
Use LED lights Use species that work with
local conditions
Use alternative sources of
energy (compost, off the grid)
Increase efficiency with the
design and position of the
greenhouse
Be resourceful and creative
with inputs
Increase efficiency and
automation
Learn from local farmers Get the appropriate price
when selling plants
Grow when energy costs are
the lowest
Educate the public about
operations
Use natural gas Have volunteer positions
Do a lot of research
Table 11. Suggestions to Reduce Challenges in Aquaponics
Recommendations for Aquaculture
The majority of respondents (eighteen) recommended aquaculture facilities consider adding
aquaponics to their system and first pilot an aquaponic system before implementing one. Some
participants specified that it depended on the stage of the aquaculture facility, if they could afford
a pilot and if the business model made sense for the operation financially. Fourteen participants
said aquaponics could benefit aquaculture facilities by adding an additional revenue stream and
diversifying the company; this was the most common benefit identified by participants. Table 12
shows other potential benefits.
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Species Recommendations
There was no consensus from participants about what species they would recommend growing in
aquaponics in Canada. Eight respondents said the species they would recommend depended on
the market and competition. For plant species, respondents recommended finding a high value
niche market, which varies seasonally. Four respondents recommended trying various plants
based on what will work well with the fish species and the nutrient profile of the water. Species
recommended by some aquaponics facilities are in table 13.
Potential Benefits Aquaponics can Provide for Aquaculture Facilities
Recover the cost of feed Branding and changing negative images
of aquaculture
Reuse wastewater Filter effluent
Produce crops for the local
community
Ability to grow feed for omnivorous
species
Table 12. Potential Benefits Aquaponics can provide for Aquaculture Facilities
Leafy Greens* Koi Tilapia Signal Crayfish
Yellow Perch Trout White Sturgeon Goldfish
Table 13. Recommended Species to Raise in Aquaponics (*leafy greens including lettuce,
Swiss chard, kale)
Learning from Current Aquaponic Facilities
Seventeen participants gave a variety of descriptions of what they would change if they were to
build another aquaponic facility. Twelve participants described a specific change in the design of
the aquaponics system. Changes that facilities would like to make are shown in table 14.
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Maximize vertical growing
space
Build aquaponics as part of
the original design
Produce koi or goldfish
Incorporate a nursery Use gravity to move the water Use sustainable energy
Take aquaculture out of the
greenhouse
Find the right production
ratio
Produce organic crops
Increase raft space Decrease the use of media
beds
Have insulation sheets on top
of the greenhouse
Use fewer lights Less bulky infrastructure Have backup systems
Change location Decrease evaporation Have a cooler in the facility
Find a substitute for hydrogen
clay pellets
Get assistance with building
the system
Rework heat issues in the
summer and heat retention in
the winter
Have a drum filter Insulate the back wall of the
greenhouse
Align greenhouse with the
sun
Table 14. Changes Recommended by Aquaponic Facilities
4.2.7 Stage of Aquaponic Facilities to Implement a Biofloc System
Aquaponic facilities were asked if they were familiar with biofloc aquaculture systems (BFT) to
learn about what stage of the decision model facilities were at. Twelve respondents were not
familiar, six were somewhat familiar, only two said they were familiar with biofloc systems.
Facilities were at the knowledge and persuasion stage of Rogers’ decision model (figure 22),
similar to aquaculture facilities interviewed in this research. Most aquaponic facilities were not
knowledgeable about biofloc systems and were unaware of the potential benefits biofloc could
provide. For example, participants said: “I didn’t know there were separate systems for it
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(biofloc)”, “I wasn't (familiar with biofloc) until you sent an email. I'm very interested now”.
One facility indicated that it already had a very similar system.
Figure 22. Stage of aquaponics facilities to adopt biofloc systems in Rogers (2003)
innovation-decision process
4.2.8 Incentives, Influences and Barriers for Aquaponic Facilities to Implement a Biofloc System
The willingness of facilities to pilot a biofloc system was almost evenly divided between
participants; opinions of yes, no and maybe, seen in figure 23. Learning more about the biofloc
system was the most significant influence for aquaponic facilities to pilot a biofloc system.
Fifteen out of twenty facilities explained they would need more information before they would
pilot or implement a biofloc system, for example facilities said, “I would need to know more
about this sort of a process”, “we would want to become more familiar with this first (before
piloting a biofloc system)”, “I'd have to look at it, understand it, and find out more information
about it before I could ever say yes or no”.
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Figure 23. Willingness of Aquaponic Facilities to Pilot Biofloc
Learning the benefits of a biofloc system, such as whether the system could reduce feed costs
and save their facility money would also influence facilities to pilot a biofloc system. Almost
half of the respondents (nine) would be interested in piloting a biofloc system if the system was
paid for, if it was a partnership or if there was scientific support.
Compatibility
Facilities that do not perceive biofloc systems as being compatible with their values and needs
will not be adopted as often (Rogers, 2003: 15), and can be a potential barrier to adoption. One
facility did not say anything would influence them to pilot a system because it did not fit their
model. Concerns about compatibility with existing practices is also an important barrier for
aquaponic facilities in Canada to adopt biofloc systems. For example, one facility mentioned a
concern they had about the physical compatibility of a biofloc system; “if not filtered properly,
large problems with suspended solid build up affect plant growth”.
Yes 31%
No32%
Maybe37%
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4.3 Experts in the Biofloc Field
Individuals with work or research experience in biofloc systems with similar conditions to
Canada, such as temperate and indoor systems, were contacted to participate in this research to
learn the potential of biofloc systems in Canada. Participants were asked questions about species
raised, expenses, challenges and benefits of biofloc systems. Participants were also asked their
opinion of biofloc systems in Canada.
Background of Participants
Three of the four participants had over nine years of experience in the biofloc field and the fourth
participant had approximately three years in the field. Experience of participants included indoor
biofloc systems and commercial biofloc systems in temperate and tropical regions. All
participants had publications on biofloc and had either taught courses, had given workshops or
had presentations on biofloc systems. Participants had experience working with biofloc,
conducting research, or being a part of the process of implementing biofloc systems in various
countries including Britain, Mexico, Brazil, Australia, Malaysia, Indonesia, French Polynesia,
Ecuador, Costa Rica, United States and South Africa.
Stages of Biofloc Systems Globally
Participants were knowledgeable about numerous biofloc experiments and commercial biofloc
operations. According to participants commercial biofloc operations were in at least 23 countries
including Australia, Belize, Brazil, China, Costa-Rica, Czech Republic, Columbia, Ecuador,
Germany, Guatemala, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Malaysia, Mexico, Netherlands, Sweden, South
Africa, South Korea, Thailand, United States, Vietnam. Despite the number of commercial
systems, participants agreed that more research is needed in the field. For example, participants
said; “it (biofloc) is a baby, I have been studying biofloc for 10 years and still do not feel like I
know anything” and “there is still a lot of opportunity to expand in terms of species, particularly
high value species”.
Potential Incentives to Adopt Biofloc
Participants discussed potential advantages biofloc systems could have for aquaculture facilities.
This is an important component of adoption as innovations that are perceived as having an
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advantage are adopted faster (Rogers, 2003: 15). Participants mentioned products grown in
biofloc can be marketed as a high quality product and can receive a high market value. Having a
product with high market value can increase the profitability of aquaculture production and can
be a potential incentive. Participants discussed other potential benefits aquaculture facilities in
Canada could receive from biofloc systems including: increased feed conversion “even small
amounts (of feed conversion) can make a large difference”; decreased commercial feed required;
“may be less cost than RAS”; “value of organic and high value species for consumer”; “reduced
water use”; “conserve heat by retaining water and reducing water exchange”; “increase
biosecurity”; “increase productivity”; “produce year-round”; “small areas can have large
production”; and that it is an “environmentally friendly production”.
Potential Barriers to Implement Biofloc Systems
Aa variety of potential barriers were identified by participants for adopting biofloc systems in
Canada. Participants mentioned costs, because of “extreme weather” the “cost to maintain water
temperature” can be expensive since most species produced in biofloc are warm water species.
To reduce energy costs, participants suggested “seasonal production”, an “alternative source of
energy”, designing the system with “increased insulation” and “can get solar input”. Other
potential challenges participants identified include “marketing”, “technical challenges”, “limited
funding” and potential “low farmer interest, a lot of species in Canada currently would not work
with biofloc”. Participants discussed the highest expenses in biofloc operations are typically a
combination of feed, labour, energy and the cost of young fish (fingerlings).
Compatibility
Operational knowledge is essential for the adoption of biofloc systems. All participants discussed
the challenge and importance of controlling the concentration of bioflocs in the water and to
“know the right balance”. Solids control including “settling chambers” to settle and control
particles were recommended. Other challenges identified by participants include controlling the
microbial community (“consistency and reliability”) and suspended solids including very fine
particles (pin floc). Carbonate and aeration are required for biofloc production; the system
requires oxygen. Participants said it can be challenging to manage the “dissolved oxygen
concentrations and fluctuations” during changes in temperature, feeding, day and night. Raising
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appropriate species for biofloc systems can be a challenge because the system requires species
that can grow in high densities and in high concentrations of suspended solids, one participant
pointed out that “a lot of species in Canada currently would not work with biofloc”. Another
challenge could be receiving an appropriate price for the product, since it is an added value for
production but because it was produced in a different, environmentally sustainable, way that
consumers may not be aware of. This could be a challenge.
The environmental sustainability of biofloc systems was discussed with participants. Some
participants considered biofloc facilities to be an environmentally sustainable system. Biofloc
systems do require inputs, which affect the sustainability of the system. One participant
mentioned, “microbial community can use a lot of the oxygen, sometimes more than the species
being raised”, increasing energy expenses of production. Another participant explained, “biofloc
requires constant aeration and energy input to keep water moving, tapping into renewable energy
sources could make it more sustainable”. Although biofloc systems have been developing since
the 1970s, participants discussed that these systems are still developing and more work needs to
be done to advance the field. Participants expressed that “work still needs to be done”, “biofloc
systems are not an off-the-shelf system” and one participant said they “have been studying
biofloc for ten years and still do not feel like know anything”.
Potential Influences to Implement Biofloc Systems in Canada
Compatibility
One of the most important influence of adopting sustainable practices is the compatibility with
existing practices (Alonge & Martin, 1995: 38). Participants were asked about the physical
compatibility of biofloc systems within existing aquaculture facilities. All participants said it is
possible to integrate biofloc systems into current aquaculture facilities, although it may be best to
design the facility to include a biofloc system from the start. One participant explained “biofloc
systems can be integrated into current facilities. For example, in the UK a farm house was
converted to produce aquaculture and made efficient use of energy and heat”. One participant
thought biofloc could be suitable for hatcheries in Canada with species that consume
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zooplankton. Participants specified that for aquaculture participants in Canada to implement
biofloc systems, it would depend on the species being raised, that are morphologically capable of
growing in the system and can consume the flocs, and whether it would be economical. All
participants recommended aquaculture facilities try a pilot biofloc system if they are producing a
compatible species to understand the system and economic potential.
When asked about species that could utilize biofloc systems in Canada, participants said tilapia
and white-leg shrimp were the most common species raised. Three of four participants discussed
the potential to expand the species grown in biofloc systems. Species that have a natural
environment similar to biofloc typically grow better in the system, particularly if they are
morphologically able to benefit from the consumption of biofloc particles. Species such as carp,
barramundi, bass and crustaceans, at different life stages, may also be able to benefit from
biofloc systems. It may be possible for mussels, oysters and clams to benefit from biofloc
systems, however, none of the participants had direct experience with these species and therefore
could not recommend it.
Biofloc and Aquaponics
When asked about combining aquaponic and biofloc systems, only one participant was familiar
with this. This participant was familiar with a combined system in Mexico and had also worked
on experiments and said, “the plants grew better in biofloc mainly because of the availability of
nutrients for plant growth”. One participant, without experience with combining aquaponic and
biofloc said combining the systems “is possible, but would probably not recommend it. Biofloc
systems have moderately high biosolids concentrations and aquaponics would want clear water,
water that has been treated (without solids)”. Another participant (without experience combining
both systems) mentioned the following concern about combining the systems; “there is potential,
concern is the flocs interfering -fouling- the plant roots however engineering is required. Biofloc
can be used to fertilize plants, however if biofloc is in the same system it can also accumulate
and negatively impact the plant roots”. More research is required to identify the potential of
combining biofloc and aquaponics systems in Canada.
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4.4 Provincial Government Employees
Provincial government employees involved in aquaculture licensing and regulations were asked
about permits required, species restrictions, funding opportunities and limitations for aquaculture
facilities to implement aquaponic and biofloc systems. Government officials from eight of the
ten provinces in Canada that are known to have aquaculture facilities were interviewed to learn
more about the industry in each province and the potential for aquaponic and biofloc systems.
Representatives from ministries in Quebec, Alberta, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, Manitoba,
Ontario, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland participated in this research.
Incentives and Influences to Implement Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems
From discussions with government employees in eight provinces, there does not appear to be any
significant incentive or influence for aquaculture companies to adopt aquaponic or biofloc
systems in Canada, including funding opportunities to implement a new system. Participants
explained there is a “huge gap for funding for aquaculture”, it has been “limited in recent years”,
there is “no funding from the department directly, more of an ad hoc basis, if people come with a
proposal and there may be some discretionary funds for it, did have funding for something back
in the day but that was cut” and there is “a lot disappointment around lack of funding for
aquaculture”. There were several federal funding programs, but they are described as constrained
towards specific primary research opportunities. The Aquaculture Innovation and Market Access
Program to develop innovation and new technologies was a good opportunity, however, it is no
longer available. Quebec seems to have the most consistent funding available for aquaculture.
The Ministère de l'Agriculture, des Pêcheries et de l'Alimentation du Québec (MAPAQ) has
funding available for aquaculture companies, including funding for experiments, pilot tests and
commercial operations (MAPAQ, 2016: 4). One participants discussed more funding options are
available through regional economic development programs and the Industrial Research
Assistantship Program through the National Research Council. Overall, there does not appear to
be funding or other incentives to adopt a new system in aquaculture facilities in Canada and there
are not a lot of funding opportunities specifically for aquaculture and increasing sustainability
within aquaculture.
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Barriers to Implement Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems
Interviews with provincial government officials found that there do not appear to be limitations
or regulations that would negatively affect facilities wanting to implement biofloc or aquaponic
systems in Canada. However, understanding and being aware of regulations and approvals
involving the adoption of aquaponic and biofloc systems can be a potential barrier to
implementation. For some interviews the involvement of three provincial ministries were
required to answer questions regarding potential influences, incentives and barriers provincially.
The complexity of regulations and intra-provincial involvement can be a potential barrier to
adoption as facilities may find the process confusing and overwhelming, as the researcher did.
Aquaculture regulations vary provincially and can be a potential barrier as there are some
limitations as to what species can be raised in certain provinces. For example, only sixteen
species can be farmed in Alberta. This is also a potential barrier for facilities that are interested in
aquaponic and biofloc systems in Quebec and Saskatchewan as both provinces do not allow
raising tilapia, one of the most common species raised in both systems. At the time of the
interview, fresh water tilapia was banned in Quebec and tilapia production in Saskatchewan
required approval.
Additional approvals may be required for facilities that want to adopt aquaponics and biofloc.
One potential barrier for aquaculture facilities to implement aquaponic or biofloc systems in
Canada is the requirement to raise a different species from the one(s) that they are currently
producing. There is often a one-time fee to amend current aquaculture licenses. However, these
fees are minimal (under $300). Any non-native species or species not on the approved list of
species to be raised in aquaculture must be reviewed by the appropriate committees and
agencies. This process can be a potential barrier as various approvals are required, which may
deter facilities. For example, approval for a species not on the approved list requires approval by
an introduction and transfers committee and any applicable Canadian Food Inspection Agency
(CFIA) working groups. After approval of the aforementioned requirements, a Live Fish
Handling Permit and other requirements for inter and intra provincial movement of live fish or
eggs under the CFIA’s Domestic Movement Program may also be required. With more than 70
federal and provincial acts and regulations regarding aquaculture (SSCFO, 2015a: 4), it is not
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surprising that the complexity of regulations in Canada has hindered growth in the industry, and
can be a perceived barrier to adopting new systems by aquaculture companies.
Regulations in Canada involve two levels of governance, sometimes three, with various
departments and agencies at each level (SSFO, 2015a: 2). There is often confusion around
provincial and federal responsibilities of aquaculture as well as statutes involved as
responsibilities overlap and statutes were not created to involve aquaculture but is often applied
to the industry (Newfoundland and Labrador DFFA, 2016; SSCFO, 2015a: 4).
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Chapter 5 Discussion
5.1 Adopting Innovations
This research addresses the limited literature on the awareness of aquaponic and biofloc systems
in Canada and incentives and barriers to adopting each system. This study conducted interviews
in Canada to provide insight into the aquaculture and aquaponic industry. The results offer an
opportunity for data sharing in various sectors of the industry across the country as all
participants expressed interest in receiving the findings of this research.
This chapter discusses the potential of aquaponic and biofloc systems in Canada. The interviews
in this study suggest that the aquaponic and biofloc industry in Canada is in the early stages of
adoption. This section discusses barriers to adoption and potential ways to overcome these
barriers including influences and incentives of adopting of both systems. Comparisons are made
with Rogers’ (2003) innovation-decision process and the international aquaponics survey by
Love et al. (2014) to gain a deeper understanding of the stages of adoption in Canada. Eatmon et
al. (2013: 202) found Rogers’ (2003) framework useful to begin to understand the adoption
process of aquaponics in the United States Great Lakes Region. Rogers’ (2003) perceived
attributes of innovations and the case studies of Eatmon et al. (2013) are compared to research
findings to discuss incentives, barriers and influences of adoption of aquaponic and biofloc
systems in Canada.
Economic benefits were the primary incentive for aquaculture facilities in this study to adopt
aquaponic and biofloc systems, but facilities were unaware of economic benefits both systems
could provide. Lack of awareness and knowledge were the largest barriers for participants in this
study to adopt of aquaponic and biofloc systems. An increase in knowledge sharing and
collaboration appears to be of significant importance to increase adoption of both systems in
Canada.
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5.1.1 Stage of Adoption of Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems
Commercial biofloc and aquaponic systems are both relatively new practices in the aquaculture
industry. In this study, the majority of aquaponic facilities were in operation for fewer than five
years. Biofloc is a system that is even less well known in Canada, with fewer than five known
commercial operations and one facility beginning operation within the past year. Biofloc systems
were not well known by participants in this study as over half the participants did not know what
a biofloc system was.
Stage of Adoption of Aquaponic Systems
The aquaponics industry appears to have potential and to be a growing industry as the majority
of the aquaponic respondents in this research and in the global study of Love et al. (2014) have
recently began operating within the past five years. Although the aquaponic participants in this
study and in Love et al. (2014) may suggest that most facilities are new to the industry, this may
not be an accurate sample of the experience of aquaponic facilities globally. New entrants to the
field may be more willing to participate, collaborate and share than those with more experience.
New facilities may also have more to benefit from participating in research, including receiving
research results and learning more about the industry. This may lead to a misrepresentation of
experience in the aquaponic industry.
The aquaculture industry appears to be knowledgeable about aquaponics; 90 percent of
aquaculture facilities in this research have heard of aquaponic systems before and just over half
the aquaculture facilities had begun to experiment with aquaponics. These facilities were in the
second or third stage of the innovation decision model (persuasion and decision) process. The
other half of the aquaculture facilities were still in the first stage (acquiring knowledge).
Although most facilities in the first stage of the decision process were not ready to implement an
aquaponic system, all facilities expressed an interest in learning more about the system and about
innovation in general. This suggests that more knowledge, the first stage of Rogers’ (2003)
decision model, is necessary before more aquaculture facilities adopt aquaponic systems.
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Stage of Adoption of Biofloc Systems
This thesis researched the willingness of aquaponic and aquaculture facilities to implement
biofloc systems. The majority of aquaponic and aquaculture participants were unaware of the
potential benefits biofloc can provide to facilities as ninety percent of participants had limited
knowledge of biofloc systems. Therefore, the majority of aquaculture and aquaponic facilities
were at the first or second stage of the biofloc innovation decision process (knowledge and
persuasion). To make a decision to adopt the innovation, facilities need more knowledge about
the system to learn the advantages and disadvantages for their situation (Rogers, 2003: 21).
Approximately a third of aquaponic participants responded that they would be interested in
piloting a biofloc system (31 percent) and just over a third (38 percent) said maybe and that they
would have to learn more about the system before they would consider piloting it. There was
more interest in biofloc within aquaponic facilities compared to aquaculture facilities, although
most aquaponic facilities had no prior knowledge about the system. Although knowledge is the
first stage in Rogers (2003) decision model, those facilities that were interested in biofloc
without prior knowledge of the system indicated that many aquaponic owners were very
innovative and were willing to try various technologies through a hands-on learning approach.
Rogers (2003) specifies that adoption of a system is more likely through a trial first, which aligns
with aquaponic participants’ willingness to learn from hands-on experience.
5.1.2 Incentives for Implementing Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems
Economic benefits were the primary motivation for aquaculture facilities in this study to adopt
aquaponics systems. Interviews found that most facilities were more interested in saving money
rather than gaining access to funding. This may indicate that aquaculture facilities and future
adoption of aquaponics will be more influenced by what will make their business money, or
reduce expenses, versus gaining access to external capital. All aquaculture facilities expressed an
interest in the aquaponic system if they could make a profit from the system, however these
aquaculture facilities did not see a relative advantage for their company, including a return on
investment.
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Eatmon et al., (2013: 213) found that economic profitability did not appear to be the most
significant incentive to adopt aquaponics compared to other perceived attributes. This correlates
to the motivations of aquaponic participants in this study. Although all of the aquaponic
companies in this thesis were commercial facilities and intended to make a profit, their perceived
relative advantage of aquaponics was not primarily about economics. Aquaponic companies
indicated other incentives including fast growth of plants and producing organic or better than
organic products. More than half of the aquaponic companies discussed incentives that involved
producing food in an environmentally conscious way by conserving and reusing water and
reusing waste.
Since the incentive of environmental consciousness and reusing water and waste was a
significant incentive for aquaponic adopters, the benefit of reusing waste was discussed with
aquaculture facilities to see if this could be an incentive for aquaculture facilities to adopt
aquaponic or biofloc systems. This study found half the aquaculture facilities that were not
piloting aquaponics were satisfied with their current method of waste management, whereas the
other half of facilities were interested in improving their waste management. Many aquaculture
facilities in this study already reuse their waste for plant growth by spreading waste onto
domestic or agricultural fields, producing compost, or through biofiltration in wetlands. The
benefit of biofloc and aquaponics as being an environmentally sustainable method to manage
waste from aquaculture production may not be a significant incentive for Canadian aquaculture
facilities since the majority of facilities in this study already have environmentally sustainable
methods for managing solid waste and effluent. Of the facilities that would like to improve their
system, four of five facilities were interested in piloting aquaponics and three of five would be
interested in piloting a biofloc system. This may suggest that aquaculture facilities that are not
satisfied with their waste management may be more willing to implement an aquaponic or
biofloc systems as a method to improve waste management practices.
All aquaculture facilities were asked about factors that could influence their decision to try
aquaponics. Similar incentives to implement aquaponics were identified between aquaculture
facilities that have tried aquaponics and those facilities that have not. These incentives involved
improving existing aquaculture operations, including utilizing aquaponics as a nitrate filter and
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for conserving water. Between 60 to 70 percent of facilities expressed an interest in an aquaponic
system if it was a partnership, assisted with maintaining water temperature, decreased the
amount of water exchange required, decreased nitrate levels and decreased water treatment
expenses respectively. Aquaculture facilities that were interested in aquaponics for the
aforementioned benefits were unaware that aquaponics can provide these benefits. An increase in
adoption of aquaponics in the aquaculture industry may occur when facilities learn more about
the benefits of aquaponics and successes in the Canadian aquaponic industry. This can be
compared to the second stage in Rogers’ decision process, persuasion, where the advantages and
disadvantages for individual situations are learned (Rogers, 2003: 21, 175) as well as the opinion
of others in the industry (Rogers, 2003: 175). As the industry continues to grow and a larger
workforce in aquaponics develops in Canada, adoption of aquaponics within aquaculture
facilities may also increase as many facilities would prefer to work in a partnership. Having an
experienced workforce could increase the number of partnerships available and growth in the
industry can provide more opportunities to demonstrate the potential benefits for aquaculture
companies.
Biofloc
The majority of respondents (seventy-five percent) said that learning more about the biofloc
system, and learning specifically the benefits of biofloc, would motivate them to pilot the
system. For example, facilities said if the system could reduce feed costs and save their facility
money, they would be more interested in piloting a biofloc system. Both benefits were identified
by biofloc experts in interviews as potential incentives for adoption. Biofloc experts also
identified an increase in feed efficiency as being a potential incentive for aquaculture facilities to
adopt biofloc systems. From interviews with aquaculture facilities, feed efficiency could be a
potentially significant incentive to adoption as ninety percent of aquaculture facilities were
interested in increased feed efficiency. Interviews found almost half the respondents (44 percent)
would be interested in piloting a biofloc system if the system was paid for, if it was a partnership
or if there were scientific support, therefore these factors can significantly impact adoption.
Ninety percent of aquaculture participants were also interested in biofloc if it could provide an
additional source of food and protein for the fish or could supplement the cost of fish feed.
Biofloc systems have the potential to decrease feed, one of the highest operating expenses in
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aquaculture. Biofloc also has the economic benefit of faster growth rates, increase in survival,
decrease costs of water use and less water pumping. The economic feasibility of biofloc systems
in Canada is not known as facilities have only recently began operation. As biofloc systems
develop in Canada, the economic feasibility will be determined. The rate of adoption of biofloc
is significantly affected by the majority of participants having no perceived attributes of the
system, knowledge of the aforementioned benefits and long-term examples of successful biofloc
systems in Canada.
Trialability and Importance of Piloting
Piloting or testing an innovation is an important part of the decision process (Rogers, 2003: 177)
and can be an incentive to implement an innovation. Most innovations are not adopted unless
they have been tried or tested (Rogers, 2003: 177). Piloting appears to be an important aspect of
adoption of aquaponic systems in Canada prior to implementation since almost 90 percent of
aquaponic respondents indicated they had a pilot aquaponic system. Similarly, pilot aquaponic
systems were used by all facilities in Eatmon et al. (2013) and was recommended by Goodman
(2011). Piloting an innovation is important for facilities to learn the benefits of the system for
their operation (Rogers, 2003: 177). There is potential for growth in biofloc and aquaponic
operations in Canada as participants are willing to pilot both systems, an important step in the
adoption process. Interviews identified sixty percent of the aquaculture participants expressed an
interest in piloting an aquaponic system and thirty percent of aquaculture and aquaponic
participants expressed an interest in piloting biofloc.
5.1.3 Overcoming Barriers of Adopting Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems
Relative Advantage
Most aquaculture and aquaponic systems in this research had limited knowledge of biofloc
systems; this affected the willingness and ability of facilities to implement the system. The
majority of respondents (90 percent) were not very familiar with biofloc systems, and no
participants were aware of any biofloc systems in Canada. The primary concern facilities had
with biofloc systems was that they were unfamiliar with the system and the benefits it could
provide for their facility. The limited visibility of biofloc systems negatively affect adoption as
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there is a lack of awareness of the biofloc system and the benefits biofloc can provide to the
aquaculture and aquaponics industry. Similarly, the most prevalent concern aquaculture
participants with aquaponic systems was lack of familiarity. One aquaculture facility did not
know if aquaponics could work with their aquaculture operation expressed, “I don’t think it will
make sense for us to grow anything in this cold water”. Interviews with aquaponic participants
confirmed that knowledge is a barrier to adoption of aquaponics in Canada and recommended
facilities to first take the time and acquire knowledge before adopting the system. Obtaining
accurate information about aquaponics in Canada appears to be a significant barrier to the
adoption and long-term success of the industry; one aquaponic facility explained that “in this
country, I think the biggest barrier is knowledge and acquiring correct knowledge”. Another
aquaponic participant said, “If more people took courses before jumping into these big ventures,
and experience with time as well, then there would be less failures in the industry”.
To overcome the barriers of limited knowledge, an increase in the awareness of the benefits of
aquaponic and biofloc is an important influence to increase the willingness to implement these
systems. Overcoming this barrier appears to be possible in Canada as many aquaculture and
aquaponic facilities were interested in taking a workshop or course and were interested in
learning more about both systems. The majority of respondents (seventy-five percent) said that
learning more about the biofloc system, and learning specifically the benefits of biofloc, would
influence them to pilot the system. Therefore, taking a course and getting hands on experience
before adopting a biofloc or aquaponic system would overcome the barriers of unfamiliarity and
limited knowledge, and is the first step in Rogers (2003) decision model, acquiring knowledge.
The number of aquaculture facilities interested in taking a workshop in aquaponics or biofloc
increased from 80 to 90 percent if there were funding provided for the workshop. Providing
education through workshops could be an important step for both systems to expand. Therefore,
having a course or workshop on aquaponics and biofloc systems may be a useful way to
overcome the barriers of lack of knowledge in Canada. Results from this study show a course
that was $750 or less would interest aquaculture participants. Having a free introduction or
funding for a course would increase attendance and decrease the barrier of lack of knowledge.
Knowledge sharing and collaboration appear to be necessary to overcome these barriers and may
be essential for the growth and success of both aquaponic and biofloc industries in Canada.
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The visible results of an innovation increases the probability of adoption (Rogers, 2003: 16). In
this study, 90 percent of aquaculture facilities were familiar with aquaponic systems. Eighty-four
percent of aquaponic companies in this study were visible online and 68 percent were visible
through two or more social media platforms. The high visibility of aquaponics may be an
important factor for the adoption of aquaponics in Canada. Eatmon et al. (2013: 217) also
demonstrated the high observability of aquaponic facilities in the Great Lakes region through the
availability of aquaponic facility tours and features in newspapers, magazines, television and
online platforms. Since biofloc facilities have only recently started operating in Canada, many
participants were not familiar with this system and no participants were aware of facilities in
Canada. As biofloc systems become more established in the Canadian aquaculture industry, the
awareness and observability of these system may increase as well. An increase in observability
of biofloc systems can also increase the potential of future adoption in Canada.
Compatibility
Species compatibility may be the most significant barrier to the adoption of biofloc systems in
Canada. Of the aquaculture facilities in this research, 90 percent of the species grown cannot
tolerate a high level of solids concentration. A high concentration of solids is required by typical
biofloc systems. Biofloc experts in this research also discussed the barrier of species
compatibility with biofloc systems in Canada. For example, one biofloc expert said a potential
barrier to adoption could be “low farmer interest- a lot of species in Canada currently would not
work with biofloc”. This is a barrier to adoption in Canada as ninety-four percent of aquaculture
production occurs with species that cannot tolerate a high level of suspended solids; this includes
salmon, trout, and steelhead (DFO, 2014b). Therefore, the adoption of ex-situ biofloc systems
may be more prevalent in Canada as in-situ biofloc systems can be expected to only occur in
facilities that produce species that can tolerate the aforementioned conditions that biofloc
systems require. To overcome the barrier of limited species compatibility with biofloc systems, it
is possible to have ex-situ operations. Some facilities specified that if they were to pilot a biofloc
system they would require it to be in a separate tank from the fish. It is possible to have a biofloc
system operate in a separate tank from the species being grown, but this does not provide
facilities with all the benefits of biofloc, as fish cannot consume the flocs. With species that will
not eat the flocs or cannot tolerate the level of suspended solids, a biofloc system in a separate
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tank could be a useful method to decrease ammonia and nitrate levels, grow another species in
the biofloc tank or bioflocs can be made into fish feed.
No aquaculture facility interviewed indicated that biofloc was compatible with their operations.
It is difficult to assess the compatibility of biofloc within aquaponic facilities, as the majority of
aquaponic respondents were not familiar with biofloc systems. The second most common
concern with aquaponic facilities adopting a biofloc system involved the interaction of the
biofloc system with the fish and plants. This concern was also identified by biofloc experts that
did not have experience with a combined aquaponic and biofloc system. One biofloc expert did
have experience with a combined system and discussed that the system worked well on an
experimental level. More research and data sharing is required to discuss the potential of
aquaponic and biofloc combined systems.
All aquaponic facilities and half the aquaculture participants said they would consider growing
another species in the future, especially if there was a market for it. Therefore, future market
demands could play a role in the expansion of biofloc and aquaponics in Canada. It may be more
likely for biofloc to increase in Canada with the development of new species being raised. An
interest in diversifying species may be an important factor of adopting aquaponic and biofloc
systems, as facilities that would consider raising another species may be more open to innovation
and willing to diversify their business operations compared to facilities that are not. This also
suggests that the physical compatibility of aquaponics and biofloc with aquaculture systems in
Canada could be less important than the compatibility with the values and goals of the company.
Adoption of biofloc in existing aquaponic facilities may be more likely than in aquaculture
operations, as more aquaponic participants had experience raising a species that would be
compatible with biofloc systems and all facilities expressed an interest in producing other species
in the future. Species compatibility and a willingness to raise other species may suggest why
more aquaponic participants were interested in biofloc systems than were aquaculture
participants.
Canadian aquaponic facilities appear to be raising different species than in other countries
identified in Love et al. (2014, 2015). Three species that appear to be unique to Canadian
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aquaponics, compared to Love et al. (2014, 2015), are sturgeon, salmon and pumpkinseed.
Raising new species may be important for the success of aquaponics in the Canadian and
international market, as well as temperate climate. The expansion of the aquaponic industry with
new species can provide access to larger markets. Having access to various markets by being
able to produce a variety of species to match demands is essential for the financial feasibility of
aquaponics. Seeing this variation of aquaponics may be an important part of industry growth and
expansion. The species raised in Canadian aquaponic systems will likely continue to diversify
since 95 percent of participants were interested in growing other species and many facilities were
continuously experimenting.
Some studies indicate it can be challenging to establish a bacterial community in biofloc systems
as it requires constant monitoring (Haslun et al., 2012: 30). Controlling the microbial community
was also a challenge that biofloc participants identified. Therefore, technical challenges may be a
barrier to adoption of biofloc systems. Some participants may find that traditional biofilters may
be more useful for their production rather than trying a biofloc system since they do not have to
learn to manage a new system. However, facilities that have experience with biofilters or those
that understand how to balance microbial communities because of the similarities with biofloc
systems may adopt biofloc systems faster. As Rogers (2003: 16) suggests, if individuals already
possess knowledge, skills and perceive the innovation as simple, they may adopt the systems
faster. Cost, infrastructure and staff required for a biofloc system was a concern aquaculture
participants discussed and would be a part of the requirement for establishing a bacterial
community. A way to overcome the barrier of establishing a biofloc system could include data
sharing amongst the industry, particularly new facilities, and collaboration. Since biofloc
facilities have begun operation Canada, the opportunity for data sharing and collaboration across
the Canadian industry has increased and has potential to increase if the success of the systems
continue.
Adding an additional system and learning a new technology, such as aquaponics or biofloc, may
have a negative impact on aquaculture facilities that have a small number of employees.
Facilities with a small number of employees was common with the majority of the Canadian
land-based aquaculture facilities that were contacted for this study. Some of the staff at
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aquaculture facilities who were interviewed, said they were very busy, therefore adding an
additional responsibility to the operation might be a significant barrier to implementation. One
way to overcome the barrier of adding an additional responsibility could be collaboration and
learning the return on investment. Knowledge sharing and collaboration again may be the most
important way to overcome the barrier of adding an aquaponic and biofloc system to the
aquaculture industry in Canada.
Aquaculture facilities discussed concerns about licensing, ministry involvement and regulatory
processes involved with adding aquaponics and biofloc systems to their current operation. With
more than 70 federal and provincial legislations regarding aquaculture (SSCFO, 2015a: 4), it is
not a surprise that regulations can be a perceived barrier to adopting new systems by aquaculture
companies. However, interviews with various governments in this study did not discover
regulations that would restrict the adoption of aquaponic and biofloc systems within the
aquaculture industry. Although there are no specific regulations that would affect aquaculture
companies from adopting an aquaponic or biofloc system directly, additional approvals may be
required if aquaculture facilities wanted to raise a different species from the one(s) that they were
producing. Another potential barrier is the approval required for non-native species or species
not on the approved list of species to be raised in aquaculture. This process can be a potential
barrier as various approvals are required, which may deter facilities from adoption. One
aquaculture facility described their experience in this process as “licensing of new species or
other species is a major undertaking, I've lost track of dealing with red tape and governments”.
However, regulations in adopting aquaponic and biofloc systems in Canada only appear to be a
potential barrier to facilities that want to add an additional species, and if that species is not on an
approved list for aquaculture production. This could be a more significant barrier for facilities
that are interested in aquaponics systems in Quebec and Saskatchewan as both provinces do not
allow tilapia aquaculture, one of the most common species raised in aquaponic and biofloc
systems. At the time of the interview, fresh water tilapia was banned in Quebec and tilapia
production in Saskatchewan would require approval. It is necessary for governments to clarify
regulations for aquaculture companies regarding the adoption of new systems, such as
aquaponics and biofloc. Those in the industry that have adopted new systems also need to share
their knowledge and experience with others so that the industry can expand and improve to stay
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competitive with other countries.
Aquaculture participants also had concerns about the costs, commercial viability and return on
investment of adopting aquaponics. Aquaponic participants confirmed costs and obtaining
funding can be a barrier. Participants explained that, “it's very hard right now to convince
somebody to invest in aquaponics when there's not a whole bunch - again, this will come in time,
but there's not an industry out there that's profitable”. Although external funding for aquaponic
projects may be a current barrier in Canada, this may not be a barrier in the future if successful
and profitable aquaponic facilities are established.
Aquaculture participants mentioned energy costs as a potential barrier to adoption. This may be a
significant barrier to adoption in Canada as this research found that 95 percent of aquaponic
participants identified energy as one of the highest operating expenses. Large changes in energy
can significantly impact the profitability of aquaponic operations (Goodman, 2011: 78). Unless
energy costs in Canada decrease, renewable energy sources or alternative energy sources may be
vital to the economic viability of aquaponics in Canada. To reduce expenses in aquaponics, some
aquaponics facilities in this research suggested renewable energy, off the grid power, or an
alternative source of heat could be useful. This appears to be a common practice in the aquaponic
industry, as 57 percent of respondents in Love et al.’s (2014: 5) international study used forms of
renewable energy to supplement their energy costs. If renewable energy decreases in price or
becomes more accessible, the number of aquaponic facilities and the quantity of products grown
in aquaponic systems in Canada may increase. If facilities want to produce food year round, a
sustainable, relatively inexpensive source of energy is required. This is particularly important for
Canadian aquaponics, as the natural growing season is temperature dependent. As previously
noted, aquaponics has the potential to provide local and international organic produce year
round, contributing to food security. Aquaponics can be particularly beneficial in remote areas
that have limited food available and high prices, particularly if energy costs are affordable.
However, access to alternative energy may also be a potential barrier. For example, high initial
costs and long repayment plans can be challenges for implementing alternative energy sources
(Adachi & Rowlands, 2010). Energy policies and companies promoting sustainable energy may
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find aquaponic facilities to be of interest. More research is required to understand the economic
impact of using renewable energy compared to other energy sources in aquaponic systems (Love
et al., 2014: 9) and if energy costs will be a barrier to adoption in Canada. Government and
private sector initiatives to increase food production in Canada should assist with increasing
accessible and sustainable energy options and for the food sector.
5.1.4 Potential Influences to Implement Aquaponic and Biofloc Systems
Compatibility
Compatibility of an innovation refers to the perception of the innovation as being in line with the
adopters’ values and needs (Rogers, 2003: 15). In Eatmon et al.’s (2013: 213) case studies, the
compatibility with community development values and sustainable food production values were
important influences for the adoption of aquaponics. Community development includes
providing workshops, education and job creation (Eatmon et al., 2013: 214). The values of
community and sustainable food production were also important influences of Canadian
aquaponic adopters interviewed in this research. Community awareness was identified as
important to 90 percent of aquaponics participants; participants said that community awareness
was important to them as a way to educate people about their products, that they value
community and it was their mission to contribute to the community. To see if community
development would influence aquaculture facilities to adopt aquaponics, aquaculture participants
were asked if they would consider adopting aquaponics to create more jobs. Just over half (fifty-
five percent) of the aquaculture participants said that they would consider aquaponics as a way to
create more jobs. Therefore, initiatives to increase employment in Canada can promote
aquaculture facilities to add aquaponic systems.
The environmental opinion of aquaponics appears to be an important influence for adoption.
Love et al. (2014: 6) found one of the main motivations to implement aquaponics was
environmental sustainability, this motivation is similar to aquaponic facilities in this study. When
asked about how aquaponics aligns with the values of their company, all aquaponic participants
discussed the importance of sustainability and being able to produce healthy food particularly for
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local or nearby communities. In addition, seventy-five percent of the aquaculture facilities that
had piloted aquaponics systems, indicated that the environmental sustainability of the system
was an important motivation. Therefore, aquaponics may be adopted more quickly within
companies that value the importance of environmental sustainability. The use of aquaponics for
education and training was another motivation for adoption identified by Love et al. (2014: 6),
similar to the interest of facilities in this research. The perception of the environmental
sustainability of aquaponics and the importance of delivering education are the two most
common influences found in research that relate to research of Love et al. (2014) research.
Environmental sustainability and education can also be an important aspect of economic viability
and the success of aquaponic facilities. To increase income and decrease expenses in aquaponics,
Goodman (2011: 79) suggests to have various business models and diversify revenue sources.
Therefore, aquaponic operations that have multiple sources of income, such as a farm,
aquaculture operation or tourism and education components may have more economic success
and may be important for future and current aquaponics facilities to consider.
Physical compatibility of adopting an innovation is another important component of
compatibility. Alonge and Martin (1995: 38) indicated that the most important influence of
adopting sustainable practices is the compatibility with existing practices. Although aquaponics
has been added to pre-existing facilities, some aquaculture companies specified they would have
preferred to have built and designed the facility with aquaponics included from the beginning.
Since all of the facilities that have a pilot aquaponic system also had a RAS operation, this may
suggest that aquaculture facilities with existing RAS, or facilities interested in a RAS, may be
more influenced to try an aquaponic system as it requires fewer changes to their existing facility
and operation. However, this research found the physical compatibility of aquaponics with
aquaculture systems in Canada appears to be less important in the decision to adopt aquaponics
than the compatibility of aquaponics with the values and goals of the company.
Infrastructure and Operation
Biofloc systems have the potential to increase in Canada within current, and future, aquaculture
facilities. Aquaculture operations have used biofloc in various systems, including in ponds,
buildings, greenhouses as well as in a separate tank from aquaculture production. Therefore, the
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adoption of biofloc systems may not be limited geographically, or by aquaculture operation, in
Canada since biofloc systems have a variety of designs and methods of production.
The most prevalent influence for aquaculture to adopt aquaponics was profit and if it was a
decoupled system, where the fish and plant units can be independently controlled (Goddek et al.,
2016: 2). A decoupled system correlates with practices and recommendations with others in the
aquaponics industry. Peloguin (2015: 28) recommended large-scale aquaponic operations
decouple fish and plants, both financially and physically, and have skilled workers working on
each system. This set up could be ideal for those willing to work in a business partnership.
Similar to Love et al. (2015: 69), this study found that aquaponic facilities in Canada utilize
various locations and infrastructure, including greenhouses, inside buildings, on rooftops and
other outdoor locations. The diverse infrastructure used in aquaponic suggests growth in
aquaponics may not be limited to a specific design or location and may continue to expand
within a variety of infrastructures. This diversity increases the potential for aquaponics to
provide a local source of protein and vegetables close to markets in rural and urban areas and in
areas where traditional farming cannot occur. It can be particularly beneficial to produce food
locally as consumers are becoming more aware of the source of their food (Ward et al., 2014:
701) and more interested in purchasing local food (Love et al., 2015: 74). Since all the aquaponic
participants in this research were, or planned to operate year round, aquaponics may be a method
of food production that can provide protein and vegetables year round and may be able to supply
niche markets in Canada and internationally. Rakocy et al. (2006: 2) suggests access to niche
markets may be necessary in order to make a profit with aquaponics. Aquaponics can be of
particular value to isolated and remote areas that have limited and expensive sources of food.
Aquaponic operations can locate near consumers by re-using existing infrastructure, including
warehouses, buildings and greenhouses. This commonly occurred with participants in this
research as forty-five percent of participants set up their aquaponics in a pre-existing building.
However, greenhouses may be the most beneficial infrastructure to utilize in aquaponics as 65
percent of participants in this study and almost half of participants in Love et al. (2015) had
aquaponics, or a portion of aquaponics, in a greenhouse. Therefore, areas with unused or
underutilized greenhouses may have an increased potential to adopt aquaponics operations.
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Greenhouses may be a particular economic benefit to use because of the ability to utilize sunlight
and heat, therefore reducing expenses.
Although this research represents a small sample of the aquaculture and aquaponic facilities in
Canada, it provides insight into practices and motivations that may be shared with other facilities
in Canada. Aquaponic participants in this research were motivated to implement aquaponics for a
variety of reasons. Some participants wanted to improve their system while others were more
motivated because they thought it was important for the future, they had an interest in social
enterprise, they enjoyed trying new technology and were entrepreneurial. Others were motivated
after learning about it from e-mails, videos and workshops or from other members of their
company. If the diverse motivations for aquaponics in Canada continue to influence adoption,
new entrants to the industry may also continue to be from a variety of industries, including the
nonprofit sector. Since the majority of aquaponic participants in this research did not have an
aquaculture facility before having an aquaponics operation, this may indicate that continued
growth of the aquaponic industry in Canada may occur from both inside and outside the
aquaculture field.
This research found there is potential for an increase in aquaponic and biofloc systems in Canada
within the aquaculture industry. Adoption of these systems would increase with collaboration
and partnership opportunities, examples of profitable systems, increased access to sustainable
energy, grants or benefits for creating jobs, grants for implementation and support for sustainable
initiatives in the food sector. Aquaponics, biofloc and other innovations within the Canadian
aquaculture industry are important to stay competitive in the food industry, in particular for
maintaining local and international expectations of environmentally sustainable food
production. Other countries, including the European Union, Iceland, Norway and Denmark are
also promoting and investing in aquaponics to increase their competiveness in the food and
marine sector (INAPRO, 2014; Skar et al., 2015). Aquaponics are systems that can contribute to
global food security (Kloas et al., 2015: 179; EU CORDIS, 2016) and is a potential method of
food production in Canada to contribute to exporting food to countries that require food imports.
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Chapter 6 Conclusion
Aquaculture is an essential part of global food security as the global supply of seafood from
commercial wild fisheries is not expected to increase (UNFAO, 2016: 6, 98). As competition
increases over valuable resources including water, land, food, and energy (INAPRO, 2014), it is
important to have continued sustainable food production. Both aquaponic and biofloc systems
can reduce environmental impacts of intensive aquaculture and contribute to food security
(Waite et al., 2014: 47; UNFAO, 2010: 31). Countries including the European Union, Iceland,
Norway and Denmark are promoting and investing in aquaponics to increase their competiveness
in the food and marine sector with aquaponics (Skar et al., 2015) but there are a limited number
of aquaponic and biofloc facilities in Canada. It is important for the Canadian aquaculture
industry to stay competitive and to adhere to public expectations of the production of aquaculture
products. More consumers are becoming interested in learning about where their food originates,
how it is produced and many stores and restaurants have committed to selling only sustainable or
responsibly farmed seafood. Canada has the means to become a larger global producer of
aquaculture (CCFAM, 2016: 7; DFO, 2012: 6), contribute to increasing food security and can
play a significant role in producing food for countries where food imports are required.
Given the limited research regarding the adoption of commercial aquaponic and biofloc systems,
this thesis provides insight into the aquaponic and biofloc industry in Canada and identifies
influences and barriers of implementing both systems in Canada and potential ways to address
barriers. This study found economic benefits to be the primary incentive for aquaculture facilities
in this study to adopt aquaponic and biofloc systems but facilities were unaware of economic
benefits both systems could provide. Unfamiliarity was the largest barrier to adopting both
aquaponic and biofloc systems in this study. An increase in knowledge sharing, visible examples
of profitable systems and collaboration are methods to overcome the barrier of unfamiliarity and
potentially increase adoption of both systems in Canada. Overcoming this barrier appears to be
possible in Canada as many aquaculture and aquaponic facilities were interested in learning more
about both systems and were willing to take a workshop or course. Participants in this study were
willing to take a workshop to learn more about both systems particularly if the cost was $750 or
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less.
Piloting is also an important aspect to acquiring knowledge and is a significant component of
adoption of aquaponic systems in Canada. Participants in this study were willing to pilot both
systems, and other innovations, if they were given adequate knowledge, materials, funding or
collaboration opportunities. Therefore, there is an opportunity for those in the aquaponics and
biofloc industry to promote and share their experiences and collaborate with the aquaculture and
aquaponics industry in Canada. It is also important for provincial and federal government
departments to be a part of sustainable innovation in the aquaculture industry in Canada.
Government involvement is important to clarify regulatory impacts and promote growth in the
industry in order for the industry to stay competitive and contribute to food security. There has
often been confusion around complex provincial and federal responsibilities of aquaculture,
negatively impacting the growth of Canada’s aquaculture industry (Chopin, 2015: 30; ACFFA,
2014: 21; Salmon, 2014, Newfoundland and Labrador DFFA, 2016; SSCFO, 2015a: 4). To
increase global market share and limit international companies taking over aquaculture
opportunities in Canada, the government should play a key role in maintaining competiveness of
the industry. To increase the knowledge and accessibility of sustainable innovations in the
aquaculture industry, governments and industry partners can promote and fund education,
workshops, provide opportunities to pilot innovations, provide collaboration opportunities as
well as financial support. Having the government and industry involved in the aforementioned
ways to increase knowledge in the aquaculture industry would also assist in reducing the barrier
of misunderstandings of government regulations identified by participants in this research.
This research also identified energy costs as a potential barrier to adoption in Canada. The
majority of aquaponic participants in this study identified energy as one of the highest operating
expenses, this is significant to the success of facilities since large changes in energy can
significantly impact profitability (Goodman, 2011: 78). Unless energy costs in Canada decrease,
renewable energy sources or alternative energy sources may be vital to the economic viability of
aquaponics in Canada. This appears to be a common practice in the aquaponic industry (Love et
al., 2014: 5). Aquaponics has the potential to provide local organic produce year round and can
be particularly beneficial in remote areas that have limited food available and high prices. More
99
research is required to understand the economic impact of using renewable energy compared to
other energy sources in aquaponic systems (Love et al., 2014: 9) and if energy costs will be a
barrier to adoption in Canada. In order to stay competitive and profitable, government and
industry incentives should promote and support sustainable and accessible energy initiatives and
options for those in the food production industry, including aquaculture.
This research found species compatibility may be the second most significant barrier to the
adoption of biofloc systems in Canada since the majority of participants and ninety-four percent
of aquaculture production occurs with species that cannot tolerate a high level of suspended
solids, namely salmon, trout, and steelhead (DFO, 2014b). Adoption of in-situ biofloc systems in
Canada can be expected to only occur in facilities that produce species that can tolerate the
aforementioned conditions biofloc systems require. Future market demands could play a role in
the expansion of biofloc systems in Canada, as it may be more likely for biofloc to increase in
Canada with the development of new species being raised that can be compatible with the
system. Species compatibility and a willingness to raise other species may suggest why there
could be a larger adoption rate within the aquaponic industry. It is possible to have ex-situ
operations which can be a potentially useful method to decrease ammonia and nitrate levels,
grow another species in the biofloc tank or bioflocs can be made into fish feed. More research
and data sharing is required to discuss the potential of ex-situ systems and aquaponic and biofloc
combined systems.
This thesis identifies that there is potential for an increase in adoption of both aquaponic and
biofloc systems in Canada. Government and industry involvement is important to assist with the
adoption of aquaponic, biofloc and other important innovations in the Canadian aquaculture
industry. The aquaculture industry and government departments should be involved in promoting
and assisting with access to sustainable and affordable energy for aquaculture facilities, access to
collaboration and partnership opportunities, opportunities to learn about innovations in the
industry (courses, workshops, etc.), access to job creation benefits and support for sustainable
initiatives in aquaculture. Aquaponics, biofloc and other innovations within the Canadian
aquaculture industry are important to stay competitive in the food industry, in particular for
maintaining local and international expectations of environmentally sustainable food production
100
as well as to contribute to global food security.
Although aquaculture facilities in Canada can utilize both biofloc and aquaponic systems, the
economic advantage and profitability of these systems are unclear. Whether aquaponic and
biofloc systems will be economically, socially and financially sustainable in Canada will be
determined through implementation and trials over time. As technology develops and industry
practices change, it appears that many facilities in Canada are willing to learn about new
technologies and are willing to adopt new practices if benefits are known. Therefore, it is
essential for the industry and government to support innovations in aquaculture and provide
opportunities for knowledge sharing.
Research Limitations
This research may be useful to compare with other facilities in Canada and internationally;
however, only a small number of the aquaculture facilities in Canada were interviewed. This may
provide a limited understanding of the industry. Only participants available during the interview
time period were included in this research.
Concerning interview questions, some participants may not have been willing to disclose
information regarding current and future practices for competitive and business reasons; this may
be considered a limitation of this research. All data collected in this thesis is solely from what
participants were willing to share with the researcher.
Future Research
This study does not provide information needed to evaluate the economic, social and
environmental sustainability of aquaponic and biolfoc systems. More research is required to
address the overall sustainability of aquaponic and biofloc systems in Canada and whether they
will be profitable methods to produce food for local and international markets. This research
does identify energy challenges of aquaponics in Canada. Addressing the economic viability of
aquaponics with renewable or off the grid energy, compared to other sources could provide
101
valuable insight into the direction and viability of aquaponics in temperate regions. More
research is required to understand the economic impact of using renewable energy compared to
other energy sources in aquaponic systems (Love et al., 2014: 9).
This thesis research begins to provide insight into the aquaponic and aquaculture industry in
Canada. As research involving these industries continues it would be beneficial to gain feedback
from participants and others in the industry to learn their opinion of what future research should
entail.
This study involved interviews with commercial aquaponic operations and did not include the
motivations and challenges of small hobby farms in Canada. Although this study focused on
aquaculture as a commercial source of food for humans, aquaculture also plays an important role
in small-scale food production, restocking and enhancing water bodies. The potential that
aquaponics and biofloc could have in these facilities was not included in this research. Further
research could provide beneficial information for the development of the industry and for local
and international food security.
102
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Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment E-mail for Aquaculture Owners
Dr./Ms./Mr.,
My name is Hollie Matthews, I am a graduate student at the University of Toronto. For my
research, I am trying to identify approximately how many commercial land-based
aquaculture facilities there are in Canada, not including pond, lake or U-catch operations. I am
including hatcheries, recirculating and flow through operations in the land-based category for my
research and any facilities that manage their effluent.
For my thesis I am conducting interviews with aquaculture facilities, aquaponic facilities and
provincial government officers to understand funding opportunities, regulations and what
may influence or deter facilities from implementing aquaponic and biofloc systems.
I hope that you, or someone at your facility, would be willing to participate in a phone interview
to learn about your experience in aquaculture. As a subject matter expert, I greatly appreciate
your opinion and experience of aquaculture in Canada and the potential of aquaponic and biofloc
systems. Specific knowledge about these systems is not necessary to answer my questions
as it adds valuable insight to address my research questions.
There is no cost for participating and will only require an hour of your time. The interview
consent details and interview questions are attached for your perusal or should you prefer to
respond by e-mail. I hope that you, or someone at your facility, would be willing to contribute
your experience to my research. Please provide a date and time that is convenient for you to be
contacted if you agree to participate. Any questions that you (and your facility) are not
comfortable answering please disregard. I understand there may be questions facilities will not
be willing to answer and greatly appreciate insight on the questions that can be discussed. You
can also choose to remain anonymous in my research.
The results of my research will be made available to all participants should it be of interest. If
you know of other aquaculture facilities who may be willing to speak with me, please forward
this email and my contact information to them for consideration. If you are not able to participate
in my research please let me know and I will take you off my follow-up list as to not
inconvenience you.
Please feel free to contact me with any questions at (1) 647-457-1804
Thank you very much for your time, I look forward to speaking with you.
Sincerely,
Hollie Matthews
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Appendix B: Recruitment E-mail for Aquaponic Facilities
Dr./Ms./Mr.,
My name is Hollie Matthews, I am a graduate student at the University of Toronto currently
researching factors that influence the implementation of aquaponic and biofloc systems in
commercial aquaculture facilities in Canada.
I am contacting you, as current aquaponic owners, in the hopes that you would be willing to
participate in a phone interview as I would greatly appreciate your opinion of aquaponic and
biofloc systems and the potential of their implementation in Canada.
There is no cost associated with participating and I will gladly provide the results of my
completed research should it interest you. The interview consent details are attached for your
convenience. Please provide a date and time that is convenient for you to be contacted for the
interview.
The results of my research will be made available to all participants should it be of
interest. Should you know of any other individuals who might be willing to be interviewed
please forward this information or my contact information to them for consideration.
Please feel free to contact me with any questions at (1) 647-457-1804
or [email protected]. Interview questions can be sent in advance of the
interview.
Thank you very much for your time, I look forward to speaking with you soon.
Sincerely,
Hollie Matthews
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Appendix C: Recruitment E-mail for Biofloc Experts
Dr./Ms./Mr.,
My name is Hollie Matthews, I am a graduate student at the University of Toronto researching
the economic and environmental feasibility of commercial aquaponic and biofloc aquaculture
systems in Canada. I aim to identify barriers and incentives to implementing aquaponic and
biofloc systems in Canadian aquaculture facilities.
I am contacting you, as a person knowledgeable in biofloc aquaculture systems to find out more
information about the potential of implementing biofloc systems in Canada.
I would like to conduct an interview with you over the phone to discuss questions provided in the
document attached (PDF). The interview will take approximately 15 minutes; it is comprised of
20 questions regarding bioloc systems in general and 13 questions regarding biofloc systems in
Canada. Interview consent details are also attached for your convenience.
Please provide a time and date that will be convenient for you to be contacted for the
interview. There will be no cost associated with participating in the interview.
If you are not able to participate in this interview or if you know of another individual that would
be willing to participate in an interview please feel free to forward this e-mail to them.
Please feel free to contact me with any questions via (1)647-457-1804
Thank you very much for your time, I hope to speak with you soon.
Sincerely,
Hollie Matthews
120
Appendix D: Recruitment E-mail for Government Officials in Aquaculture Departments
Dr./Ms./Mr., Thank you for your help with answering my questions regarding aquaculture operations in
(province). I am following up on our previous e-mails regarding my Masters research at the
University of Toronto. I am interested in researching the economic and environmental feasibility
of aquaponic and biofloc aquaculture systems in Canada and the readiness of aquaculture
facilities to implement these systems. Through interviews with Canadian government officials,
aquaculture associations, aquaponic and biofloc experts and aquaculture facility owners I aim to
identify barriers and incentives to implementing aquaponic and biofloc systems; potential
financial incentives for implementing these systems and current nutrient management methods
and regulations relating to aquaculture facilities across Canada.
I am contacting you, as an aquaculture government official in (province) to find out more
information about the potential of implementing aquaponic and biofloc systems in (province).
I would like to conduct a telephone interview with you to discuss questions provided in the
document attached (PDF). The interview will take approximately 15 minutes.
If you are not able to participate in this interview or if you know of another individual that would
be willing to participate in an interview please feel free to forward this e-mail to them. I would
like to interview government officials and aquaculture associations from every province in
Canada.
As per university requirements, if you agree to the interview, please respond to this e-mail after
reading the consent details.
Please provide a time and date that would be convenient for you to complete the telephone
interview. There will be no cost associated with participating in the interview.
Please feel free to contact me with any questions via 647-457-1804
Thank you very much for your time. I hope to speak with you soon.
Sincerely,
Hollie Matthews
121
Appendix E: Interview Consent Details
I have read the information provided in the recruitment e-mail about the study being conducted
by Hollie Matthews for her Masters of Arts thesis for the Department of Geography at the
University of Toronto Mississauga. I also have had the opportunity to ask the researcher any
questions related to this study, to receive adequate answers to my questions, and any further
information I wanted.
I am aware that I may withdraw from the interview without penalty at any time. After the
interview has been completed, I can withdraw from the study by simply contacting the
researcher, Hollie Matthews, and inform her of my decision. If at the time of withdrawal, the
project has entered the stages of data analysis, the researcher will attempt, as much as possible,
to remove my data from the research but after data analysis is completed the material that has
been provided cannot be withdrawn. I am aware that excerpts from the interview may be
included in the Master’s thesis and/or publications to come from this research, with the
understanding that the quotations will be anonymous, unless I request to be identified.
The interviewer, Hollie Matthews, would like to audiotape the interview to ensure that the
conversation and data is recorded accurately. I may still participate in the research even if I
decide not to be recorded. By participating in the interview I will receive a summary of the
findings of this research, as well as the option to obtain the full report.
This project has been reviewed by, and received ethics clearance through the Office of Research
Ethics at the University of Toronto. I understand that if I have any concerns or comments
resulting from my participation in this study, I may contact the Office of Research Ethics at
[email protected] or 416-946-3273.
122
Appendix F: Interview Questions for Aquaculture Owners
Preliminary Questions
Have you read the consent details provided?
Do you agree to the consent details?
Do you agree to be audiotaped as part of the interview for the sole purpose of the interviewer to
ensure your responses are recorded accurately? You can still participate in the interview without
agreeing to be audiotaped.
Do you agree to the use of your name, employee position and employer/company for the purpose
of recognizing interview participants in my thesis or publication that results from this research?
Do you agree to the use of your answers verbatim in my thesis or publications that results from
this research? Any answers that I would like to quote in my thesis will be sent to you first for
your acceptance. If you agree would you prefer quotes to be identified as yours or remain
anonymous?
Aquaculture Facility Questions
1. When did your aquaculture facility begin operation?
2. Do you consider your aquaculture facility to be a commercial operation?
3. How many aquaculture facilities do you (or your company) currently own?
4. Does your facility operate year round or during specific months?
5. Is your facility a hatchery, nursery and/or a growout facility?
6. Approximately what is the stocking density at your facility/facilities?
7. Approximately how many tonnes of seafood are produced at your facility annually?
8. Is your aquaculture facility a recirculating facility?
If yes: approximately what percent of the water used in your facility is recirculating?
approximately how many recirculating facilities does your company operate?
does your company operate recirculating facilities in multiple provinces?
are the recirculating facilities for hatcheries, nurseries and/or growout?
do you have to remove water periodically, for example for cleaning?
123
If no: is your company interested in becoming a recirculating facility?
where is the effluent discharged?
9. Where does your facility get the water for aquaculture production from?
10. Are there regulations for extracting water or discharging water?
If yes: what governing body is responsible for these regulations?
what do these regulations entail?
has your company had any difficulties in meeting these regulations?
11. Do you have to pay for extracting water or discharging water?
12. Is all the water discharged from your facility treated first?
13. How does your facility treat the water?
14. Is nutrient management or reduction a concern at your facility?
15. What does your facility currently do with the fish waste and wastewater?
16. Are you satisfied with the management of fish waste and wastewater at your facility?
17. In your opinion, are there beneficial methods of utilizing fish waste or wastewater?
18. Is your facility interested in other methods of using fish waste or wastewater other than the
current method?
19. What do you currently do with the sludge produced at your facility?
20. Are you satisfied with the management of sludge at your facility or would you like to
change or improve it?
21. In your opinion does your facility utilize environmentally sustainable practices?
If yes: what sustainable practices are utilized?
22. Are other sustainable practices of interest to your facility?
If yes: what sustainable practices are of interest?
23. In your experience, what are the highest operating expenses in aquaculture systems?
24. What species of fish are currently grown at your facility?
25. Why were these species chosen?
26. Have you grown other fish species in the past?
If yes: What species did you grow? Why are you no longer growing those species?
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27. Is your company interested in growing other species of fish in the future? If no: Why not?
If yes: What species are you interested in growing?
Species that have been used in aquaponic and biofloc systems include bluegill, perch,
tilapia, catfish, bass, trout, carp, shrimp and ornamental fish such as koi and gold fish, are
you interested in producing any of these species?
28. Biofloc systems are typically used for species that can tolerate a high solids concentration
unless the biofloc production is in a separate tank from the species being produced, can the
species you produce tolerate a high solids concentration?
29. Are your fish sold locally?
30. Is it important to your company to produce food for your community or nearby
communities?
31. Do you currently use or produce insect meal?
32. Are you interested in using or producing insect meal?
Aquaponic and Biofloc Questions
1. Are you (or the owner of this company) familiar with aquaponic systems or biofloc
aquaculture systems?
Biofloc systems consist of high fish stocking densities and restricted water exchange
resulting in the growth, from fish waste, of microscopic organisms including bacteria,
fungi, algae, protists, and/or zooplankton as feed for the species in the aquaculture
system. Water quality is controlled by maintaining aeration and mixing. Solids must
be suspended in the water at all times or the system will not function. Biofloc systems
are appropriate for species that can tolerate high solids concentration unless the
biofloc production is in a separate tank from the species being produced.
If yes: are you aware of aquaponic or biofloc facilities in Canada or other areas of the
world?
do you know any aquaculture companies that have added aquaponic or biofloc
systems to their facilities?
have you or another member of your company visited or talked to other facilities
that have aquaponic or biofloc systems?
are you aware of facilities that have combined aquaponic and biofloc systems?
If yes: are you aware of challenges or benefits of combining these systems?
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2. Are you aware of any benefits aquaponic or biofloc systems can provide to your facility?
3. Do you consider aquaponics or biofloc to be environmentally responsible or sustainable?
4. Has your company conducted a trial or pilot aquaponic or biofloc system?
If yes: what influenced you to pilot the system?
was the pilot system externally or internally funded?
approximately how long did you have a pilot system for?
in your opinion approximately how much could piloting a system cost?
5. Do you, or staff at your facility, have training or experience in farming, aquaponics or
biofloc systems?
6. In your opinion, are aquaponic or biofloc systems compatible with your current facility?
7. Does aquaponic or biofloc systems coincide with the values and goals of your company?
8. Are you interested in learning more about biofloc or aquaponic systems?
Aquaponic and Biofloc Implementation Questions
1. Would you be interested in implementing an aquaponic or biofloc system at your facility
in Canada? If yes for biofloc, would your facility be interested in a system the produces
biofloc in a separate tank from the fish or within the same water as the fish?
2. Would your company be interested in piloting an aquaponic or biofloc system?
3. What may influence you to pilot or implement a biofloc or aquaponic system?
For example, would you be willing if the operation was a partnership or managed by
another company with experience?
If the system was a de-coupled system and did not affect the current operation?
If the system was completely funded?
If the system decreased water treatment expenses by 30%?
If the system assisted in reducing nitrate levels in the water?
If the system reduced the amount of water exchange required? For example if the system
could reduce the make-up water by 50%.
If the system assisted in maintaining heat in the water?
If the system reduced the amount of time to clean the water filters and decreased the
requirement of external filters?
If the system increased the efficiency of fish feed by reusing the fish feed?
If the system provided additional food and protein source for the fish?
If the system supplemented the cost of fish feed?
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4. Do you have concerns about implementing aquaponics or biofloc systems to your
facility? (Is there anything that deters you from implementing either system?)
5. Why have you not implemented a biofloc or aquaponic system?
6. Would you be interested in implementing aquaponics if you could make a profit from
selling the plants produced?
7. Would you be interested in implementing aquaponics if you could donate or contribute
the plants to a food bank or community kitchen?
8. Would you be interested in implementing an aquaponic system to produce crops to
supplement the cost of fish feed, such as duckweed?
9. Are you concerned about the price of fish feed in the future?
10. If there was an increase in the price of fish feed, would you consider (i) a biofloc system,
(ii) producing fish feed, or (iii) growing aquaponics to supplement your income?
11. Would your facility be interested in a biofloc or aquaponic system if there were a subsidy
to defray costs for facility changes?
If yes or maybe, what percentage of the installation costs would you like to have
subsidized in order to implement the system?
12. Would your facility be interested in a biofloc or aquaponic system if you had a consultant
evaluate your facility?
13. Consultation costs for an initial study to integrate an aquaponic or biofloc system
typically involve a site visit, a business plan and project construction plan. Is your facility
interested in having an aquaponic or biofloc consultation?
14. Would your facility be interested in a biofloc or aquaponic system if a percent of
consultation cost was subsidized?
If yes or maybe, what percentage of the consultation costs would you like to have
subsidized if the consultation costs approximately $2000?
15. Would your facility be interested in a biofloc or aquaponic system if a percent of the
initial costs were subsidized?
If yes or maybe, what percentage of the initial costs would you expect to have funded in
order to implement the system?
16. Would you or someone at your facility be interested in taking a workshop or course on
biofloc or aquaponic systems?
17. Would your facility be interested in a biofloc or aquaponic system if a percent of the
workshop or course was subsidized?
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If yes or maybe, if the course costs approximately $1500 what percentage of the cost of
the course would you expect to have subsidized?
18. Would your facility be interested in a biofloc or aquaponic system if it saved your facility
money?
19. Would your facility be interested in a biofloc or aquaponic system if you qualified for
additional grants or subsidies?
Community Involvement
1. Is your company visible online through a website, live webcam available to the public or
social media?
2. Does your company advertise in newspapers, magazines, television or online?
3. Does your company currently host events for the community or plan to in the future?
4. In your opinion, does your company contribute to the local community? If yes: how?
5. Is community awareness important to your company and why?
6. Has your company received awards, a fellowship or been recognized publically in some
way?
7. Is it a goal of your company to receive recognition, for example for being
environmentally sustainable?
8. Is your company interested in creating more jobs in your community?
If yes, would you be interested in aquaponic or biofloc systems as a way to create
employment?
If not, would you be interested in aquaponic or biofloc systems if there are grants to
assist with creating new jobs?
Economic Related Questions
1. Does your company provide tours in person or online?
If yes: Is there a fee associated with the tour?
2. Does your company currently provide camps for youth, workshops, sell supplies or
materials, rental spaces, education, training or research opportunities?
If yes: Are these provided for a fee?
If not: Is your company interested in providing youth camps, workshops, supplies
or materials, rental spaces, education, training or research opportunities in the
future?
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3. Is the main revenue source of your company from selling the fish?
If not: Are you comfortable indicating what other sources of income your company
has?
4. Is your aquaculture facility a for-profit operation?
If yes: Is your company considering becoming a non-profit, not-for-profit operation
or creating a not-for-profit arm?
If not: Is your facility a non-profit, not-for-profit operation or does it have a not-
for-profit arm?
5. Does or has your company received funding, tax incentives, zero-tax liability, grants,
donations, volunteer services or other benefits?
6. Are you aware of potential funding, tax incentives, zero-tax liability, grants, donations
volunteer service opportunities or other benefits for aquaculture?
7. Are employees of your company owners of the business and involved in making
business decisions?
Participant Background
How many years have you worked in the aquaculture field?
Have you had experience working in the aquaculture field in countries other than Canada?
Conclusion
Would you like to receive the full report of my research?
Do you have any questions or suggestions regarding this interview or further comments you
would like to add?
If you know of another person that operates an aquaculture facility who may be willing to
participate in an interview please feel free to forward my contact information or my initial e-mail
to them.
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Appendix G: Interview Questions for Aquaponic Facilities
Preliminary Questions Have you read the consent details provided in the e-mail?
Do you agree to the consent details?
Do you agree to be audiotaped as part of the interview? You can still participate in the interview
without agreeing to be audiotaped.
Do you agree to the use of your name, employee position and employer for the purpose of
recognizing interview participants in my thesis or publication that results from this research?
Do you agree to the use of your answers verbatim in my thesis or publications that results from this
research? Any answers that I would like to quote in my thesis will be sent to you first for your
acceptance. If you agree would you prefer quotes to be identified as yours or remain anonymous?
Aquaponic Facility Questions
1. When did your aquaponic facility begin operation?
2. What plant and fish species are currently grown at your aquaponic facility?
3. Why were these species chosen?
4. Are there any challenges in growing the current fish and plant species?
5. Have you grown other species in your aquaponic system in the past?
If yes: What species did you grow? Why are you no longer growing those species? Were there any
challenges in growing those species?
6. Do you consider your aquaponic operation to be commercial?
7. Is your company interested in growing other species of fish or plants in the future?
If not: Why not? If yes: What species are you interested in growing?
8. Do you sell either or both the fish and plants that are produced from your facility?
9. Are your plants and/or fish sold locally?
If not: Would you consider selling locally in the future? Why are your plants and/or fish not sold
locally? Where are your plants and/or fish sold?
10. Did your company conduct a trial or pilot aquaponic system prior to the start of your aquaponic
operation?
If yes: What influenced you to pilot an aquaponic system? Was the pilot system externally or
internally funded? Approximately how long did you have a pilot system for? In your opinion
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approximately how much could piloting an aquaponic system cost?
11. How many aquaponic facilities do you (or your company) currently own?
12. Have you received training in aquaponics?
13. Have staff at your facility received training in aquaponics? If yes: What did the aquaponic
training consist of?
14. Have you hired or received advice from another person with aquaponic experience to assist with
implementing your aquaponic system?
15. Does your facility correspond or receive advice from others in the aquaponic field?
16. Does your facility correspond or give advice to others in the aquaponic field?
17. Are you aware of online aquaponic forums?
18. In your opinion, do you consider aquaponics to be a complicated or fairly simple facility to
operate?
19. Has your opinion of the complexity or simplicity of operating an aquaponic facility changed from
when you first began operation?
20. With your experience if you were to build and operate another aquaponic facility what things you
would do differently from your current facility?
21. Approximately when did you (or the founder of this company) first become aware of aquaponic
systems?
22. Have you or another member of your company visited or talked to other facilities that have
aquaponics?
23. Are you familiar with aquaponic systems in Canada, the United States or other temperate regions?
24. How does aquaponics coincide with the values of your company?
Aquaponics and Other Food Production Systems
1. Have you or another member of your company previously owned or operated an aquaponic
facility, farm or aquaculture facility?
2. In your opinion do you or another member of your company have previous experience that has
assisted you in aquaponics? For example farming, engineering, etc.
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3. Why did your company decide to operate an aquaponic system?
4. In your opinion what in general are the benefits of aquaponic systems?
5. In your experience were there benefits to implementing aquaponics that you expected but did not
receive?
6. Was there a reason why aquaponics was chosen instead of another food production system?
7. In your opinion what are the advantages to aquaponics compared to other land-based food
production systems?
8. In your opinion what are the disadvantages to aquaponics compared to other land-based food
production systems?
9. What is your opinion of the environmental sustainability of aquaponics?
Community Involvement
1. Is your company visible online through a website, live webcam available to the public or social media?
2. Does your company advertise in newspapers, magazines, television or online?
3. Does your company currently host events for the community or plan to in the future?
4. In your opinion, does your company contribute to the local community? If yes: How?
5. Is community awareness important to your company and why?
6. Has your company received awards, a fellowship or been recognized publically in some way?
7. Is it a goal of your company to receive recognition? For example for being environmentally
sustainable or contributing to the local community.
Aquaponic Facility Technical Operation Questions
1. Was your facility originally built as an aquaponic operation or was the aquaponic system added
later?
2. Does your system operate in a greenhouse or inside a building?
3. Does your system operate year round or during specific months?
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4. Is your aquaponic system a recirculating system? If yes: Approximately what percent of the water
is recirculated?
5. In your opinion can plants reduce all nutrients to appropriate levels for the system or are other
nutrient management methods required? If not: In your experience how do the plants you grow
effect the nutrient levels of the system?
6. In your experience have you modified or added components to the aquaponic system to improve
production? If yes: Please explain
7. In your experience, what are the highest operating expenses in aquaponic systems?
8. In your experience are there methods to reduce expenses in aquaponic systems?
9. In your experience are there methods to increase income in aquaponic systems?
10. In your opinion could it be beneficial to produce diatoms, duckweed or other sources of fish feed
in an aquaponic system?
11. In your experience, have off flavours been a concern in your aquaponic system?
12. Does your facility use the fish waste or wastewater for purposes other than aquaponics?
13. In your opinion, are there other beneficial methods of utilizing waste from aquaponics or the
wastewater?
Economic Related Questions
1. Does your company provide tours in person or online? If yes: Is there a fee associated with the
tour?
2. Does your company currently provide camps for youth, workshops, sell supplies or materials,
rental spaces, education, training or research opportunities?
If yes: Are these provided for a fee? If not: Is your company interested in providing youth camps,
workshops, supplies or materials, rental spaces, education, training or research opportunities in the
future?
3. Is the main revenue source of your company from selling the fish or plants?
4. Are you comfortable indicating what other sources of income your company has?
5. Is your aquaponic facility a for-profit operation?
If yes: Is your company considering becoming a non-profit, not-for-profit operation or creating a not-
for-profit arm?
If not: Is your facility a non-profit, not-for-profit operation or does it have a not-for-profit arm?
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6. Does or has your company received funding, tax incentives, zero-tax liability, grants, donations, volunteer services or other benefits?
7. Are you aware of potential funding, tax incentives, zero-tax liability, grants, donations volunteer service opportunities or other benefits for aquaponic systems?
8. What are the barriers to starting an aquaponic facility?
9. Are employees of your company also owners of the business?
Questions About Aquaponics in Canada
1. In your opinion, would you recommend Canadian on-land aquaculture owners to implement an
aquaponic system?
2. Would you recommend Canadian aquaculture facilities to pilot an aquaponic system?
3. In your opinion what are some benefits aquaculture facilities could obtain from implementing an aquaponic system?
4. What fish and plant species do you recommend growing in aquaponics systems in Canada?
5. In your opinion what in general are some challenges of implementing and operating aquaponic systems in temperate regions?
6. In your opinion are there methods that may reduce some of these challenges?
7. Do you have advice or recommendations for other people or companies interested in implementing
aquaponics?
Biofloc Questions
1. Are you familiar with biofloc aquaculture systems?
Biofloc systems consist of high fish stocking densities and restricted water exchange resulting in
the growth, from fish waste, of microscopic organisms including bacteria, fungi, algae, protists,
and/or zooplankton as feed for fish within the aquaculture system.
If yes: Are you aware of facilities that have combined aquaponic and biofloc systems? If yes: Are
you aware of challenges or benefits of combining these systems?
2. Would your company be willing to pilot a biofloc system?
3. What may influence you to pilot a biofloc system? For example, would you be willing to pilot a
biofloc system if it was paid for or if another person was running it?
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Participant Background
What experience do you have with aquaponic systems?
How many years have you worked with aquaponic systems?
What countries have you had experience working with aquaponic systems?
Do you teach courses or workshops on aquaponic systems?
Are you aware of other aquaponic courses or workshops? Would you recommend any specific
courses/workshops to people or companies that are interested in implementing aquaponic systems?
Do you currently consult people or companies interested in implementing aquaponic systems?
Are you willing to be contacted by aquaculture facilities or people interested in aquaponic systems?
Conclusion
Would you like to receive the full report of my research?
Do you have any questions or suggestions regarding this interview or further comments you would
like to add?
If you know of another person that operates an aquaponic system who may be willing to participate
in an interview please feel free to forward my contact information or my initial e-mail to them.
135
Appendix H: Interview Questions for Biofloc Experts
Preliminary Questions
Have you read and do you agree to the consent details provided in the e-mail in the attached PDF
document?
Do you agree to be audiotaped as part of the study? You can still participate in the interview
without agreeing to be audiotaped.
Do you agree to the use of your name, employee position and employer in any thesis or
publication that results from this research? If no: Do you agree to the use of anonymous
quotations in any thesis or publication that results from this research?
1. General Biofloc Questions
1. To your knowledge, what are some countries that have implemented commercial biofloc
systems?
2. In your experience, what are the most profitable species grown in commercial biofloc
systems?
Blue Tilapia
Nile Tilapia
Mozambique Tilapia
Super-male Tilapia (YY)
Hybrid Tilapia
Carps
Mullet
African sharptooth catfish
The giant gourami
Hybrid striped bass
Asian Green Mussel
Pacific White Shrimp
Blue Shrimp
Pink Shrimp
Carpas Shrimp
Northern Pink Shrimp
Malaysian prawn
Black tiger shrimp
Banana shrimp
Other
3. In your opinion what are some potential benefits of biofloc systems?
4. In your opinion, how does biofloc systems influence system efficiency, profit, costs and
production time?
5. In your opinion how do biofloc systems effect the requirement to use other methods to
control nutrient levels?
136
6. Can biofloc be the sole method of managing nutrients in aquaculture systems? In
commercial or non-commercial systems?
7. In your opinion how do biofloc systems compare economically to other nutrient
management systems?
In your opinion how do biofloc systems compare to other nutrient management systems
in terms the amount and consistency of nutrient removal?
8. In your experience, what are some useful methods to manage nutrients in indoor re-
circulating systems?
9. In your experience have you modified or added other components to the biofloc system to
improve production?
If Yes please explain what modifications or additional components have you used to
improve production
10. In your opinion what in general are some challenges of biofloc systems?
11. In your experience, are off flavours a common concern in biofloc systems?
Are you aware of approaches to reduce off flavours?
12. In your experience, what is the highest operating expense in commercial biofloc
systems?
Would this also be the highest operating expense in indoor biofloc systems?
13. In your opinion, does the price of fish feed influence the viability of biofloc systems?
14. Do you consider biofloc a sustainable or environmentally friendly component of
commercial aquaculture production?
15. In your opinion can biofloc systems be incorporated with aquaponic systems?
If Yes/possibly, Are you aware of any facilities that have combined these systems?
Are there challenges or benefits of combining these systems that you are aware of?
16. In your opinion, are there beneficial methods of utilizing aquaculture effluent from
indoor systems? (for example environmental or economic benefits)
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2. Biofloc Questions Specific to Canada
In your opinion can aquaculture in Canada utilize biofloc technology?
If No: What are some reasons why aquaculture in Canada cannot utilize biofloc technology?
If Yes:
1. Can biofloc technology be used for commercial aquaculture production in Canada?
2. In your opinion can biofloc systems be used in hatcheries and grow-out facilities in
Canada?
3. Would you recommend in-situ or ex-situ biofloc systems in Canada?
4. In your opinion, can biofloc technology be implemented in current facilities or are
new facilities required?
5. Would you recommend Canadian aquaculture owners to implement biofloc systems?
If Yes; What steps would you recommend Canadian aquaculture facilities to take in
order to implement a biofloc system?
6. Would you recommend aquaculture facilities to engage in a pilot biofloc system?
If Yes;
What steps would you recommend Canadian aquaculture facilities to take in order to
implement a pilot system?
In your opinion approximately how long could it take to start a pilot system?
Approximately how much could this cost?
7. In your opinion what are some incentives or potential benefits for Canadian
aquaculture owners to implement biofloc systems?
8. Since Asian Green Mussels (Perna viridis), have been grown in biofloc systems, do
you think other mussel species could also be produced in biofloc systems? For
example blue mussels, which is a species produced in Canada?
In your opinion what could be challenges of producing blue mussels in biofloc
systems in Canada?
9. Are other species currently produced in Canada able to utilize biofloc systems?
Listed below are species produced in Canada.
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Arctic Char
Barramundi
Bass: Largemouth,
Smallmouth, Striped
Bigmouth Buffalo Fish
California Sea Cucumber
Carp: Grass
Clam: Hard (Quahog), Soft
Shell, Varnish, Manila,
Geoduck, Littleneck, Butter,
Horse
Cod
Cunner
Dulse
Eel: American, Wolf
Halibut: Pacific, Atlantic
Kokanee
Lingcod
Mussel: Gallo/ Mediterranean,
Eastern Blue, Western Blue
Nuttall Cockle
Oyster: Pacific, American,
European, Eastern
Perch: Yellow
Sablefish
Salmon: Chinook, Coho,
Atlantic, Sockeye
Scallop: Bay, Pacific Hybrid,
Japanese, Sea, Giant Rock,
Weathervane
Sea Urchin: Green, Purple,
Red
Signal Crayfish
Sturgeon: Atlantic, Short-
nose, White
Tilapia
Trout: Rainbow/Steelhead,
Eastern Brook/Speckled,
Brown, Lake (Char)
Walleye/Pickerel
White-leg Shrimp
10. In your opinion is it possible to use wastewater from inland aquaculture systems to
produce a biofloc system for shellfish?
If Yes/possibly, Are you aware of any facilities that have combined these systems?
In your opinion what could be some challenges and benefits of combining these
systems?
11. In your opinion what are some challenges of implementing biofloc systems in
Canada, a northern temperate climate?
12. In your opinion are there methods that could reduce challenges of implementing
biofloc systems in Canada?
13. In your opinion, is it feasible to produce fish (and/or other species) in a biofloc
system with no addition of commercial feed?
If Yes/Possibly, is this possible in Canada? Is this possible for commercial production?
Is this possible in indoor systems?
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3. Participant Background
What experience do you have with biofloc systems?
What countries have you had experience working with biofloc systems?
Are you familiar with biofloc systems in temperate regions?
Are you aware of research or literature regarding implementing new systems or
technology in aquaculture?
How many years have you worked with biofloc systems?
Do you teach courses or workshops on biofloc systems?
Are you aware of other biofloc courses or workshops?
Would you recommend any specific courses/workshops to aquaculture facilities that are
interested in implementing biofloc systems?
Do you currently consult facilities interested in implementing a biofloc systems?
Are you willing to be contacted by aquaculture facilities interested in biofloc systems?
Conclusion
Would you like to receive the full report of my research?
Do you recommend literature for me to review?
Do you have any questions or suggestions regarding this interview or further comments you
would like to add?
If you know of another person knowledgeable in biofloc systems who may be willing to
participate in the interview please feel free to forward my contact information or my initial e-
mail to them.
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Appendix I: Interview Questions for Government Officials in Aquaculture Departments
Preliminary Questions
Have you read the consent details provided in the e-mail?
Do you agree to the consent details?
Do you agree to be audiotaped as part of the interview? You can still participate in the interview
without agreeing to be audiotaped.
Do you agree to the use of your name, employee position and employer/company for the purpose
of recognizing interview participants in my thesis or publication that results from this research?
Do you agree to the use of your answers verbatim in my thesis or publications that results from
this research? Any answers that I would like to quote in my thesis will be sent to you first for
your acceptance. If you agree would you prefer quotes to be identified as yours or remain
anonymous?
Questions Regarding Aquaculture Effluent
1. Are there currently aquaculture effluent water quality regulations in your province?
(If no skip to Question 6)
2. What are the water quality parameters that aquaculture effluent is required to maintain?
3. Are the water quality parameters dependent on the body of water into which the effluent
is discharged?
4. Have the effluent water quality standards recently changed or are they expected to change
in the near future?
5. Are there consequences to not meeting the required effluent standards?
6. Is there a limit on the volume of water that can be discharged into water bodies from
aquaculture facilities in your province?
7. Do aquaculture facilities in your province experience challenges meeting current effluent
regulations?
8. Are you aware of any recommended practices or best practices used to reduce the impacts
of aquaculture effluent in your province?
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Aquaponic and Biofloc Questions
9. Are there currently or has there been any facility in your province that has used biofloc or
aquaponic aquaculture systems? (If no skip to question 12)
Biofloc systems consist of high fish stocking densities and restricted water exchange
resulting in the growth, from fish waste, of microscopic organisms including
bacteria, fungi, algae, protists, and/or zooplankton as feed for the species in the
aquaculture system. Water quality is controlled by maintaining aeration and
mixing. Solids must be suspended in the water at all times or the system will not
function. Biofloc systems are appropriate for species that can tolerate high solids
concentration unless the biofloc production is in a separate tank from the species
being produced.
If yes: approximately how many facilities operate(d) biofloc or aquaponic systems?
are/were these commercial facilities?
10. Are you aware of any aquaculture facilities in your province implementing a biofloc or
aquaponic system?
11. To your knowledge, what species are grown in aquaponic/biofloc systems in your
province?
12. To your knowledge, are current aquaculture facilities in your province interested in
implementing biofloc or aquaponic aquaculture systems?
If yes, is there a species of fish or crop that aquaculture facilities are particularly
interested in producing? What is the main reason for the interest?
Questions Regarding Funding
13. Are there current funding opportunities from the provincial or federal government for
aquaculture facilities to implement sustainable technologies?
If yes: would biofloc or aquaponic systems be included in these sustainable funding
opportunities?
what would aquaculture facilities with biofloc or aquaponic systems be required to do to
be eligible to receive funding?
14. Are you aware of funding opportunities available for facilities with biofloc or aquaponic
systems from the government or other sources?
15. Is there funding available for facilities that would like to open a new facility with a
biofloc or aquaponic system?
142
16. Is there funding available for facilities that would like to implement a biofloc or
aquaponic system to their current facility?
17. Are there funding opportunities for new aquaculture facilities or current facilities to hire
consultants, to attend training courses or to improve their system?
18. Are aquaculture facilities currently subsidized by the government in your province?
If applicable, please explain what type of subsidies occur, for example what is the time
period and amount of these subsidies.
19. Is there potential for aquaculture facilities to receive subsidies from the government? For
example to have reduced energy rates.
20. Are aquaculture facilities in your province able to receive farm status?
If no, can aquaculture facilities with aquaponics receive farm status?
21. Can aquaponics facilities be acceptable for both aquaculture and agriculture grants and
funding opportunities?
22. Are non-Canadian owned aquaculture companies allowed to operate in your province?
23. Are non-Canadian owned aquaculture companies eligible for the same or additional
funding opportunities?
Questions Regarding Regulations, Permits and Certification
24. Are there species that are not allowed to be farmed in aquaculture in your province?
If yes, are shrimp and tilapia allowed to be farmed?
25. Do aquaponic facilities require a licence in your province?
If yes, if aquaculture facilities add an aquaponics system would they require a different
licence?
26. Do aquaponic facilities require different licences based on what they sell to the public?
For example would an aquaponic facility that sells fish require a different licence than a
facility that only sells plants?
27. Can aquaponic plants be certified and sold as organic in your province?
28. In your province, or in Canada, are there eco-certifications related to effluent
management of aquaculture facilities?
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29. Are there different procedures or requirements of non-Canadian owned companies to
obtain an aquaculture lease in your province?
30. Would different permits be required for land–based recirculating biofloc or aquaponic
systems compared to other land–based recirculating aquaculture facilities?
31. Are you aware of any limitations or regulations that would impact facilities wanting to
implement biofloc or aquaponic systems?
32. Approximately how long does it take to obtain a license/permit for various aquaculture
facilities in your province?
33. How much does it cost to obtain a license/permit for recirculating, flow through and open
water aquaculture facilities?
34. What is a common reason recirculating or aquaponic license/permits are refused?
35. What is a common barrier or reason facilities do not apply for a recirculating or
aquaponics license/permit?
36. Is this barrier/are these barriers unique to recirculating or aquaponic facilities, or common
across various types of aquaculture facilities?
37. What ministries are involved in aquaculture licencing in your province?
38. Are you aware of information or documents that compare aquaculture regulations across
Canada?
Conclusion
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Do you have any questions or suggestions regarding this interview or further comments you
would like to add?
If you have a colleague within or outside the province who may be willing to participate in the
interview please feel free to forward my contact information or initial e-mail to them.