In the name of God who we

all do • pralse •••• •

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Arab Academy for Science & Technology & Maritime Transport.

College of Engineering and Technology.

Electronics & Communications Engineering Department.

~~4~ ____________________ ~ ____________ - ____ ~~

.,;- .. _______ . ___ N_N_ ... _N'" .... ""

A Novel ILT-CCD Image Sensor.

~.~------------------~----------------------------~ r, ,~

A Thesis Submitted In Partial Fulfillment Of The Requirements

Of The Master Degree.

In Electronics & Communications Engineering

Eng. Shaimaa Abdallah Mohamed Abdallah

Supervised by

(it Prof. Dr. Mohamed Bashir Saleh Electronics & Communications Engineering Dept.

Faculty of Engineering

Arab Academy For Science & Technology

<I Prof. Dr. Ahmed Khairy Aboul Seoud

2002

Electrical Engineering Dept.

Faculty of Engineering

University of Alexandria.

DECLARATION

We c~rtify that we have read the present \vork and that in our opinion it is

fully adequate in scope and quality as a disseliation towards the partial

fulfiJhnent of the Master degree requirelnents in f\ eckon~<-s &..Cs~m\Ao\ c(J~"",~ fn~\1 rr01n the Arab Acadelny for Science and Technology and Maritilne

Transport.

Supervisors:

Nallle

Position

Nallle

Position

Exalllillers:

Nallle

Position

Nal11e

Position

N.D.

22.c18.99

Declaration. doc

· · · ·

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edication to ..... .

Sir. Moharmned Elarabie, my

grandfather and spiritual guide.

Dad, my teacher of elegancy and

sophistication with humans. Mom for

being here until the end. Asmaa, my

sparkling & beloved sister, you

filled my life with glamour. To my

loving & beautifully understanding

all the past period, my fiance Eng.

Haithem Nabil .

To the soul of Eng.

Iman Gamiee , the purest of all.

* Acknowledgments *

hen i first stepped in to the Arab Academy for Science & Technology (AAST) i had this feeling that a W bond will relate me to this place for ever. My years here would not have been meaningful without the

special guidance and advice of many people. I would first like to thank my thesis supervisors:

• Prof. Dr. Ahmed Khairy Aboul Seoud, we have went through a lot together

in which you were like a father to me, in my hard times. You deserve to be acknowledged as the most patient,

supportive, and understanding supervisor, giving me all the freedom to pursue the research. I won't forget

how i have started my first steps in the academic career as a T.A under your supervision and still delighted to

stay so.

• Prof. Dr. Mohamed Bashir Saleh, i certainly could have never gotten as much

done without your spiritual support. lowe to you my choice of this charming field of electronics. Despite

the distances that sometimes separated us with you, your guiding words turned on the locked doors. A

person is lucky to have one father, I guess i am more than that as i have you sir too.

Secondly, special credit goes to the College of Engineering at the AAST for my Master Scholarship

funding. Moreover, they say you love a place through the beauty and charm of its contents. Yet, the

years at the AAST and especially at my Electronics & Communications Engineering Dept., proved

that its beauty lies in its people. I feel i am blessed by being in such an environment filled with love and care.

Sometimes there are some UPS and DOWNS yet the main spirit wins. Therefore, i want to exclusively thank

everyone in it who has helped me and put up with me for over the last two years; some have become good

friends and i will miss them once we go our separate ways.

Prof. Dr. Mohamed Aboul Dahab, throughout the years a word kept ringing in my

head when ever I came in contact with you sir, it's Commitment. I have learned a lot from you as a lecturer,

graduation project supervisor, and finally how to be a leader.

Prof. Dr. Nadder Hamdy, your emotional support to most of us made life more brighter

around the place. You made us realize that science and work doesn't mean that we live in glass houses. I am

honored having you as my lecturer over the years. Moreover, i will never forget how much you believed in me

and stretched a helpful hand; especially in the graduation year. Sometimes the magic lies only in saying the right

words.

In my first steps throughout the department their were some people who always tried to help out with

their experience. Thanks for the brotherhood candle you have given to enlighten the road Eng.

Sherif Aly, and Eng. Mohamed Youssef Moreover, sometimes this bond doesn't need blood

relationships, thus deepest appreciation Eng. Mohamed Mousa for your unselfish productive advices along the

way, starting from the ESA working group and up until now.

lowe a tremendous dept to my office mates at room 138 for all their encouragement & support,

throughout the final two years, special thanks to the struggle companion Eng. Mohammed Saad Elmahalfuy and

for you also Eng. Sherif El-Dyasty. Finally, Eng. Mona Sabry hope your life is for the best. However, part of the

department's flavor lies in the simplicity and the wisdom of its people especially you Mr. Hassan Elsadany. In

addition to the very loyal and supporting friend Eng. Abdel Gahniee Elsayed. Also thanks for the young T.A's in

our department who were always encouraging specially Engineers Waleed Kamal, Maha Abdel Barie, Heba

Shaban, and Amira Zaki. Yet this past year Mrs. Shadyah Ibrahim your helpful presence in this department

added a new taste to it.

Prof Dr. Samy Abo Elwafa along the years you have been like a guiding star. It was my pleasure

being an undergraduate student then a T.A under your umbrella. Dr. Mohab Mangoud, you gave me an advice

that i will always cherish, whenever i am working in the Optoelectronics field. Thanks for your honesty and

positive remarks. Also Dr. Darweish Abdel Aziz in the last six months you have been supportively

understanding. Moreover, special thanks for being supportive and enquiring, my fellow ISO-coordinator friends

around the college, especially Engineers Hisham Fatahy, and Waleed Maher.

I would like also to thank all my lecturers in the years of under graduates or whom i have worked with

especially Professor Doctors Ehab Ibrahim Sabri, Anwar AboulThananh, Kahmes Elshenawy, Mostafa Hussein,

Yasser Hanafy, Ahmed Amer, Saeed Elkhamy, Oansy Abdel Aleem, Magdy Elatar, Dr. Moataz Bellah, Dr.

Shawky Shaban, and Dr. Farouk Abdallah. Your foot prints will always be marked in my life.

Moreover throughout the graduation years from college many have been around but few has

stayed in touch, for support and biasing. Deepest gratitude for your continuous enquiries for you

all Engineers, Sherif Assem, Ghadah Kholief, Mina Makram, Mohamed Thabe~ Waleed Moheb,

Hanady Hussein, Mohamed Khedr, Ahmed Abdel Salam, Ahmed Akl, Tamer Abdel salam, Manar Mahmoud,

Youssef Khatab, and Iman Elmalah.

Sometimes we meet people once in a life time but the mark they leave lasts forever. For you Eng. Mona

Nabil special "Thank You". Dr. Elsayed Eid despite your very short visit to Egypt you had been able to find me

time. I am so grateful for that fruitful general discussion we had about the image sensors industry, and also your

emails. You have lightened the path with your wonderful words, assuring me that I was on the right track. Dr.

Nashwa Salah Mostafa, despite we did only sit for once, and the tracks were different still your marvelous

hosting was remarkably thought of In addtion to all of you my students you're the best support.

Finally but above you mean a lot to most of us may be as we are struggling to finish the thesis

procedures, but for me you mean a lot of love and true friendship to you Nevine Deif "merci pour toi

seulement ". One more thing to say to most of you all and especially to you Iman Nassef, Mona Sherif, Marwah

Bahanasy, Ghadah Elhasawie ... my family is never completed except with your presence in my life.

Yours sincerely;

Shaimaa Abdallah Mohamed

*ABSTRACT* ":0,..; ':: ... ~., ..•. ".'''' -,'" "" .. " ....... -.......... ~ .......................... .-.......... .-...................... .-............................................... .-........ .,. • .,. ...... .,. .............. .-. ........................... ".-................. , ........ , ....... "' ........................... "'............. /,. •

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As industry is seeking for an image sensor which carries the tag of small size and

reduced price, several attempts using various techniques have been made to reach this goal.

Yet few has been able to completely fulfill it. In this thesis we tried to investigate a newly

modified architecture using Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) transparent gates, that had been tested to

increase the photo-sensitivity of solid-state image sensors. The ITO materials can behave as

both transmitters of light and conductors. Applying it imbedded inside an anti-reflective (AR)

multi-layer film over a layer of SbN4 to the newly Inter Line Charge Coupled Device (IL T­

CCD). This device is characterized by its compact size, and reduced Vertical Overflow Drain

(VOD) shutter voltage structure. It was found out as a result that its photo-responsivity was

increased compared to that of the conventional poly-Si-gates and previously used thick/thin

backside-illuminated solid-state image sensor structures. Furthermore, its transrnitivity was

also improved along the light spectrum. However, we were specifically interested in the

blue/green region and the Infra Red (IR)-region of the spectrum, as they are generally

characterized by less amount of photons being absorbed by an image sensor, which require a

very sensitive imager. Thus using the proposed multi-layer film in those regions resulted in

an improvement in the photo-responsivity of the IL T image sensor, compared to previously

used structure with only a layer of SbN4 film.

In addition, the photo-current (Iph) of proposed image sensor was also calculated and

compared to the previously applied architectures, which showed a considerable improvement.

The results were calculated and drawn aided with a computer simulation program using the

PDETool GUI in MATLAB (6) and the MATHCAD (8) software programs.

Table Of Contents

* TABLE OF CONTENTS*

* List of Symbols. * List of Terms. * List of Figures. * List of Tables.

1. Introduction. I.I.Historical Background For Image Sensors.

1.2. Thin Film Technology.

1.3. Organization Of The Thesis.

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2. Overview of Solid-State Image Sensor Types. . ..................... .4

2.1. Charge Coupled Devices fCCDs) Image Sensors. .. .................... .4

2.l.a. CCOs' Historical Background ...................... .4

2.l.h. A CCO Image Sensor's Basic Concept.

2.1.c. Charge Handling Capabilities.

2.1.c.i. Potential Well Concept.

2.1.c.ii. Well Charge Capacity.

2.l.d. Basic Formats of CCOs Image Sensors.

2.1.e. Physical Structures of the CCO Types.

. 2.1.e.i. Buried Channel CCDs Structure .

2.1.f. Charge Transfer Techniques in CCOs

2.1.fi.. One Phase (Virtual Phase)(V<I» CCDs.

2.1.fii. Two Phase (2<1» CCDs.

2.1.fiii. Three Phase (3<1» CCDs.

2.1.fiv. Four Phase (4<1» CCDs.

2.1.g. Clocking Techniques in CCDs.

2.1.g.i. Reset Clock in CCD's

2.1.g.ii. Transfer gates Clock in CCD's

2.1.h. Read out Scheme for CCOs . . I

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Table Of Contents

2.1.I. Basic Architectures of CCD Image Sensors.

2.1.I.i. Full Frame (FF) Devices.

2.1.I.ii. Frame Transfer (FT) Devices.

2.1.I.iii. Interline Transfer (IL T) Devices

2.l.j. Noise Reduction

2.2. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Image Sensor.

2.2.a. CMOS's Historical Background

2.2.b. Basic CMOS Technology. 2.2.h.i. Impact of CMOS Technology Scaling Trends on

its Features.

2.2.c. CMOS Image Sensor Overall Architecture

2.2.d. CMOS Image Sensor Types.

2.2.d.i.. The Origin of the PPS Approach.

2.2.d.ii. The Origin of the APS Approach.

. 2.2.d.iii. Other Pixels.

2.2.e. CMOS Imagers' Outstanding Applications.

2.3. Charge Injection Devices (CIDs) Image Sensors. 2.3.a. CID Image Sensors' Structures and Operation.

2.3.b. CID Image Sensors' Signal Reading Schemes.

2.3.h.i. The Sequential-Injection Scheme.

2.3.h.ii. The Parallel-Injection Scheme.

2.4. Other Image Sensor Types Under Developments. 2.4.a. The CCD-CMOS Hybrid Circuits.

2.4.b. The Charge Modulation Devices (CMD).

2.4.c. The Contact Image Sensor (CIS).

2.4.d. The Charge Transfer Devices (CTDs).

2.5. Bridging the Gap with the Venerable CCDs

2.6. Systems-On-a-Chip Applications.

II

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Table Of Contents

J.:. Solid-State Image Sensor Fundamentals.

3.1. Optics Elements for Digital Image Sensors.

3.1.a. The Imaging Optics (Lens).

3.1.h. Exposing and Illumination.

3.1.b.i. Exposing.

. 3.l.b.ii. Illumination.

3.1. c. Image F onnats.

3.1.d. Bits Per Pixel Lux x Second.

3.2. Architecture Parameters of an Image Sensor.

3.2.a. Pixel.

3.2.h. Light Shield.

3.2.a. Active Area.

3.2.d. Fill Factor.

3.2.e. Integration Period.

3.3. The Image Sensor's Noise Sources.

3.3.a. Shot Noise.

3.3.h. Fixed Pattern Noise (FPN).

3.3.c. Reset Noise. 3.3.c.i. Correlated Double Sampling (CDS) and other

Techniques

3.3.d. Output Amplifier Noise.

3.3.d.i. White Noise.

3.3.d.ii. Flicker Noise.

3.3.e. Clocking Noise.

3.3.f. Noise Associated with Dark Noise.

Surface Dark Current.

Bulk Dark Current.

Dark Current Noise.

3.3.f.i.

3.3.f.ii.

3.3.f.iii.

3.3.f.iv. Accumulation or MPP mode of Operation.

3.3.f.v. Dark Reference Pixels.

3.3.g. Photo Response Non-Unifonnity (PRNU)

III

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Table ot Contents

3.4. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SIN or SNR).

3.5. The Image Sensor's Dynamic Range (DR).

3.6. The Image Sensor's Resolution.

3.7. The Image Sensor's Quantum Efficiency (Q.E).

3.7.a. Absorption Coefficient (a)

3.7.b. Recombination Life Time ('t)

3.7.c. Diffusion Length (Ln)

-3.7. d. Overlaying Materials

3.7.d.i. The Material's Refractive Index Definition.

3.8. Coloring In Image Sensors.

3.8.a. Color Filter Array (CFA)

3.8.b. Colorimetric Accuracy.

3.8.c. Color Analysis Functions.

3.9. The Image Sensor's Responsivity.

3.10. The Image Sensor's Sensitivity.

3.11. The Smear Phenomena.

3.12. Saturation and Blooming Phenomena

3.12.a. Vertical Overflow Drain (VOD) Devices

J.12.b. Lateral Overflow Drain (LOD) Devices

3.13. Image Sensors' Shutter Types 3.13.a. CCD Imager with Electronic Shutter.

3.13.b. CMOS Imager with Global Shutter.

3.13.c. CMOS Imager with Rolling Shutter.

~I: 0-4. Thin Film Fundamentals. 4.1. Image Sensors' Q.E Improvement Using Different

Latter Architectures

4.1.a. 4.1.b.

4.1.c.

4.1.d.

The Polycrystalline Silicon Gates Architecture The Backside-illuminated and Back Thinned­illuminated Architecture.

The On-Chip Micro-Lenses Architecture.

The Open-Electrode Architecture.

IV

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Table Of Contents

"'" ... '~~F:'~.:: :::::::::::: ::::::: ::::::: ::::::::: ::: :::::::: ::::::::: ::: ::: ::::::::::::: ::::::::::: :::::::::::::: :::::: ::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::: :~: ~~:;~~~ .. ,0//

4.2. Optical Thin Film Coating. 4.2.a. Classifying Coatings.

4.2.b. Performance Considerations.

4.2.h.i. Wavelength of Light Factor.

4.2.h.ii. Reflections and Transmissions Factors.

4.2.h.iii Angle of Incidence Factor

4.2.h.iv Intensity and Polarization of Light Factors.

4.2.h.v. Environmental Factors

4.2.c. Common Deposition Techniques of Optical Thin Films.

4.2.c.i. Electron Beam (E-Beam) Deposition Method.

4.2.c.ii. Vacuum Deposition Method.

4.2.c.iii. Ion Assisted Deposition (lAD) Method.

4.2.c.iv. Sputter Deposition Method.

4.3. Refractive Index of Thin Film Materials.

4.4. Constructive and Destructive Interferences. -4.5. Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Films.

5. Image Sensor Under Investigation.

5.1. Features of the IL T CCD Image Sensor (Under Investigation). 5.1. a. Physical Properties of the Silicon Nitride (ShN4)

Film.

5.I.b. Types of Light Receptors Available For Image Sensors.

5.2. ~hysical Properties of the A.R. Coating ITO Film Used.

;: 1If:[C 6. Summary & Conclusions .

.. . : .' . .

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Table Of Contents

A.I. The MOS-C Fundamentals -A.2. The M OS-C Structure. -A.3. The MOS-C Energy Band Diagram.

A.3.a. Flat-Band.

A.3.b. Accumulation

A.3.c. Depletion

A.3.c.i. Deep depletion capacitance

A.3.d. Inversion

A.3. d. i Charge in the Inversion Layer

A.4. Other Modified Structures.

A.4.a. MIS Structures

A.4.b. The SIS structure:

A.4.c. Ohmic Contacts.

B.l. Luminous Data Tables -B.2. Light Spectrum Subdivisions For Image Sensor

Applications. B.2.a. In the UV Region.

B.2.b. In the Visible Region.

B.2.c. In the IR Region.

I., C.l. Optical Absorption.

C.2. -

C.3. -C.4. -

Recombination.

C.2.a. Charge Collection.

Efficiency of a Photodiode.

Pixel Operation.

. II

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.: .' .:,;.' .. :::.::;:, : : :~:~: " :~:~:::::: . .

:. .:. '.: : i::

................... A-l

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.. .................. A-3

.................... A-4

.................... A-4

.................... A-5

.................... A-5

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.. .................. A-7

.................... A-8

.................... A-8

.................... A-9

..................... B-l

..................... B-2

. .................... B-2

. .................... B-2

. .................... B-2

:)

., ................... C-l

. .................... C-3

. .................... C-4

. .................... C-5

. .................... C-7

Table Of Contents

D.l. Our Suggested & other Structures' Parameters Being Examined

D.2. Cases To Be Examined. -D.3. - Transmitivity (T(A)) Equation For Each Case.

.................... 0-1

. ................... 0-1

. ................... 0-4

List of Terms.

• 2<1> CCD

• 3d! CCD

• 4d! CCD

• ADC

• APD

• APS

• AR

• BBD

• BCCD

• CCD

• CDS

• CFA

• CIA

• CID

• CIS -• CMD

• CMOS

• CS • CTD

• CTE

• CVD

• CyMY

• D.C

• DPI

• DR

• DSP

• DVD • E-Beam

• EDT

• EV

• FF

*List of Terms*

Two Phase Charge Coupled Devices.

Three Phase Charge Coupled Devices.

Four Phase Charge Coupled Devices.

Analog-to-Digital Converters.

Avalanche Photodiode.

Active Pixel Sensors.

Anti-Reflector.

Bucket Brigade Devices.

Buried Channel Charge Coupled Devices.

Charge Coupled Devices.

Correlated Double Sampling.

Color Filter.

Charge Integrating Amplifier.

Charge Injection Devices.

Contact Image Sensor.

Charge Modulation Devices.

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductors.

Channel Stop.

Charge Transfer Devices.

Charge Transfer Efficiency.

Chemical Vaporization Deposition.

Cyan-Magenta-Yellow (Two Complementary-Color-System).

Diode / Triode Sputtering Techniques.

Dots (or Photosites) Per Inch.

Dynamic Range.

Digital Signal Processing.

Digital Video Disc.

Electron Beam.

Equivalent Oxide Thickness.

Exposure Value.

Fill Factor.

. m:

List of Terms.

• FFCCD

• FIT CCD

• FET

• FISH

• FPN • FTCCD

• GFP • 'H-CCD

Full Frame Charge Coupled Devices.

Frame Interline Charge Coupled Devices.

Field Effect Transistor. Fluorescence Situhybridization.

Fixed Pattern Noise.

Frame Transfer Charge Coupled Devices.

Green Fluorescent Protein

Horizontal Charge Coupled Devices.

• lAD Ion Assisted Deposition.

• IDR Intrascene Dynamic Range.

• IL T CCD Interline Charge Coupled Devices.

• ITO Indium Tin Oxide.

• IR Infrared Region.

• LOCOS Local Oxidation Of Silicon.

• LOD Lateral Overflow Drain.

• LSBs Least Significant Bits.

• M OS Metal Oxide Semiconductor.

• MOS-C Metal Oxide Semiconductor Capacitor.

• 'MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.

• MIS Metal Insulator Semiconductor.

• MTF • NIR

• PRNU

• P2<1> CCD • PC CD

• P2CCD

• PD -• P.E -• PPS • 'PSD

• RF • RGB

• SCCD

Modulation Transfer Function.

Near Infrared Region.

Photo Response Non-Uniformity.

Pseudo Two-Phase Charge Coupled Devices.

Peristaltic Charge Coupled Devices.

Profiled- Peristaltic Charge Coupled Devices.

Photodiode.

Potential Energy.

Passive Pixel Sensors.

Position Sensitive Detectors.

Reactive Magnetron Sputtering Techniques.

Red-Breen-Blue (primary Color-System).

Surface Channel Charge Coupled Devices.

xv

List of Terms.

• SCR • SIS -• SNR

• SOl -• STI -• TCO

• TDI • TFT

• TG -• T2<1> CCD • 'TECs

• UV -• V<b CCD

• VOD

• V-CCD

· ~

Space Charge Region.

Semiconductor Insulator Semiconductor.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SIN).

Silicon On Insulator.

Shallow Trench Isolation.

Transparent Coating Oxide.

Time-Delay-and-Integration.

Thin Film Transistor.

Transfer Gate.

True Two-Phase Charge Coupled Devices.

Thermoelectric Coolers.

Ultra Violet Region.

Virtual Phase Charge Coupled Devices.

Vertical Overflow Drain.

Vertical Charge Coupled Devices.

Quantum Efficiency.

. .!Y!

List of Symbols.

*List Of Symbols*

Page #

Sensor's area / Pixel's area / one gate's area. ;:;: .

~ : ~ :': . . . :

q . Electronic Charge. . ...................... 7

V Electrostatic Potential. ....................... 7

N sat Saturation Charge Capacity. .. ..................... 7

dV /dN Charge-to-Voltage Conversion Factor. ....................... 8

Vsat Saturation Voltage. .. ..................... 8

Qg Charge Carriers per photons. . ..................... 31

11 Quantum efficiency (Q.E) ...................... 31

<I> Photons incident flux (in photons/pixeVsec). .. .................... 31

Tl Integration time. . ..................... 31

Vs Output signal voltage. .. .................... 31

Rc Transfer function. . ..................... 31

CT . Total input capacitance. .. .................... 31

VR Row-Refresh Potential. ...................... 33

VI Column potential. ." ................... 33

Cc Coupling capacitor. ., ..... , ............ , .34

QJ Total charge on the line. ., .................. , .34

Nd Donors density. . ..................... 34

Xdi Depletion layer width of capacitor in column "i". ., .................... 34

Xdji Depletion layer width of capacitor in row "j". ., .................. , .34

Qs Surface charge. ., .................... 34

CI Fixed capacitance between line & ground. ., .................. , .34

Es Semiconductor dielectric constant. ., .................. , .34

Eo . Air dielectric constant. ., .................... 34

do Gate oxide thickness. ., ... , .............. , .34

n Number of elements in a column line. ." ................... 34

Xdif Depletion layer width of capacitor in final row. ., .................... 35

Xdt" Depletion layer width of capacitor in final row. .., ................... 35

List of Symbols.

S i

f

A

M

d

D

f/#

Od I-I 10

R(A)

P T

p

z

Q

O'shot

s O'reset

k

T

B

R

C y 21Hz

O'white

Rout

I1Y/I1N

Object's distance from the lens. Formed image's distance.

Lens' focal length.

Aperture diameter.

Magnification factor.

Size of the object's image.

Size of an object.

f-number.

Angle of the Diagonal full field of view.

Illuminance on to the image.

Illuminance on to the object.

Reflectance.

Solid angle (in stredians).

Transmittance of the lens.

Illuminance emitted.

Photons/pixeVexposure.

Image Sensor's pixel pitch (in microns).

Exposure time (in seconds).

Largest element in the lens' diameter.

Shot noise.

Signal

Reset noise.

Boltzman's constant (in J/KO)

Temperature (in KO).

Noise Power Bandwidth (in Hz).

Effective channel resistance

Sense node capacitance (in farad).

Noise Power.

White noise.

Output impedance of the source follower.

Sensitivity (in V/e-).

. IX -

. ::" .. t\:·: ,:",: . : ::::/ ::::)}(

...................... 45

.. .................... 45

..................... .45

. ....... , ............. 45

. .. '" ., .............. 45

...................... 46

'" '" ................ 46

... '" ................ 46

...................... 46

...................... 46

...................... 46

...................... 47

...................... 47

...................... 47

.. .................... 47

. ..................... 47

. ..................... 47

.. .................... 47

....... , .............. 48

.. .................... 51

...................... 51

. ...... , ........... , .. 53

....... , ........... , .. 53

.. .................... 53

.. .................... 53

...................... 53

...................... 53

................... , .. 54

. .................. , .. 55

...................... 55

.... , .............. , .. 55

List of Symbols.

Av llf D

Jd

Eg

O'dark

Nr

V dark, r.m.s

Ndark, r.m.s

a

ESi

Ln Ln

+ Esi

+ Ein

h

JdifrtX)

Dn n(x)

Jdrift(X)

E(x)

n

k

v

Ro

Go Bo

Rint

Gint

Bint

r offset

Output amplifier gain.

Flicker's noise. Dark signal (in electrons/pixel/sec).

Dark current (in A/cm2).

Energy bandgap. Dark noise.

Read noise.

Dark Voltage (in r.m.s).

Dark charge capacity (in r.m.s).

Absorption Coefficient.

Silicon's pennittivity. Electrons diffusion length. Extrinsic Debye screening length. Silicon's electric field strength component. Intrinsic's electric field strength component..

Recombination life time. Plancks' constant. Diffusion current density.

Electrons diffusion coefficient.

Electrons density.

Drift current density.

Electric field. Electron's Life time.

Refractive index. Extinction coefficient.

Velocity of light. Red color output value / pixel.

Green color output value / pixel.

Blue color output value / pixel. Red color input value / pixel. Green color input value / pixel.

Blue color input value / pixel.

Offset red color value / pixel.

x

...................... 55

., .................... 55

., ................ '" .58

., ... , ................ 58

...................... 58

.... , ... , ............. 58

'" ., ................. 60

.... , ................. 60

.... , ................. 60

...................... 62

. ..................... 62

.... , ................. 62

........ , ............. 62

.... , ... , ............. 62

...................... 62

. ... , ................. 62

.... , ... , ........... , .63

.... , ... , ........... , .64

.... , ................. 64

...................... 64

...................... 64

...................... 64

. ..................... 64

. ................... , .65

....... , ............ , .65

....... , .............. 65

...................... 67

., ..... , .............. 67

....... , ........... , .. 67

....... , ........... , .. 67

., .................... 67

....... , .............. 67

...................... 67

List of Symbols.

goffset

boffset

c

I(A)

I1Vout

I1Q

~i dfilm

Offset green color value / pixel.

Offset blue color value / pixel.

Responsivity (in V/( Jl J/cm2)).

Energy per photon.

Wavelength.

Speed of light

Spectral irradiance.

Change of the output voltage.

Change in charge. ': ':: . . . . . .

Angle of incidence.

Film's thickness = d2 (i.e., of our proposed structure).

Film's refractive index.

Sheet resistance (in n 10).

.. . .

...................... 67

...................... 67

. ..................... 68

. ..................... 68

. ..................... 68

...................... 69

...................... 69

...................... 69

...................... 69 : '.::.} .

. : i;;;:.· :'

...................... 80

...................... 86

. ..................... 86

. ..................... 87

Iph (A) Photodiode current. ...................... 92

V Incident light frequency. .. .................... 92

diod Diode thickness. .. .................... 92

~r# Refraction (Transmission) medium No# angle ~ front case ...................... 94

~rb Refraction (Transmission) medium No# angle in back-thick- illuminated case. .. .................... 96

~rbt Refraction (Transmission) medium No# angle in back-thin-illuminated case. . ..................... 96

Sm Sp Electron & Hole recombination velocities respectively.

Equations Constants for the front-illuminated cases 0,2,3, and 4).

A, p, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5

Equations Constants for the back-thick-illuminated cases (5).

A_b, p_b, D1b, C1b, C2b, C3b, C4b, C5b

Equations Constants for the back-thin-illuminated cases (6).

A_bt, p_bt, D lt , C1bt, C2bt, C3bt, C4bt, C5bt

. !!

. ..................... 97

.., ................... 97

.., ................ , .. 97

. ...... , ........... , .. 97

~:

jj

List of Symbols.

~Ijl

X

Xoxide .

<l>M

<l>s

Ec

EF

VFB

XdT ,

VG ni

Cox

Xd,dd

<l>b

<l>m

~

Jth

Jrg

Jid

Js

k

~k

dx

dI

G(x)

R

D,p

Silicon affmity.

Oxide affmity.

Metal work function.

Semiconductor's work function.

Conduction band energy.

Fenni energy level.

Flat-band voltage.

Max thennal equilibrium depletion layer width

Gate Voltage.

Intrinsic concentration.

Oxide Capacitance.

Depletion layer width in deep depletion mode.

Potential barrier between metal and insulator.

Potential barrier of the metal side.

unbiased device potential drop across the insulator

Thermionic flow current.

Recombination & generation current (in depletion layer).

Injection and diffusion current (in quasi-neutral bulk)

Recombination current (in semiconductor/insulator interface)

I" . Crystal Momenta.

Difference in crystal momenta.

Incremental slice of a material.

Change of light intensity.

Rate of optical generation.

Recombination rate.

Number of electrons and holes respectively.

'" ................. A-3

. ................... A-3

.................... A-3

.................... A-3

.................... A-3

.................... A-3

.................... A-3

.................... A-5

.. , ................. A-5

.., ................. A-5

.. , ................. A-5

. ................... A-5

.. , ................. A-8

.................... A-8

.. , ................. A-8

.................... A-8

.., ................. A-8

.. , ................. A-8

.. , ................. A-8

:' .':... ::'(

:.', <.:. .:. :; :. ..... .~::

.. , ........ , ........ C-l

.................. , .C-l

.. , ., .......... , .. ' .C-2

.................... C-2

., .. , ............... C-2

., .. , .......... , .... C-3

.. ... " ............. C-3

List of Symbols.

11c Total collection efficiency. . ................... C-4

11dl Efficiency of the depletion region. '" ................. C-4

11 bulk Efficiency of the bulk silicon. . ................... C-4

tSi Silicon thickness. .. .................. C-5

P n Minority carriers concentration. . ........... , ....... C-6

P nO Equilibrium minority carriers concentration. . ................... C-6

'tp Hole Life time. . ........... , ....... C-6

Cl Integration Constant. .................... C-6

Lp Holes diffusion length. . ........... , ....... C-6

Qcol Collected charge ............ , ....... C-7

. : ::if

J.l m J.l p Electron & Hole mobilities respectively. . ........... , ...... D-I

Da Air refractive index. . .................. . D-I

D 1 ITO refractive index. . .................. . D-I

D2 ShN4 refractive index. . .................. . D-I

D3 Si02 refractive index. . .................. . D-l

D4 Silicon bulk substrate refractive index. . .................. . D-l

d3 Film thickness using both Si3N4 + Si02 layers. . .................. . D-I

d4 Film thickness using Poly-Si gates + Si02 layer. .................... D-I

d6

The Photo diode thickness = diod. . ................... D-I

Wt Starting point value of the thin substrate thickness. . .................. . D-I

End point value of the back thick illuminated ................... . D-I thickness.

dlt End point value of the back thin illuminated thickness. . ................... D-l

... !ill

List of Terms.

• 2<1> CCD

• 3d> CCD

• 4<1> CCD

• ADC

• APD

• APS

• AR -• BBD

• BCCD

• CCD

• CDS

• CFA

• CIA

• CID

• CIS -• CMD

• CMOS

• CS • CTD

• CTE

• CVD

• CyMY

• D.C -• DPI

• DR

• DSP

• DVD • E-Beam

• EOT

• EV

• FF

*List of Terms*

Two Phase Charge Coupled Devices.

Three Phase Charge Coupled Devices.

F our Phase Charge Coupled Devices.

Analog-to-Digital Converters.

Avalanche Photodiode.

Active Pixel Sensors.

Anti -Reflector.

Bucket Brigade Devices.

Buried Channel Charge Coupled Devices.

Charge Coupled Devices.

Correlated Double Sampling.

Color Filter.

Charge Integrating Amplifier.

Charge Injection Devices.

Contact Image Sensor.

Charge Modulation Devices.

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductors.

Channel Stop.

Charge Transfer Devices.

Charge Transfer Efficiency.

Chemical Vaporization Deposition.

Cyan-Magenta-Yellow (Two Complementary-Color-System).

Diode / Triode Sputtering Techniques.

Dots (or Photosites) Per Inch.

Dynamic Range.

Digital Signal Processing.

Digital Video Disc.

Electron Beam.

Equivalent Oxide Thickness.

Exposure Value.

Fill Factor.

XIV

List of Terms.

• FFCCD

• FIT CCD

• FET • FISH

• FPN

• FT CCD

• GFP

• H-CCD

• lAD

• IDR • ILT CCD

• ITO

• IR • LOCOS

• LOD

Full Frame Charge Coupled Devices.

Frame Interline Charge Coupled Devices.

Field Effect Transistor. Fluorescence Situhybridization.

Fixed Pattern Noise.

Frame Transfer Charge Coupled Devices.

Green Fluorescent Protein

Horizontal Charge Coupled Devices.

Ion Assisted Deposition.

Intrascene Dynamic Range.

Interline Charge Coupled Devices.

Indium Tin Oxide.

Infrared Region.

Local Oxidation Of Silicon.

Lateral Overflow Drain.

• LSBs Least Significant Bits.

• MOS Metal Oxide Semiconductor.

• MOS-C Metal Oxide Semiconductor Capacitor.

• MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.

• MIS Metal Insulator Semiconductor.

• MTF • NIR

• PRNU • P2<b CCD

• PCCD

• P2CCD

• PD • P.E

• PPS

• PSD

• RF

• RGB

• SCCD

Modulation Transfer Function.

Near Infrared Region.

Photo Response Non-Uniformity.

Pseudo Two-Phase Charge Coupled Devices.

Peristaltic Charge Coupled Devices.

Profiled- Peristaltic Charge Coupled Devices.

Photodiode.

Potential Energy.

Passive Pixel Sensors.

Position Sensitive Detectors. Reactive Magnetron Sputtering Techniques.

Red-Breen-Blue (primary Color-System).

Surface Channel Charge Coupled Devices.

xv

List of Terms.

'-I..-____ . ___ ~-----~~.------.--------

• SCR

• SIS -• SNR

• SOl -• STI -• TCO

• TDI

• TFT

• TG -• T2<b CCD

• TECs

• UV -• V<b CCD

• VOD • V-CCD

• QE

Space Charge Region.

Semiconductor Insulator Semiconductor.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SIN).

Silicon On Insulator.

Shallow Trench Isolation.

Transparent Coating Oxide.

Time-Delay-and-Integration.

Thin Film Transistor.

Transfer Gate.

True Two-Phase Charge Coupled Devices.

Thermoelectric Coolers.

Ultra Violet Region.

Virtual Phase Charge Coupled Devices.

Vertical Overflow Drain.

Vertical Charge Coupled Devices.

Quantum Efficiency.

'- 4.-.0. _________ ~ _____ ~_. _ -------" ~

.;- .. • _____ N _____ • __ .N •• _. ____ .N. ____ . ___ N. ___ ••• _ .. _____ .. _~ '~.

XVI

List of Figures.

*List of Figures*

Figure #

2.1.

2.2.

2.3.

2.4.

Cross Section of a basic CCD imager.

Front and Backside illuminated Methods for a CCD Imager.

The potential well formation in T24'> CCD Stage.

Practical Buried Channel CCD Capacitor.

Page #

. . : .: ::>;.: :I/\.: t~·

.. ' :':"::::

..................... 5

. .. '" ............... 6

. .. '" ............... 8

. ................... 10

2.5. The relationship between the Electrostatic potential and the .................... 11

location of the channel in to silicon in case of: a). Surface channel b). Buried Channel

2.6. Cross Section View of the V<j> CCD Stage: a). Structure b). Direction of charge transfer under the electrodes

2.7. Cross Section View of the True Two-Phase (T24'» CCD Stage.

2.8. Cross Section View of the Pseudo Two-Phase (P24'» CCD.

2.9. The cross sectional view ofa Three-Phase (34'» CCD.

2.10. A cross sectional view of a Four-Phase (44'» CCD.

.................... 12

.. .................. 13

. ................... 13

.................... 14

.. .................. 14

2.11. An example of Clocking Scheme for an image to be read out of a .................... 15

CCD Array.

2.12.

2.13.

2.14.

2.15.

2.16.

a). Modified Fig. of a floating diffusion readout structure and a detailed structure of its Imager Output Amplifier, b). Charge transfer direction during a read out cycle, c). Clock voltage timing waveforms.

Architecture of Full Frame (FF) a). Structure, b). Transfer of charge inside. Architecture of Frame Transfer (FT).

A block diagram of an Interline Transfer (IL T) CCD: a). Structure, b). Transfer of charge inside

Steadily increasing Ratio between Image sensor pixel size and minimum feature size permits the use of CMOS circuitry within each pixel.

.. .................. 16

.. .................. 18

.. .................. 18

.. .................. 19

........ , ........... 20

List of Figures.

Pae.e # Figure # 2.17. a).CMOS APS integrates timing and control, ADC & other .................... 23

circuitry on the same chip, b). An Active Pixel Circuit,

c). CDS / FPN reduction circuit, d). Complete architecture for a 352 x 288 CMOS Photogate Sensor fabricated in a Lucent Technologies, non-silicided 0.8 Jlm CMOS process with pixel dimensions of I6.0Jlmx I6.0Jlm

2.18. Radiography taken by the Photobit's IOcm2 dental X-ray sensor .................... 30 (Radiography courtesy of Shick Technologies.)

2. 19. Element Structure and layout for a CID image sensor a). Top View, b). Cross Sectional View, c). Detailed CID element.

2.20. Addressing sequence for signal readout in a CID image sensor

'" ... '" ........... 32

.................... 33

2.21. The Charge detector Video amplifier circuit used to eliminate the .................... 35 image-induced crosstalk in a CID image sensor

2.22. a). Cross-sectional, .................... 37

b). Corresponding SEM photographs showing a cross-sectional view just before contact definition.

2.23. A schematic diagram of the second approach ofCMD pixel .................... 38

2.24. Migration of imaging technology toward CMOS image sensor ................... .40 W.f.t CCD

2.25.

2.26.

2.27.

3.1.

3.2.

Typical Image Capture Board Design using a CCD Imager

a). ADC conversion varying techniques, b). The signal path after ADC circuit The Block diagram of a CMOS system Camera On-a-Chip

..

Linear Imager in a Simple Imager System

a). Photodiode with Aperture Light Shield, b). Array of Photo diodes.

.................... 42

. ................... 43

.................... 43

.'!:":': :1: : ::: :::::::::!:illl:l::t\wr:r::r:::::::,:i::l:::l:ll

. ................... 45

.................... 50

3.3. Impact of the Incident Light's Flow Path Inside An Image Sensor .................... 51

Pixel on its Q.E and FF.

3.4. Output Amplifier Noise of a Typical Linear CCD . ................... 54

3.5 Dark Current as a function of the Temperature for vanous .................... 57

Incident Light Intensities.

3.6. Photons Interactions with Silicon. . ................... 63

List of Figures.

Figure #

3.7.

3.8.

3.9.

3.10.

3.11.

4.1.

4.2.

4.3.

4.4.

4.5.

4.6.

4.7.

4.8.

4.9.

5.1.

5.2.

5.3.

a). Microlenses and Color Filter Arrays.

b). Bayer Check board Pattern.

a). The ideal NTSC color analysis functions for a D6500K white point,

b). an example of color analysis functions of a color photogate sensor after a color correction. A Photodiode-to-CCD Crosstalk (Smear).

Noise is Clipped as Signal Approaches Saturation.

a). Vertical Overflow (VOD) Structures, b). Lateral Overflow (LOD).

. ':

a). The polysilicon gates of a standard frontside-illuminated CCD architecture,

b). results of the device's Q.E. The backside of a thinned device with no gate structure w.r.t the conventional architecture.

A Lens-on-chip design of a front-illuminated IT CCD's gates.

a). A frontside-illuminated open-electrode CCD design,

The Photonics Spectrum Reference Chart.

Angle of Incidence for MgF2 coating material of film thickness = Y4 A , n=1.38, and A =550nm

A Typical geometry of Metamode® chamber with it's internal cylindrical drum

Surface reflections destroying Contrast percentages a). With an A.R coating, b). Without A.R coating.

An ITO device uses a conventional double polysilicon gate structure replacing one of the electrodes with a "transparent" versIOn.

. . ... .

Cross-sectional view of the basic IL T CCD cell used by Murakami et al. a). Cross section of photo-diode, b). Incident light reflection at the PD surface

Cross section of light receptors types: a). PD, b). Photo Gate, c). Photo Transistor (BIT)

Page #

fifi

'" '" .............. 68

'" ................. 70

. ................... 70

.................... 72

.................... 75

. ................... 76

. ................... 77

.. .................. 78

'" ................. 80

.. .................. 81

.................... 83

... '" ., ............ 86

.. .................. 87

.................... 90

.. .................. 91

.................... 92

List of Figures.

Figure # 5.4. Modified Model used for calculation of the Responsivity and

5.5

5.6

5.7

5.8

5.9

5.10

5.11

5.12

5.13

5.14

5.15

other Features.

The reflectivity of the proposed architecture Rl (A) at several ~avelengths (A) varying with dfilm in n. m .

The transmitivity of the proposed architecture Tl(A) at several wavelengths (A) varying with dfilm in n.m .

The responsivity of the proposed architecture Respl(A) at several wavelengths (A) varying with dfilm in n.m .

The responsivity of the proposed architecture Respl(A) compared to that of the single layer Si3N4 film Resp3(A) ,polysilicon gate Resp4(A), thick backside-illuminated Resp5(A), and thin backside-illuminated Resp6(A) architectures along the light spectrum.

The responsivity of the proposed architecture Respl(A) compared to that of the single layer Si3N4 film Resp3(A) ,polysilicon gate Resp4(A), thick backside-illuminated Resp5(A), and thin backside-illuminated Resp6(A) architectures in the IR and NIR regions. The responsivity of the proposed architecture Resp 1 (A) compared to that of the single layer ShN4 film Resp3(A) ,polysilicon gate Resp4(A), thick backside-illuminated Resp5(A), and thin backside-illuminated Resp6(A) architectures in the Visible region (i.e.; including the

blue/green region).

The improvement made by the proposed architecture Respl(A) compared to that of the single layer Si3N4 film Resp3(A) ,polysilicon gate Resp4(A), thick backside-illuminated Resp5(A), and thin backside­illuminated Resp6(A) architectures in the blue/green and NIR regions. The photocurrent of the proposed architecture named I}(A) compared to that of the single layer ShN4 film 13 (A),polysilicon gate 14 (A), thick

backside-illuminated 15 (A) architectures in the UV regions.

The photocurrent of the proposed architecture named 11(A) compared to that of the single layer Si3N4 film 13 (A),polysilicon gate 14 (A), thick backside-illuminated 15 (A) architectures in the Visible region.

The photo current of the proposed architecture named I}(A) compared to that of the single layer Si3N4 film 13 (A),polysilicon gate 14 (A), thick

backside-illuminated 15 (A) architectures in the IR region ..

The photo current of the proposed architecture named 11(A) compared to that of the single layer Si3N4 film h (A),polysilicon gate 14 (A), thick backside-illuminated 15 (A) architectures in the blue/green region ..

xx -

Page #

.................... 94

................... 101

........ , .......... 102

................... 103

................... 104

................... 105

................... 106

....... , ........... 107

................... 108

....... , ........... 109

................... 110

................... 111

List of Figures.

Figure #

• A.I.

A.2.

A.3

AA.

A.5.

A.6.

III

The MOS-C used in a CCD image sensor.

The MOS-C structure: the Substrate (body) is grounded and the is connected to V GB is applied to the polysilicon gate.

E.nergy Band Diagram for a MOS-C structure under Flat-Band conditions.

Charges in a Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor structure under: a). Accumulation, b). Depletion, c). Inversion conditions.

Energy Band Diagram for a MOS-C structure under Inversion conditions

Steps to retain equilibrium condition again resulting in: a). Deep depletion, b). Intermediate state, c). Equilibrium (full well).

: : : :

: : : : :

: : : : :

C.I. a). Generation of an electron-hole, b). Absorption spectrum.

C.2. Direct-Indirect transitions inside a material Eg.

C.3. Absorption coefficient (a), penetration depth versus A.

C.4. Fevon X3 new developed color sensors image sensor w.r.t conventional color film

C. 5. Reduced Recombination versus Generation Process.

C.6. Reduced Recombination Process.

C.7. T.he p-n diode: . a). Band diagram showing the movement of generated e-h paIrs, b). Electrical symbol, c). Vertical structure.

C.8. The p-n diode operation inside a pixel.

XXI -

Page # ," . ..

. .................. A-l

. .................. A-2

................... A-3

.. ................. A-4

. .................. A-6

. .................. A-7

'. '. . '.

................... C-l

. .................. C-l

.. ................. C-2

................... C-3

................... C-3

. ....... , .......... C-4

.. ................. C-5

• ••••• eO' ,0' ••••••• C-7

List of Tables.

Table #

3.1

1].

4.2

B.l

B.2

B.3

D.1

*List of Tables*

Comparing formats of the CCDs' image sensing techniques.

Comparison of pixel circuitry architecture types in CMOS image sensors.

Comparison ofa CCD and an APS CMOS image sensor's features.

: : : : : : : :

: : : :

Methods for CMOS Pixel Memorizing Implementations

Modified table for materials of wavelengths shorter than 300nm

Modified table for high-index material compounds at A= 550nm

Cases to be examined several values of the refraction (Transmittance) angles d>r#

Cases to be examined aiding equations

Conversions between various light measurement systems

Illuminance values under various conditions

Sensor/Image Plane formats and actual dimensions

Cases to be examined with different structures.

XXII

Page#

" .. ' . . : :':.:: ..

.. ............ 8

............ 25

........... .41

.. . '. . . : . . .

............ 54

............ 84

............ 85

............ 95

............ 97

........... B-l

........... B-l

........... B-l

........... 0-1