In the name of Allah Kareem,Most Beneficent, Most Gracious, the Most Merciful !

33SUPERIOR GROUP OF COLLEGES

• Quantitative ResearchQuantitative research is "a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are utilised to obtain information about the world" (Burns and Grove cited by Cormack 1991). Quantitative research is inclined to be deductive. In other words it tests theory.

General aims of quantitative research

• Quantitative ResearchQuantitative research is "a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are utilised to obtain information about the world" (Burns and Grove cited by Cormack 1991). Quantitative research is inclined to be deductive. In other words it tests theory.

General aims of quantitative research

•To generalize •To be objective•To test theories or hypotheses

•To generalize •To be objective•To test theories or hypotheses

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1. Theory

3. Research Design

4. Devise measures of concepts

5. Select research site(s)

2. Hypothesis

6. Select research subjects / Respondents

7. Administer research instruments / collect data

8. Process data

11. Write up findings /conclusions

10. Findings / Conclusions

9. Analysis and interpretations

Quantitative Research ProcessQuantitative Research Process

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Concepts and their Measurement

Concept:

Concepts are the generalized ideas about objects, attributes, occurrence or process that has been given a name for identification, be it physical or non physical. Concepts are the building blocks of theory.

ExamplesAchievement motivation, Structure, agency,

technology, leadership, followers, TQM, functional subcultures, knowledge, managerial identity, motivation, Morale, productivity, etc

Concept:

Concepts are the generalized ideas about objects, attributes, occurrence or process that has been given a name for identification, be it physical or non physical. Concepts are the building blocks of theory.

ExamplesAchievement motivation, Structure, agency,

technology, leadership, followers, TQM, functional subcultures, knowledge, managerial identity, motivation, Morale, productivity, etc

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Anything that may have varied (different) numerical or categorical values is called variables

Example: Gender is a variable: it can take two values male or female. Family income is also a variable as it can take values form zero to billions of rupees.

Variable

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A construct is a hypothetical mechanism that helps explain and predict behavior in a theory.

Example: A bright boy does poor work in college because he has low motivation. Now the question is what motivation is. How we can measure whether it is low or high. Such variables are called Construct, Hypothetical or In-tangibles variables.

Construct Variable

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Operationalization is the process of defining a concept so that it becomes measurable variable, which is achieved by looking at behavioral dimensions and categorizing them into observable and measurable elements. When ever the variables in the research study are hypothetical or construct, you must use operational definition to define and measure the variables.

Operationalization is the process of defining a concept so that it becomes measurable variable, which is achieved by looking at behavioral dimensions and categorizing them into observable and measurable elements. When ever the variables in the research study are hypothetical or construct, you must use operational definition to define and measure the variables.

Operationalization

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Steps of Operationalization

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1111

Gender1.Male2.Female

Motivation1.Highly Motivated2.Moderately Motivated3.Less Motivated

Temperature1.97 C2.98 C3.99 C

Time1.10 seconds

Means 10 seconds more than 0

ooo

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Scale Definition Properties Base Example

Nominal scale

A scale in which objects or individual is broken into categories that have no numerical properties.

Identity Difference

• Gender

• Nationality

• Religion

Ordinal Scale

A scale in which objects or individuals are categorized and the categories form a rank order along a continuum.

Directional Order A is longer than B

Comparison Chart

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Scale Definition Properties Base Example

Interval Scale

A scale in which the units of measurement (intervals) between the numbers on the scale are all equal.

Equal unit

SizeMagnitude A is 2 feet longer than B

Ratio Scale

A scale in which, in addition to order and equal units of measurement, there is an absolute zero that indicates an absence of the variables being measure.

Ratio Absolute zero

A is 2 feet long means 2 feet more than “0”

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Binary Response formats

Numerical Response formats

Verbal formats

Bipolar numerical formats

Frequency formats

Response formats for scales

My job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored• agree• disagree

My job is usually interesting enough to keep me for getting bored5 4 3 2 1

May job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting boredStrongly agree__ agree__ undecided__ disagree___ strongly disagree__

I love my job 5 4 3 2 1I hate my job

My job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored• All of the time ____ • often _____ • fairly often ____ • occasionally ___ • none of the time ____

My job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored• All of the time ____ • often _____ • fairly often ____ • occasionally ___ • none of the time ____

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Face Validity

(Validity where measure apparently reflects the content of the concept in

question)

Predictive

(Researcher employs the criterion whereby a new scale predicts a future

event)

Validity(Are we Measuring the

Right thing)

Convergent

(A test has convergent validity if it has a high correlation with another test that measures the same construct)

Concurrent

(Researcher employs the criterion whereby a new scale measures a

current event)

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Reliability

(Accuracy in

Measurement)

Test-retest reliability

Inter-iterm consistency reliability

Split- half reliability

Parallel-form reliability

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SAMPLINGSAMPLINGImportant terms in Sampling

Population - basically, the universe of units from which the sample is to be selected. The term ‘units’ is employed because it is not necessarily people who are being sampled. The researcher may want to sample from a universe of nations, cities, regions, firms, etc. thus, ‘population’ has a much broader meaning than the everyday use of the term, whereby it tends to be associated with a nation’s entire population.

Sample – the segment of the population that is selected for the investigation. It is a subset of the population. The method of selection may be based on a probability or a non-probability approach (see below).Sampling frame – the listing of all the units in the population from which the sample will be selected.Representative Sample – a sample that reflects the populationSampling error – the difference between a sample and the population from which it is selected, even though a probability sample has been selected. Sampling is the process of selecting segment of the population for investigation

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Sampling

Sampling Technique

Probability

Non-Probability

Simple random sample

Systematic sample

Stratified random sample

Convenience sampling

Snowball sampling

Quota sampling

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QUANTITATIVE METHODS

QUANTITATIVE METHODS

SurveysSurvey is a quantitative research strategy that involves the structured collection of data from a pre-determined sample. It involves following methods

1.Questionnaire2.Structured interview3.Structured Observation

SurveysSurvey is a quantitative research strategy that involves the structured collection of data from a pre-determined sample. It involves following methods

1.Questionnaire2.Structured interview3.Structured Observation

Survey

Questionnaire Structured Interview

On-line questionnaires

Postal questionnaires

Self administered questionnaires Telephone

InterviewsFace to face

interview

Structured Observation

Participant Observation

Non -Participant Observation

QUESTIONNAIRES QUESTIONNAIRES

“Questionnaire is pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answers”.

“Questionnaire is pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answers”.

Questionnaires can be: Questionnaires can be:

On-line questionnaires Postal questionnaires Self administered questionnaire

On-line questionnaires Postal questionnaires Self administered questionnaire

Variety of factors influence questionnaire

Variety of factors influence questionnaire

The choice of questionnaire will be influenced by a variety of factors related to your

The choice of questionnaire will be influenced by a variety of factors related to your

Research question (s) Research objective Characteristics of respondents Size of sample Dimensions of the concept to be measured And availability of required resources.

Research question (s) Research objective Characteristics of respondents Size of sample Dimensions of the concept to be measured And availability of required resources.

Questionnaire

Principle of

wording

Principles Of

Measurement

General “Getup”

Content and Purpose ofquestion

Wording&

language

Types and form of questionnaire

SequencingClassification

Data or personalinformation

Categorizing

Coding

Scales and

Scaling

Reliability&

Validity

Appearance of questionnaire

Length of questionnaire

Introduction to respondents

Introduction for completion

DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIREDESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE

Designing a questionnaire is based on following principlesDesigning a questionnaire is based on following principles

1- Principle of wording

i. The nature of the variable will determine what kind and number of questions will be asked i.e ranking, rating or dichotomous

ii. The wording should be simple, easy and appropriate

iii. Closed ended questions will be used with the intention to have ease, and enhanced comparability.

1- Principle of wording

i. The nature of the variable will determine what kind and number of questions will be asked i.e ranking, rating or dichotomous

ii. The wording should be simple, easy and appropriate

iii. Closed ended questions will be used with the intention to have ease, and enhanced comparability.

iv. Add both positively as well as negatively worded questionsiv. Add both positively as well as negatively worded questions

v. Always avoid double barreled, ambiguous, recall dependent, leading or loaded questions

v. Always avoid double barreled, ambiguous, recall dependent, leading or loaded questions

vi. The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be from general to specific, and easy to more difficult. It is also called funnel approach.

vi. The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be from general to specific, and easy to more difficult. It is also called funnel approach.

2- Principle of Measurement:

i. Interval and Ratio scales should be used in preference to nominal or ordinal scales

ii. The measure must be assessed through tests of validity and reliability

2- Principle of Measurement:

i. Interval and Ratio scales should be used in preference to nominal or ordinal scales

ii. The measure must be assessed through tests of validity and reliability

3- General Getup:

As a whole the questionnaire should cover the following aspects

i- The questionnaire should start with a good Introduction followed by well organized questions with instructions and guidance and sequence. Only relevant personal information should be demanded that is not sensitive, at last and ended with a courteous note.

3- General Getup:

As a whole the questionnaire should cover the following aspects

i- The questionnaire should start with a good Introduction followed by well organized questions with instructions and guidance and sequence. Only relevant personal information should be demanded that is not sensitive, at last and ended with a courteous note.

Structured InterviewingStructured Interviewing

Structured interviewing is the process of administering an interview schedule by an interviewer. The aim is for all interviewees to be

given exactly the same context of questioning. In this way the interviewers are supposed to read questions exactly.

Structured interviewing is the process of administering an interview schedule by an interviewer. The aim is for all interviewees to be

given exactly the same context of questioning. In this way the interviewers are supposed to read questions exactly.

Structured Observations Structured Observations “It is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place”.

Observation is suitable when

Researcher is more interested in the behavior rather in the perceptions of individuals, When the subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide objective information about it.

“It is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place”.

Observation is suitable when

Researcher is more interested in the behavior rather in the perceptions of individuals, When the subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide objective information about it.

Types of ObservationsTypes of ObservationsThere are two types of observation:

1. Participants observation2. Non-participants observation

There are two types of observation:

1. Participants observation2. Non-participants observation

Participant Observation:

It is when a researcher participates in the activities of the group being observed in the same manner as its members, with or without their knowing that they are being observed

Participant Observation:

It is when a researcher participates in the activities of the group being observed in the same manner as its members, with or without their knowing that they are being observed

Non-participant Observation:

Is when a researcher do not get involved in the activities of the group but remains a passive observer, watching and listening to its activities and drawing conclusions from this.

E.g. observing through cameras

Non-participant Observation:

Is when a researcher do not get involved in the activities of the group but remains a passive observer, watching and listening to its activities and drawing conclusions from this.

E.g. observing through cameras

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Mode of data

Description Advantages Disadvantages

Personal or face-to-face interviews

The interviewer and interviewee confronted each other

Can establish rapport and motivate respondentsCan clarify the questions, clear doubts add new questionsCan read nonverbal cuesCan use visual aids to clarify points.Rich data can be obtainedCAPI can be used and responses entered in a portable computer

Takes personal timeCosts more when a wide geographic region is coveredRespondents may be concerned about confidentiality of information given Interviewers need to be trained‘can introduce interviewer biasesRespondents can terminate the interview any time

Telephone Interviews

Interview which were conducted through communication.

Less costly and speedier that personal interviews.Can reach a wide geographic areaGreater anonymity than personal interviews.

Nonverbal cues cannot be readInterviews will have to be kept short Obsolete telephone number could be contacted, and unlisted ones omitted from the sample

Self-completion questionnaire

Self-questionnaire is a questionnaire in which interviewee answer the question by himself

Can establish rapport and motivate respondentDoubts can be clarifiedLess expensive when administered to groupsAlmost 100 % response rate ensuredAnonymity of respondent is high

Organizations may be reluctant to give up company time for the survey with group of employees assembled for the purpose

Postal Questionnaire

It is a type of questionnaire which can be sending to the respondent through mail or any other postal mode.

Anonymity is highWide geographic regions can be reached.Token gifts can be enclosed to seek complianceRespondent can take more time to respond at convenienceCan be administered electronically, if desired

Response rate is almost always Cannot clarify questionsFollow-up procedures for no responses are necessary

Electronic Questionnaire

The questionnaire which you send through internet

Easy to administerCan reach globallyVery inexpensive Fast deliveryConvenient for Respondents

Computer literacy in a must Respondents must have access to the facilityRespondent must be willing to complete the survey

Participants Observation

Researcher participates in the activities of the group being observed in the same manner

Better accuracyLess costResearcher is collecting observed data not reported dataCan obtain data from those unable to communicate in written or oral form

Participant observation takes time and commitmentUsually does not examine motivation, attitude or feeling toward particular behaviorTime cost

Non-Participants Observation

Researcher do not get involved in the activities of the group but remains a passive observer

The individual may simply be unaware of how they behave in a particular situation.Safe the researcher time

The lack of interaction may, however make it difficult for the researcher to be able to clarify or interrupt the phenomena been investigatedDifficulty in data storing

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Mystery shopping is a popular technique used in consumer research that involves sending people (mystery shoppers) into a shop to buy products with the intention to evaluate the effectiveness of retail staff. After the interaction, the shoppers typically fill out rating sheet detailing the nature of the interaction and service they receive. It’s a type of field stimulation.

Mystery shopping is a popular technique used in consumer research that involves sending people (mystery shoppers) into a shop to buy products with the intention to evaluate the effectiveness of retail staff. After the interaction, the shoppers typically fill out rating sheet detailing the nature of the interaction and service they receive. It’s a type of field stimulation.

Mystery Shopping

3030SUPERIOR GROUP OF COLLEGES 30