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T
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- - : I
.,.
1 .
I
4
I
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-
I 1
Slow
111
Cl)
Wom
n, a, T
e chnology
and
Editors
Padm
a Vasudeven
Satyaw
ati Sharm
a V
. P. S
harma
Monica V
erma
Narosa P
ublishing House
New
Delh
i Chennai M
um
bai K
Olk
ata
Tr1T
Preface
Vii
Ackn
ow
ledg
emen
t xlii
WO
ME
N, F
OO
D A
ND
NU
TR
ITIO
N
1.
Role of E
dible Food P
lants in Wom
en's Nutrition
and Health
Seema M
ishra, Satyawati Sharm
a and Padm
a Vasudevan
2. A
spergillus species, Carcinogenic M
old in Peanuts:
A G
lobal Health T
hreat 18
P N
. Ach
ar a
nd M
Y S
reeniva
sa
WO
ME
N A
ND
HE
AL
TH
CA
RE
3.
Wom
en and Drinking W
ater Quality in India:
An O
verview
33 B
rajesh K. Shrivastava
4.
Malaria P
revalence, Treatm
ent and Control in India
47 V
P S
harm
a
WO
ME
N IN
AG
RIC
UL
TU
RE
5.
Biofertilizer T
echnology for Sustainable A
griculture 58
K V
B. R
. Tilak
6.
Green T
echnologies for Wom
en in Agriculture
76 Satyaw
ati Sharma, M
onica Verm
a, Kalpana A
rora, A
bh
ishek S
ha
rma
, Ad
iti Gu
pta
an
d P
ad
ma
Va
sud
evan
7.
Botanical B
ased Pesticide F
ormulations
115 M
egh
a P
an
t, Sa
ura
bh
Du
bey, D
ipa
k Ha
zra, S
.K. R
aza
and P
.K. P
atanjali
Asp erg
illus sp
ecies,it I 'N
Peanuts- A Global Health Threat
P. N
. Achar' and M
. Y. Sreenivasa2
'Dept. ofB
iology and Physics, K
ennesaw State U
niversity, Kennesaw
, Georgia.
USA
, 2D
OS in M
icrobiology, University of M
ysore, Manasagangotri, M
ysore 570006, K
arnataka, India
Ab
stract Aspergillus species are m
ycotoxigenic fungi which exert carcinogenic, m
utagenic, teratogenic, nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic and im
munodepressive properties. T
he production fungi adversely affect agricultural com
modities, especially peanuts, by
the production of aflatoxins, mainly in the course of storage. A
flatoxins hinder the quality of agricultural products and food m
eant for human consum
ption and is associated w
ith both acute and chronic toxicity in animals and hum
ans including liver dam
age, liver cirrhosis and liver cancers. Inhalation of airborne Aspergillus
spores and ingestion of contaminated peanuts causes A
spergillosis and Aspergillom
a in hum
ans. Hence, a m
ajor concern is on the decontamination of agricultural
comm
odities and food and creating awareness am
ong the comm
unity towards their
safe storage and consumption.
Keyw
ords: A
spergillusJlavus, A. parasiticus, A
llatoxin, Aspergillosis, A
spergilloma, Peanuts
Introd
uction
Fungi are significant destroyers of agricultural products during storage, rendering
them unfit for hum
an consumption by reducing their nutritive value and adding toxic
metabolites referred to as "M
ycotoxins". The risk of contam
ination by mycotoxins is
an important food safety concern for grains and other field crops (B
ryden, 2007). C
onsumers of all ages, are neither aw
are of seed borne fungal pathogens in edible nuts, grains and cereals nor do they know
about its transmission and dissem
ination m
od
e. Man
y o
f the m
yco
tox
ins ex
hib
it carcino
gen
ic, mu
tagen
ic, teratog
enic,
nep
hro
toxic an
d h
epato
toxic p
roperties. A
lso, th
ey are k
now
n to
exert an
im
munodepressive effect (Z
orzete et al., 2011). Am
ong mycotoxins, aflatoxins are of
major econom
ic importance because of their significant influence on the health of
human beings and livestock and as the m
ost important fungi causing both spoilage of
foo
d co
mm
od
ities and
my
coto
xin
pro
du
ction
(Garcia et al., 2
01
1). A
mo
ng
st aflatoxin producing fungi, genus A
spergillus is most ubiquitous and abundant of all
groups of fungi, distributed worldw
ide with over 180 species (C
alvo et al., 2002). T
wo w
ell-known species A
flavu
s and A p
ara
siticus have cosm
opolitan distribution an
d are fo
un
d p
rimarily
in p
lants an
d so
il Bo
th sp
ecies cause d
iseases of
Aspergillus species, C
arcinogenic Mold in P
eanuts- A G
lobal Health T
hreat 19
agro
nom
ically im
portan
t crops, su
ch as p
eanuts, co
rn an
d o
ther g
rains/n
uts an
d
produce aflatoxins as a pre- harvest or post-harvest fungi.
Peanuts A
cross the Globe
rcinogenic M
old
in
Health
Threat
-
Peanuts are dicotyledonous plants of the fam
ily Legum
inosae (Fabaceae), subfam
ily P
apilio
no
idae, g
enu
s Arach
is. Th
e plan
t con
sists of an
aerial part th
at form
s ram
ifications, leaves and flowers. A
fter fert ilization, the flow
ers form gynophores
2 Y
. Sreen
ivasa
that elongate and penetrate the soil. Fructification then starts and lasts about 40—
50 days until harvest (C
amara, 1998). It is d
urin
g th
is perio
d w
herein
man
y d
isease
'late University, K
ennesaw, G
eorgia. causing infectious agents nam
ely, fungi, bacteria, nematodes, viruses, and viroids,
invad
e pean
uts. A
mongst all, p
arasitic fungi are th
e most n
um
erous p
athogen
s e, M
anasagangotri, Mysore 570006,
CE in
fecting
pean
uts b
y p
enetratin
g activ
ely th
rou
gh
op
enin
gs in
the h
ost, o
r are India
airborne. Approxim
ately 50 of the known fungal genera cause diseases in peanuts
(Porter, 1997).
Peanuts are the thirteenth m
ost important food crop in the w
orld. It is the world's
mgi w
hich exert carcinogenic mutagenic
and imm
unodepréssive m
pro
erties
fou
rth m
ost im
po
rt ant so
urce o
f edib
le oil an
d th
ird m
ost im
portan
t source o
f
tural comm
odities especially peanuts b 41
veg
etable p
rotein
. Pean
ut seed
s con
tain h
igh
qu
ality ed
ible o
il (.-. 50 %), easily
te course of storage. Aflatoxins hinder the
I
digestible protein (- 25 %) and carbohydrates (.-
20%). It is a food crop grow
n in
d meant for hum
an consumption and is
I
viiriii tem
perate, su
btro
pical an
d tro
pical reg
ion
s of th
e wo
rld, o
n 2
6.4
millio
n
oxicity in animals and hum
ans including I
hectare worldw
ide with a total production of 36.1 m
illion metric tons, and an average
incers. Inhalation of airborne Aspergillus productivity of 1.4 m
etric tons per hectare (FA
Q, 2003). India is one of the w
orld's uts causes A
spergillosis and Aspergillom
a leading peanut producers (approxim
ately six million m
etric tons annually). The other
on the decontamination of agricultural
leading peanut
producers include
China,
the U
nited S
tates an
d
Africa.
ness among the com
munity tow
ards their A
ppro
xim
ately 2
5 m
illion d
ollars are lo
st per y
ear due to
the co
ntam
inatio
n o
f pean
uts b
y
Aspergillus
species an
d aflato
xin
s (FA
Q, 2
001). C
ontam
inatio
n o
f
rin, A
spergillosis, Aspergillom
a Peanuts J
peanuts with m
ycotoxins, particularly aflatoxins, is a worldw
ide problem that affects
both food safety and agricultural economics (D
orner, 2008). Figure 1(a, b) and (c)
illustrates the contamination of peanuts and corn by A
spergillusfiavus and figure 1
I
(d) shows the subculturing of A
. Jiavus on Potato D
extrose Agar m
edium. In U
nited S
tates the to
p p
eanu
t-pro
du
cing
states are Flo
rida, G
eorg
ia, and
Alab
ama w
here
fungal o
utb
reaks fro
m 1
993 to
1996 cau
sed lo
ss averag
ing $
26 m
illion an
nually
products during storage, rendering
J
Do
rncr, an
d L
amb
, 20
02
). Sev
eral ou
tbreak
s of m
yco
tox
icoses in
hu
man
s and
their nutritive value and adding toxic
animals have been reported after the consum
ption of mycotoxin-contam
inated food k of contam
ination by mycotoxins is
I
and
feed. In
the U
nited
States alo
ne, acco
rdin
g to
the U
SD
A n
early 2
6 m
illion
d other field crops (B
ryden, 2007). 1
dollars are lost per year due to the contamination of peanuts by A
spergillus species d borne fungal pathogens in edible
4
(Abbas '. et al., 2005),
t its transmission and dissem
ination I
cino
gen
ic, mu
tagen
ic, teratog
enic i
In Brazil, S
tate of Sao P
aulo is the greatest peanut producer with a peanut O
utput
D, th
ey a
re k
now
n to
exert a
n
estimated to be 80.9 thousand tons for the 2008/2009 harvest, representing 71%
of
mong m
ycotoxins, aflatoxins are of i
he Brazilian national peanut production (C
ON
AB
, 2010). Also, B
razil nuts are an
1nificant influence on the health of im
portant export comm
odity in Bolivia, and P
eru. Of approxim
ately 30,000 tons of
)rtant fungi causing both spoilage of ril n
uts l?ai0et1ed each year, a substantial am
ount is contaminated by A
spergillus i
a (G
arcia et al., 2011). A
mongst I
nost ubiquitous and abundant of all t
r 180 species (Calvo et al., 2002).
1
cus, have cosmopolitan distribution
Bo
th sp
ecies cause d
iseases of
20 P. N
. Acher and M
.Y. Sreenivasa
Fig.
1: P
ean
uts (a
) con
tam
inated
(b) cra
cked
du
e to co
nta
min
atio
n (c)
contam
inated
corn (d
) A. flavus su
b cu
ltured
in P
otato Dextrose A
gar (PD
A)
Aflatoxins and A
flatoxicosis
Th
e most d
eleterious o
f natu
ral pro
ducts, in
terms o
f health
effects, are the
mycotoxins. A
mongst the m
ycotoxins that are known to cause adverse health effects,
aflatoxin
s hav
e been
studied
the m
ost an
d also
been
iden
tified as a p
oten
tial biological w
eapon for food and water contam
ination (Zeringue and B
hatnagar, 1994). A
flatoxins are well know
n for their hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic effects (E
aton and Groopm
an, 1994) and this has led to global concern over food and feed safety. T
herefore possible chronic toxicity of aflatoxin is of greater concern than its acute toxicity (B
akirdere et al., 2012). Various agricultural com
modities have
been found to be contaminated w
ith either aflatoxin producing fungi or aflatoxins (S
mith, 2004). A
flatoxins are the secondary metabolites produced by specific strains
of Aspergillus nam
ely A. flavus, A
. parasiticus and A. nom
ius (Hedayati et al., 2007).
They are produced by a com
plex biosynthetic pathway w
ith more than 25 genes
located
in a
65 to
70
kb
gen
e cluster (E
hrlich
and
Yu
, 20
10
).Th
ese species
contaminate various agricultural com
modities either before harvest or at post-harvest
stages under favourable conditions of temperature and hum
idity (Garcia et al.,
2011) T
he mold produces aflatoxins B
1, B2 G
1 and
G2 distinguished by their fluorescent
color under ultraviolet light In addition, aflatoxins M1 an
d M
2 are hydroxylated m
etabolites of aflatoxins B1 and B
2. Chem
ical structures of some of these are show
n in F
ig 2 Of all the naturally occurring aflatoxins, aflatoxin B
l (AF
B I) is the m
ost
toxic mycotoxin and exhibits hepatotoxic teratogenic and m
utagenic properties (R
eddy et al.,2002 N
akai et al., 2008) T
he AF
B1 produced byA
spergillus species is classified as a class I hum
an carcinogen by the International Agency for R
esearch on C
ancer (IAR
C, 2002).
crack
ed d
ue to
con
tam
ina
tion
(c) d
in P
otato Dextrose A
gar (PD
A)
AspergillU
S species, Carcinogenic M
old in Peanuts- A G
lobal Health T
hreat FT
in term
s of h
ealth effects, are th
e know
n to cause adverse health effects, also
been
iden
tified as a p
oten
tial tam
ination (Zeringue and B
hatnagar, hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic
ias led to global concern over food and of aflatoxin is of greater concern than
arious agricultural comm
odities have F
latoxin producing fungi or aflatoxins etabolites produced by specific strains and A
. nomius (H
edayati et al., 2007). .c pathw
ay with m
ore than 25 genes arlich and Y
u, 2010).These species
either before harvest or at post-harvest ire and hum
idity (Garcia et al., 2011).
G2 distinguished by their fluorescent
itoxins M1 an
d M
2 are hydroxylated structures of som
e of these are shown
ins, aflatoxin B1 (A
FB
1) is the most
ratogenic and mutagenic properties
B1 produced by A
spergillus species is e International A
gency for Research
Aflxo)n B
Matoxin G
1 Aflatoxin M
1
A iitX
- nB
2
AflatoxinG
2 A
flatoxinM2
Fig. 2: C
hem
ical structu
re of various aflatoxin
s.
These toxins are acutely and chronically toxic to both hum
ans and animals (C
ullen an
d N
ewb
erne, 1
99
4) an
d th
ey are am
on
g th
e mo
st po
tent m
utag
enic an
d
carcinogenic compounds know
n to be produced in nature (Dvorackova, 1990).
Aflatoxins are im
portant public and animal health concern because they cause
undesirable biological reactions when ingested. T
hese reactions may vary from
acute to chronic disease states, and econom
ically important but clinically obscure changes
in growth, production and im
munosuppression (B
akirdere et al., 2012). Aflatoxicosis.
is defined as the poisoning caused by the consumption of substances or foods
contaminated w
ith aflatoxins. Aflatoxicosis w
as first reported during 1960s in E
urope, which resulted in the death of nearly 100,000 poultries/turkeys. T
his was
called "Turkey X
Disease" (S
mith and H
amilton, 1970). A
flatoxins can cause various adverse effects on hum
an health depending on the quantity of ingestion. H
igh doses result in rapid death while hepatocellular carcinom
a (HC
C) develops as a
chronic outcome. Synergic effect of A
FB 1 w
ith hepatitis B or C
viral infections can cause H
CC
(liver cancer). HC
C is the m
ost comm
on cancer in many parts of sub-
Saharan A
frica, Southeast A
sia and China. In these countries, up to 10%
of adult m
ale deaths are related with H
CC
(Gong et al., 2008). M
oreover, the impaired
growth of children is the adverse health effects of aflatoxicosis. S
low grow
th of children w
as observed when foods w
ith high amount of aflatoxin w
ere ingested. Severe aflatoxin-poisoning events are docum
ented from different countries. In India,
106 people died in 1974 due to aflatoxin poisoning that was traced to heavily
contaminated corn w
ith A. flavus and containing up to 15 m
g/kg aflatoxins (FA
O,
1979). Another of the sim
ilar event was follow
ed by 215 deaths in Kenya in 2004
and nearly 100 deaths in Nigeria in 2005 (E
lshafie et al., 2011). In a study, it was
reported that 50 mg per day of A
FB 1 ingestion of contam
inated maize resulted in the
22 P. N
. Acher and M
.Y. Sreenivasa
aflatoxin-induced death in Kenya (Probst et al., 2007). Prakash et al., (20 10) ref
that n
early 5
billio
n p
eople are ex
posed
to aflato
xin
s in d
ifferent d
evel
countries and aflatoxicosis is ranked 6th among the 10 m
ost severe health identified by W
HO
.
Aspergillosis
Aspergillosis is a non-contagious disease, caused by fungus of the genus A
sper that affects hum
ans and other mam
mals and m
ainly wild or dom
estic birds. genus w
as described for the first time in a lesion of a bird in 1842 by R
ayer M
ontagne in the air sacs of a bullfinch, but molds likely belonging to the g
Aspergillus w
ere described in wild birds in the early 1800s. A
spergillus spores found in air, soil, w
ater and food. Inhalation of airborne spores and ingestioi contam
inated peanuts by humans can cause aspergillosis (Fig. 3 a). A
spergil/us i opportunistic fungus, causing the diseases in cancer patients, transplant recipii and other im
munocom
promised individuals, including those w
ith AID
S w
organism
s are exposed to an overwhelm
ing number of spores (C
eline, 2011). m
ost comm
on forms of aspergillosis are allergic bronchopulm
onary, pulmonary
invasive aspergillosis. Fungal infections pose an increasing threat to public hea
Variation in environm
ental conditions is also known to trigger contam
ination airborne or seed borne spores in edible nuts resulting in depletion of nutritive val A
flatoxins, produced during aspergillosis, have also been reported as resistant to h and have an ability to accum
ulate in the organism (G
alvano et al., 2005). Aspergil
species that triggers the illnesses includes more than 150 types of m
old that oc w
idely in the indoor and outdoor environment. A
. fiavus is responsible for about 31 of the cases of aspergillosis (B
ruce et al., 2002).
Allergic B
ronchopulmonaiy A
spergillosis (AB
PA
)
Allergic B
ronchopulmonary A
spergillosis (AB
PA
) is a hypersensitivity reaction A
spergillus colonization of the tracheobronchial tree and occurs in conjunction wi
asthma and cystic fibrosis (C
F). T
he AB
PA
occurs in non-iminunocom
promis
patients, in the absence of invasive aspergillosis, and is defined as a hypersensitivi disorder induced by an A
spergillus species. It is estimated that A
BPA
affects I to 21 of patients w
ith asthma and 7%
of all patients with cystic fibrosis (G
aur et al., 2006 A
llergic fungal sinusitis may also occur alone or w
ith AB
PA
Bronchocentri
granulomatosis and H
ypersensitivity pneumonitis are tw
o hypersensitivity lun diseases that are caused by A
spergillus species, but they are rare. Asthm
a and cysti fibrosis are the com
mon illnesses associated w
ith AB
PA. T
he prevalence of AB
PA i
reported to be 1-2% in asthm
atics, 7-14% in steroid-dependent asthm
atics, and 2 15%
in cystic fibrosis (CF) (B
ecker et al., 1996).
Invasive Pulm
onary Aspergillosis (IV
A)
Manifestations of invasive pulm
onary aspergillosis depend on the virulence and num
ber of spores inhaled, on the patient's imm
une status, and on the presence of any underlying chronic disease. Invasive aspergillosis is a rapidly progressive and often fatal infection that occurs in patients w
ho are severely imm
unosuppressed including
Aspergillus species, C
arcinogenic Mold in P
eanuts- A G
lobal Health T
hreat 23
et al., 2007). Prakash et al., (2010) reported ed to aflatoxins in different developing h am
ong the 10 most severe health risks
those who are profoundly neutropenic, those w
ho have received bone marrow
or solid organ transplants, and patients w
ith advanced AID
S or chronic granulom
atous disease. T
his infectious process is characterized by invasion of blood vessels, resulting in m
ultifocal infiltrates, which are often w
edge-shaped, pleural-based and cavitary (D
enning et al., 1991). Dissem
ination to other organs, particularly the central nervous system
, may occur. T
he frequency of invasive aspergillosis reflects d
isease status an
d treatm
ents th
at result in
pro
longed
neu
tropen
ia and
imm
unOsU
PP
reSS
ion. Invasive aspergillosis is estimated to occur in 5-13%
of recipients of bone m
arrow transplants, 5-25%
of patients who have received heart or
lung transplants, and 10-20% of patients w
ho are receiving intensive chemotherapy
for leukemia (K
ern and Lopert, 2010). A
lthough it has been described in individuals w
ho are imm
unocompeteilt, invasive aspergillosis is exceedingly uncom
mon in this
population.
Ch
ronic N
ecrotizing P
ulm
onary A
spergillosis (CN
PA
)
'triuloiiia an
d R
elated D
iseases
lillom
a, also k
now
n as m
yceto
ma o
r fungus b
all, is a clum
p o
f fungus
lilies that exists in the cavities of lungs. The term
aspergilloma w
as first used ye alm
ost a century later to describe a discrete lesion that classically colonizes vities of healed pulm
onary tuberculosis and other fibrotic lung diseases (Kern
?pert, 2010). Aspergillom
a are the diseases in livestock, domestic anim
als and is caused by ingestion of aflatoxins. Inhalation of airborne spores and ingestion rtam
inated peanuts by humans can also cause this disease. A
spergilloma is
ated with hem
optysis, which m
ay be severe and life threatening. The cavitary
e may include treated tuberculosis or other necrotizing infection, sarcoidosis
ruphysematous bullae. E
xposure to the aflatoxin can increase the risk of ping cancer in liver and lung and the toxicity is influenced by exposure level, ?A ,of exposure, age and consum
ers health conditions. Liver cancer takes tim
e velo
p b
ut th
e aflatoxin
s act as an im
munosu
ppressan
t so th
at affected
luals become susceptible to a w
ide range of diseases (IAR
C, 1987). Figure 3 b,
epots Aspergillom
a in lungs, liver and Carcinom
a in brain cells respectively.
~4
1 1 611
the su
sceptib
ility o
f individuals to aflatoxins varies considerably
species, age, sex and nutrition. Acute m
ycotoxicosis can cause serious m
etirnes fatal diseases. Aflatoxin exposure can depress the im
mune system
. It apse abortions in som
e instances; however, the circum
stances necessary for
caused by fungus of the genus Aspergillus
and mainly w
ild or domestic birds. T
his a lesion of a bird in 1842 by R
ayer and but m
olds likely belonging to the genus in the early 1800s. A
spergillus spores are ation of airborne spores and ingestion of ;e aspergillosis (F
ig. 3 a). Aspergillus is an
5 in cancer patients, transplant recipients,
uals, in
clud
ing th
ose w
ith A
IDS
wh
en
ng number of spores (C
eline, 2011). The
Ilergic bronchopulmonary, pulm
onary and jose an increasing threat to public health. also know
n to trigger contamination by
ts resulting in depletion of nutritive value. aave also been reported as resistant to heat ganism
(Galvano et al., 2005). A
spergillus m
ore than 150 types of mold that occur
ent. A. flavus is responsible for about 30%
)02).
illosis (AB
PA
)
(AB
PA
) is a hypersensitivity reaction to chial tree and occurs in conjunction w
ith P
A occurs in non-im
munocom
prornised losis, and is defined as a hypersensitivity It is estim
ated that AB
PA
affects 1 to 2%
ts with cystic fibrosis (G
aur et al., 2006). alone or w
ith AB
PA
. Bronchocentrjc
imonitis are tw
o hypersensitivity lung ies, but they are rare. A
sthma and cystic
with A
BP
A. T
he prevalence of AB
PA
is in steroid-dependent asthm
atics, and 2-)96).
VA
)
rrgillosis depend on the virulence and im
une status, and on the presence of any Ilosis is a rapidly progressive and often severely im
munosuppressed, including
Chronic necrotizing pulm
onary aspergillosis (CN
PA) is a rare condition and is a sub-
acute process usually found in patients with som
e degree of imm
unosuppression, m
ost comm
only that associated with underlying lung disease, alcoholism
, or long-term
cortico
steroid
therap
y (R
ajalingham
and A
nsh
ar, 2012). B
ecause it is
uncomm
on, CN
PA often rem
ains unrecognized for weeks or m
onths and can cause a progressive cavitary pulm
onary infiltrate. Frequently undetected in life and found at
autopsy, the ftequency of chronic necrotizing A
spergillus pneum
onia may be
underestimated. C
hronic necrotizing Aspergillus pneum
onia has reported mortality
rate of 10-40%, but rates as high as 100%
have been reported because it often rem
ains unrecognized for prolonged periods (Rajalingham
and Anshar, 2012).
24 P. N
. Acher and M
.Y. Sreenivasa
abortions to occur are not well defined (E
aton and Groopm
an, 1994). Aflatoxin
been shown to cross the placental barrier in hum
ans (Bhat and M
oy, 1997). Dciii
et al. (199 1) reported the quantity of Aflatoxins A
FB
and AF
GI1 in hum
an sera obtained at birth and in serum
obtained imm
ediately after birth from a m
othe T
hailand. National Institute of E
nvironmental H
ealth Sciences N
IEH
Sfun
scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of T
echnology, USA
, were am
ong the firs show
that exposure to aflatoxin can lead to liver cancer. Sim
ilarly, NIE
HS
-fun researchers at T
he Johns Hopkins U
niversity School of P
ublic Health show
ed w
hen people who test positive for the H
epatitis B virus are also exposed to aflatox
in the diet, their risk for developing liver cancer is about 60 times that of unexpo
individuals. This increase in cancer risk is m
uch greater than that observed w
either aflatoxins or Hepatitis B
virus alone.
Liver C
ancer
(3
Fig
. 3:
(a) Aspergillosis
in ey
es (b) A
spergillom
a in lu
ngs
(c) L
iver (d)
Carcinom
a in brain cells.
Aflatoxin
and L
ivestock Health
Aflatoxins are the m
ost intensively researched group of mycotoxins, because of their
demonstrated toxic and carcinogenic effects in the susceptible laboratory anim
als and livestock and their acute toxicological and chronic hepatocarcinogenic effects in
ton and Groopm
an 1994). Aflatoxin has
humans (B
hat and Moy, 1997). D
enning oxins A
FB
I and AF
GI I inhum
an cord im
mediately after birth from
a mother in
aental Health S
ciences NIE
HS
fJJnded echnology, U
SA, w
ere among the first to
liver cancer. Sim
ilarly, NIE
H5nded
Ly S
chool of Public H
ealth showed that
tis B virus are also exposed to aflatoxins
acer is about 60 times that of U
nexposed m
uch greater than that observed with
gillo
ma in
lun
gs (c) L
iver (d
)
AspergilluS species, C
arcinogenic Mold in P
eanuts- A G
lobal Health T
hreat 25
)up
of mycotoxjns because of their
the susceptible laboratory animals
onic hepatocarcinogenjc effects in
humans. D
omestic anim
al species such as chickens, ducks, cattle, swine and turkeys,
co nsuming sub lethal doses of aflatoxins for several days develop a toxic syndrom
e in w
hich liver damage is the m
ost significant change. According to W
HO
(1979), the biological effects of aflatoxins can be categorized into tw
o types, long term and short
term effects. L
ong term effects included chronic toxicity, cancer, birth defects and
genetic alterations. Livestock are also at risk but poultry are particularly susceptible.
Aflatoxins affect all poultry species. A
lthough they generally take relatively high levels to cause m
ortality, low levels can be detrim
ental if continually fed. Young
poultry, especially ducks and turkeys, are very susceptible. Cattle are not so
susceptible but if they are fed on contaminated feed the toxin m
ay pass into the milk.
Recently, a large chain super m
arket in US
announced a recall of select packages of pet food sold in som
eof its retail stores because the products may contain aflatoxin,
which poses a health risk to pets" and in 2006, a sim
ilar contamination led to the
deaths of hundreds of dogs throughout the country (Real T
ime laboratories, L
LC
,
2010). A
flatoxins are absorbed and carried to the liver via the circulatory system after
ingestion by animals. T
hey are then converted by the liver into toxic reactive epoxide s w
hich bind covalently to intracellular macrom
olecules such as DN
A, R
NA
an
d p
rotein
enzy
mes, resu
lting in
dam
age to
liver cells. In
additio
n to
their
hepatotoxic properties, aflatoxins are also carcinogenic. The chronic carcinogenic
dose of aflatoxins is much low
er than the acute dose. Susceptibility varies w
ith breed, species, age, dose, length of exposure and nutritional status. A
F131 is the most
potent toxin among aflatoxins and is principally a hepatotoxin and hepatocarcinogen,
but it causes a myriad of other effects either directly or indirectly associated w
ith this toxicity: im
munosuppresion, reduced grow
th rate, lowered m
ilk and egg production, reduced reproductivity, reduced feed utilization and efficiency and anem
ia (Negedu
et al., 2011). Aflatoxins are absorbed and carried to the liver via the circulatory
system after ingestion by anim
als. They are then converted by the liver into toxic
reactive epoxides which bind covalently to intracellular m
acromolecules such as
DN
A, R
NA
and protein enzymes, resulting in dam
age to liver cells. In addition to their hepatotoxic properties, aflatoxins are also carcinogenic.
The chronic carcinogenic dose of aflatoxins is m
uch lower than the acute dose.
Suscep
tibility
varies w
ith b
reed, sp
ecies, age, d
ose, len
gth
of ex
posu
re and
nutritional status. AFB
1 is the most potent toxin am
ong aflatoxins and is principally a hepatotoxin and hepatocarcinogen, but it causes a m
yriad of other effects either directly or indirectly associated w
ith this toxicity: imm
unosuppresion, reduced grow
th rate, lowered m
ilk and egg production, reduced reproductivity, reduced feed utilization and efficiency and anem
ia (Negedu et al., 2011). A
FB 1 has been show
n to induce hepatocellular carcinom
a in many species of anim
als including fish, poultry, n
on
-hu
man
prim
ates and
rod
ents. M
iller et al., (20
04
) recou
nted
a case of
pergiilosis in captive 2-week-old m
allards. Sporadic outbreaks of aspergillosis in
wild birds have also been reported, how
ever these incidents are preceded by some
Imm
unocomprornising effects. A
nimals consum
ing aflatoxins may suffer from
ym
ptoms ranging from
decreased growth rates, hepatic and nephritic toxicities,
rproductive failures, neurological degeneration and death (Bohra and P
urohit, 2003). T
he severity of aflatoxicosis differs by toxin and the species exposed. For
example, pigs are less sensitive to the effects of A
FB 1 than poultry, w
hich in turn are ever 0 tim
es as resistant compared to rabbits (M
iller, 1995). Aflatoxicol, a toxic
metabotite of aflatoxin, has been isolated from
all tissues of laying hens consuming
26 P. N
. Acher and M
.Y. Sreenivasa
AF
B 1 contam
inated feed, including eggs (Trucksess et al., 1983). A
flatoxins have been recovered from
the meat and m
ilk of cattle who have consum
ed contaminated
feed (Phillips et al., 2002).
Aflatoxin
Regu
lation
Since the discovery of the aflatoxins in the 1960s, regulations have been established
in many countries to protect consum
ers from the harm
ful effects of mycotoxins that
may contam
inate foodstuffs, as well as to ensure fair practices in food trade (R
eddy et al., 2002). L
egislations to establish safe maxim
um intake of A
FB1, have been tried
due to
seriou
s health
pro
blem
s caused
by
aflatox
in ex
po
sure, T
he F
oo
d an
d
Agriculture O
rganization (FA
O) of the U
nited Nations has played a m
ajor role in providing inform
ation on worldw
ide regulations for mycotoxins in foods and feeds
(FA
O 2001, 2003). A
flatoxin contamination of crops lim
its economic viability of
agriculture and can lead to severe health impairm
ent when present in staples required
to meet hum
an calorific or energy needs (Wu and K
hlangwiset, 2010). In developed
nations, strict regulations are enforced to prevent aflatoxins from entering the food
chain
. Th
is is in stark
con
trast to m
ost d
evelo
pin
g co
un
tries wh
ere aflatox
in
contaminated crops m
ay be the only food sources available and aflatoxin-related health problem
s are reported frequently (William
s et al., 2004). T
he U.S
. Food and D
rug Adm
inistration (US
FD
A) have set legal lim
its (20 ppb) on the am
ount of aflatoxin that can be present in grain sold through interstate com
merce. T
able 1 gives the permissible lim
its of aflatoxin concentration in specific agricultural foodstuffs (F
AO
).Most countries have adopted regulations that lim
it the quantity of aflatoxin in food and feed to 20 jrg/ K
g or less; however, environm
ental conditions in m
ost of the world w
here peanuts are produced and stored often make it
difficult or impossible to attain such low
concentrations (Dom
er, 2008).
Tab
le 1: Perm
issible lim
its of Aflatoxin
concen
tration in
agricultu
ral food
stuffs.
Con
c. C
riterion
20 For all food for hum
an consumption, for corn and other grains intended
for imm
ature animals (including im
mature poultry) and dairy anim
als, or w
hen food/feed ingredients is not known, and for anim
al feeds, other than corn or cotton seed m
eal. 100
For corn and other grains intended for breeding beef cattle, breeding
swine, or m
ature poultry. 200
For corn and other grains intended for finishing sw
ine (i.e., meat/pork)
of 100 pounds or greater weight.
300 F
or corn and other grains intended for finishing (i.e., feedlot) beef cattle, and for cottonseed m
eal intended for beef cattle, swine or
poultry.
Source: F
AO
, 2001
The U
nited Nations F
ood and Agriculture O
rganization (FA
O) and W
orld Health
Organization (W
HO
) determined the upper aflatoxin exposure lim
it as 30 pg kg-i in
Aspergillus species, C
arcinogenic Mold in P
eanuts- A G
lobal Health T
hreat 27
(Trucksess et al., 1983). A
flatoxths hav foodstuffs for hum
an (Moss, 1996). In 2002, E
uropean Union established m
aximum
if cattle w
ho have consumed contam
in a e safe lev
el as 4 an
d 2
pg
kg-1 for to
tal afl atoxin and
AF
B 1, respectively (M
oss, 2002). In addition, the C
odex Alim
entarius Com
mission, aoint F
AQ
/WH
O) decided
the maxim
um lim
it of total aflatoxin in peanut as 15 pg kg-1 (Ding et al., 2012).
WH
O fixed the lim
it at 5 p.g kg-i for different types of foods for AF
B (P
app et al., 2002). B
y co
nsid
ering th
ese limits, m
ost o
f the co
untries estab
lished
their o
wn
1960s, regulations have been established legislations. T
he permissible lim
its of different types of mycotoxin in E
uropean and
im the harm
ful effects of
mycO
tOxin
s that
other countries are given in table 2.
ensure fair practices in food trade (Reddy
Tab
le 2: Perm
issible lim
its of differen
t mycotoxin
s in E
urop
ean an
d oth
er naximum
b In
take 0
fAF
B1, have been tried
y aflato
xin
countries.
exposu
re. The F
ood
d iited
Nation
s has p
layed a m
aor M
ycotoxin
Fu
ngal
Host
Perm
issible levels
igIkg)
Itions for mycotoxths in foods and feeds
Types
source
EU
W
orld w
ide
)n of crops limits econom
ic viability o
f
Aflatoxin B
1 A
spergillus M
aize, Nuts,
airment w
hen present in staples required flavus and A
. R
ice, Wheat
0.1
-8.0
1.0
-20.0
In and Khlangw
iset 2010). In developed parasiticus
ifom entering the food
reelta
fiatoxins
dev
elop
ing
A
flatoxin B,
Do
Do
4.0-
15.0 0.0
-35.0
cou ntries where aflatoxin sources available and aflatoxin
-related GI& G2
Aflatoxin M
I D
o M
ilk 0
.02
5-0
.50
0.0- 15.0
ation (US
FD
A) have set legal lim
its (20 0.05 by
1
.
majority)
present in grain sold through interstateits
I
of aflatoxin concentration in sp ecific S
ource: Basappa, 2009
have adopted regulations that limit the
g
g or less; however, environm
ental C
on
trol
s are produced and stored often make it
entrations (Dorner, 2
JU
0).
.
Aflatoxin contam
ination may be m
in
i mized by adopting certain cultural, produce
handling, and storage practices (Upadhyaya et al., 1997). U
nder optimum
conditions concentratio
n in
ag
ricultural fo
od
for grow
th, A. fla
vus can
pro
du
ce som
e aflatox
in w
ithin
24
h an
d a b
iolo
gically
significant am
ount in a few days (Jacobsen et al., 1993). U
se of chemicals to control
Aspergillus
species has
proven to
be unsuccessful
and detrim
ental to
the
terion environm
ent. Due to the ubiquitous nature of A
. flavu
s, proper storage of edible pean
uts fro
m p
roduce to
selling p
oin
ts is difficu
lt. Curren
tly, th
ere is no k
now
n
ti
for co m
and other grains intended process, to treat the peanuts, know
n to farmers to control fungi that produce aflatoxin
nmature poultry) and dairy anim
als D
ornei and Lam
b, 2002). Many strategies, including natural and biological, and
' not k
now
n, an
d fo
r anim
al feeds
development of resistant cultivar, have been investigated to m
anage aflatoxins in crops. A
mong them
, biological control appears to be the most prom
ising approach
I for breeding beef cattle breedingfor control of a
fl atoxins in post-harvested crops. Health hazards fr om
exposure to toxic chem
icals and eco
nom
ic consid
erations m
ake n
atural p
lant ex
tracts ideal
for finishing Sw
ine (i.e. meat/pork\
alternatives to protect food and feed from fungal contam
ination (Reddy et al., 2009).
/ O
ver the years, efforts have been devoted to search for new antifungal m
aterials
d fo
r finish
ing
(i.e. feedlot
b fr
natural sources
for food
preservation (B
oyraz and
Ozcan,
2005; H
aciseferogullari 2005).
et iii.,
In US,
State o
f Geo
rgia a g
roup o
f researchers at
,tended
for b
eef cattle e o
r 45-
Agricultural R
esearch Station (A
RS
), Daw
son, after 14 years research reported a -
promising biopesticide against A
. flavus in peanuts by using non-aflatoxin spores of A
. fiavus to
act as a living shield around the peanut pod against toxigetlie fungi
anization (FA
O)
World
)Xin exposure lim
it
IDorn
er and L
amb, 2
002). R
ecently
, two p
roducts o
f nonto
xig
enic strain
s hav
e received U
.S. E
nvironmental P
rotection Agency (E
PA
) registration as bio pesticides
MW
28 P. N
. Acher and M
.Y. S
reenivasa
to control aflatoxin contamination in cotton and peanuts in several states
(Dorner, 2004). S
everal edible botanical extracts have been reported t
antifungal activity (Reddy et al., 2009; P
radeep et al., 2003). The essen
extracted from clove has been show
n to possess significant antifungal pr( (R
eddy et al., 2009, Yoossef et al., 2011, Q
uyen et al., 2011 & M
ungai et al., T
he inhibitory effects of neem (A
zadirachia indica) plant extracts on my
biosynthesis have also been reported (Reddy et al., 2009). T
he oils such as C
innamon, N
eem, E
ucalyptus, have been recently used, against Aspergillus
antifungal agents to prevent food spoilage. The antifungal nature of essential o
been demonstrated by M
ontes and Carvajal (1998) and B
asilico and Basilico
against fungi such as Aspergillus and F
usarium. T
ransgenic approaches are u
sed in
several in
du
stries and
academ
ic labo
ratories to
prev
ent in
vasi(
Aspergillus fungi or to prevent biosynthesis of aflatoxin (R
ajasekaran et al., how
ever this approach has not been widely accepted by the consum
ers arour globe.
Conclusion
Aflatoxin group of m
ycotoxins are natural by occurring contaminants for a varic
foodstuffs throughout the world. T
hey are of major concern due to their effe
both, human and anim
al health, Consum
ers' awareness around the globe is of ut
importance to m
inimize peanut related diseases such aspergillosis and aspergilli
To m
inimize the sam
e in pediatric population, it is important for parents i
aware of the difference betw
een peanut related allergies, reactions to other allergies and aspergillosis and aspergillom
a due to inhalation of airborne fu. spores or consum
ing contaminated food or food products. S
uch knowledge to
public at large will keep them
away from
the risk of aflatoxigenic forms of m
ol peanuts. T
here is much need to educate younger generation to keep our environu
and comm
unity safe from toxic chem
icals by using renewable resources
employing green technologies. Increased literacy in favor of use of sustaini
agricultural products to reduce fungal infections will help to address som
e of challenges to protect environm
ent and the consumers.
Acknow
ledgment
We w
ould like to thank Dr A
Choudhary ,
V
isiting Scientist D
ivision of Biologn
Standards and Quality C
ontrol, Office of C
ompliance &
Biological Q
uality (OC
B(
Center of B
iologics Evaluation &
Research (C
BE
R), F
DA
, Rockville, M
D for 1
critical suggestions during preparation of this chapter.
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