In 1870, the sanitary conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. August Bebel recalled conditions before a modern sewer system was built in the late 1870s!"aste#water from the houses collected in the gutters running alongside the curbs and emitted a truly fearsome smell. $here were no public toilets in the streets or s%uares. &isitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called. In the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelie'ably primiti'e....As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into ci'ili(ation until after 1870.!)7*$he primiti'e conditions were intolerable for a world national capital, and the Imperial +erman go'ernment brought in its scientists, engineers and urban planners to not only sol'e the deficiencies but to forge Berlin as the world,s model city. A British e-pert in 1.0/ concluded thatBerlin represented !the most complete application of science, order and method of public life,! adding !it is a mar'el of ci'ic administration, the most modern and most perfectly organi(ed city that there is.!)8*$he emergence of great factories and consumption of immense %uantities of coal ga'e rise to unprecedented air pollution and the large 'olume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. 0hicago and 0incinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. 1ollution became a ma2or issue in the 3nited 4tates in the early twentieth century, as progressi'e reformers too5 issue with air pollution caused by coal burning, water pollution caused by bad sanitation, and street pollution caused by the 6 million horses who wor5ed in American cities in 1.00, generating large %uantities of urine and manure. As historian 7artin 7elosi notes, $he generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as !miracles of cleanliness.!.).* By the 1.80s, howe'er, automobile#caused smog was a ma2or issue in 9os Angeles.)10*:ther cities followed around the country until early in the ;0th century, when the short li'ed :ffice of Air 1ollution was created under the