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Improvised Embellishment in the Performance of Renaissance Polyphonic MusicAuthor(s): Imogene HorsleySource: Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Spring, 1951), pp. 3-19Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the American Musicological SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/830116 .

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Improvised mbellishmentn the Performanceof RenaissancePolyphonicMusic

BY IMOGENE HORSLEY

ONE of the paradoxesof contem-

porary musicalstudy is the factthat the student by his very desirefor historically authentic perform-ance hasdevelopedhabitsof thoughtwhich impede his gaining a properunderstandingof the music of cer-tain past periods.His strict trainingin accurateadherence o the notesofa composition as written down bythe composerhas developedin himsuch a reverencefor those notesthatit is hard for him to addto them,orsubtract from them, without a feel-

ing of guilt. While this attitude has

produced exemplary results in the

performanceof music written after

1750, it has also led to a completemisconception of the performanceideals of much of the musicwrittenin the Baroqueand Renaissancepe-riods.

It is becominggeneralknowledgethat the simple appearanceof much

Baroquemusic is deceptiveand thatwhat is seen on the printedpagewasoften merely an outline to be am-

plified in performanceaccordingtoregularized patterns of improvisedembellishment;but the fact that themusic of the Renaissancewas often

similarlychangedin performance sless frequentlyrecognized.

The Renaissancehas often beencalled the "Age of Vocal Poly-phony,"but, while vocal polyphonywas

byfar the

predominantypeof

composition, it was not the onlytype of performance.Thesecomposi-tions were performedin numerous

ways: in different combinationsof

melody instrumentsand voices; as

vocal or instrumental solos accom-

panied by keyboard instruments orlute; as pieces transcribed for key-board or lute; or as solos for stringedinstruments in which the single linewas built up of fragments from theindividual voice parts. The conceptof the one authentic performancedid not yet exist.

Furthermore, whenever one ofthese compositions was performed bya soloist or group of soloists, it wasnot always performed simply aswrit-ten but was usually made "elegant"and "ornate"by the addition of floridembellishments. The use of this tech-

nique in keyboard and lute transcrip-

tions is well known,1 but it is not sogenerally recognized that it was alsothe accepted practice to ornamentthe individual lines in solo vocal orinstrumental performance of these

compositions. These florid embellish-

ments, added by each soloist to hisown part, often resulted in a com-

plete transformation of the work.If present-day training in strictly

reproductive performance makes itdifficult to accept the idea of suchfree treatment of compositions, itmust be remembered that in the Ren-aissance period both vocal and instru-mental virtuosity were still based

upon skill in improvisation. An ex-

pert performer was expected to pro-duce music as well as reproduce it.In his book

publishedin

i553,2 DiegoOrtiz describes the three ways in

1See Otto Kinkeldey, Orgel und Klavier inder Musik des z6. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig,I9Io).2Tratado de glosas, Book II.

3



4 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY

which a performer on the violone

may play with the cembalo: the firstis the improvisation of a fantasia byboth

players together;the

second,the

improvisation by the violone playerof a melody above a plain chant

played on the cembalo. Only thethird and last way is to play sobrecosas compuestas-"over" a com-

posed piece of music. Virtuoso sing-ers as well as instrumentalists were

expected to be able to improvise;ever since the practice of discantus

supra librum in the i4th century,singers had been trained to improvisea counterpoint to a given melodyat sight.

From the early I6th century, man-uals for teaching instrumental andvocal performance included sectionson the technique of improvised em-bellishment as a matter of course.

By diligent practicea

performerac-

quired a vocabulary of melodic fig-ures which could be introduced be-tween the melodic intervals makingup the individual lines of a composi-tion. He developed a repertory of

patterns, for example, which couldbe substituted for the skip of a thirdwithin the duration of a semibreve;and whenever he saw that interval

in the melodic line he was reading,he could use one of these figures in

place of the simple interval skip.This technique was applied in Ortiz'third case-that of playing "over" acomposition-since even when play-ing a composed piece of music the

performer was not expected to re-

produce the notes literally. A pro-ficient soloist improvised embellish-

ments upon the composed line, ex-hibiting his own skill. Performancewas to him a creative application ofhis technique to a composition; the

composition was the vehicle of,rather than the motive for, his per-formance.

Although this Renaissance styleof improvised ornamentation hasbeen discussed by scholars,3 the de-

tails of the practice have never beenfully described, nor has it been set

apart as a practice stylistically dis-tinct from that of the Baroque era.It was not an embryonic art fromwhich the elaborate ornamental sys-tem of the Baroque period devel-

oped, but a mature technique adaptedto the musical style to which it was

applied. Just when and where this

practice originated is still a matterof conjecture.4 When the first man-ual teaching it was published in Italyin i535, it was already a highly or-

ganized technique.Throughout the i6th century Italy

was the center from which the prac-tice radiated, and it was also firmlyestablished in musically progressivecenters in

Spainand

Germany. Itwas known but not generally ac-

cepted in France 5 during the i6th

century, although in Italy it was ap-plied as often to French chansons as

3The two principal treatments are found inMax Kuhn, Die Verzierungs-Kunst in derGesangs-Musik des 16.-17. Jahrhunderts(Leipzig, 1902) and Robert Haas, Auffiihr-ungspraxis der Musik (Leipzig, 1931).The former has a complete list of sourcesand a good set of musical examples; thelatter, a good discussion but fewer ex-amples. Neither covers the period in fulldetail. Our topic is also treated briefly inArnold Schering, Auffiihrungspraxis alterMusik (Berlin, 1931) and Ernst Ferand, DieImprovisation in der Musik (Ziirich, 1938).'Kuhn (op. cit., pp. 32ff) thinks the use ofdiminution originated with the contrapuntalstyle of the Netherlands schools and wasspread by them. Schering (op. cit., pp. 12off)considers the diminutions to be of oriental

origin.Ferand

thinks they are the lastremnant of a vital art of improvisation. Ihave found hints of a similar practice in dis-cussions of Arabian singing techniques in 9th-century Spain, but as yet have not been ableto trace these to their original sources."The only I6th-century mention of this art inFrance that I have found is in Anthoine deBertrand's preface to the Premier lHvre desAmours de Ronsard, 1578 (ed. H. Expert,



RENAISSANCE POLYPHONIC MUSIC 5

to Italianmadrigals. Only in i6th-

centuryEnglanddo we find no men-tion of its use.As faraswe know, the

English madrigals and fancies forviols were performed xactlyas writ-ten.6

The generalterm for this impro-vised embellishment in Italy wasdiminutio(diminution),since it was,in effect, the breaking up of the

longer note values into an aggrega-tion of notes of shorterduration.In

Spain the embellishments were

known as glosas; in Germany andthe Netherlandsas coloriren;Latintreatises described the ornamentedline as "ornatus,""coloratus,"etc.;but despite the differencein names,the techniqueitself was uniform.

To say that the practicewas uni-form does not imply that therewere

commonly accepted musical clich6s

everywherein

use,nor that there

were universally accepted conven-tions as to the applicationof the

principles. Not only were there

widely divergent styles of ornamen-tal figures,but there also were dis-

agreementsboth asto the desirabilityof their use and as to the limits oftheir application.Nevertheless,cer-tainbroadmusicalcharacteristicssep-

arated Renaissanceusage from suc-ceeding ornamentalpractices:

I. The style of embellishmentwas

very free. Neither the forms of theornamentalfigures nor their place-ment within the phrasewas stereo-

typed, nor were any signs placedinthe music to indicatetheir use.Eachmanual contains a number of ca-dentialpatterns,apartfrom the gen-

eralmelodicfigures,but theonly uni-

fying factor in these cadencesis thefact that they are all embellishments

of the common melodic cadenceformulasof the period.2. The ornamentalpatterns, no

matterhow ornatethey mightbe, al-

ways retainedthe balancedmelodicline and smoothly flowing rhythmcharacteristicof the composedmu-sic of thetime.

3. Great care was taken to pre-serve all the importantvertical con-

sonancesof the composition,no mat-ter how free the linear andrhythmicdetail might be between those con-sonances.

4. No difference was made be-tween vocal and instrumentalmusicas far as the style of embellishment

figureswas concerned.Writerswere

usually careful to state that theirornamentswere

equally appropriatefor voice and for wind and stringedinstruments.

The subject is treated in such a

variety of ways by the theorists ofthe time, and with such diversityof

styles and opinions,that it is uselessto attemptto summarizehem all inone brief discussion.Some writers

emphasizeone aspect,some another.

On some questions here is completedisagreement. he detailsof theprac-tice varied from time to time andfrom place to place, and even from

performerto performer,since anyreally good virtuoso developed hisown style of improvisationand em-bellishment.An attempt o synthesizethese various ideas into one generalstatementof the

practiceas a whole

could not but be misleading.Theonly way to give an accurate ideaof the art of diminution n its tech-nical detailsis to give a summaryofeach of the main sources describingit, including examplesof the orna-mentalpatternsand the instructions

Paris, 1926). De Bertrand objects to impro-vised ornamentation because it confuses the

harmony, and makes a sad composition sound

joyful.

6The term division is derived from diminutio,but this in itself is no proof that improviseddiminutions were used in i6th-century Eng-land.




given for applying these to actualmusical compositions.

To give some continuity to the

musical examples as well as to furnisha logical basis for comparison, I havechosen from each writer examples ofembellishments made upon the inter-vals of the ascending second and de-

scending fifth, as well as samples ofornamented cadences from each man-ual that has included them. In these

examples I have given first the un-ornamented form of the interval and

then one or more florid versions.Wherever possible I have selected

examples in which these embellish-ments are applied to actual musical

compositions.

The first published manual to teachthe art of diminution is the Operaintitulata Fontegara by Sylvestro diGanassi, published in Venice in

I535.7 The primary purpose of thisbook is to teach the technique offlute playing, but it contains also adetailed description of the art ofdiminution. After discussing thebasic problems of flute playing, in-

cluding tonguing, Ganassi states

firmly that skill in making diminu-tions is as essential to a good tech-

niqueas

tonguing-infact that a

skill in either one without the otheris utterly useless. He then definesdiminution as meaning simply to

vary a thing (variare la cosa over

processo).8Ganassi's treatment of diminution

is more intricate than that of thewriters who follow him; and this,combined with the fact that he takes

it for granted that this technique is

an integral part of instrumental andvocal performance, would seem toindicate that it was an art thoroughly

developed and taught orally beforethe publication of this book.His classification of the diminu-

tions is very detailed, and althoughseemingly having little to do withthe actual application of the diminu-tions to a composition, it does givea hint of the detail in which this artof improvised embellishment wasworked out. To begin with, he finds

three aspects from which to analyzeevery diminution: first, the individ-ual note values it includes (minute);second, the melodic patterns used

(vie); and third, the rhythmic pro-portions involved. In each of these

aspects a diminution may be simpleor composite." In Example 3a (p. 8),the diminutions are simple in minute

(since theyconsist

onlyof

crome),simple in proportion (since the num-ber of crome to a semibreve is con-

stant), but composite in vie (becausethey are made up of different me-lodic motives). The diminutions in

Example 3b are composite in allthree ways.

Ganassi is the only writer whouses proportions to any extent. His

collection of ornamental patterns isdivided into four large sections

(Regola prima, Regola secunda, etc.)according to the rhythmic propor-tions involved. The first section has

figures in the proportion of foursemiminims to a semibreve; thesecond, five in the time of the pre-ceding four; the third, six to the firstfour; and the fourth, seven to the

four. He also explains how these pro-portions can be combined to makeeven more complicated relationships.In each of these sections he givesexamples of patterns of ascendingand descending seconds, thirds

9lbid., cap. ix-xii.

7Sylvestro di Ganassi dal Fontego, Opera inti-tulata Fontegara La quale insegna a sonare diflauto ch5 tutta l'arte opportuna a esso instru-mento massime il diminuire il quale sara utilead ogni istrumento di fiato et chorde: et

achora a chi si dileta di canto (Venice, 1535;facsimile reprint, Milan, 1934).80P. cit., cap. ix.




fourths, and fifths on the variousnotes of the scale, with many dif-ferent mannersof embellishing ach.He also includesin each section ex-

amples of the embellished unisonand of several common cadence

patterns together with their orna-mentalversions[Ex. I].

used in place of one semibreve note,it must begin and end on that note.

Naturally the octave above or below

anynote

maybe substituted for

it.In Example I, the diminution on the

descending fifth from Regola terza,it will be seen that both the diminu-tions begin on g and pass through d

Ex. i Sylvestro di Ganassifrom Opera intitulata Fontegara, 1535

tegoa Prima:A~ ndna ZDA 8on n - 1.

%W2.8.a 9.

egdla Secuntda~Anding 2nd 6-3_. •w p r, 7.pip" -,-• m-pr-• F-R-I•-

Reola Tearza: escending th 6 7

fegola Quarts: Decen ing 5ts. . . 6.

egol Prima:Cad ce

Reogla Terza:Cadence

- J - 113W.. . ..II I

Ganassi also gives definite rules forthe application of these diminutions

to a composition.1o The diminutionsgo beat by beat and mainly fromsemibreve to semibreve. It will benoticed in Example I that the inter-val is named according to the intervalfrom semibreve to semibreve, regard-less of the intervening notes, andthat a new melodic pattern is chosento fill in the semibreve unit. Thisnew

pattern

does notnecessarilyfollow the outline of the melodic

unit for which it is being substituted.Whatever the pattern used, how-ever, it must begin and end on thesame notes as the pattern for whichit is being substituted. If it is being

before going to the c, as does the

pattern for which they are beingused, although the intervening notesfollow very different linear patterns.This is done to make sure that the

counterpoint will still be correct as

composed, and that the consonances

placed on the beginning of the largertime units (in this case the semi-

breve) will be left intact.On the margin of the Regola

primasection Ganassi

sprinklesshort

musical quotations to which thesediminutions can be fitted. They canbe analyzed in different ways. In theone quoted in Example 2a, he findsfive melodic intervals for which oneof these diminutions can be sub-stituted: I and z are ascending00p. cit., cap. xiii, cap. xviii-xxii.




Ex. 2 Sylvestro di Ganassia 1 3

,

from Opera intitulata Fontegara, 1535

4 Sbl bZ

? im~pl skips] [with dimnimndiNsa]

?U%. .

lllIV

I~• •.B

n, I.• ID -•l

seconds; 3 is a descending fourth; 4, a

descending third; and 5 a descendingfifth. Needless to say, other intervalsalso can be found in this

example.Exceptions to the strict applica-tion of these embellishments are

given. Ganassi approves of the fillingin of a second, or a consonant skip,by stepwise motion, because it makesa smoother line [Ex. 2b]. In addi-

tion, any of the patterns may bealtered by the use of syncopations.Ganassi comforts the performer who

is afraid of making contrapuntalerrors with his diminutions by theassurance that such errors will slipby unnoticed because of the speed oftheir passing.

Ganassi also gives two examples ofthe application of these ornamentsto a composed line [Ex. 3a, b]. Inthis case, one takes the interval fromsemibreve to semibreve as the clue

for finding a suitable embellishment.Having determined the interval, one

should turn to the table of diminu-tions for this interval in the rhythmicproportion desired, and choose asuitable embellishment from thoselisted there. (For example, in Ex-

ample 3a, the first interval fromsemibreve to semibreve is an ascend-

ing third; a pattern from the diminu-tions for the ascending third in

Regola prima is chosen and sub-stituted for the written notes.) Simi-

larly, the other intervals making upthe line are analyzed and diminutions

applied, and a florid cadence patternis substituted for that which appearsin the written line.

While Example 3a uses only the

proportion of four semiminims to asemibreve, Example 3b includes pat-terns from all the proportions thatGanassi gives. It should be noted thatin the fourth semibreve unit eachminim has an embellishment of a

different proportion, the first havingseven crome to a minim and the

Ex. 3 Sylvestro di Ganassifrom Opera intitulata Fontegara, 1535

[ o m p o s e d l i n e

[wiih diminik.Anims]b

[Composedine] 5 6 7 5




second, five. Ganassi has carefullydivided some of his diminutions intotwo units of a minim each, keeping

the same proportions to a minim thatthe whole keeps to a semibreve, sothat compound proportions like this

may be constructed on minims aswell as on semibreves. (See ExampleI, the first diminution for the ascend-

ing second from Regola secunda.)He explains, however, a more usual

way of making diminutions uponnotes of lesser or greater value than

the semibreve. To make a diminutionover a minim, a semibreve patternis chosen and its time values halved.For making diminutions upon abreve, the time values in a semibreve

pattern are doubled.It is easy to see how these diminu-

tions would transform a compositionnot only melodically but also rhyth-

mically.Most of the diminutions

completely alter the direction of themelodic pattern for which they aresubstituted. Ganassi's practice of

counting the interval from semibreveto semibreve and ignoring the inter-

vening notes results in an even

greater deviation from the writtenline than one would imagine to be

possible, but by strictly keeping the

beginning and the end of the intervalwritten in the composition, thevertical consonances on the begin-nings of the larger time units are

kept intact.The rhythmic complexity of

Ganassi's ornaments-a complexityinvolving not only changes in pro-portions but also intricate rhythmic

patterns

within these

tempo changes-is amazing, and must have requireda very accurate rhythmic sense onthe part of the performer. It is dif-ficult to say whether these examplesare typical of a highly complicatedgeneral practice or whether theymerely reflect Ganassi's own ingen-

uity in the creation of diminutions."1Although none of the writers whofollow him use proportions (except

for the triple divisions of the beat)nor any such rhythmically elaborateornamental patterns, Ganassi's in-fluence must have been felt through-out the period; more than a centurylater the French theorist, Mersenne,mentions his book as a good sourcefor diminutions.

The next book discussing the artof improvised embellishment is the

Compendium musices of AdrianPetit Coclicus, published in I552.12In a chapter entitled De elegantia et

ornatu, aut pronuntiatione in ca-

nendo, he gives a short summary ofthe art of coloratura ornamentation.Coclicus does not give a list of inter-vals with corresponding embellish-ments, but he does give a number ofmelodic

phrasesin

simpleand

orna-mented form. He also includesornate versions of two two-partsongs (without the simple versions)and simple and ornate versions of a

fuga,13 but he does not give anyspecific rules as to the application of

"Ganassi, in his Regola Rubertina (Venice,1542; facsimile reprint, Leipzig, 1924), amanual for teaching the viola d'arco, men-

tions diminutions only briefly (cap. xviii). Hefears that performers may avoid using themin cadences (where they are most common)because of technical difficulties, so he givesthree examples in tablature showing how tomake them without having to go from onestring to another. The diminutions he giveshere are very simple.1"Adriano Petit Coclicus, Compendium musices

descriptum ab Adriano Petit Coclico, discipuloJosquini des Pres (Nuremberg, 1552). Seealso M. van Crevel, Adrianus Petit Coclico,Leben und Beziehungen eines nach Deutschland

emigrierten Josquinschiilers. (The Hague,1940). Though Dr. van Crevel finds that manyassertions made by Coclicus have no historicalfoundation, the book is nevertheless trust-worthy in all important particulars, and isstill one of our sources of information onthe music of the period.

13A transcription of the first six pages of thefuga may be found in Haas, Auffiihrungs-praxis, p. 114.



IO JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY

these embellishments to composedmusic. His ornaments have a much

simpler plan that those of Ganassiand do not deviate so

greatlyfrom

the unornamented line [Ex. 4].

section of this book, which has al-

ready been mentioned, contains musi-cal examples showing the different

ways in which the violone may beplayed with the cembalo. The first

Ex. 4 Adrian Petit Coclicusfrom Compendium musices, 1552

-iE

Simplex Etegans

Simplex canhiu

EteganmCoclicus claims to have been a

pupil of Josquin des Prez, and pre-faces his musical examples with theremark: Haec est prima clausula

quam Josquinus docuit suos. He alsostates positively that the greatestmasters of this type of florid singingcome from the Netherlands, and heesteems no musician who is not a

practitioner of coloratura singing.Whether or not his claims are true,his ornaments agree in style withthose used in his time and his book

undoubtedly had influence upon his

contemporaries.

section, like Ganassi's Fontegara,gives examples and definite rules forthe making of glosas upon a com-

position, and these rules are similarto those given by Ganassi.

According to Ortiz there are threemanners of making glosas,15the firstand best of which is to make a pas-sage beginning and ending on the

note to be embellished [Ex. 5a]. Thesecond way, which allows more free-dom, does not end the ornament onthe note that is embellished, but ap-proaches the next note stepwise [Ex.5b]. Ortiz, like Ganassi, consolingly

Ex. 5 Diego Ortizfrom Tratado de glosas, 1553

a b

. . . . .n-i

._-

--in..g"t[simpe] [with gloss] [simpe] [with

glo's][Eckfsomitted

in origimAl]

Throughout the whole period wefind great disagreement as to whichvoices in a polyphonic compositionmay be treated with free embellish-ments. Coclicus, the first to discussthis-

question, firmlyinsists that the

lowest voice must not be orna-mented, since it is the fundamental

upon which all the other parts rest.In I553, Diego Ortiz published his

Tratado de glosas.14 The second

states that any resulting errors in

counterpoint will not stand out be-cause of the swiftness of their

passing. The third way he lists is toleave the composition and go by ear,a method which he

considers despica-ble because it distorts the original.Ortiz' ornamental patterns are

much simpler than those of Ganassi.

uDiego Ortiz, Tratado de glosas sobreclausulas y otros generos de puntos en la

musica de violones (Rome, 1553; reprint, ed.Max Schneider, Berlin, 1913)."IOrtiz, op. cit., introduction to Book I.



RENAISSANCE POLYPHONIC MUSIC II

Except for a very few patterns withsix semiminims, his glosas all use foursemiminims to a semibreve. His

rhythmic patterns are simple and hismelodic outlines more conventionalthan those of Ganassi.He gives manymore embellished cadences than orna-mented intervals, including manyvariations on all the cadence formulas

commonly used in his time. Althoughnone of the theorists give any defi-nite rules to the effect that cadencesare always to be ornamented, the

fact that all the manuals containcadence patterns set off from theother ornaments would suggest thateven at this date an ornamentedcadence was obligatory in correctsolo performance.

After the cadences, Ortiz givesseveral examples of seconds, thirds,fourths, and fifths, ascending and

descendingin breves,

semibreves,and

minims, as well as two scale patternsrising and falling through a fifth,

with several ornamental versions ofeach [Ex. 6].

Ortiz' glosas tend to be composed

of a comparatively small number ofstereotyped figures. In one impor-tant particular they differ from thediminutions of Ganassi: they do not

ignore intervening notes by goingfrom semibreve to semibreve but aremade upon single notes (breve, semi-

breve, and minim). Although thecadence formulas and glosas made

upon scale passages are freer, this

simplicity in the diminutions ofmelodic intervals would tend tomake the performer hold more

closely to the composed line. Ortiz

gives no actual application of theseornaments to polyphonic perform-ance. The examples given in thesecond book, in which the violoneornaments a line of a polyphonic

compositionwhile the

compositionis

played complete on the cembalo,show a freer application of the tech-

Ex. 6 Diego Ortizfrom Tratado de glosas, 1553

Para $ubir Ia $econda de inima1. 2. 3. 4.

'[defarnikadin oriina1) V

Para b1rxartn

dyapente de Breve

ad

Idef milledinariminalj

Clali~.as ~ re• dG irre utH '

,L ,b• . mm.,.,;

S6., It

H" |

I -

CkuaS 1D_a.sa [#]4.pA n"ill h




nique.16As Ortiz himself says, whenall parts are played on the cembalothe violone can be much more freethan when an ensemble of

stringedinstruments is performing such a

composition, for the cembalo insuresthat the harmonies will always be

complete.The Practica musica of Hermann

Finck17 contains a section entitledDe arte eleganter et suaviter can-tandi which discusses the techniqueof singing and its companion art of

coloratura embellishment. Very sen-sibly Finck declares that in the final

analysis the art of coloratura embel-lishment depends upon the aptitudeand skill of the individual performer.He condemns those who pick upembellishments used by other per-formers and apply them indiscrim-

inately to all parts of a composition.

Like Coclicus, Finck gives as ex-

amples only short melodic figures in

simple and ornamented form, andcommon cadences with their

floridversions. True to his convictions, heincludes examples in clefs for allvoices [Ex. 7]. Also included is amotet with all four voices embel-lished. Only the ornamented form,however, is given. The ornaments

pass from voice to voice, and imita-tive entrances usually have similarcoloratura passages. Of all the voices

the bass has the fewest fast-movingornaments, the soprano the most.There are dissonances that are nottreated according to the common

practice of Renaissance style, as wellas parallel perfect consonances. (Thelatter are also present in the orna-mented version of the fuga given byCoclicus.) That these are not careless

Ex. 7 Hermann Finckfrom Practica musica, 1556

38.

War %wr ?__

48. 51.

. . ... ....,I-Although he admits that opinionsdiffer as to which voices should be

ornamented, he is of the opinion thatall should be-not simultaneously,but in turn, so that the embellish-ments can be heard distinctly. Healso warns the musician that colora-tura singing in choral performances(i.e., with more than one singer toa part) will always result in mistakes,since all will not sing the embellish-

ments in the same way.

errors is shown by the fact thatFinck admits their

presence, statingthat they occur only when theiravoidance would result in an awk-ward vocal movement.

Among the letters of CamilloMaffei of Solofra (1562) 18 is a longletter to the "Illustrissimo Conted'Alta Villa" which contains an ex-cellent discussion of the principlesof voice production, naturally in-

cluding instructions for making floridembellishments upon polyphonicvocal music. For these embellish-

16Complete examples from Ortiz may be foundin Kuhn, op. cit., pp. 94-99.17Hermann Finck, Practica musica (Witten-berg, 1556). Liber quintus, De arte eleganteret suaviter cantandi (German translation with

transcription of examples in Monatshefte fiirMusikgeschichte XI [1879], pp. 130-141, 151-I64).

"1Gio. Camillo Maffei da Solofra, Delle letteredel S. R. Gio. Camillo Maffei da Solofra.Libri due. Dove tra gli altri bellissimi pensieri. . . Raccolti per Don Valerio de' Paoli daLimosano (Naples, 1562).




ments Maffei uses the term passaggio-a term that becomes the usual

designation for these added rapidscale

passagesin the

Baroque period-but his passaggi differ not at allfrom the diminutions given by his

contemporaries. Although the actualnumber of these passaggi is verysmall, the author gives definite rulesfor their application to a polyphonicvocal composition and includes a

four-part madrigal with all voicesornamented to illustrate their proper

use. The unornamented form of themadrigal is not given, but the place-ment of the passaggi can be clearlyseen, as they consist mainly of cromewhile the basic note values of the

madrigal itself are obviously thesemibreve and minim [Ex. 8].

may be used before arriving at thecadence. In his madrigal the cadencein each voice is embellished whenthe voices cadence at different times

[Ex. 8b].2. In one madrigal not more than

four or five passaggi should be used,for the ear may become satiated withtoo much sweetness. Again, Maffeimust mean this rule to apply onlyto the individual voices. In his ex-

ample the soprano and alto eachmake six passaggi, the tenor four,

and the bass five.3. Passaggi should be made on the

penultimate syllable of the word sothat the end of the passaggio willcoincide with the end of the word.

This, however, is not always the casein his examples.

Examples of passaggiEx. 8 Camillo Maffei, 1562a[claf omittedin original)

persal.

po r . ......:_- bra,

bra, Donnar

o per aol' o per am - rao,Don.-

o per om - bra Don -

Maffei's rules19 may be brieflysummarized as follows:

i. Passaggi should be used only atcadences, although some ornamentsfrom one note to another (insertedwithin a definite melodic interval)

4. Passaggi sound best when made

upon the vowel o. They are used

predominantly on o in his examples,but are also found on other vowels.

5. In an ensemble of four or fivesoloists the passaggi must be made

by each in turn. Otherwise, the9Maffei, op. cit., pp. 58-61.




harmony ceases to be clear.While these rules give an insight

into some of the problems faced in

embellished solo performance, theycannot be taken as absolute. Since

exceptions to them occur in theauthor's own examples, it is not to be

expected that they would apply

compositions. Each of these diminu-tions consists of notes of the same

rhythmic denomination, and there is

little variety in the melodic figuresused. Instead of the long ornamentedcadence patterns presented by the

preceding authors, Dalla Casa givesexamples of what he calls tremoli

Ex. 9 Giralamo dalla CasafromIIvero modo di diminuir,1584

Essempio de semihreve de grado de semicrama

[d.ininvAim.on precedingnote]

Essempio deminima de quinta

Essempio de octave de minima

Essempio de tremoligroppizafi de minima

Ess•nipide groppo bthtutade semibreve

strictly to vocal ensemble perform-ance everywhere.

In 1584, Giralamo dalla Casa pub-lished his manual entitled II veromodo di diminuir,20 a book thatmarks the end of the purely Renais-sance style of ornamentation. Thismanual includes a list of ornamenta-tions of all the intervals of the scalewithin the time values of a semibreveand a minim. Here for the first time

appeardiminutions on the

skipsof

the sixth, the seventh, and the octave,which may imply that these were

becoming more common in written

groppizati and groppi battute on

ascending steps on both the semi-

breve and the minim [Ex. 9]. Thisis the firstsuggestionwe find of the

stereotyping and naming of orna-mental patterns, a tendency thathints at the coming Baroque prac-tice. It is especially significantthatthese appear n place of the cadence

patternsheretofore istedin the man-uals, since I7th-centuryusage cameto

regardthe

groppo,from which

came our moderntrill, as obligatoryat the cadence.

Althoughhe givesno definiterulesfor the applicationof his diminu-tions, Dalla Casaincludesnumerous

examples of Italian madrigals andFrench chansons to which he has

2Giralamo dalla Casa, II vero modo dtdiminuir, con tutte le sorte di stromenti difiato e corde e di voce humana (Venice,I584). 2 vols.




applied these diminutions. Composi-tions of well-known composers ofthe time, including Palestrina, de

Rore, Jannequin,and

Lasso,are

pre-sented with these ornamental figuresadded, so that by comparing themwith the originals one can obtain aclear idea of the musical results ofthis practice.

In his first examples of appliedornamentation, Dalla Casa uses

crome, semicrome, treplicate (24notes to a semibreve) and quad-

ruplicate (biscrome)--these lattertwo appearing for the first time inhis manual-in duple and triple divi-

sions, each ornamental figure movingevenly in notes of the same denomi-nation. At the end he gives a few inwhich the note values are varied,and this he considers the true style

of diminution. Even when the notevalues are mixed, however, eachsmaller figure consists of similarvalues. As in Maffei's

examples,the

basic contours of the composed linesare clearly preserved, the ornamenta-tion being applied more obviously inthat the regular rhythm and fastmovement of the ornamental pas-sages set them off from the com-

posed line, which moves in slowerand more varied time values. Norare the words obscured, for the florid

figures are used mainly on the longsyllables.

Although most of Dalla Casa's

examples of diminutions are made

upon the soprano parts, he includesin his work a version of Alla dolc'ombra by Cipriano de Rore, in whichall the voices are ornamented in

MadrigalAlla dolc'ombraEx. IO Cipriano de Rore(ornamented version by Giralamo dalla Casa)

mm.29-31 [=- -37

31r,,

0ra--mi Efio- rianper apia -

-- ge1

r•,- i -j-

-

piagglell- -

-..........,

-'- piagge l'ezb- ei

1'erbeii,-

- - - mi E

fio-n•

perle piag- l'erl, - ej

,

r

"gel~r bej ra-mi go l'erb

E fiD - -rianperlepiag - - - - -I eIeb~;

.... mi E fio - - rian p r pi

A---i- i-

I.i(--




turn. Like Maffei, Dalla Casa doesnot discuss the suitability of thisornamentation of all voices, but takes

its practice so much for granted thathe includes a sample without anyfurther explanation. A comparison ofthe original21 with Dalla Casa's orna-mented version will show how

greatly the general effect of the com-

position was changed in this typeof solo performance [Ex. io].

In this presentation of the madrigalusually one voice at a time has the

ornamental figures, and, while thedifferent voices do not imitate eachother's ornaments exactly, there is

enough of a rhythmic and melodic

similarity between the successiveembellishments in the differentvoices to give a sense of balanceand unity to the whole. Such solo

performance must have demanded

greatcleverness in ensemble work as

well as a facile imagination and

improvisatory skill. An interestingaspect of the example (which can-not be given in its entirety here forlack of space) is the fact that whenin the written version a section ofthe composition is repeated, the per-formers repeat it with different orna-ments. At this time, as in later Ba-

roque opera, the disguising of thestructural elements of a compositionrather than their emphasis was con-sidered the earmark of a subtle and

sophisticated performance.In these diminutions by Dalla

Casa we see the end of the purelyRenaissance style of ornamentation.

Although there was no sudden

change from Renaissance to Baroquestyle in the practice of improvisedornamentation during the periodfrom I580 to I630, which ManfredBukofzer designates as the early

Baroque period,22 the whole tech-

nique gradually became transformed.Manuals teaching the old style, man-

uals teaching the new style, andthose containing a mixture of thetwo were all used simultaneously. Inthe new style of ornamentation,emotional expression was stressed.Vocal and instrumental practices be-came separated. Short ornamental

patterns, used to stress certain notesin a phrase and accentuate theiremotional effect, were introduced.

The florid figures which had beenused to spin out a line (passaggi)were retained, but they acquired anew musical character in keepingwith the new style of composition.The rhythms became jerky and dis-

continuous, and the consonances no

longer came at the point where theywere written but were often replaced

bya dissonance on the

strong partof the beat.23And, finally, the tempoand emotional content of a composi-tion, rather than the skill of the per-former, were expected to govern the

type of ornaments used.The vocal application of this new

ornamental practice became knownin Italy as gorgia and it was in theItalian monodic style that it had its

first expression. But, although thisnew type takes precedence in Ba-

roque music, the passaggi, which arethe continuation of the old principleof diminution, are retained in the

improvised cadenzas and free im-

provised embellishments of all Ba-

roque solo work in both instrumentaland vocal performance.24

nThe original is taken from the Smith CollegeArchives edition of the Madrigals of Ciprianode Rore for 3 and 4 voices, ed. GertrudeParker Smith (Northampton, Mass., 1945).

2Manfred F. Bukofzer, Music in the BaroqueEra (New York, I947), p. 17."An interesting example of this applied topolyphonic music is G. M. Bovicelli's arrange-ment of the top voice of a madrigal by Pales-trina, quoted in Kuhn, op. cit., pp. 122-125."Putnam C. Aldrich, "Bach's Technique ofTranscription and Improvised Ornamentation,"The Musical Quarterly XXXV (1949), pp.26-35.



RENAISSANCEOLYPHONICMUSIC 17

Although when taken in chrono-

logical order these sources seem toshow a more or less direct line of

evolution, it is dangerous to placethem within any definite pattern of

development. It must be rememberedthat these very few manuals were

published for public consumption,while perhaps every great virtuosoand teacher had his own type ofornamentation and method of teach-

ing. Also, older manuals were used

along with the more recent ones.

The one vital point, so seldom recog-nized, is the fact that in these dis-cussions of the art of improvisedembellishment each author takes itfor granted that an understanding ofthis technique is essential for anytype of respectable performance; itis probable that many of these man-uals were intended to instruct theamateur musician in this art, whichwas an integral part of the profes-sional's technique.

There is disagreement amongmusical scholars today as to whetheror not it is necessary to apply diminu-tions to a performance of Renais-sance music to make it authentic.There can be no question but that

throughout the Renaissance they

were applied in all parts in instru-mental and vocal solo performance,and that virtuoso performers bothused them and taught their use.Ganassi and Dalla Casa were bothtown musicians of note in Venice,and their duties included playing in-strumental arrangements of vocal

compositions as well as instructingthose citizens who desired to learn

instrumental techniques.25 Ortiz wasmaestro de capilla to the Duke ofAlba, the Viceroy of Naples. Theirinsistence that an understanding of

diminutions was an essential part of

technique sprang from practical pro-fessional experience.

On the other hand, Zarlino, whowas a contemporary of Dalla Casain Venice, disapproved of those whoadded anything to a compositionwhen they performed it.26 Vicentino,another outstanding I6th-centurytheorist, approves of diminutions

only when used in compositions ofmore than four parts-since the fifth

part can fill in any harmony note

which the diminution might pass bytoo quickly--or when the parts are

played as written on instruments andthe diminutions made only by the

singers. He also warns against theuse of diminutions in sad music suchas lamentations, because their fastmovement destroys the mood of themusic by making it sound happy.27

Finck and Coclicus were both

composers and teachers, and both

approved heartily of coloratura per-formance of compositions. Zacconi,

writing later in the century, admitsthat many composers avoid havingtheir works performed by coloratura

performers because they prefer tohear what they themselves havewritten.28 Dr. Alfred Einstein states

that "the more the madrigal becomesexpressive in detail, the more thismechanical ornamentation becomesdestructive." 29

Certainly it is truethat as composers became more con-cerned with the subjective expressionshown in their works they weremore careful to write in all the de-tails, thereby leaving less freedomto the performer. It was not until

'Carl Gustav Anthon, Music and Musiciansin Northern Italy during the Sixteenth Cen-tury (Harvard University Dissertation, 1943;unpublished), pp. 237-240.

"Gioseffo Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche(Venice, 1558), Lib. III, p. 46.2Nicola Vicentino, L'antica musica ridottaalla moderna prattica (Rome, 1555), cap.xxxxii; cf. also note 5, supra.2sF. P. Ludovico Zacconi, Prattica di musica(Venice, i594), P. 6i."Dr. Alfred Einstein in a letter to the author,Jan. 22, 1950.




late in the i8th century, however,that all authority was taken fromthe performer and placed in the

hands of the composer.Whether the embellished forms ofthese compositions violated the com-

posers' ideals or not, improvisedembellishment was definitely a partof Renaissance performance practice.As such, it should be included in our

present-day performances of Renais-sance music,30 and should be includedalso in courses presenting Renais-

sance music. On the other hand, aperformance without ornamentscould not be considered incorrect-

especially when, as is usually thecase today, more than one personperforms on one part.

An instrumental performance of amotet or a madrigal with diminutions

applied to the individual lines would

givea

goodindication of the be-

ginnings of instrumental chambermusic. I feel that the diminutions are

especially applicable to instrumentalmusic in modern performance, be-cause instrumentalists are, on thewhole, better able than vocalists to

cope with the technical difficulties.Few singers today, especially altosand basses, are capable of singing

these I6th-century florid embellish-ments. A vocal performance, how-ever, in which one or two soloists

sang embellished lines while thechorus sang the other parts as writ-ten would be effective, and in keep-ing with I6th-century practice.

In view of the great variety of

opinions held even by teachers ofthe art, it is difficult to

say

to

justwhat degree these diminutionsshould be applied when they are

used. Dr. Alfred Einstein is of the

opinion that the teaching manualsshow an exaggerateduse of them,3"

and this may well be true. It seemsto me that there can be no doubtthat cadences were always embel-lished when ornamentation wasused. There really can be no surerule as to the use of ornamentation,for freedom and variety are two ofthe main characteristics of I6th-century improvised embellishment.From the many attemptsmade bytheoriststo curb their use, it is evi-dent that diminutions were oftentoo freely used by performers.

A properly controlled use ofdiminutions does give a sense ofbeauty to a line-not, it is true, abeauty of subjectiveexpression,butan objectivesort of beauty producedby the accumulation of florid and

ornate melodic movement. Equallyimportantwith the aestheticeffect isthe historicalsignificanceof this artin the developmentof musicalstyle.Melodic motives common in the

style of the whole Baroqueera arefound in these improvisedembellish-ments long before they appear inwritten compositions. The suddenchanges romslow to fast notevalues

which these ornamentsbring aboutin the course of a melodic line fore-shadow the discontinuous rhythmthat is aspecialcharacteristic f earlyBaroque compositions. The freerdissonancetreatmentfound in thesediminutions no doubt made com-posers aware of new musical pos-sibilities.It is only throughthe studyof these ornamentationmanuals hatwe can become aware of the tech-nical skills possessedby these I6th-century performers, or little of thepolyphonic music which comesdown to us in written form gives

?For an excellent discussion of modern per-formance of Renaissance music, see ManfredF. Bukofzer, "On the Performance of Renais-sance Music," Proceedings of the MusicTeachers National Association, series 36(I941), PP. 225-235.

81Dr.Alfred Einstein, in the letter referred toabove (note 29).




any hint of what the virtuosi of this

period were capable of doing.Last, and perhaps most important,

these manualshelped

theaveragemusician to develop a composition

technique-a skill in making varia-tions upon a given melodic line. Fornot only did the performer learn theornaments and apply them by impro-visation in performance, but also theless skilled players and singers pre-pared their parts in advance, writingout the diminutions and cadences and

practicing them before trying themin public. Consciously or uncon-

sciously, such a practice, based on

varying the ways in which a specificmelodic interval can be embellished,leads to an awareness of the elementsof which a melodic line is con-structed and a technical skill in creat-

ing an ornate line from a few simplemelodic skips. And any art that

develops a sense, of musical con-struction along with a techhique for

producing that construction cannotbut be important in the developmentof musical style itself.

Cambridge,Massachusetts

improvised ornament renas music

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